UNIVERSITE D’ ANTANANARIVO ECOLE NORMALE SUPERIEURE

DEPARTEMENT DE FORMATION INITIALE LITTERAIRE CENTRE D’ETUDE ET DE RECHERCHE EN LANGUE ET LETTRE ANGLAISES

MEMOIRE DE CERTIFICAT D’ APTITUDE PEDAGOGIQUE DE L’ ECOLE NORMALE (C.A.P.E.N )

MONA CAIRD’S THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS (1894) AS A REFLECTION OF THE EARLY ASPECTS OF FEMINISM IN BRITAIN

PRESENTED BY :

RAHARIJHON Mbolasoa Nadine

DISSERTATION ADVISOR Mrs RABENORO Mireille

Date de soutenance : 22 Décembre 2006

ACADEMIC YEAR : 2005-2006

When you accuse me of not being *

When you accuse me of not being

Like a woman

I wonder what like is

And how one becomes it

I think woman is what

Women are

And as I am one

So must that be included

In what woman is

So, there fore, I am like

by Pat Van Twest.

______

* HEALY, Maura, Women , England, 1984, Longman p. 28

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We address our deep gratitude to :

- Mrs RABENORO Mireille, our dissertation advisor, for her precious contribution to the

elaboration of this dissertation

- Mrs RAZAIARIVELO A. for her advice which were so useful for the achievement of this

work.

- Mr RAZAFINDRATSIMA E. for he is the one who inspired us the very topic of this

dissertation.

- Mr Manoro Regis, our teacher and the head of English Department at E.N.S. for his

kindness, his patience, and above all his helpful advice.

- All our teachers at the English Department of E.N.S. for their support and follow-up while

through on the five years’ training.

- Our dearest parents and our sister for the kind support they brought to us during all this time.

- We also address our special thanks to everyone who in a way or another helped us reach the

result of this work.

Our best regards to you all.

RAHARIJHON Mbolasoa Nadine

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INTRODUCTION

Women play a very important role within the family, the society and the whole Nation.

They bring to men a very precious help by contributing to the fulfilment of some tasks. For that reason and also for their personal satisfaction, women should be free to carry out all activities they feel capable to undertake and to obtain things they desire. As a matter of fact however, women were deprived from this freedom of action, of choice in most societies of the world. They were oppressed by a male-dominated position since men had all power and decided for them (women) what to think, what to do, how to behave. This happened in the past, and though improvement was brought about by feminist groups and individuals the problem linked with women’s fate seems to persist till nowadays. Thus, we think it worthy to deal with feminism in that not only will the study show the way how women’s position might be before, how it came to the stage where it is now in the present but also it will contribute to carry on with the battle.

Fight for the advancement of women’s rights, liberty and equality with men took place then in the world for centuries now. However, the nineteenth century, a period of various changes in many Countries (European Countries like France, the USA, Britain,…) in different kinds of field including women’s status, can be considered as a very important time of the British women’s history for various forms of movement (strikes, petitions, literature,…) arose among the female sympathizers. The New Women movement was one of the feminist movements implemented in Britain in the late nineteenth century. It consisted of a literary movement through which the writers of novels, of pamphlets, and magazine articles attacked the low position granted to women and openly claimed for revolution.

As far as Mona Caird was concerned, she was among those New Women novelists who introduced a new image of women as more independent, more active and more blossoming in their works. Though maybe unknown to general readers, Mona Caird is well-known to many

-ii- feminist individuals and organizations in Britain and in other Countries. When we made our research in books, on internet, about which novelists might be fervent towards the cause at this time, who did not fear to display their feminist ideas, Caird proved to be admired by many other writers and readers who shared warmly her views. She is especially remembered for her defying arguments against the old conventions. She wrote many novels related to women but one of her most famous works was The Daughters of Danaus (1894), a novel based on the Greek Myth of the Danaides. Actually, the Danaides were the fifty daughters of

Danaus. This latter was forced by his own brother Aegyptus to marry his girls to his own fifty sons. Danaus unhappily consented to the mass wedding but entreated secretly his daughters to murder their cousins in the wedding bed. All but one followed what their father told them.

The exception was Hypermnstra who spared his husband (Lynceus)’s life for he left her virginity untouched. She loved him and spent her life with him. The forty nine others who were guilty of their deeds were punished in hell after they had died. They were to eternally fetch water, but as the sieves were full of holes, no sooner they had filled them the water would leak out.

In Caird’s novel, the story deals with the fate of Hadria Fullerton, a particularly talented woman, who found herself oppressed by the Society, with its conventional ideas of women’s duties and roles. For the conservative family, friends and neighbours decided that women’s life should be restricted to the home circle, Hadria’s dream of a musical career seemed a real struggle.

As indicated by its title the goal of this dissertation is to show then how this novel reflects the early aspects of the fight for the improvement of women’s status in Britain. Before dealing with this very goal in the second part however, it is necessary to study in the first part women’s subservience against which Caird went to oppose in her novel. To achieve this dissertation, we used the novel itself to bring in some quotations so that our arguments could

-iii- be truthful. We used as well other kinds of books (encyclopaedias, books of civilization, of literature, magazines) to extract useful quotations, photos and she takes to illustrate ideas. We did not hesitate as well to use internet which we consider as an important additional source of information.

Finally, as this dissertation is part of the pedagogical training offered to future teachers of

English, it would be shown in the third part how The Daughters of Danaus could be adapted to the teaching of the language in the classroom. For that, we particularly used some linguistic and didactic books to give us hints on the kinds of activity to be exploited.

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PART - I

WOMEN’S POSITION DURING THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN BRITAIN

In Victorian Britain, women were still kept in a lower position within the Society and the family in that their rights and roles remained limited by long-established conventions.

Actually, this state of restriction was reflected by written laws, making it constitutional, by the kind of tasks women were bound to fulfil everyday and by the type of education attributed to them.

1 - THE LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN BRITAIN

In 1890, Florence Fenwick Miller (1854-1935), one of the first women who qualified in medicine, described women’s position as follows : “Under exclusively man-made laws women have been reduced to the most abject condition of legal slavery in which it is possible for human beings to be held…under the arbitrary domination of another’s will, and dependent for decent treatment exclusively on the goodness of heart of the individual master ”1. Actually, social conventions restricted women’s position to their gender roles and thus submitted them to a male-centered authority. As a matter of fact the laws emphasized this actual lower status as opposed to men’s.

1-1 WOMEN’S LEGAL STATUS IN MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE

The marriage system showed the legal domination of men over women since it put the wives’ properties and bodies under their husbands’ entire possession. First of all, resulting from the 1753 Marriage Act which made husbands administrating their wives’ resources a legal right, if the marriage took place before a priest, husbands legally owned all the wealth in

1 http : // en wikipedia. org/wiki/ National_Liberal_Club

-1- the early and mid-century. Of course, in well-to-do families, family wealth was inherited in large part by the male descendants : daughters were given just a small percentage according to the father’s will. When still single, they could administrate their wealth independently (some of them used some parts of their wealth as a fund in charity works for example before marriage). Once married, however, what was left to them was made their partners’ possession. Then, for the working-women, all their earnings would directly belong to their husbands as well. Secondly, through the system, husbands had legal access to their wives’ bodies. This was written in a law and verbally consented by women through the vows during the ceremony. In fact, husbands were attributed the right to force their wives to do things, even to have sexual intercourse and to get pregnant, and to forbid them to do other things like going out to work for instance (for the upper-class women). In addition to that, they were not legally protected from their husbands’ violence. The Judge William Blackstone even claimed that husbands could inflict correction to disobedient wives. Moreover, still related to husbands’ possession of their bodies, if any offence was committed against women, only the husbands could decide whether to prosecute or not.

As a conclusion then, marriage, by making men the legal possessors of women’s wealth and bodies, introduced men’s domination over women and this reflected the latter’s lower status .

As far as women’s rights with regard to property was concerned, it was a bit improved in the late nineteenth century as compared to the early and mid-Victorian era : Dr Richard

Pankhurst (Emmeline Pankhurst’s husband), a lawyer, drafted a bill giving married women absolute control over their own property and earnings. This bill gave birth to the Married

Women’s Property Acts of 1882 and then of 1893, attributing to a married woman the same property rights as an unmarried one. Despite this improvement in legal status, however, moral barriers were still powerful.

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Like marriage, divorce also demonstrated women’s inferiority inside the couple. It was granted less easily to women than to men, and through it women could lose their right as mothers. First of all, if a woman lived an unhappy life and thus wanted to leave her husband, it was almost impossible to get a divorce. In the rare cases when it was granted to a woman, it needed a special kind of case study in the parliament. Actually, in the early 19th century women could not obtain divorce easily. While men were given the right to it on the grounds of their wives’ adultery, women, though they managed to prove their husband’s unfaith- fulness, could not obtain it. Then, in 1857, the Divorce Act was passed in the parliament and with it the Divorce Court was set up. Through the Act and the Court, women’s “legal” right to divorce became “more available” if they could bring some evidence of their husbands’ adultery and violence. It could be considered as a gradual improvement for as mentioned above women’s legal right was more clearly determined. However, the Act still showed the legally established inequality between women and men in that adultery was enough for a man and not for a woman to get divorce and the court still rarely accepted women’s requests, though supported by proofs. In addition to that if ever they succeeded, the children were under men’s possession, so it depended on the men’s will whether they would go under their mothers’ guardianship or under theirs. In the 19 th century, mothers were sometimes even barred from seeing their children. Furthermore there was nothing like separated fathers having to pay weekly or monthly allowances to mother and children. It was only in 1909 that a bill proposing that father and mother should be equally considered guardians of their children was introduced by Sir Horace Davy but still it did not succeed since it won only 19 votes in the House of Commons. On the whole then, the laws related to divorce perpetuated women’s lower status during the nineteenth century.

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1- 2 WOMEN’S LEGAL STATUS IN THE WORKING WORLD

Women’s productive life in the nineteenth century also showed their low status during the period : opportunities were restricted ; the working hours and the wages demonstrated the abuse to women. First of all, job opportunities proved to be very limited for women as compared with men’s. Actually, women, if they happened to carry out professional activities for whatever reason in spite of the moral barriers of the society which preferred them to stay home, had to be content with the jobs as nurses, schoolmistresses, governesses, or hairdressers, for those who were fortunate, and as domestic servants or factory workers for those who were poor. Secondly, though the State tried to adjust women’s working hours, namely for those who worked in factories, they still endured very long hour activities in many factories. Finally, women were not legally secured from the difference of wages between them and the working men. In fact, they were denied the same status as men, though they did exactly the same job, or a job similar in value. It was only in 1970 that the Equal Pay Act, amended in 1984, was introduced, entitling women to equal pay with men. These two acts were also reinforced by the setting-up of the Equal Opportunities Commission, the duties of which consisted in eliminating sex discrimination and inequality of opportunity between men and women. In short then, the absence of laws protecting women from sex discrimination in the working world, from an abusive amount of working hours, and from the unfair difference of wages between them and men reflected their inferior legal status.

