financial theory and paulo reis mourÃo, césar costa cima: practice what makes non-profit soccer teams run? a panel data approach using a sample of
199 36 (2) 199-220 (2012) braga teams
*
* ** 4 O Ã
Received: July 1, 2011
The authors are indebted to three anonymous referees who provided valuable suggestions on a previous soccer teams run? teams soccer kindly provided some of the data used in this research. doi: 10.3326/fintp.36.2. doi: Master Course on Social Economics, University of Minho,Alvaro Rua Dória nº45 6ºesquerdo, 4700 Braga, Portugal Paulo Reis MOUR Department of Economics, Economics & Management School, University of Minho, Rua Alvaro Dória nº45 Dória Alvaro Rua Minho, of University School, Management & Economics Economics, of Department César Costa CIMA e-mail: e-mail: [email protected] CÉSAR COSTA CIMA, Bachelor CÉSAR COSTA Preliminary communication Preliminary UDC: 336 UDC: version of this paper. They are also indebted to Jorge Monteiro (AFB, Associaçao de Futebol de Braga) who Monteiro (AFB, They are also indebted to Jorge version of this paper. 6ºesquerdo, 4700 Braga, Portugal
Accepted: November 24, 2011 using a sample of Braga Braga of sample a using PAULO REIS MOURÃO, PhD REIS MOURÃO, PAULO
JEL: L31, L83, O18 L83, L31, JEL: teams ** *
A panel data approach data panel A What makes non-profit non-profit makes What ------e role of specific determinants of the competitiveness the of determinants specific of role e tionship between socioeconomic development and soccer teams soccer and development socioeconomic between tionship introduction
rature related to factors involved in the competitiveness of professional th analyzes 3 Section teams. sports of non-profit soccer teams. Section 4 discusses the econometric model, our data and analyzes and debates the results. In Section 5, conclusions are presented. terminants of the sustainability and competitiveness of amateur and non-profit region) Soccer League. soccer teams in the Braga (a Portuguese In this work, we test several hypotheses regarding how economic conditions and local institutions influence the competitiveness of these non-profit soccer teams. The paper is structured into five sections. Section 2 contains a review of the lite ship because amateur teams are characterized by their low level of expenditures at their matches. and a small, local, average-sized audience Although the recent literature on the financial sustainability and sporting compe titiveness of professional teams is substantial, there have been Therefore, in this work we wantamateur toand non-profit analyze the sports. de few studies on On any given weekend in Portugal, for each match played between two professio two between played match each for Portugal, in weekend given any On between played matches (official) thirty approximately are there teams, soccer nal invol supporters and coaches, managers, players, of numbers The teams. amateur ved are proportional to the number of matches. However, when we focus on the value-added, computed value of expenditures, or number of fans present at each relation inverse an often is there fact, In proportionality. this find not do we match on very specific periods. The current literature also centres primarily on professio on primarily centres also literature current The periods. specific very on are nal analyzing sports. We the non-profit sports industry; therefore, we have to pay special attention to dimensions that usually are not relevant for professional sports, such as the role of institutions, local dynamics and the support of a few very active members. 1 rela the in Interest num the or size population as such Factors scientists. social among increased has ber of teams present in a region strongly influence the performanceof sports community. a given concentrate and cases national on focused mainly have studies previous However, depend on specific local markets and on the institutional environments of non- organizations. profit regional institutions soccer, organizations, non-profit Keywords: Abstract Amateur regional soccer influenced local factorsteams by and from are different soccer professional teams. This article the revisits on literature the determinants of soccer performance and the sustainability of non-profit organizations. Using panel data techniques, we conclude that the outcomes of soccernon-profit teams
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: teams sports of
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the the of almost one-third of federally-funded sport participants. It also produces the most revenue. However, most Portuguese local and regional (district) soccer leagues Portuguese football/soccer must also be placed in this context. According to Mar to According context. this in placed be also must football/soccer Portuguese co in Vaza, “Portugal is still almost a country of soccer,” published in (29/12/2010); football is by far the most-played sport in Portugal, accounting for clearly in activities such as football, which, according to Halicioglu (2006), is the is (2006), Halicioglu to according which, football, as such activities in clearly most-played team sport in the world. It also moves the most money worldwide. ces the league’s attractiveness. ces the league’s If these effects are evident in sporting activity in general, they are revealed more socio-economic institutions in such development. Regarding the importance of institutions, Eric Besson (2008) writes that a well-regulated sport without legal reinfor which league, a of image good a conveying for important is uncertainties Scholars such as Downward and Dawson (1999) point to the importance of school of importance the to point (1999) Dawson and Downward as such Scholars attendance patterns and consumption habits as factors in the development of soc region’s a of importance the highlight (1978) Pommerehne and Gartner while cer, existence of better infrastructure and increased financial incentives for engaging in or sponsoring sports-related activity. offer convinced the team to move from Seattle. offer the with intertwined is development sports that argue also (2003) al. et Hoffmann the team, which led to termination of the contract between the team and the city. It was then that Oklahoma