1-3 WOMEN’S LEGAL STATUS WITH REGARD TO ELECTIONS

Mainstream ideologies about women’s place in the nineteenth century in Britain claimed that they should devote themselves to the sphere of home as wives and mothers and not interfere in the male sphere of business, wars and politics. These ideologies were emphasized by the denial of their access to voting in parliamentary elections. Women’s voting right became an issue in the late nineteenth and many attempts were carried out by

-4- some feminist groups and individuals to improve the situation. Actually, the movement brought about some changes since in 1869 women tax payers were granted the right to vote in municipal elections ; by 1870 they could vote and could be elected to school boards, and by1894 they could sit on parish and district councils. However, women did not get parliamentary suffrage ; their place remained limited in the local area.

As a conclusion, the legal status of women in nineteenth century Britain reflected a fate controlled by men. The laws relating to the marriage system, divorce, women’s working system and right to vote, and the absence of other laws emphasized women’s legal low status and thus perpetuated their gender roles in the society.

2 - PATTERNS OF WOMEN’S GENDER ROLES

2 -1 THE GENDER ROLES OFTHE MIDDLE AND UPPER-CLASS WOMEN

The Victorian era was characterized by the so-called “cult of domesticity” : it was considered that middle-class women’s “natural” goals consisted in marrying and in having children ; they were to supervise the housekeeping, and in no way they could undertake any professional activity outside their home (in offices or in factories for instance) ; they were also supposed to depend on their husbands’ income.

2-1-1) WIVES’ DUTIES

Marriage appeared like a real profession and was even considered as women’s duty.

Relating to this duty, as wives, women should submit themselves under their husbands’ decisions and should honour them. First of all, women had no other choice but obey their husbands who exercised such authority over their wives : the latter did not have the right to express opinions contradicting their companions’ own ; in all their actions, they were wary whether their attitudes would satisfy their husbands or irritate them. That was the convention,

-5- and such a convention could be reflected by the rigidity of the rituals related to marriage in those days. In fact, a ceremony at church was absolutely compulsory at that time. The aim was, as it is now, to show to God and to the witnesses (all the people attending ) that each party accepted to fulfil their duties – the wife’s consisted in submitting herself to her husband’s will. This was caused by the fact that religion was one of the main pillars of the Victorian society. Finally, women’s duties as wives also meant their honouring their husbands by showing to the others that they supported them, by standing by their side in public places, where they appeared as beautiful and fashionable ladies. In all then, a wife’s duties were completely twined with the husband’s will.

2-1-2) MOTHERS’ DUTIES

The other gender role expected from women was to have children and to take care of them. First of all, in getting pregnant, a woman honoured her husband first and then honoured herself by showing to the society that she had reached her goal, that she was a real woman.

Thus the family type of the period was a large family : having six or seven children made one proud of one’s achievement. Secondly, women had a very important responsibility in looking after their children’s needs and in controlling their movements. In fact, they could perform this role by themselves but usually they let the governesses and the servants do it and they just had to control. To be good mothers, women felt a duty to teach the morality that they had inherited from the society to their offsprings. According to the supposedly rationalist ideas of the time because women can bear babies, they must do it, this was their natural goal in life.

As a result, those who do not achieve it for one reason or another, whether physiological or personal preference, deserved pity or resentment from their relatives and neighbours.

On the whole then, a commonly shared opinion claimed that women had a double role, to take care of the husband and the children, a duty that no woman had the right to refuse.

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2-1-3) WOMEN AND THE WORKING WORLD

Generally, marriage put an end to women’s intellectual and professional life and made them depend completely on their husbands’ resources. Upper and middle–class women usually devoted themselves to their double role ; they desired neither more intellectual knowledge nor any external professional activity. Actually well-to-do women accepted their status because of two factors : the society itself and the standard of living. First of all, the moral trends and attitudes of the society (religion, the extended family, close-knit neighbourhood) enforced it. Then, the fact of being wealthy left them safe from possible daily life problems which would have made them question their status and would have pushed them to reject it by desiring to work. In fact, accepting this status, women wrote books to support it, trained their daughters to inherit the idea that intellectual occupation could not be anything but pure “self amusement”, which it was their duty to relinquish. Furthermore for the few women who wanted to exercise a professional career as they had the fortune to get a little further in their studies than their counterparts of the other classes, job opportunities were restricted – they could not work in government offices, or in the secretarial field ; even nursing was not organized until Florence Nightingale created the Nightingale School of

Nursing in 1860. In fact they were not supposed to get interested in science, industry or in politics. In addition to that, the few jobs opened to them were low paid ones : they could work, as mentioned in a former paragraph, as governesses, clothing traders, milliners, or hairdressers. Very few made their careers in literature and journalism in the late century.

As a conclusion, because of the moral trends based on gender expectations, upper and middle- class women withdrew themselves from the professional field and for those who still dared to work, not only were opportunities restricted but also they were paid miserable salaries and above all were scorned by the others as women who were neglecting their duties.

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2-1-4) WOMEN’S CHARITY WORK

The major pillars of Victorian respectability were the family and religion. Thus, as the religious belief put forward the idea that a good Christian should help the poor, charity was also considered as a virtue, both for men and women. Usually however, men supported charity work just by providing funds while women took deeper responsibility in controlling and even in organizing the whole activities themselves. Scientists and Thinkers have always tried to give a more scientific explanation, claiming that male activity relates to operation whereas female activity is more related to sensitiveness. This belief implies that women are more susceptible to the ideas, emotions or circumstances of others. They commonly shared the viewpoint that women’s emotion naturally bends towards adaptation and concern for the well-being of the others, and that this determines their decisions and attitudes. They also thought that this character can be more pronounced given the moral trends and culture of the society which women belong to. In fact it is this character itself that they call motherly instinct.

As a result then, motherly instinct does not just mean the need to have children and the skills of taking care of them, but rather the concern for the well-being of the neighbours, and this motherly instinct or nursing skill makes women more closely involved in charity work than men. Religion and moral impulses urged the upper and middle-class people to engage in charity work, but once more women were expected to be more involved in those activities than men and thus charity became women’s label.

As a conclusion, in nineteenth century Britain, women were expected to marry as early as possible and have children : these were considered their natural goals with the social concept of the period, women’s ability in child-bearing and nursing skill were women’s main gifts, that no woman could sacrifice.

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2 - 2 THE MULTIPLE ROLES OF THE WORKING-CLASS WOMEN

Also resulting from the socially expected gender roles, marriage and motherhood were the women’s goals in the working-class. Just like middle-class women, they were expected to devote themselves to their husbands and children. Nevertheless, they often undertook activities outside home, helping the husbands in earning money for the families’ survival.

2-2-1) WIVES’ ROLES

Working-class women felt it as a duty (and a necessity) to get married and to submit themselves to their husbands’ will once that first goal was achieved. Daughters, when still single, usually met men at work, formed a serious relationship with them and got married early. As marriage proved to be important not only as one’s achievement of the natural goal but also as a way to better one’s life, if the husbands earned enough money, they would cease working. In other case, they would keep on working while taking short breaks to give birth.

However in both circumstances, working-class women depended on their husbands because all they earned if they worked belonged to the latter. Apart from financial dependency on their husbands, working-class women, like the well-to-do women, were also expected to submit to their husbands’ will at home. Actually they had to insure the latter’s comfort by preparing their meals in as economical a manner as possible and by fulfilling the usual domestic obligations such as cleaning the house, washing, mending clothes, and cooking. However, as it turned out these women failed in fulfilling their roles as wives, first because they lacked knowledge (for example about how to spend money to the best advantage), considering their scant education. Then, though they had acquired some knowledge on the common duties of domestic life, they had no time to perform these properly because not only did they spend a great deal of their time at work but also when they got home they were tired, and above all they lacked means. As a result, these unsatisfactory conditions stirred men’s irritability and intemperance towards their wives. Added to drunkenness (which was a refuge from poverty

-9- and misery), this situation increased domestic violence – men battered their wives, or even forced their wives to have sexual intercourse with them. Furthermore, as the family and the neighbourhood were more censorious than protective, men’s violence towards their wives got worse. No particular organizations protecting battered wives existed yet in those days. As wives then, working-class women also came into the common “female devotion to the husband” which could end up in real self-effacement.

2-2-2) MOTHERS’ DUTIES

Just as for the middle and upper-class women, childbearing was one of the gender roles expected from working-class women, and taking care of and bringing up their children were among their domestic duties, though they met a lot of difficulties in fulfilling them.

Generally, the ideal notion of a large family still prevailed though with the spread of birth control campaigns after 1877, the rising cost of living and the decline of income rate late in the century the number of children was diminishing among working-class families.

Actually, working-class women generally had their first child before they were aged twenty and got pregnant even before marriage (some were deserted by their seducers that their children were born illegitimate). Sometimes, women took short breaks from their working activities during their pregnancy but most of the time they still worked during the period

(some could cope with it while others suffered from miscarriage).

After she had given birth to her baby, the working-class woman went back to work as soon as possible, leaving her baby to a member of the extended family, someone who was obliged to stay home for one reason or another (the grand-parents, an old aunt, …), or to a little girl or an aged woman who was hired for a very small amount. Previously wrapped in a blanket, the infant was left to the care of the individual who brought it to the mother at stated times for nourishment. If the baby needed it before time, the person would feed it with water.

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The mother was then absent from the child almost all day long and after the hard work of the day, when she got home, the first thing she undertook was nourishing her infant even before taking a little rest. In addition to that, because they lost a lot of energy in their activities, the condition of their organs from which the child was to derive its first food was far from satisfying. For all those facts, society had little consideration for these women because of their bad performance of their duties, first as wives, considering the cheerlessness, untidiness and the absence of comfort at home, and then as mothers (with the mothering conditions stated above). People considered that female workers were neglecting their homes and families.

Even the working-class men severely criticized their wives and some either became heavy drinkers to forget their burden or simply left their homes. Furthermore, not only were those working women blamed by the others for neglecting their families but also for neglecting themselves : “ the appropriate employments of a tidy housewife in brushing, washing or cleansing, seem vain and useless efforts, and she soon abandons them ”2. While trying to perform the domestic roles which were attributed to them, just as like to their counterparts of the upper classes, working-class women had to deal with many kinds of problems.

2-2-3) WORKING-CLASS WOMEN AS ECONOMIC AGENTS

Apart from their functions related to social reproduction, working-class women also practiced some productive activities and there again they faced troubles. There existed two categories of working women in this social class : first those, like unmarried girls, middle- aged spinsters, widows, deserted wives who had to cope alone and to earn their living by themselves ; then those who were married but who, considering their families’ unsatisfactory living conditions, felt it necessary to work. In both cases, the reason which impelled them to it was the will to survive. Actually, working-class girls, as mentioned in a former paragraph,

2 ROYSTON, Pike, The Human Documents of The Industrial Revolution in Britain , Britain, 1966, Allen and U. , p. 276

-11- had also dreamt of bettering their life through “a good marriage” but the dream seldom came true. In fact, as Thinkers used to saying that individual behaviours come out of the combination of enforced rules and values in the society and individual creativity (or disposition to do or not to do something), and as their living conditions forced them to struggle for survival, the individual creativity of these women got much more influential than their socially inculcated morality that they decided to work.

• WOMEN FACING HARD WORKING CONDITIONS Barred from all well-paid jobs, either because they lacked knowledge or because these works were closed to them, working-class women were assigned only ill-paid and low-status works.

Actually, domestic service remained their major occupation apart from the jobs in factories ; they could not work as governesses like the educated women of the middles classes, for instance. Concerning the industrial field, most women enrolled as unskilled workers in coal mining and winding, in iron factories, in cotton spinning and weaving in galleries, in silk mills, and even in hardware, steam engine and railway equipment. In addition to the domestic and the factory work however, some of those industrious women remained agricultural labourers. Not only were these kinds of work ill-paid, but also the working conditions were wretched.

First of all, working-class women were paid far less than men for the same job. Secondly, the places where they worked were unsanitary. They suffered from very high temperatures’ considering the narrowness of the place compared to the large number of workers in it, and the lack of air. Such places were also wet and dirty. Furthermore, although the old techniques were amalgamated with the new ones and the new modes of organization in the 19 th century, difficulty still arose in handling the machines : the workers usually strained their back with their labour and often fell victims of accidents like hand laceration. Thirdly, the amount of hours they spent at work in such conditions completely differed from today’s normal

-12- working-hours. In fact, the government of the period had already tried to limit the working- hours of children and women from 1830’s. By the 1870’s, working-hours varied from fifty hours to sixty hours in a few favoured trades and some other factories (In general, the workers there managed to secure this lowered amount of hours despite the pressure from the managers who lost part of their profit). By the 1880’s the eight-hour-a day was becoming a goal for the trade-union and some trades succeeded in it. However, the total breakthrough was not brought in until after 1908. This implies that though a little improvement took place compared to the early days, many factories still kept their workers working more than eight hours a day . In those irregular places, the common hours of work were from 8 am. till 11 p.m. Apart from that, if any particular order was to be executed, they went on later than 11, often till 2 or 3 in the morning. On summer days, it was also common to start earlier, around 5 in the morning. Furthermore, breakfast, dinner and supper were eaten as quickly as possible

(around 20 minutes) at about 08.30, 01.30, and 09.00 or 10.00. No fixed time was allowed for tea, it was taken far more quickly than the other meals. Of course they brought these meals with them from home or had them sent up to them. Actually women were preferred in those places because they were paid less than men for the same jobs, were thought to be submissive and to get easily used to the routine job. Moreover, it was better to use them rather than machines since the finished products could not be profitable enough to use the new technology. As a result of such conditions these women suffered a lot physically. Their health “ was evidently assuming a tendency to consumption ”3 they suffered from different diseases, pains and physical deformities – miscarriage were frequent and very dangerous.

Furthermore, still caused by constant tiredness and insufficient sleep, they always felt so drowsy while working, that accidents often happened. In all then, in performing jobs outside home, especially in factories, working-class women were subjected to many kinds of evil.

3 The Human Documents of the Industrial Revolution in Britain op. cit. p 275

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• PROMISCUITY IN FACTORIES Sex consisted as well of one of the ill sides of the lifestyle of the working people at the factories. Their life there reflected a lasciviousness bordering upon animal passion. Actually, the heated atmosphere stimulated sexual impulse and the fact of being very close to one another worsened the situation. Women, either suffered from sexual intercourse or enjoyed it.

Though no particular survey on the number of women and girls victims of sexual harassment and rape was carried out, many bore up under it, not daring to reveal the secret either to their mates or to their family. On the other hand however, there were those who “ from their constant association with men, and from the nature of their work ”4…presented “ a picture of rude jovial independence of life, and recklessness of all refinements and delicacies of sex “5 ; they simply enjoyed it and practised it on their own consent. In fact, premature sexual activity was frequent because of the conditions above and because of the absence of moral discipline.

Of course, babies could come out of these two situations and be left without legitimate fathers.

• PROSTITUTION Prostitution was also practised by the working-class women who were not satisfied with their meagre savings.

Actually, the welfare system which could not insure individuals’ safety, men’s ownership of all the wealth, and women’s impossibility to work for several reasons led some women to that solution. Other women (daughters who did not receive money from their parents, old widows, spinsters, women who received very meagre wages…) of course accepted help from charitable groups of ladies or other people who gathered large sums for them so that they did not have to sell themselves. However, prostitution remained rife in Victorian Britain.

4 The Human Documents of the Industrial Revolution in Britain op cit p. 275 5 Ibid p.275

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Related to the idea introduced in a former paragraph that women who worked or who appeared to have “unfeminine” thinkings and behaviours met with resentment among the society, working-class women were harshly criticized. Actually, people never questioned on

“the uncivilized circumstances by which they have become so unlike the rest of their country women ”6 (why did they work ; why did their husbands, children, house itself seem neglected ; why did they appear untidy themselves,…).

The reason why they worked was not of much interest to the upper-classes – they all knew it was poverty, but did not want to go any deeper into the discussion. In fact, what was severely scorned in them was their so- called neglect of their families, of their housekeeping duties and their own physical appearance and manners because they worked.

Here is an example of the tyrannical judgements made by the society : “they are very immoral, the girls are worse than the men in point of morals, and use far more indecent language. It unbecomes them in every way. There is not one in ten of them that know how to cut a shirt out or make one, and they learn neither to knit or sew ”7.

Despite their everyday burden then (men’s consequent irritability and intemperance because of the unfulfilment of the domestic duties, poverty and its consequences, children and their conducts,…) working-class women were still badly viewed by the people of the upper-classes

; what was seen was just the surely non-perfect surface, not the root of “the evil”.

3 - GIRLS’ EDUCATION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

3 -1 EDUCATION OF POOR GIRLS

Poor girls, compared to their middle and upper-class counterparts, received an education which aimed more at preparing them to face their hard life. Hence their education provided only elementary knowledge like reading and writing (with results even less successful than

6 The Human Documents of the Industrial Revolution in Britain op cit p.275 7 Ibid p. 275

-15- expected), religious virtue (especially related to women’s virtue - obedience towards men) so as to save their souls, and basic skills like knitting, sewing that they would need for their early future working life. Actually, these girls (with their brothers of course) did not have the chance to acquire any education at home like the children of the other classes, and their schooling was superficial.

In fact, they often went to charity institutions, supported by wealthy philanthropic donors.

First of all, poor children were sent to the few district schools, where the teachers lacked even the basic reading and writing skills, built under the Poor Law Amendment Act (1834).

Secondly, some could go into Ragged Schools, established after the passing of the Foster

Education Act of 1870, where they received care and training in religion and of course elementary domestic knowledge, as “ the opinion was fairly general that girls and young women of all but the highest social standing, or great wealth, ought to receive instruction of a distinctly useful domestic kind ”8. It is good to know that in the same year of 1870, the

Elementary School Act obliged children up to age 12 to attend school to acquire rudiments in languages, music, dancing, biology…. However the enforcement was loose and the poor children were little affected by it. Apart from these very restricted opportunities, when they could not frequent these places, poor girls, still with their brothers (In fact, most of these children began to work at 5), helped their parents by working with them in their activities or by working at different factories ; some also spent afternoons at places where they practiced needlework for which they were poorly paid. In that case, the only education that they received was the Sunday school instruction based mainly on religious morality. Working- class girls’ upbringing differed then from the accomplishment-centred education offered to future ladies. Even the moral values did not develop as expected by the society since the parents themselves were debauched.

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3-2 EDUCATION OF MIDDLE AND UPPER-CLASS GIRLS

During the late nineteenth century, the education of middle and upper-class girls focused on their accomplishments as respectable ladies. Schools offered superficial instruction – even the teachers were not skilled enough, whereas parents still remained unwilling to enlarge their daughters’ intellectual field..

3-2-1) GIRLS’ SCHOOLING

Mr Fearon, a commissioner of the Tauton Commission declared : “ Women’s education, where it existed, tended to be superficial and dreary. Classics and Mathematics were generally excluded, …., the standard of teaching was not high”9.

Actually, upper-class girls were to acquire only accomplishments for the purpose of ornament and to occupy time rather than to get real intellectual knowledge. This generally resulted from the traditionally received idea that women were dependent upon men and thus their genius was mere trifle. First of all, at an early age, girls of the upper classes were taught at home by a governess who was chosen by the parents for her own education and manners. Among her tasks, she set up her syllabus herself, and the difference between girls and boys could be seen in it already because though the same governess taught both daughters and sons together, she gave rudiments of languages, history, music, dancing, singing, elements of natural sciences, in all then ornamental knowledge to girls, while adding more scientific subject matters like elements of arithmetic for boys. Girls’ instruction was already based on the aim of making them future ladies. Secondly, when they got a bit older, around nine or ten, girls were sent to

Day schools or boarding schools where the aim of instruction was still to endow them with accomplishments. In fact the small Day schools gave more knowledge on domestic life : on needling, knitting, or on arranging the household and on the basis of the reading and writing

9 WOODWARD, Llewellyn, The Age of Reform (1815-1870), Oxford, 1962, Oxford University Press. p. 496

-17- skills, geography, arithmetic, English grammar, the history of England, drawing and music playing (especially the piano).

“Time table of a Day School in 1885” 10

Morning

9.00 – 9.10 : Assembly and prayers 9.10 - 9.40 : Scripture reading or recitation 9.40 – 9.45 : Register (Roll call) 9.45 – 10.45 : Writing and dictation 10.45-11.00 : Recreation 11.00-11.45 : Arithmetic 11.45-12.00 : Dismissal

Afternoon 1.30 – 1.45 : Assembly and registration 1.45 - 2.00 : Repetition 2.0 – 2.30 : Geography 2.30 - 3.00 : Object lesson 3.00 - 3.15 : Recreation 3.15 -3.45 : Composition 3.45- 4.00 : Home lessons, prayers and dismissal

Actually girls could not go to public schools, instead of Days Schools, to learn Latin and

Greek grammar and other more scientific subjects ; these were reserved to their brothers.

Apart from the Day schools, when possible, girls could study at the boarding schools which were very expensive and more fashionable. The subject matters were almost similar, but in addition, girls received more knowledge on foreign languages, English literature, the

Scriptures and practiced a bit of sports. From this stage on then, girls and boys frequented two different types of institutions, having two different goals in education. However, in some few

10 http : // Victorian % 20 britain. html, The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes Volume XIV – The Victorian Age – Part Two, Paragraph 6. Education of girls

-18-

schools, children of both sexes were educated together but still, the difference in goals could be observed since girls’ textbooks for reading for instance dealt with tidiness, good manners, and charity whereas those for the boys were focused on the value of learning, charity, industriousness, honesty, courage, and thrift, and the defects of envy, alcoholism, and insolence. Right after the Day schools or the boarding schools where the training lasted for four years, girls were supposed to have finished their studies and the next real goal was to get married. Only very few of them took up professional careers, which were also restricted and paid less than men’s jobs, and even fewer went further in their studies. The education of girls aimed then at their accomplishment and that though some people realized that this goal could not be the basis of girls’ education by the late 1860’s. In 1869 for instance, the Tauton

Commission passed the Endowed School Act, aiming at reorganizing the system, including the extension of girls’ education (very few colleges opened their doors to girls over the age of

12. There, they could choose lectures on modern languages, mechanics, geography, geology,

English grammar, English literature, Latin, botany, chemistry, philosophy to become governesses or teachers, or even writers afterwards) but the traditional concept remained the most powerful of all, and girls’ education could still be considered as restricted in the late nineteenth century. As a conclusion, given their schooling system and its concept, girls and women became just ornamental within their families and the whole society. In 1850, Maria

G. Grey and Emily Shirreff wrote Thoughts on Self-culture Addressed to women through which they denounced that girls’ training made them useless ; “ distrusting their own conclusions and shrinking from responsibility, till they sink into mere puppets, useless to themselves and to the others ”11 .