City decided to court the Supersonics with a promise to subsidize a new $100 million stadium and a $20 million training centre. The Seattle to build a new pavilion. Seattle to build a new Those responsible for examining the application refused to grant a new arena to dies to the mobility of sports clubs; as an example, they point to the Seattle Super Seattle the to point they example, an as clubs; sports of mobility the to dies sonics, an NBA team that changed its of host city the convince to sought city. and Arena, The Key home, Seattle former their with dissatisfied Supersonics were with strong development indices. with strong development In this context, Coates and Humphreys (2008) highlight the importance of subsi The most expensive, ambitious and powerful sports organizations and The most clubs expensive, need ambitious and powerful sports organizations (Mou operations their sustain to support economic good and infrastructure strong rão, 2010). This type of infrastructure and support can only be found in places exogenous exogenous influence through linkages toeconomic activity and society (Oliveira sports. is by regional development affected 2003). One of the activities and Lima, 2 According to “classical theories” of development, regional development exerts an
------. The following section will explain why we consider the football clubs that we observed to be third sector also has an important spatial dimension, arguing that localities and regions are the are regions and localities that arguing dimension, spatial important an has also The case of Portuguese products soccer of clearly reflectstheir thishistories. rea entities. sing power of the population, it becomes very clear that the “richest supporters or supporters “richest the that clear very becomes it population, the of power sing more revenue” (Mourão, 2005). areas ... can leverage more assistance and theory of central places (1933), the In level of line demand with in Christaller’s a given area will initially determine importance a and team’s will subsequently in fluence its growth. Vasquez Barquero (1995) adds that economic development Downward and Dawson (1999) argue that the matches factors for responsible teams are for divided into finding two groups: sporting factors and wea televised, is event an whether quality, team include factors Sporting factors. economic ther conditions and the uncertainty of results. Economic factors include team en vironment, spectatorship purchasing power and ticket prices. If much of a team’s purcha the on depends this and revenue, ticket club’s that from derived is revenue nues for sports clubs. In addition, and according to Breuer (2009), the demand for demand the (2009), Breuer to according and addition, In clubs. sports for nues once increases, city a in teams of number the as increases games football to tickets again reinforcing the importance of rivalry between local teams (e.g. derbies, in which two local teams compete directly). of the interaction of physical distance between two teams, their proximity to other to proximity their teams, two between distance physical of interaction the of the quality of the opponents. tourist attractions, interest in a game and In studies on college American football, Price and Sen (2003) conclude that the quality of rival teams, the spirit of rivalry and within-conference competition po sitively influence the size of spectatorship, a thus game’s generating higher reve bank debt (Mourão, 2005). bank debt (Mourão, determine that factors two identifies (2005) Leonard revenues, ticket to relation In the of model “gravity the adopts Leonard extent. lesser or greater a to variable this social sciences,” which posits that there is a force of attraction between two pla function a are costs These them. between interaction of cost the by influenced ces, football teams depend on the divisions in which the teams play and include the costs of salaries, maintenance of infrastructure, and movements of personnel and investments. Football teams’ funding may come from receipts, transfers made by sponsorships, the members’ contributions, sell state, sheets, merchandising practices, and consist of amateur teams. These amateur teams are non-profit organizations focu organizations non-profit are teams amateur These teams. amateur of consist sed on developing local activities and promoting sports practice spaces for their third sector teams belong to the Therefore, these associates. Mourão (2005) provides a of deeper analysis the finances of football; the costs of
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profit - teams
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the
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determinants soccer the
or regionally-based, they rely on volunteer participation, the promotion of social and regional development and democratic management. All of the entities considered in this study can be classified as non-profit institu tions (Chaves and Monzon, Although 2001). activities these are entities’ locally- 3 3.1 we have to place special attention on non-profit organizations and on the institu tions that influence non-profit actions.organizations’ The next section discusses these topics. Ging, Ramasamy and Matheson (2003), and Mourão (2005), studied the expensive soccer teams. In this work, we study most the relevance of the socio-econo Therefore, teams. soccer non-profit of performance sports the of determinants mic the existence of quality infrastructure, good organizational practices, and consu professio of quality the enhance to likely are power, purchasing and/or habits mer nal sports performance. However, Downward and Dawson (1999), Hoffmann, determinants and socio-economic factors that might contribute to a greater pre greater a to contribute might that factors socio-economic and determinants increase an to lead could factors these Consequently, councils. sports local of clubs, local by granted subsidies as such Factors councils. these of competitiveness again highlighted. The research reviewed here focuses on professional sports in postulating a set of dramatic examples are Bragança, Portalegre and Beja. Given the high quality of top teams from Lisbon and Porto as compared to teams from