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3-2-2) MIDDLE AND UPPER-CLASS WOMEN’S FASHION AND LEISURES

To study the education of middle and upper class girls, their fashion and leisure should be taken into account as well, in that they reflected the moral trends inculcated to them in those days.

• MIDDLE AND UPPER – CLASS WOMEN’S FASHION By inference of all the ideas introduced by the previous paragraphs, gender roles resulted from socially proscribed and prescribed behaviours that take the form of rules or values. Thus it can be concluded that the common rules of clothing, though not directly set up as written laws, showed the roles attributed to women, roles which generally focused on discretion, on submission to one’s husband. The aim was to cover the body to an as acceptable extent as possible. Actually, Ladies’ clothing was characterized by tightly laced corsets combined with multiple layers of skirts dragging on the ground, veils and gloves, not forgetting the hat whenever one went out. Then, bathing-dresses had high necks and long sleeves and just after bathing, one either wore a wrap or got dressed rapidly. Stockings were also compulsory when playing tennis .

These were the usual outfits of those women, though they presented some undesirable inconveniences, especially the corsets and the multiple layers of skirts. In fact, the toilette impeded the wearer’s movement and was so complicated that removing it required the help of someone else. In addition to that it sometimes caused accidents like catching fire from a candle that the person wearing it would be burnt to death. Despite these negative points however, these were the rules for beautiful Ladies and those who did not follow them, by putting on short skirts for example received scornful judgement from their own relatives and neighbours. Furthermore, boyish looks and attitudes shocked the parents, entailed horror and disdain among the public since they meant rebellion, in that they sounded like asking for

-20-

quality between girls and boys, women and men. Thus smoking, drinking alcoholic beverage, wearing trousers, cutting the hair short could never be tolerated.

Finally, still related to the ideal of discreet girls and women, flashy colours and ornaments were to be avoided since they brought about a kind of provocative sensuality in them.

Consequently, no make-up was used, and very attractive jewels like bracelets, necklaces, and earrings were considered as extravagant.

Nonetheless, considering that one of their ultimate goals was to conquer a suitor, attractiveness remained very important, and so it was forbidden to neglect one’s appearance by wearing dirty and torn skirts, or by having messy hair.

• MIDDLE AND UPPER-CLASS WOMEN’S LEISURES The acceptable and valuable leisures attributed to young girls and women reflected also the limited circle of life imposed by the society to them. Of course they were directly linked with the feminine “ accomplishment ”. In fact, their leisures consisted in shopping, spending time in playing music, attending tennis parties, tea parties, balls, or any other celebrating party, participating in some philanthropic undertaking, among others. Carrying out other kinds of activities aiming at widening one’s intellectual or political horizon was perceived as a sign of immorality.

On the whole then, apart from their ways of clothing, middle and upper-class women’s leisures really showed their confined life.

4 - FEMINISM OF THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN BRITAIN

4-1 DEFINITION OF FEMINISM

Feminism consists of a belief in the advancement of women’s social, economic and political rights and liberties, and equality with men, a concern for their problems like domestic

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violence, sexual harassment, reproductive diseases, difference in wages, inaccessible voting right, among others. Generally, there exist several types of feminists holding different ideas :

° conservative feminists : criticizing equality of genders as the cause of the deterioration of the family life. ° cultural feminists : viewing women and men’s differences as something worth celebrating. ° Ecofeminists : introducing the idea that the oppression on animals and the environment is similar to that put on women. ° individualist feminists : advocating equal treatment for the genders, and also believing that women have freedom of choice concerning their body and sexual matters. ° radical feminists : believing that women’s oppressed life must be the most terrible of all ° separatist feminists : praising women and men’s separation ° social feminists : concluding that women’s oppression results from class structure

N.B : combinations of those concepts above may exist as well In addition to the possible simple belief and the concern “ feminism ” also refers to either a social movement or a political one which aims at reaching the goal in that women have the right to speak and to act as they want without fear of persecution or disdain. Such movement like the one which occurred in Britain in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries requiring women’s voting right, is often called “ women’s liberation movement ” or “ women’s rights movement ”.

Feminist beliefs have always existed, before the century but they became more important in the U.S.A. and Europe only in the mid-1800’s. As far as Britain is concerned about feminist beliefs, among the first feminist books was Mary Wollstonecraft’s A

Vindication of the rights of woman (1792), in which the writer described “ the state of ignorance in which society kept women ”12 . Many decades later, the New women ideals also

12 The world Book Encyclopaedia

-22- arose. On the other side, the real feminist movement first took place in 1867 and concentrated on gaining legal equality especially the right to vote or “ suffrage ”. When they reached this goal in the early 1900’s, the feminist movement declined. However, another economic and social concern, the closure of many high-paying jobs to women, revived the movement in the 1960’s.

4-2 FEMINIST MOVEMENTS OF THE PERIOD

From the mid-nineteenth century, the issue on women’s right advancement raged on in various forms. Apart from the social or domestic women’s movement dealing with religious and charitable activities, two major types of women’s movement took place : the women suffrage movement fighting for women’s right to vote and the New Woman movement fighting for the total abolition of the double standard morality and all kinds of oppression related to it.

4-2-1) WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE MOVEMENT

In 1851, Harriet Taylor wrote a text on women’s right to vote. Inspired by his wife’s text, John Stuart Mill, when campaigning for his election for being a Member of the

Parliament in 1865, put forward his vision of women’s voting. After his election, in 1866 a feminist called Barbara Bodichon asked him to present a petition in favour of women’s suffrage. He accepted and so the Women’s Suffrage Committee (WSC) was set up in order to collect the signatures. Actually, with the petition presenting more than a thousand signatures,

John Stuart Mill proposed a Reform Bill in 1867 for women’s right to vote, so the word

“male ” was to be replaced by “ person ” in suffrage legislation. The reform failed to reach its ultimate goal but many women suffrage committees were founded by some of the activists of the WSC in most of the major cities in Britain. In fact, they kept on submitting petitions of the

-23- same kind to the parliament but these were not really successful either, despite the support from the MPs since neither Benjamin Disraeli nor William Gladstone could convince the

Queen. The suffragists did not lose courage, however, and eventually a little improvement could be perceived : the right to vote in municipal elections was granted to women taxpayers

(householders : wealthy spinsters or widows) under the Reform Act of 1869. To that was gradually added the right to be elected to school boards in 1870, the right to vote for county councils in 1888, and the right to sit on parish and district councils in 1894. Of course, these brought about changes in women’s statuses in law, in education and in employment. On the other hand however, this improvement did not satisfy entirely the suffragists who still claimed for women’s suffrage in parliament. Thus, in 1897, the National Union of Women’s Suffrage

Society (NUWSS) was established. Led by the prominent figure of Millicent Garrett Fawcett, it unified the various suffragist groups to give more organization for the common goal.

If the suffragists met so much difficulty, it was because the conservatives equally made efforts on their side to boycott their movement. Men and also women signed anti-suffrage petitions to keep women out of the public sphere. In fact, those people maintained the traditional concept that women were not fit for administration and legislation affairs and that above all women should remain under complete control of their husbands in their property and movements in that in terms of suffrage, only men needed to express their opinion.

Women like Mrs Humphrey Ward, Lady Randolph Churchill, Beatrice Potters and many others were especially among those anti-suffrage women who signed a petition in 1889.

4-2-2) THE NEW WOMAN MOVEMENT

The New Woman movement was a feminist movement which arose among the writers of the last two decades of the nineteenth century in Britain. They also fought against educational and political barriers to women and for changes in their roles, by presenting a new image of woman in their literary works.

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Actually, the idea of a new status of women, changes in etiquette (namely an end to chaperones, long hair, long skirts for instance), of extended professional and educational opportunities, and of absolute honesty in sexual matters (information about venereal diseases) have existed before but it got more vivid in the late Victorian era because of demographic pressure. As a matter of fact, a census made people aware that women outnumbered men in

Great Britain, hence the issue of giving women equal opportunities with men in education and employment, in that they could support themselves though living alone.

Related to all these, New Women writers were then also virulent in engaging their arguments in fictional and non-fictional works (novels, plays, newspapers, pamphlets). In fact, in all these literary works, they “ encourage women to liberate themselves from male domination, manage their own lives, and leave behind anything that might restrict their pursuit of happiness and self-realization ”13 . Among these works, novels best reflected the movement.

They focused on an independent female character, seeking for a career outside marriage, arguing for literary or artistic goals and female friendship. Generally, they usually wanted women to be empowered with knowledge and to see the goal of marriage in a different way.

The heroines often defied the oppressive laws and trends in order to reach their ambition of independence. Thus, in those novels women taking advantage from the new arrangements of the period (riding omnibuses and bicycles, renting a flat alone, eating in alcoholic cafeterias,…) were habitual characters. Some significant New Women novels of the period include Sarah Grand’s The Heavenly Twins (1893), Mary Cholmondeley’s Red Pottage

(1899.), Olive Shreiner’s Story of an African Farm (1883), Mary Ward’s Marcella (1894),

Lucas Malet’s The Wages of Sin (1890), Iota’s The Yellow Aster (1894) and Gwen Waring ,

George Meredith’s Diana of the Crossways (188.), George Gissing’s The Odd Women and

Mona Caird’s The Daughters of Danaus (1894).

13 http : // en wikipedia. org/wiki/National_Liberal_Club

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Conservatives were disdainful towards the idea, and the more the readers took interest in it, the more they got alarmed. Thus they reacted similarly in the press against those they considered as ridiculous spinsters, jealous of lovely fashionable ladies. They added that these

New Women writers were unsexing themselves by refusing to fulfil their divinely ordained tasks.

Women’s position in Britain during the late nineteenth century was made lower than men’s. Such a phenomenon could be explained first of all by the laws linked with marriage and divorce, with women’s working world and with their access to the right to vote. Actually, these laws legally established a difference between men and women, a sexual discrimination in which women were less favoured. Then, their low status was also defined by their home - limited roles and finally by their education which generally aimed, accordingly, at moulding them, at preparing them to accept first their position and then to carry out their roles.

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PART - II

MONA CAIRD’S THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS (1894), AS A REFLECTION OF THE NEW WOMEN MOVEMENT IN BRITAIN

Mona Caird was a feminist writer known for her unconventional ideas of marriage and motherhood. She wrote a few New Women novels, one of which was The Daughters of Danaus , denouncing the evil in women’s life, attacking the kind of education offered to girls, bringing to the fore women’s capacity outside domesticity and sharing a vision of a changed world for women.

1 - MONA CAIRD AS A NEW WOMAN WRITER

1-1 MONA CAIRD - HER LIFE AND WORKS

Born in a Scottish family, Mona Alison Caird (1854-1931) was ” a British novelist and

essayist who achieved notoriety in the 1880s and 1890s through her anti-marriage

polemics “14 . She married James Caird, a Scottish landowner in 1877 and had one son with

him. She lived in Britain (London and Scotland) and “ was part of the progressive literary

milieu of the 1890s ”15 . She wrote her early novels under the pseudonym “ G. Noel Hatton ”16 ,

but these remained unsuccessful. It was only in 1888 that she became known with her article

entitled « Marriage » published in the Westminster Review. With this article, Caird shook the

conventional spirits by arguing that “ marriage was a failure ”17 . Under her own name she

published The Wings of Azrael in 1889, and A Romance of the Moors in 1897. In 1894, she

published The Daughters of Danaus “her best-known ”18 in which she narrated the story of a

14 SAGE, Lorna, The Cambridge guide to Women’s writing in English , Cambridge, 1999, Cambridge University Press p. 107 15 Ibid p. 107 16 Ibid p. 107 17 Ibid p. 107 18 Ibid p. 107

-27- talented woman oppressed by her marriage and her family, by the whole society to which she belonged. She once again criticized the marriage system in 1915 through The Stones of

Sacrifice but she also wrote other literary works like anti-vivisection books, a fantasy, a travel book, and a science fiction story entitled The Great Wave (1931), her last novel.

1-2 THE WRITER’S UNORTHODOX IDEAS OF MARRIAGE AND MATERNITY

Mona Caird was among the British generation of writers of the late nineteenth century, praising the image of the New Woman, fighting for a change of the women’s roles which during the period were still limited to the gender expected ones. Caird herself contributed to the movement by introducing in some of her novels arguments which refuted the established opinion about the marriage system and the holy role of motherhood.

1-2-1) MARRIAGE AS A DIRECT LEGAL MEANS OF OPPRESSION OF WOMEN

Mona Caird was well remembered for her unconventional ideas of the marriage system :

She simply amazed people when arguing in 1888 that for women “marriage was a failure ”19 .

Actually in the novels in which she criticized this old system, she denounced that it just consisted of hypocrisy between the two sexes, of women’s humiliation and of destruction of love.

First of all, through her novels, Mona Caird tried to explain that marriage was hypocritical, that it was not the result of real love between the two partners. It consisted of a mere obedience to social conventions, with the feeling of “ owing to social arrangements, and also owing to the training, which made men and women always pose so ridiculously towards one another, pretending to be something that they were not ”20 or just a need of bettering one’s

19 The Cambridge guide to Women’s writing in English Ibid p. 107 20 CAIRD, Mona, The Daughters of Danaus , Britain, 1989, The Feminist Press p. 126

-28- life, both for men (as they need women to take care of their selves, their children and their home) and women (as they need to escape from unsatisfying conditions in life). Hadria

(the protagonist of the novel) got married for

“she was sick of being the family consolation ”21

Moreover, she added that people could never be sure of their feeling for the rest of their life and it would be silly to think

“just as if any two people, when they are beginning to form their characters, could

possibly be sure of their sentiments for the rest of their days ”22 .

Secondly, she put forward the idea that marriage lay at the bottom of women’s humiliation and indignity since it completely hampered their freedom, and yet for Caird love did not mean enslaving or enchaining the other. She told through Hadria :

“Have they ( women) no sense of dignity…if I married, why my very thoughts would

become the property of another. Thought, emotion, love itself must pass under the

yoke… ” 23 .

According to this concept, she thought the words “ duty” and “ obligation” should never be included in marriage either for men or for women. Theobalt, one of her male characters declared :

“The mere fact that it was my duty to adore her (his future wife), would be drilling. And

when added to that, I knew that she had placed it among the list of her obligations to

adore me would be the climax of disenchantment ” 24 .

She even went further in her provocation by ridiculing the religious ceremony, calling it a “ savage rite of sacrifice ”25 , an “ extraordinary mixture of the noble and the brutal ”26 .

21 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 165 22 Ibid p. 125 23 Ibid p. 130 24 Ibid p. 286 25 Ibid p. 249 26 Ibid p. 249

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Apart from hypocrisy and humiliation, Caird also made people understand that even though love really existed between the two persons, marriage should not be carried out since it would destroy the romance. She made Algitha argue:

“love would be ruined and desecrated. I understand by it a sympathy so perfect, and a

reverence so complete, that the conditions of ordinary domestic existence would be

impossible, unthinkable, in connection with it ” 27 .

As a conclusion, for Mona Caird, marriage was inconceivable since it just involved hypocrisy, women’s humiliation and a destruction of love. She even appealed on women who could not get themselves satisfied with their marital life not to hesitate or to fear to leave their husbands for

“Husband and wife have no business, to go on keeping up a bond that has become false

and irksome ”28 .

Algitha declared :

“If I decided, after mature consideration and self-testing, that I ought to leave my

husband, I should leave him, as I should hope he would leave me, in similar

circumstances. That is my idea of right ”29 .

In addition to that, she encourages women to go out with someone else if there is no hope of love anymore between them and their husbands, making it clear that it was unfaithfulness but

“a mere honesty ”30 . Meanwhile, for those who were not yet married, she suggested they should not be afraid of remaining single, even for the rest of their life. She wrote :

“Never marry anyone who could exact the usual submissions and renunciations, or even

desire them ”31 .

27 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 72 28 Ibid p. 126 29 Ibid p. 127 30 Ibid p. 126 31 Ibid p. 130

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1-2-2) MATERNITY AS A SUBTLE MEANS OF OPPRESSION

“Mona Caird was vehement in her opposition to the binding ties of maternity ”32 .

Supposing the social concept of motherhood as a insult to women in her time, the writer denied the existence of such a natural feeling as a motherly instinct and shook the conservatives by defining maternity as a “means, from time immemorial, of enslaving women ” 33 .

Actually, she thought maternity had no link with a real personal desire to have children.

Hadria said :

“I don’t deny the potency of the instinct, … but I do say that it is shamefully presumed

upon “34 .

Rather, it consisted of a tradition established by the society :

“Strong it obviously must be, if industrious cultivation and encouragements and threats

and exhortations can make it so ! All the past as well as all the weight of opinion and

training in the present has been at work on it ”35 .

Moreover, this tradition aimed at making women accept their “ low status” :

“All the past as well as all the weight of opinion and training in the present has been at

work on it, thrusting and alluring and coercing the woman to her man – allotted fate ” 36 .

It moulded them to get ready to sacrifice their own need for more liberty for the so-called sake of their children. Actually, she declared that

“Children had been the unfailing means of bringing women into line with tradition.

They had been able to force the most rebellious to their knees. Their helplessness was

more powerful to suppress revolt than regiments of armed soldiers ” 37 .

32 The Cambridge guide to Women’s writing in English op cit p. 465 33 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 188 34 Ibid p. 342 35 Ibid p. 342 36 Ibid p. 342 37 Ibid p. 187

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On the whole then, Mona Caird did not accept the so - called duties of motherhood for behind these laid a kind of oppression, obligation and above all she considered motherhood as a real symbol of insult, reflecting women’s legal low-status. She claimed through Hadria :

“Motherhood, in our present social state, is the sign and seal as well as the means and

the method of a woman’s bondage. It forges chains of her own flesh and blood ; it

weaves cords of her own love and instinct. She agonizes, and the fruit of her agony is

not even legally hers. A woman with a child in her arms is, to me, the symbol of an

abasement, an indignity, more complete, more disfiguring and terrible, than any form of

humiliation that the world has ever seen “38 .

As a conclusion, Mona Caird, a New Woman writer in nineteenth century Britain, attacked the old conventions and introduced in her novels the idea of women’s freedom of choice in marriage and free maternity. Thus she brought an insight of a new image of women, freer, for the future.

2 - THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS , A NEW WOMAN NOVEL, REFLECTING THE NEW WOMAN MOVEMENT OF THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN BRITAIN

The Daughters of Danaus relates the story of Hadria Fullerton, a woman who suffered from the social morality and attitudes towards women. Particularly talented in music, she had two dreams twined together : to become a professional pianist and to leave her village for a place where women would be granted a better position. Every time she attempted to fulfil her dreams it always turned to be a vain effort because of her family, namely her mother and her husband. When under an impulse Hadria went to Paris to follow musical training, grief drove her mother very ill, that her daring attempt to taste the joy of life ended with a return to home, to the dullness of domestic tasks and a long strain of nursing.

38 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 341

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This novel by Mona Caird’s is a New Woman novel which reflected aspects of feminism among the New Women writers in late nineteenth century Britain. Actually, it denounced the evil of the women’s status, attacked girls’ education, extolled women’s capacity outside the home circle, and imparted the dream of a New World.

2 - 1 DENOUNCING THE EVIL OF THE STATUS ATTRIBUTED TO WOMEN

By writing the Daughters of Danaus , Mona Caird denounced the evil of the conventional status to which women were submitted. Through her female characters’ experiences, she showed to what extent these conventions destroyed women’s lives. First of all, through Mrs Fullerton, Hadria’s mother, she revealed how the conventions conditioning women’s roles victimized them into overdevotion to their families. In her youth, Mrs

Fullerton had resembled her daughter Hadria. However, instead of music she had a great passion for poetry and other imaginative works which filled her mind with dreams and thus made her as ambitious as her daughter was. However, she suffered a lot from this situation since the society was as harsh as ever. As a result, she changed her nature little by little when she married and always put aside her own ideas and followed her husband’s decisions every time :

“This Lady had unbounded belief in her husband’s wisdom ”39 .

Just for instance, when he told her that imagination was all nonsense, she did not contradict him and decided to bury her love for poetry. With her passion quite abandoned she neglected herself and focused all her attention and energy on her family, particularly on her children.

Algitha said :

“…s he watched over us incessantly when we were little children, denying herself,

39 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 33

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spending her youth in devotion to us, when she might have gone into the world, and had

some brightness and pleasure… ”40 .

She got ambitions for her children ; for the girls particularly, she wished accomplishment and a good marriage. As a result of her devotion, she tended to want to keep her children for herself, by wanting them to do exactly what she wanted them do. This eagerness to own her children’s life was reflected in her reaction when Algitha revealed her decision to leave

Dunaghee and to work in London. She lamented that her children :

“her children gave no consideration to her, they were ready to scatter themselves hither

and thither without a thought of her , or her wishes ”41 . – They were ungrateful to her

When Hadria also decided to go to Paris to follow her musical training, Mrs Fullerton fell very ill as part of her plans for her daughters consisted in preserving them from scandal. In fact, Hadria’s deed was such a liable cause of gossip among the neighbours that she got anxious and terribly ill. Then, she ordered Hadria to come back home and indirectly forced her to stay. She said to Algitha :

“Tell Hadria to come home if she does not want to kill me. Tell her to come home ; it’s

her duty, I want her ”42 .

Mrs Fullerton thought that because she has sacrificed her life to her daughters, they had to sacrifice their owns for her sake in return. During the period of her sickness the Doctor recommended that :

“Every wish of the invalid must be respected, just or unjust ”43 .

Through Mrs Fullerton ‘s nature and life then, the writer made the readers realize that the conventions caused women’s self-effacement and neglect, women’s obsession towards their children, a state of mind which might lead to their own breakdown.

40 The Daughters Of Danaus op cit p. 40 41 Ibid p. 40 42 Ibid p. 364 43 Ibid p. 366

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Apart from physical illness, the fixation upon others might end in a worse effect and Mona

Caird showed it through Mrs Fortescue’s life and suicide.