other districts, the once is development sports and development regional between relationship direct interfering factors. According to Pires (1989) and Cunha (1989), Lisbon and Porto Porto and Lisbon (1989), Cunha and (1989) Pires to According factors. interfering are the most developed regions in this respect; on the other hand, more than half of the national districts have recently seen some sports development. The most Schemel (1999) cites other factors that should be considered in the and planning accessibility networks, of transportation of existence the as such facilities, sports foster access to sports, it is necessary to evaluate the sports market; the number of number the market; sports the evaluate to necessary is it sports, to access foster and services sports for demand future and current practitioners, future and current crucial factors. sporting venues for a population are current need and future According to Viseu et al. (2002), the development of sports is significantly in fluenced by specific conditions thataffect access to sports. They report that, to (2005) notes that Portuguese regions with higher levels of development are loca ted on a narrow coastal strip. It is precisely in those areas that local authorities league. the Portuguese have sustained lity. Benfica, Porto and Sporting are the most prominent professional teams in the in teams professional prominent most the are Sporting and Porto Benfica, lity. Portuguese league; they are located in the two most with more demand and greater country, football developed history (Mourão, 2005). Mourão regions of the
- - - - - the level of unemployment (if this is high, it tends to indicate a more indu (Ahlfeldt and Feddersen, 2009); strialized area), as argued by Downward and Dawson (1999), strialized area), as argued income local for proxy a as banks, local in held and raised money of level the called for this purpose, called for most of the active participants (managers, players, and coaches) are volun teers, receiving for their endeavours irregular compensation in the form of prize money. goals. For instance, they try to organize teams that hold sports exhibitions for exhibitions sports hold that teams organize to try they instance, For goals. profits, instead of maximizing local audiences they are based will on as associates’ assessed by votes of general assemblies their managers work toward society-oriented goals, instead of profit-oriented – – size of the aging population, which, if increased in a given area, tends to reduce to tends area, given a in increased if which, population, aging the of size by Mourão (2005); the demand for soccer matches, as argued – – – Having analyzed these studies, we can summarize the determinants of the compe the of determinants the summarize can we studies, these analyzed Having titiveness of non-profit soccer clubs: a) level of economic development of the surrounding area, based on: were mostly sports and cultural they organizations. Finally, reported that parents influenced their children’s involvement in these associations, making very clear and development the Therefore, participation. civic of culture a of importance the socioeco certain of existence the requires clubs sports non-profit of sustainability nomic conditions. the creation of such teams, how they are distributed in certain areas and whether distribution and other factors. there is any relationship between their be to likely more are associations non-profit that found (2002) Wolf and Prouteau They also concluded found in that these rural associations areas and small towns. soccer teams. Despite the importance of policies that effectively enhance cooperation between other of importance the mind in bear must we leaders, national and regional local, stu this Given region. a of resources and context surrounding the as such factors, for reasons the understand to important is it teams, soccer non-profit on focus dy’s Mourão and Colonna (2011) studied religious Mourão confraternities and in Colonna Lisbon (2011) and Lima characterized those and places heterogeneous socially most the that observed and by stronger histories of associativism show the highest probabilities of have that regions that argue can we this, Following brotherhoods. religious active having greater diversity and are identified with long and consistent histories of associ ative practices will exhibit more opportunities for the development of non-profit Following Following Chaves and Monzon (2001), all local sports clubs are aware of issues to: attention pay institutions non-profit that most b)
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204 financial theory and paulo reis mourÃo, césar costa cima: practice what makes non-profit soccer teams run? a panel data approach using a sample of
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how sports 2005); size of the male population, often a primary market for sports events (Leonard, (Leonard, events sports for market primary a often population, male the of size size of the overall population living in a region, as a proxy of the centrality of number of soccer clubs from the same municipality playing in the same league, league, same the in playing municipality same the from clubs soccer of number that place in an evolving area and as a proxy for market size (Mourão and Co and lonna, 2011); (2009); which, if increased, tends strongly to suggest a long history of local associative associative local of history long a suggest to strongly tends increased, if which, Breuer to according competitiveness, athletic of source a as serves and practices Wolf, 2002). Wolf, cause this variable exerts a composition effect on the dynamics of local associa local of dynamics the on effect composition a exerts variable this cause tions, highlighting the proportional relevance of this age cohort (Prouteau and size of the young population (between 15 and 24 years) living in a region, be e) local community and organizing teams composed by local an members to lead may results sporting than good However, results. sporting with best the achieving Consequently, there is no Consequently, consensus on how best to measure the competitiveness many (2007), Theakou and Kriemadis by observed As teams. soccer non-profit