Mrs Fortescue, another major character in The Daughters of Danaus , was born into a conservative family, believing in the unobjectionable values of the old conventions. Actually, she was brought up in a family in which men held the entire power whereas women submit themselves to men’s will :

“Her father and grand-father had both been men of violent and tyrannical temper…

Eleanor’s mother was one of the meek and saintly women who almost invariably fall to

the lot of overbearing men. She had made a virtue of submitting to tyranny, and even to

downright cruelty… ”44

This image of men’s domination and women’s subservience was inlaid into Mrs Fortescue’s mind and heart : the desire to sacrify her life became as natural as the need of independence could be for modern women. As a matter-of-fact however, in her conjugal life, her husband,

Professor Fortescue, a man who rejected any form of domination and sacrifice, wanted her to taste freedom by sparing her all forms of invasion of herself :

“… He would not treat her as his legal property, or rule her through the claims and

opportunities that popular sentiment assigned to him ”45 .

He let her free to take decisions by her own in doing things and she did not grasp this kind of attitude. She took right away this unwillingness to master her as a lack of affection from him :

“She was piqued at his lack of jealousy , and doubted or pretended to doubt his love for

her ”46 .

44 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 203 45 Ibid p. 202 46 Ibid p. 196

-35-

As a result, she committed the regretful deed of going out with another man in order to

see how deep was his love for her :

“In order to put him to the test , she determined to rouse his jealousy by violent and

systematic flirtation ”47 .

The situation worsened because she left with the man. Not only was the couple’s union annihilated but also her life came to its end as

“Seized with remorse , she had returned home to kill herself ”48 .

Apart from illness then the obsession upon the other, caused by the nature of being over- devoted, might entail the destruction of a fair union and might bring the woman to suicide. If only she had known how to appreciate the freedom her husband offered her, she would not have deceived him and herself by going out with that man ; remorse would not have come over her and they would have lived happily.

Secondly, through the fate of Ellen Jervis, another female character in The Daughters of

Danaus , Mona Caird highlighted the injustice of the society towards its members. Actually, the Society’s judgement, the interest it paid to each individual’s life might affect women to death. Ellen Jervis, little Martha’s mother, in her youth was a lovely and respectable young woman, a real model in her village : she was

“… a sample to the other young women… ”49 .

She never brought trouble to herself and never got involved in scandalous affairs till then.

One day however, this ordinary peace was disrupted and she became the centre of attention to the whole Craddock Dene. In fact, she got pregnant and the father of the baby remained unknown to all. As this situation was unacceptable to a conservative Society which kept the convention that women could not get pregnant without being married, it was more than a shame for her ; it was downright sinful :

47 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p.p. 196-197 48 Ibid p. 197 49 Ibid p. 151

-36-

“She was a sinner ”50 .

Moreover when this kind of sin occurred, women were more criticized and more remembered for their supposed misdeed than men. Hadria supposed :

“ she (Ellen) gets all the blame of the thing ”51 .

This young woman knew that she would not go unnoticed, that she would become the subject of gossip of the whole village. Because of this shame, this fear of judgement, she came to the decision to lock herself up at home and thus avoid appearing to public eyes, even just to search for food :

“She couldn’t stand the disgrace and the neighbours talking, and that Mrs Walker went

and saw her , and brought her nourish in’ thing… ”52 .

As a result of this voluntary imprisonment which prevented her from having normal living conditions, worsened by the absence of relatives to comfort her, Ellen Jervis got so weak both mentally and physically that she died. It was said that

“She never got up her heart again like, took fever from grieving, and…died ”53 .

Through Ellen Jervis’s life and terrible end then, the writer denounced how the Society could be cruel and merciless with its judgements towards individuals and how it could be fatal to them.

Finally, through Hadria, the Protagonist’s own experience, Caird demonstrated also how the status granted to women constituted a big waste to precious talent and a real obstacle to women’s blossoming. Hadria was born of conservative parents who planned for their daughters’ accomplishment and good marriage and who held the concept that women’s roles consisted in looking after their families (husbands, children…), that their world was restricted to the home circle, having no link with intellectual subjects, with literature, art or any other

50 The Dauthers of Danaus op cit p. 263 51 Ibid p. 152 52 Ibid p. 152 53 Ibid p. 152

-37- occupation outside. She had irresistible musical talent : she played the piano so well.

Moreover, feeling a real passion for it, she dreamt of developing her gift and exploiting it afterwards : she wished to become a professional pianist. However, as mentioned above, a career as a musician proved to be inconceivable. Innumerable times, the impulse to go beyond the barriers and do exactly what she wanted ran into her mind, and once she even decided to take to action and leave for Paris to fulfil her dream but the impulse and the attempt never materialized. Actually, every time she felt ready to fight for her project the old conventions always got the upper hand, and that through the mother. The first time, when Hadria’s sister,

Algitha, decided to leave for London in order to work there and she herself seemed to envy her, their mother made her understand right away she could never take a similar decision since she was the only daughter left to fulfil their parents’ dream

“She was (t)here as the family consolation ”54 .

The second time, when she left to follow her musical training in Paris, again Mrs Fullerton made Hadria obey the system by letting grief drive herself to illness. She ordered the others :

“Tell Hadria to come home if she does not want to kill me. Tell her to come home ; it’s

her duty ”55 .

In both cases and at any time Hadria succumbed to their will to avoid hurting her cherished parents. The result was always an involuntary neglect of herself and of her passion, ending up in deep sorrow and frustration bordering on despair. This state of mind was reflected in her composition : “ Futility ”56 , the fruit of her melancholic mood when her sister left Dunaghee and she had to face alone the responsibility of taking care of the domestic affairs. It also showed in her physical weakness, a result of her inner battle and the stern life that she led at home after her experience in Paris :

54 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 45 55 Ibid p. 364 56 Ibid p. 46

-38-

“She looked worn and white, and dreadfully thin…This had not been surprising at first,

after the long strain of nursing ”57 .

Finally Hadria had a love affair with Professor Theobalt. Such an extra-marital relationship revealed that she was not happy at all with her husband.

Once again then, by giving Hadria, the main character, the kind of life she had, the writer brought to the fore the destructive effect of the social trends and morality. Through her rebellious personality, her reflexions on women’s life and her long unconventional speeches, when talking about women’s life, her suffering, Caird directly attacked the roles that the society expected from women ; roles which she blamed for hampering their talent, bringing them to physical weakness and above all mental frustration.

As a conclusion, through her novel, particularly through her female characters, Mona Caird denounced the dangerous effects of girls and women’s position. First of all through Mrs

Fullerton and Mrs Fortescue, she made the readers realize that the self-sacrifice inculcated in women brought them to a state of destructive obsession ending up with physical weakness, mental vulnerability and even inducing them to suicide. Moreover this obsession focused on the others might spoil the relationship between them and those whom they loved (husbands, children,…). Then, through Ellen Jervis, she unveiled the cruelty of the unwritten law of punishment that was the Society’s judgement, their unbearable eyes and ironical smile.

Actually, she showed it could be fatal to women. Finally, through Hadria, the main character of the novel , Caird demonstrated how the status attributed to girls and women could cause real waste in their life : the waste of a great talent, of energy, and above all of happiness.

Indeed, some other female characters passed the message on to the readers : both Lady

Engleton and Valeria Duprel reflected women’s desperate life behind an external peace

57 The Daughters of Danaus op cit. p. 378

-39- whereas Hadria’s cook for instance embodied the woman whose intellectual capacity was unjustly despised with such social trends and morality.

2-2 THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS , AS AN ATTACK ON GIRLS’ EDUCATION

Through this literary work the New Woman writer criticized girls’ education by imparting arguments which ran against the essence of the whole system, and by attacking the parents’ way of bringing up their daughters as well as the churches’ contribution to the instilling of these conventional goals to girls and women. Moreover, she claimed change in girls’ education by introducing little Martha’s character, a real incarnation of the new education proposed by New Women, in the novel.

As already mentioned in previous passages, women’s goals in life consisted in finding a suitor, carrying out marriage, having babies and completely devoting their lives to taking care of both husbands and children. Accordingly, girls’ education aimed at their accomplishment, their preparation to face their nursing responsibility. In this novel however, Mona Caird defied this educational system first of all by attacking its very essence through heterodox arguments. Actually, she has already put forward the idea that the marriage system could not be anything but hypocrisy between the partners, women’s oppression, and a destruction of love, that maternity was a means of taming rebellious women. that in the end these so called

“missions ” were not worth accepting. She even went further in her protest by making her characters argue that with these domestic-based goals in life, girls and women found themselves on the same level as “ slaves ”58 , without freedom of choice in their actions, or even as animals living at the mercy of their masters :

58 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 343

-40-

“It is as an animal that one has to play the really important part in life ; it is by

submitting to the demand of the society, in this respect, that one wins rewards and

condemnation ”59 .

Indeed, related to that, women’s self-sacrifice, subservience, was objected to. Caird wrote :

“ it (vicarious sacrifice) is monstrous, it is dastardly, it is damnable !” 60 .

Even the church which was considered as one of the pillars of the Victorian Society did not escape from the writer’s attack. She introduced the idea that the church, and the so-called christians of the time were hypocritical. She wanted her readers to

“Look at these people whining to their heavenly Father about their own hurts, craving

for a pity of which they not a spark themselves !” 61 .

Particularly for women, the idea of chastity in following the Heaven’s will by sacrificing life for husband and children was rejected ;

“It (women’s submission to the supposed will of Heaven) is a poor compliment to

Heaven ”62 .

Similarly, the religious concept that “ it was right and Christian of the lady to desire that which gave every one so much pleasure ”63 , that is to get babies, was taken as “ a climax of feminine abjectness ”64 for there is a paradox between this concept and the fact that there are women who could never give birth.

Secondly, Caird directly claimed for changes in parents’ way of raising their daughters and in the contribution of the church in moulding girls and women as they were. In fact, she described girls’ education as superficial since it did not allow them to get used to making a choice. In all then, such upbringing did not prepare them to face real life and made them

59 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 60 Ibid p. 105 61 Ibid p. 98 62 Ibid p. 472 63 Ibid p. 172 64 Ibid p . 172

-41- always depend on the opposite sex. According to this concept, Caird made the readers understand that parents should not be overprotective towards their daughters : they should leave them entirely free to do what they felt good for them and let them undertake relationship with whom they wanted to, in short, to get more experience in life. She wrote :

“If the orthodox (the conservatives) are really sincere in declaring that life to be so

sacred and desirable, why on earth don’t they treat it frankly and reverently and teach

their girls to understand and respect it (life) , instead of allowing a furtive, sneaky,

detestable spirit to hover over it ? ”65 .

She thought it would make them stronger and above all happier in life. Moreover, she also indirectly required the church to cease teaching wrong ideology to the congregations : contrarily to long established theory, God is not likely to approve of the low status made for women.

Finally, Caird did not only introduce arguments against the education and claim for changes in it at home and at church ; she reinforced her ideas by materializing them through the character of Martha, Ellen Jervis’s little girl, who was adopted later by Hadria. She showed through her how a mother could be effective in educating a child, in rendering it happy and blossoming. Then, through the way how Martha was brought up, she brought to the fore the idea that the education for girls, for each individual in general, should neither “ be really obstructive to the best development ”66 nor “ a smooth pathway always favourable ”67 . She was not overprotected and kept as if imprisoned at home. Having a little boy as a friend playing with her, Martha was never inculcated any sentiment of submissiveness or of prevention from doing things in the same way as boys.

As a conclusion, The Daughters of Danaus really attacked girls’ education in the way that it denied its very aims first, then it stated changes imperatively to be effected at home and

65 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p . 253 66 Ibid p. 11 67 Ibid p. 11

-42-

at church, and finally it emphasized the idea of a new way of bringing up girls through the creation of Martha’s character.

2-3 THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS , EXTOLLING WOMEN’S CAPACITY OUTSIDE DOMESTICITY

Under the long-established concept of their roles and position, that is taking care of the husband and the children constituted women’s real business. Women did not have the right to undertake any professional activity outside home and did not have the right even to think of intellectual subjects. In The Daughters of Danaus however, particularly through Algitha’s nursing career, Hadria’s talent and musical experience in Paris and her reflective nature,

Mona Caird brought to the fore women’s capacity outside domesticity.

First of all, through Algitha’s work and experience, Caird showed women’s nursing skill which they could develop as a real career. As already demonstrated in a former paragraph of this study, women’s nursing skill was restricted to meeting all the husbands’ demands, taking care of the children, controlling the servants’ works and nursing those who were sick in the family. In no way, women could overstep the mark by using their skill outside the family circle. If unfortunately it occurred, it would not be extolled as natural instinct anymore but condemned as a mere disobedience. Through Algitha’s profession however, the writer decided women could exploit their so-called natural skill for their own good and for the good of the whole nation. Actually, Algitha’s work in London consisted in taking care of the poor people in shantytowns. From her everyday tasks, she acquired more and more experience in nursing. Indeed it was for the benefit of all in that she herself won her own salary and felt satisfied with her more active, useful life. She said :

“This existence of hard work (yet not too hard) suits me exactly ”68 .

68 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 48

-43-

The others, hence the country to which they belonged, were done a precious favour in receiving her help :

“The work was really wise, useful work among the poor ”69 .

Moreover, when their mother got sick after Hadria’s departure, Algitha’s experience could not be but advantageous to the family ; it

“stood her in good stead ”70 .

Secondly, through Hadria, this feminist writer also showed women’s capacity outside their traditional gender roles. Indeed, through this female character’s talent in playing the piano and her experience in Paris during her training, she revealed the value of women’s personal gifts. Actually, Hadria had presented signs of a rare talent since her youth : she always brought out real power in her composition

“It (her music) was like a sudden-storm among mountains, the wind-swept heavens at

midnight ; the lonely sea, … ”71 .

During her stay in Paris her talent did not go unnoticed ; some people found her playing marvellous and qualified her as a real genius. They said :

“There is genius in that work, but certainly genius ”72 .

A manager, Mr Joffroy, even got himself enchanted by it that he decided to help her develop it even more. Persuaded she could become a real professional with a lot of work and persistence, he told her

“If Madame has a character as strong as her genius, her name, will one day be on the

lips of all the world ”73 .

69 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 29 70 Ibid p. 361 71 Ibid p. 266 72 Ibid p. 266 73 Ibid p. 317

-44-

Still through Hadria, this novel also and above all attracted people’s attention to women’s intellectual potency. She was in fact a woman particularly interested in literary works : she was always impressed by Valeria’s writing. It was obvious when she asked the latter

“Miss Duprel ! Is that…are you… may I ask, are you the writer of those wonderful

books ?” 74

She also and knew a lot about the Greek Society because she had read books about it. Many times she mentioned the names of some parts of the Greece and some famous personalities. A part from the interest she paid on literature, she was a woman of reflexion : she thought enormously about the problems of life and this could be reflected by the most striking scenes in which she engaged herself in long thoughts (every time she was wandering the hills of

Dunaghee, or when she was alone in the garret, or every time she took refuge at the churchyard to seek for a moment of peace). This trait of her got even more obvious by her habit of discussing problematic questions related to women’s position, but also to human beings in general, with knowledgeable people like Professor Fortescue or Professor Theobalt.

In those discussions, she never lacked ideas and did not fail to give her opinion ; she did not even hesitate in citing great philosophers’ quotations and criticising them openly like shown below:

“Read this passage from Aristotle…He is perfectly calm and amiable, entirely

unconscious of offence, when he says that a wife ought to show herself even more

obedient to the rein than if she entered the house as a purchased slave. For she has been

bought at a high price, for the sake of sharing life and bearing children, than which no

higher or holier tie can possibly exist ”75 .

In giving her viewpoints, all along the story, she made speeches, giving sensible arguments reflecting long reflexion on the questions.

74 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 51 75 Ibid p.p. 170-171

-45-

As a conclusion then, through Algitha’s work, Hadria’s amazing talent and intellectual capacity, this New Woman novel praised female power apart from the gender roles expected from them.

2-4 NEW WOMEN’S DREAM OF A CHANGED SOCIETY

While denouncing the evil effects of the status granted to women, criticizing the education of girls, and bringing to the fore women’s power outside domesticity, The

Daughters of Danaus directly imparted the New Women’s dream of a changed world, a dream which was conveyed to the readers by means of speeches, of detailed description of visions, of people and scenes, and by means of the introduction of some important characters.

First of all, Mona Caird spread the idea of change through the speeches of her New

Women Characters, namely Algitha, Hadria and Professor Fortescue, speeches evoking a real revolution. Actually, these characters supposed that people (women and their male sympathizers) should fight against the system though it was set up long time ago, though the successful outcome of this struggle seemed utopian, since they were surely conscious of the burden and had enough intelligence to get out of it (they were not like animals),and such a situation could be changed for it did not result from God’s will but consisted of a doctrine developed by human beings. They argued in fact that current circumstances were born out of the destruction of former doctrines. For that, people must not be afraid of one more change in life since it might be positive once again and as it turned out change, improvement in girls and women’s conditions was of a prime importance at this period. Hadria said:

“I think that there are more ‘destroyers’ to be carried about and pampered in this

department of existence (women’ s position) than in other… ”76 .

76 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 14

-46-

According to this idea of urgent reform, the New Women Characters claimed for two distinct changes : in people’s mind and in written laws. Indeed, people should banish the moral barriers ; they should not be afraid of being true, of resisting unjust demands though it hurt the others :

“One ought not be too easily melted by the ‘shrieks of a near relation ”77 .

In addition to that however, an Act of Parliament governing people to respect one another’s freedom should be passed in order to guide the whole Society into a different social order.

Algitha said:

“I wish one could have an Act of Parliament, obliging every man to leave his

neighbour’s soul in peace ”78 .

Still related to these arguments imparting the New Women’s dream of a transformed Society, particular attention should be paid to Professor Fortescue’s last speech during his agony (in the last chapter of the novel). In fact, his speech during his last confession to Hadria constituted a direct message to the readers. Firstly, he asked the conservatives to change their morality and behaviours, not to content themselves with set-up doctrines which proved to be harmful to women. He said:

“And I want you to be on your guard against that intellectual foible (confusion between

the familiar and the reasonable) ”79 .

Then he appealed on all those who had already shared the dream never to change, never to let themselves be overwhelmed with the Society’s influence by saying

“Hold fast to your own colours. Don’t take sides, above all, with the powers that have

oppressed you. They are terrible powers, and yet people won’t admit their strength, and

so they are left unopposed ”80 .

77 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 273 78 Ibid p. 233 79 Ibid p.488 80 Ibid p. 489

-47-

He encouraged them to hope still, never to give up fighting for the achievement of their dream, and said:

“The hope leads me far…I wish so much that I could leave this hope, as a legacy to

you…Don’t turn away from the light of natural hope ”81 .

He even requested them to continue the fight and mobilize more fighters when he said:

“Exhort people to face and conquer them (the terrible oppressive powers of the Society).

You can help more than you dream, even as things stand ”82 .

Secondly, apart from the speeches, Caird also brought in her dream of a new world through minutely detailed descriptions of visions, of people and of scenes. Obviously, she used

Hadria’s vision to inspire the readers with a desire for this kind of world, of life, freer, more joyful that she(Caird) herself wished to have. Actually, Hadria’s vision, when one day she,

Algitha and Ernest made a bonfire in the cavern, described the wonderfulness, the marvel and the diversity of this new world where freedom reigned. It was:

“a veritable magic vision, beautiful beyond anything that she ever met in dream… the

blue and the red and the gold melted and moved and formed, under the incarnation, into

a marvellous vision of distant lands, purple mountaintops…all the secrets, all the hopes,

all the powers and splendours, of life lay hidden ; and the beauty of the vision was as

the essence of poetry and of music …of all that is lovely in the world of art, and in the

world of the emotions. The question that had been debated so hotly and so often, as to

the good and the beautiful, art and ethics, seemed to be answered by this bewildering

revelation of sunlit smoke, playing ”83 .

In addition to visions, Caird also described people to give insight of her dreamt world. The

Preposterous Society and their debates and later on the priory band and their meetings brought the image of people who could speak their opinion freely whatever it could be, and

81 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p. 489 82 Ibid p.p. 489-490 83 Ibid p.p. 20-21

-48- accordingly, the image of tolerance and respect between those who held different concepts : the message was that difference did not prevent love and respect. Then she also gave detailed description of the most amazing scenes to convey her cherished dream. Namely, Hadria’s dancing a reel in the river symbolized independent women, who are masters of their life, of their decisions. Then, the scenery along the way to Paris and the Capital itself drew the picture of the world of splendour of course, but also of the freedom these New Women wanted to live in ; a world which seemed like unusual but which was above all attractive :

“It was as if they( Hadria ,Martha ,and Hannah) passed from the realm of the shades

through the Gates of Life,…It was hard to realize that all this stir and light and life had

been going on night after night, for all these years, during which one had sat in the quiet

drawing-room at Craddock-Dene ”84 .

Finally, the description of Hadria’s life, a close report of the activities she undertook in a day in Paris gave a picture of the new life, a very busy one, of independent women :

“M. Jouffroy was always spurring her to work, to throw over everything for this

object…, friends in Paris pressed her to visit them, to accompany them hither and

thither, to join musical parties, to compose little songs,… to drive to the further end of

the town to play to this person or that who heard of Madame’s great talent ”85 .

Finally, Mona Caird shared the idea of revolution by introducing three important characters,

Professor Fortescue, Algitha and Martha, in her novel. Professor Forstecue symbolized the modern man of the New World, a man who would never agree with any kind of sacrifice and thus would let women free in their thoughts and deeds, whereas Algitha, as a real heroine of her own Fate, symbolized the woman of this world, the one who could decide on her life without fearing to deceive the others, even those who were close to her. Then little Martha,

84 The Daughters of Danaus op cit p.p. 301-302 85 Ibid p. 322

-49- brought up in a different, in a more independent, a more natural way, symbolized in her turn the daughter of the future, the one who would have got more experience in her education.

Finally, apart from these main characters to convey her idea of a changed world, Caird introduced as well other characters who could be considered as minor by the reader and yet who added spices to give this atmosphere of change. Actually characters like Mrs Walker and

Dodge, who both sympathized with Ellen when this latter sunk into despair to her death, showed an image of solidarity between women and compassion between individuals in general. As a whole then, this New Woman novel enlightened the dream of a New world where life would be more exciting, more joyful for women, where their status would be improved. More precisely, the speeches directly claiming for changes, the descriptions of visions, of people and of scenes, aiming at attracting people, at making the readers desire this kind of life, the creation of three symbolic characters allowed the writer to convey her dream.

As a conclusion, The Daughters of Danaus contributed to British women’s fight for a better position. It unmasked the evil of the social morality and behaviours towards women, and accordingly girls’ education. In addition to that, it also made people realize women’s potency outside the domestic ends and spread the New Women’s dream of a change in women’s life in general.