of are more concerned with producing of sporting these events organizations for the also depend on associative practices, the history of local institutions of sports and sports of institutions local of history the practices, associative on depend also cultural activities, and dynamics of some members. As observed, the development of non-profit organizations whoseAs observed, actions arethe con development of non-profit organizations insti demographics, the on depends area geographical limited very a in centrated organizations these of most Therefore, area. surrounding the of income and tutions In examining the realm of non-profit sports, some observations must be made. First, as confirmed, non-profit teams are strictly connected with the local society. teams in a variety of competitions (Szymanski and Kesenne, 2004), the concentra the 2004), Kesenne, and (Szymanski competitions of variety a in teams the or 1997), Quirk, and (Fort competitors best few the among points these of tion 2001). average performance (Schmidt and Berri, trally located; they try to achieve the most demanding level of the sport at interna at sport the of level demanding most the achieve to try they located; trally tional competitions. The traditional measures for evaluating the competitiveness of professional sports consider the amount of points/scores earned by players or In professional sports, competitiveness is widely understood as an important fea ture of each player or of each team. The most competitive players and teams un dergo intensive training, are supported by huge financial resources, and are cen 2001; Horowitz, 1997; Fort and Quirk, 1997), quantification of the competitive have a very strong history ness of non-profit sports teams does not Although there are several studies that attempt to measure the competitiveness of professional sports teams (Szymanski and Kesenne, 2004; Schmidt and Berri, 3.2 c) f) d)
t - . (1) , and , . . Therefore, the subscript . t
it t z i e it , between 2000/01 and 2009/10 and 2000/01 between , . S t * -1 and finish in May of year t it X * it results in the Braga District
i it Y relates to one of the dependent variables (number of points and points of (number variables dependent the of one to relates and
it Y data , all the clubs of that municipality at the end of each regular season municipality at the end of each regular all the clubs of that the number of points per match observed for considering each municipality, each municipality at the end of a regular season of the Braga Soccer League; Soccer Braga the of season regular a of end the at municipality each and the sum of the number of points per season obtained by the soccer clubs from clubs soccer the by obtained season per points of number the of sum the b) a) model is a column of estimated coefficients for the socioeconomic variables that we
is a column of estimated coefficients for the number of soccer clubs of the given the of clubs soccer of number the for coefficients estimated of column a is The 14 municipalities belonging to the Braga District Amares, are: Barcelos, Braga, Cabeceiras de Basto, We also tried We three other variables for measuring the concentration of competitiveness. First, we observed Most of these seasons begin in September of year these alternative dependent variables. Full results are available upon request. end. in the model designates the year of each season’s Famalicão, de Nova Vila Minho, do Vieira Lanhoso, do Povoa Guimaráes, Fafe, Esposende, Basto, de Celorico do Bouro. Terras and Vizela Verde, Vila χ League. municipality playing in the same Braga the average percentage of total possible points earned by a municipality’s teams. Second, we computed the of percentage the calculated we Third, municipality. given a of teams the by earned points of number average support strongly conclusions Our season. regular a of end the at municipality each at concentrated points the β test: share of the population that is population, elderly, value of raised money in local banks, number of unemployed people, share of population aged between 15 and 24 years, and number of male residents. (1), equation In year given a for observed match) per points for each municipality In this section, we discuss an econometric model to predict the local and regional and local the predict to model econometric an discuss we section, this In determinants of the sports performance of non-profit soccer clubs in the Braga among municipalities. Soccer League, conditional on the differences Our first model is as follows: In the next section, we results introduce our discuss our and interpret econometric we Then model, data. our the and model methodology that estimate we to used 4 Therefore, to analyze the sporting performance of non-profit clubs from each mu each from clubs non-profit of performance sporting the analyze to Therefore, dependent variables: we will use two nicipality, increase increase in the attention received by these non-profit teams. This attention may also attract more revenues and fundraising; the additional funds may promote a higher level of sporting results the following season. This is the perspective of (2000). Heitzmann
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206 financial theory and paulo reis mourÃo, césar costa cima: practice what makes non-profit soccer teams run? a panel data approach using a sample of
207 36 (2) 199-220 (2012) braga teams - - - . from the Braga the from i identifies local and local identifies it ) either the final sum final the either ) ε Y_it in the Braga District between District Braga the in i , considering them to be independently it ε and t z , or the average points per match played or the average points i t identifies time fixed effects. effects. fixed time identifies e t z results
and
Soccer League, municipa a in years) 24 and 15 (between population living young the of size lity. number of soccer clubs from the same municipality playing in the Braga data
f) size of the overall population living in a municipality, and a municipality, f) size of the overall population living in g) e) size of the male population, a) level of unemployment, local banks, b) amount of money raised and held in c) size of the aging population, d) identifies local fixed effects. effects. fixed local identifies i According to the official rules, each win is scored as three points for the winning team, each draw is scored is draw each team, winning the for points three as scored is win each rules, official the to According Braga main the to related rules the of details Extensive points. zero as scored is defeat each and point, one as Soccer League are provided in the appendix. Table 1 shows descriptive statistics for our variables. 1 shows descriptive Table sticas, INE) for the years between 2000 and 2009. INE provided values municipality for each the for (observed variables following 2000 and 2009): To construct To the set of independent variables in equation 1, we obtained official Estatí de Nacional (Instituto Institute Statistics Official Portuguese the from data General Secretary of the Braga Soccer Association (AFB) for the seasons between seasons the for (AFB) Association Soccer Braga the of Secretary General 2000/01 and 2004/2005. For the seasons between 2005/06 and 2009/10, we used AFB website. official data available on the District during a regular season District during a regular the by provided kindly data official used we variables, dependent the construct To 4.1 ( variables dependent as considered we stated, already As municipality given a of clubs soccer the all by achieved points of suggested that we should use fixed effects independent of the choice of dependent of choice the of independent effects fixed use should we that suggested variable. First, we ran Hausman tests to evaluate whether equation 1 would be more accu rately estimated using fixed or random The effects. results (available by request) e We estimate time fixed effects. equation 1. software to estimate v.8 used STATA We distributed. and identically
------0 10 2.4 0.19 149.9 473.2 Max. 14,113 84,616 176,154 0 0 0 1.5 388 0.12 37.2 Min. 3,681 7,506 0.6 0.01 84.7 1.99 23.9 118.6 3,848 27,606 56,772 Std. dev. 1.7 83.4 0.15 86.9 2.06 100.5 3,323 Mean 60,537 29,470 98 Obs. 126 126 123 126 126 126 126 126
1 able Young population (%) population Young Population Money raised in local banks (thousand euro) Number of unemployed people Number of men Number of clubs of Number of the same municipality playing at the same league Aging population (% of population) Variable Variable Points Points per match ciety or to unemployment have insignificant coefficients; this observation supports observation this coefficients; insignificant have unemployment to or ciety Second, the relation between non-profit clubs and the youngest groups in society. same league” has a statistically significant coefficient,but now the percentage of young people living in the municipality also has a statistically significant coeffi cient. In examining the variables that were characterized by statistically insignificant coefficients, other patterns emerge. First, the variables related to the aging of so when the number of points achieved by all the clubs from a given municipality is the dependent variable (table 2). As this result could be due to a kind of scale we effect, also estimated equation 1 with “points per match” as the dependent variable. In this case, we again conclu ded that the variable “number of clubs in the same municipality playing in the dependent variable. Our previous results confirm that the variables “number of clubs in the same mu nicipality”, and “young population (%)” have coefficients that are statistically si in playing municipality same the in clubs of “number on coefficient The gnificant. the same league” is statistically significantly different from zero at the 1% level Tables 2 and 3 Tables show the results of estimating equation 1 using the dependent va all of points of sum “the with results, the shows 2 Table above. mentioned riables the teams in each municipality” as the dependent 3 variable. shows Table the re sults, with “the points per match played for the teams in the municipality” as the T statistics Descriptive
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- - *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 VII 1.446 0.9592 845.07 41.571*** (7.366) (1.430) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 VI -0.001 22.264 0.9346 419.32 41.350*** (0.001) (1.553) (56.257) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 V 126 0.004 -0.008 12.207 0.9499 277.78 41.496*** (0.008) (1.584) (0.015) (59.659) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 VI 0.006 -0.014 -0.002 66.499 0.4682 206.85 41.887*** (1.819) (0.020) (0.009) (0.005) (136.993) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 123 III 0.006 0.001 -0.014 -0.002 73.168 0.3792 158.55 41.873*** (1.862) (0.021) (0.009) (0.005) (0.001) (143.080) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 123 II 0.010 0.006 0.006 0.001 -0.014 -0.002 0.3789 130.86 41.896*** (0.188) (0.009) (1.920) (0.022) (0.009) (0.006) (0.001)
** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** **** 96 14 I 97.72 0.075 0.025 -0.882 -0.001 -0.043 173.82 0.3141 0.001** 42.918*** (0.019) (0.634) (0.002) (0.069) (0.034) (2.534) (265.54) (0.0004)
2
able R2 F Test Number of observations Number of groups Number of unemployed Constant local banks (euro) Aging population (% of population) Young Young population (%) Raised money in Number of men Population playing at the same the at playing league Points Number of clubs of the same municipality variables. However, we also observed (see table 4) that the densest municipalities densest the that 4) table (see observed also we However, variables. non-pro of numbers highest the had Guimaraes) and (Braga District Braga the in Finally, Finally, the population variable did not have significant coefficients. This result might show that statistically there is no direct population on effect the dependent cause these non-profit clubs do not play in the most important national leagues (discussed by Mourão, 2010), their sports performance is not very dependent on the per capita income of the evolving area. In addition, as expected, our results showed no direct link between local income and the sports performance of the observed non-profit clubs, becausethe proxy “level of raised money in local banks” did not have significant coefficients. Be Significance level: 1%***; 5%**; 10%*. Note: Standard deviations between parentheses. Note: Standard T of final the at municipality each of clubs all of points variable: (dependent Results season) a regular we also observe that the male composition of the municipalities exerts no direct organizations. non-profit observed of the performance sports on the influence - - *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 VII 126 6.07 0.685 0.163*** 20.48*** 0.0568 (6.05) (0.625) (0.052) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 VI 126 4.63 0.162*** 0.001 20.02*** -1.545 (6.11) 0.0039 (3.669) (0.052) (0.001) *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *+* V 14 126 3.70 -0.679 0.170*** 0.001 19.44*** (4.275) 0.0386 (6.31) -0.001 (0.056) (0.001) (0.001) * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** 77 14 VI 1.44 4.114 0.140* 0.001 18.78** (8.79) -0.001 (0.001) (0.001) (5.958) 0.0718 (0.074) * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** 77 14 III 4.25 1.22 18.67** 0.137* (6.03) (8.87) -0.002 -0.001 0.0709 0.0016* (0.007) (0.076) (0.0003) (0.001) * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** 57 14 II 1.87 0.111 0.184 0.009* -0.001 -40.35 -0.004* 0.0684 137.16** (0.112) (0.079) (26.77) (54.59) (0.004) (0.001) (0.002) * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** 57 14 I 1.64 0.121 0.193 0.008* -0.001 -0.001 -0.004* 0.0131 147.55** (0.116) (0.085) (0.001) (0.001) (61.12) (0.002) (0.004) -38.007 (27.733) -
3 able Number of groups R2 F Test people Money raised in local banks (euro) Constant Number of observations Population Number of men Aging population (% of population) Number of unemployed Young population (%) Young Number of clubs of the same municipality play ing in the same league Points per match Points per running the Durbin-Wu-Hasuman test for endogeneity of the “young population (%)” with the instruments “number of men” and “level of aging population (%)”. Full results are available under request. Therefore, after running the Durbin-Wu-Hausman test for endogeneity “number of clubs in the same of municipality playing in the same league” variable, the we concluded that this variable can be classified as statistically endogenous with the instruments “number of unemployed people”, “young population (%)”, and “level of money raised in local banks”. The same conclusion was reached after Note: Standard deviations between parentheses. Note: Standard Significance level: 1%***; 5%**; 10%*. T at municipality each of clubs all of match per points variable: (dependent Results regular season) the final of a fit soccerclubs. This resultis consistent with Mourão and (2011)Colonna’s fin ding of a positive relationship between population density and associative practi ces. This apparent incongruence leads us to suspect that our fixed effects results problems. by endogeneity could be biased
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- (2) (3) (4) of the 1,236 1,403 1,400 1,389 1,365 1.334 1,260 1,247 1,239 1,860 1,703 1,536 1,431 1,417 match i Points per Points per it 2 421 168 764 333 799 384 341 346 109 1,062 1,600 1,223 2,636 1,423 Points t 2 z 48 83 46 19 117 101 202 314 259 136 549 259 662 373 Losses i 2 e follows the notation of it y 88 24 75 66 66 37 13 it 140 192 163 313 194 443 235 Draws it 3 banks 3 93 32 48 86 111 290 212 106 429 343 731 396 208 103 Wins t 3 z it i 3 64 e 796 634 308 276 796 300 120 550 244 186 young 1,291 1,842 1,004 2 Matches 2009/10) it (2000/01- it 1 it t aging 1 5 6 4 2 2 1 6 8 2 3 8 1 1 z 14 17 (eq. 2). Guided by the endogeneity tests, we allow the only depends on the number of soccer teams observed teams soccer of number the on depends only t Soccer Soccer it League Number Number of teams at Braga y i 1 it e it men 4 unemployed in year 1
i
teams it 1 it , between 2000/01 and 2009/10, and for each municipality 3 t 2 de Basto Braga Cabeceiras de Basto V.n.Famalicão Povoa de Lanhoso Verde Vila Fafe Celorico Guimarães Barcelos Vizela Amares Vieira de Terras Bouro Esposende Municipalities it 1 it 4 it 9º 7º 8º 5º 6º 3º 4º 1º 2º it able 11º 14º 12º 13º 10º young y played) (points per match Rank teams of young people and the level of raised money in also local al banks (eq. 3). We low the proportion of young people to depend on the number of men and on the Braga District. But now But District. Braga for municipality share the people, unemployed of number the on depend to teams soccer of number According to this system of simultaneous equations, equation 1 and it relates to number of points and points per match observed for a given year Consequently, as suggested by Wooldridge (2002), we modified equation 1 into a Wooldridge as suggested by Consequently, 2 - eq. 4). system of simultaneous equations (eq. An illustrative table An illustrative T - -
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 (%) 0.168*** 0.324 40.44 0.000 Young Young -2.6e-7*** (0.005) -1.35e-4 population (4.19e-8) (4.87e-5) * *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 0.106 92.85 0.000 (6.304) 2.56e-5 8.93e-6** 3.79e-4*** -32.079*** 214.492*** (9.79e5) (40.635) (7.68e-4) (3.68e-6) same league represent the panel errors, which are 3it e municipality playing at the municipality playing Number of clubs of the same Number represents fixed effects for each municipality. municipality. each for effects fixed represents i 3 e *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 0.957 0.000 Points 1.809 41.520*** (3.067) (1.223) 1151.64
5 represents fixed effects for each year. able 3t R2 Qui-Square P-value (% of population) Number of unemployed people Constant Number of observations Number of groups Population (%) population Young Money raised in local banks (euro) Aging population Number of clubs of the Number of clubs of the same municipality playing in the same league Number of men Note: Standard deviations between parentheses. Note: Standard Significance level: 1%***; 5%**; 10%*. * Endogenous variables: points; number of clubs of the same municipality; young population (%). Exogenous variables: population; number of unemployed; money raised; men; and aging population. System of simultaneous equations (estimated by 3SLS)* System of simultaneous squares (3SLS). We also squares estimated (3SLS). We the system by the generalized method of mo ments and full information maximum likelihood; the results were similar and are 5 and 6 show available the on Tables results request. of the systems (using as de pendent variables “the sum of points” and 3SLS. “points per match”) estimated by T size of elderly population (eq. 4). (eq. population elderly of size z and identically distributed. be independently assumed to Following Wooldridge (2002), this system was estimated by three stage least
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- - -
*** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** . We . We 14 126 40.2 (%) 0.167*** 0.324 0.000 Young Young (0.005) (4.9e-5) -1.29e-4*** -2.59e-7*** population population (4.21e-8) * *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 4e-4 0.266 94.98 0.000 230.65*** (6,176) (39.79) 8.95e-6** 3.77e-4*** -34.608*** (3.6e-6) (7.49e-4) (9.59e-5) same league municipality playing at the municipality Number of clubs of the same of clubs of Number *** *** *** *** *** *** *** 14 126 0.850*** 0.518 149.4 0.000 0.154*** match (0.099) (0.039) Points per Points per
6 able Qui-Square P-value Number of observations Number of groups R2 Number of unemployed people Constant local banks (euro) Aging population (% of population) Young population (%) Young Raised money in Number of men Population same municipality same municipality playing in the same league Number of clubs of the Number of As already noticed, even when using different measures of competitiveness, this conclusion holds (the soccer non-profit of number the to related variable the for estimated coefficient the of significance statistical teams of the same municipality). Full results are avaiable under request. ciative practices in the which municipality, authors like Price and Sen (2003) or non- local of sustainability the to important very being as recognize (2009) Breuer profit organizations. bouring clubs improves competitiveness, which increases the quality of exhibi inter can we Second, derbies. local of number the increases it instance, For tions. pret the presence of other neighbouring clubs as proof of more accentuated asso of other neighbouring soccer clubs (those whose head offices are located in the same municipality) benefits the sports performance of a given municipality Significance level: 1%***; 5%**; 10%*. presence the AFB, the of League Soccer Main the in that demonstrate results These (%). Exogenous variables: living population; number of unemployed; money raised; men; and aging population. deviations between parentheses. Note: Standard * Endogenous variables: points; number of clubs of the same municipality; young population T by 3SLS)* (estimated equations of simultaneous System interpret this fact in two complementary ways. First, the presence of other neigh - - - conclusion
past literature highlights some differences between the determinants of the spor ting performance of non-profit soccer teams (playing in amateur leagues) and the determinants of the sporting performance of the expensive) soccer most teams, which usually play competitive in the most prominent (and professional most A last set of developments will analyze the extent of economic stimulus generated stimulus economic of extent the analyze will developments of set last A economies. by these non-profit soccer teams on local 5 This paper examined the determinants of the sports performance of soccer non-profit clubs in the Braga District Soccer League between 2000 and 2009. The (and using – DEA data envelopment analyses – techniques). we Finally, want to deepen our analysis of the relationship between the discussing sports performance municipality, each of in non- clubs soccer of number the and clubs soccer profit whether the observed positive relationship is mainly due to competitive forces or to want we it, allow databases Portuguese as soon as Finally, features. institutional capital. social and activity civic for proxies include to covariates of set the expand sociative practices and non-profit organizations should be promoted. sociative practices and non-profit organizations Our results also suggest avenues for future research. First, we will sample extend to our include all amateur soccer leagues in Portugal. Second, analyze we the want efficiency to of each club, considering its own endogenous resources come per capita) and higher values of unemployed people (considered a proxy for proxy a (considered people unemployed of values higher and capita) per come more industrialized areas). Regarding the practical implications of our results, we argue that to increase the sustainability and competitiveness of non-profit soccer clubs, their goals should focus on garnering greater local support. In addition, institutions that support as In our case, we observed that the sports performance of non-profit clubs depends on the presence of a larger number of local associations, as represented by number the of other clubs playing in the main amateur soccer league in the District. In turn, the Braga number of non-profit soccer teams depends on the influence of young people (considered a proxy for the specific market for these non-profit clubs), a higher value of money raised in local banks (considered a proxy for in sports events and the potential supply of members working for these organizations organizations these for working members of supply potential the and events sports 2002). Wolf, and (Prouteau Therefore, our results strengthen those of Price and Sen (2003) and Prouteau and Wolf (2002) who showed that non-profit organizationsdepend greatly on local groups. specific of backing the and markets local close of support the institutions, The statistical significance of youth deserves further emphasis. We have observed observed have We emphasis. further deserves youth of significance statistical The when significant statistically is population young the embodying variable the that explaining the number of teams in a given municipality (tables 5 and influence 6). special a These exerts population a of segment younger the that confirm results on the development of local non-profit it organizations; increases the demand for
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214 financial theory and paulo reis mourÃo, césar costa cima: practice what makes non-profit soccer teams run? a panel data approach using a sample of
215 36 (2) 199-220 (2012) braga teams ------tion. Finally, these results are pioneering within Portuguese studies in the fields of of fields the in studies Portuguese within pioneering are results these Finally, tion. intere an open and institutions non-profit of economics the and economics sports potential for development. sting line of research with a large local institutions is necessary for promoting a sustainable environment for development the of non-profit organizations. Our results also demonstrate that non- profit organizations should focus on primary (local) markets and their composi the sports performance of non-profit teams. of set effective an that show They consequences. relevant have conclusions These These results also confirmed that local market forces related to demographic com demographic to related forces market local that confirmed also results These increase environment associative non-profit active an of presence the and position promote a larger number of amateur soccer clubs. Finally, we also concluded that concluded also we Finally, clubs. soccer amateur of number larger a promote sustaina and generations the for structures better offer to tend areas industrialized bility of these amateur clubs. such clubs exhibited better sports performance. We have also observed that some such clubs exhibited better We sports performance. factors increase the number of amateur soccer clubs in found each that municipality. We increasing the values of young population and of local income may fects estimation (and 3SLS for a more robust system of simultaneous equations), we obtained relevant and pioneering results related to Portuguese non-profit soc concluded that non-profit soccer clubs incer We municipalitiesclubs. with many non-profit soccer teams. constructed We an empirical model for evaluating these factors. Using fixed ef Colonna, 2011) has also showed that institutional dynamics, such as an environ in general, can number of non-profit organizations ment characterized by a larger of sustainability and activity the explaining when factors local as significant as be Places characterized by dynamic local market forces, such as support from sustai from support as such forces, market local dynamic by characterized Places nable groups and active members, show a greater propensity to support well-de veloped non-profit organizations. The literature (Heitzmann, 2000; Mourão and leagues. These determinants can be local forces, but they may also be institutional institutional be also may they but forces, local be can determinants These leagues. in nature. - - - - - Divi rd Divisions), rd league
Each group had 16 teams. The teams played each Serie B. soccer
and braga
Serie A ppendix In 2005/06, nothing changed, but the game that determined the champion disputed again. was league. In 2004/05, the Braga Soccer League consisted, again, of 16 teams, but in this season, it wasn’t played the game that identified theTwo champion. teams were promoted to the national championships, and four teams from each group were relegated to the secondary amateur league. Hence, in 2003/04, each group was composed of 18 teams and, as had not been the been not had as and, teams 18 of composed was group each 2003/04, in Hence, case the previous year, the Braga champion was determined in only one game. The game was played at the home of the team, of either group, that had more ag gregate points. In this year, two teams were promoted to the national champion ships, and six teams from each group were relegated to the secondary amateur amateur league. In 2002/03, the first of Ata the series end of of changes the occurred. season, the last four teams in each group were relegated as to teams two usual, adding League), but Soccer (Braga league now amateur main six the to teams promoted were each group. groups, At the end of other the twice, championship, once the at teams home, once away. that were ranked first place in each group played each other in two matches, one at home and the other away, to determine the awarding of the title. teams These were promoted two to the national championships (Portuguese 3 (secondary) lower the to relegated were group each from teams four last the while Some changes have been made to the Braga Soccer League format since the 2000 the since format League Soccer Braga the to made been have changes Some season. two of consisted league the seasons, 2001/02 and 2000/01 the of beginning the At dary) amateur league, only played by Braga teams, and the Portuguese 3 Du Associations). Soccer different from teams by played leagues, (regional sions ring the course of a season (usually from October to May), each club plays the at once and stadium home its at once system), round-robin double (a twice others each of its opponents’. receive Teams three points for a win and one point for a for a loss. and zero points are awarded draw, A detailing Association. Soccer Braga the by annually organized is League Soccer Braga The This (amateur) competition is a competition located between the lower (secon
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217 36 (2) 199-220 (2012) braga teams - www.afbraga.com/portal/page/portal/PORTAL_FUTEBOL/BRAGA/BRAGA_ ASSOCIACAO. amateur division, and two teams were promoted to the national championships. two teams were promoted to the national amateur division, and http:// Association: Soccer Braga the of webpage the on found be can details More ted to the Braga Soccer League. ted to the lower the to relegated were teams four season, 2009/10 the until season that From the championship round, with 16 teams. In this season, six teams from the lower division were promoted to the Braga Soccer League, and relega were two championships national the in played teams that Association) Soccer (from Braga the In 2006/07, the most significant change occurred. At the end of theseason, two teams were promoted as usual, but 11 teams from each group were relegated to of format new a to moved were group each from teams four Just status. secondary ------No. IASE Busi Diritto ed Diritto
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