As radical feminist, Mona Caird brought about unconventional arguments against the usual notions associated with womanhood and did not hesitate to display them in her literary works. Actually, the writer introduced the idea that marriage and motherhood were means to oppress women under men’s power. In The Daughters of Danaus , one of her New Women novels, Caird denounced women’s suffering. She showed how their status caused among women a real self-effacement, an over-devotion leading to physical and moral breakdown

-50- leading to suicide. Moreover, she directly attacked girls’ education by denying their goals in life (marriage and maternity) and by requiring change in the ways they were brought up.

Then, she also openly praised women’s intellectual and professional capacity and imparted a vision of a New World for them, a world where they were granted a broader life.

-51-

PART - III

THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS ADAPTED TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE CLASSROOM

The Daughters of Danaus can be adapted to the teaching of English in the classroom.

Accordingly, the goal in this third big part is first of all to show the general links between literature and language teaching, for this work is a literary one. Then, we will demonstrate how Mona Caird’s novel can serve as a good source of teaching materials, by evaluating first its general and pedagogical interests, then by proposing some activities based on passages extracted from it.

1 - LINKS BETWEEN LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING

1-1 LITERARY TEXTS AS “VALUABLE AUTHENTIC MATERIALS” 86

By the terms “ authentic materials ” are meant the materials used in the language teaching though they were not particularly conceived for this goal. Two distinct reasons make it advantageous to use authentic materials. First of all, they show the learners different facets of the target language in its written form :

“they (the learners) gain additional familiarity with many different linguistic uses,

forms and conventions of the written mode : with irony, exposition, argument,

narration, and so on ” 87 .

Secondly, authentic materials extracted from plays or novels give an overview of the spoken language for they present dialogues. Though the world in the play or in the novel is just fiction, “ it offers a full and vivid context in which characters from many social backgrounds can be depicted ”88 . The reader can have an idea of how the native speaker reacts in a given

86 COLLIE, J. and SLATER, S. , Literature in the language classroom. – A Resource Book of Ideas and Activities, Cambridge, 1987, Cambridge University Press p. 3 87 Ibid p. 4 88 Ibid p. 4

-52- situation : what he says when happy, when angry, when frightened, or when he exposes arguments. On the whole then, authentic materials show the characters of the language both in the written and the spoken forms.

Many kinds of these materials are already inserted in the language teaching. These include cartoons, advertisements, newspaper and magazine articles, and songs. At the same rank as these mentioned above, literary extracts could also be exploited in this sense and thus would be a complement to this type of materials.

1-2 LITERARY TEXTS AS A SOURCE OF FURTHER “LANGUAGE ENRICHMENT “89

Apart from the idea that being authentic extracts form literary works familiarize the learners with the different forms of the language and thus incite them to use similar styles when they write or speak in their turn, they really develop their reading, writing, listening and speaking skills.

First of all, texts taken from literature offer the learners a broader opportunity to develop their reading techniques like skimming, scanning, inferencing, rereading, decoding. Then they often let discussions flow ; and these involve both listening and speaking at the same time :

“A literary text can serve as an excellent prompt for oral work ”90 .

Moreover, such oral work may usually end with a written work (writing) activity. In all then, it can be said that literature improves the learners’ basic language skills .

89 Literature In The Language Classroom op cit p. 4 90 Ibid p. 5

-53-

1-3 LITERARY EXTRACTS AS A SOURCE OF “CULTURAL ENRICHMENT” 91

Both teachers and learners should acquire some cultural knowledge about the country and the people to which the language belongs. Apart from purely personal satisfaction, they may need it in life. As a matter of fact however, not all of them have the opportunity to go to the country and stay there for some time so that they could get some knowledge about the way of life there. Fortunately, other means such as films, newspapers, magazines, T.V and radio programmes offer them large information. In addition to these, literature can contribute as well to teach them. Joanne Collie and Stephen Slater wrote in their Literature in the

Classroom :

“Literature is perhaps best seen as a complement to other materials used to

increase the foreign learner’s insight into the country whose language is being

learnt ”92 .

1-4 LITERARY WORKS AS A MEANS TO DEVELOP “PERSONAL INVOLVEMENT” 93

Motivation is one of the unavoidable conditions which fashion the quality of the students’ learning process : the more they are motivated, the quicker and the better they learn.

Accordingly, literature works motivate the learners and thus improve their learning the language. Actually, most of the time a literary sample or extract, displaying real facts (related to a society or an individual of a given period) or created ones, may find an echo in the reader’s personal experience. Hence the reader becomes more sensitive, more likely to have an opinion in his/her mind and react accordingly, and above all more eager to listen or to read what follows. As Joanne Collie and Stephen Slater wrote : “ above all, literature can be

91 Literature in the Language Classroom op cit p. 4 92 Ibid p.4 93 Ibid p. 5

-54- helpful in the language learning process because of “the personal involvement it fosters in the reader ”94 .

2 - THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS , A GOOD SOURCE OF TEACHING MATERIALS

2-1 GENERAL AND PEDAGOGICAL NTERESTS OF THE NOVEL

As Joanne Collie and Stephen Slater wrote that : “a literary work can transcend both time and culture to speak directly to a reader in another country or a different period of history ”95 , it can be particularly influential to its readers. Accordingly Mona Caird’s The

Daughters of Danaus can be interesting for it relates real social facts and puts forward some moral ideas.

As demonstrated in the second part of this work, the Daughters of Danaus is a New

Women Novel (springing out of the feminist movement of the late nineteenth century in

Britain) ; it consists of an obvious exposition of the society’s wicked attitudes towards women and above all a vivid demand of reform in their position. Though the writer was

British and all the contexts of the story linked with the British society of a certain period of history, the novel reflects somehow the behaviour of other societies (among which that of the

Malagasy people) towards their female members, in the past and in the present. Malagasy readers, or those from other countries then, treating women with the same repressive way, would be made aware of the injustice and would be urged to change their mentality and manners. From this angle, this novel presents already a valuable characteristic in that it introduces some moral lessons.

Moreover, in a more pedagogical way, as a literary work the Daughters of Danaus can be favourable for a variety of reasons. First of all the text is authentic, so it raises awareness of the different aspects of the language. Then, it allows the development of the students’ basic

94 Literature in the Language Classroom op cit p. 5 95 Ibid p. 3

-55- language skills. In addition to that, the novel is particularly enriching in terms of cultural knowledge for it shows women’s living conditions in a country like Britain in the late nineteenth century. It makes people aware of the way how the British society viewed the position of their women in this period, how some women like the protagonist (Hadria

Fullerton) and the writer herself were so revolted against that position. Apart from these

(authenticity, language and cultural enrichment), what makes it a good source of teaching materials is the language itself. The English used is not of the old type, as in Elizabethan literature for example, but modern English. Thus, no extra difficulty will be met in that respect. Another positive point of the novel is the fact that it provides materials (eg. : subjects of discussion) likely to arouse the learners’ interest. Last but not least, when well adapted in various kinds of activity, the materials (texts, passages) taken from this novel can involve some topics of the syllabus in Malagasy Lycées (as shown by the chart below) and other language elements.

The topics (of the Malagasy Lycées syllabus) which can be illustrated through the materials (texts, passages) extracted from the Daughters of Danaus .

LEVEL TOPICS

T10 (SECONDE) * YOUTH • Generation gap • Love and sex : boy meets girl

* PEOPLE AT WORK • Gender and professions

T11 (PREMIERE) * YOUTH • Generation gap

* PEOPLE AT WORK • Criteria for selecting a job : working conditions, salary,…..

T12 (TERMINALE) * YOUTH • Love and marriage

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• Education for all - equal rights for boys and girls - education of girls

• Family - relationship between family members, mutual respect - family life quality

* SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE • Meetings and conferences

* PEOPLE AT WORK • More about gender and professions

Pedagogically then, as a literary work, the Daughters of Danaus can be useful in the teaching of English in the classroom.

2-2 SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES BASED ON PASSAGES TAKEN FROM THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS

2-2-1) SOME PASSAGES TAKEN FROM THE NOVEL

As mentioned in a former paragraph of this third part, literature can be a rich source of materials for language-teaching activities. However, there is one condition which makes these innumerable passages and texts good materials for such or such activity and suitable to such or such group of learners. Actually it consists of the teacher’s “ judicious choice ”96 on which texts or passages to be used. This choice should take into account the language level of the learners, their age, their interests and their cultural background. Here are below samples of passages, extracted from the novel, which could be exploited and used as materials for classroom activities.

96 Literature in the language classroom op. cit p. 5

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‹ PASSAGE N° 1

Hadria now moved into a smaller suite of rooms [….], a shabby, but sunny little house […..]. Expenses were thus kept down, but unhappily very little was coming in to meet them. […..] At last Hadria wrote to ask Algitha to try and sell for her a spray of diamonds. - p. 325/326 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 2

My wife was one of the positive natures, capable of great nobility, but liable to error ! […..] She had the old barbaric notion that a husband was a sort of master, and must assert his authority and rights. […...] To set her free from prejudice, from her injustice to herself, from her dependence on me, to teach her to breathe deep with those big lungs of hers and think bravely with that capacious brain : that was my dream. I hoped to hear her say to me some day, what I fear no woman has yet been able to say to her husband, “The day of our marriage was the birthday of my freedom”. - p. 201-

‹ PASSAGE N° 3

«Where did you get such extraordinary ideas from ? “ [….] “Does your mother know what sort of subjects you discuss ? “ There was a shout of laughter. “Mother used often to come into the nursery and surprise us in hot discussion on the origin of evil”, said Hadria. “Don’t you believe what she says, Miss Temperley”, cried Fred ; “mother never could teach Hadria the most rudimentary notions of accuracy” “Her failure with my brothers, was in the department of manners”, Hadria observed. “Then she does not know what you talk about ?“ persisted Henriette. “You ask her” prompted Fred, with undisguised glee. “She never attends our meeting,” said Algitha. “Well, well, I cannot understand it ! “cried Miss Temperly. “However, you don’t quite know what you are talking about, and one mustn’t blame you”. - p. 127/128 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 4

It was Hadria’s habit still to take solitary rambles over the country. A passionate lover of Nature, she found endless pleasure in its ever-changing aspects. [….] On one dim afternoon,

-58- when the sun was descending, Hadria’s solitary figure was noticed by a white-haired lady, presumably a tourist. […..] Hadria’s pace was very rapid. […..] Hadria, feeling a presence behind her, turned nervously round and gave a slight start. It was so rare to meet anybody on these lonely hills. […..] As the lady had stopped short, Hadria supposed that she had lost her way, and wished to make some enquiries. “Can I direct you, or give you any assistance ?” she asked. “Oh, thank you, you are very kind. I have come over from Ballochroil to explore the country. I have been trying to find out the history of the old houses of the district. Could you tell me, by the way, anything about that house with the square tower at the end ; I have been loitering round it half the afternoon. And I would have given anything to know its history, and what it is like inside”. “Well, I can help you there, for that old house is my home. If you have time to come with me now, I will show you all over it” said Hadria, impulsively. [….] “Well, I can’t resist the temptation”. [….] They walked on together. […..] It had obviously been one of the old Scottish strongholds, built in the lawless days when the country was plunged in feuds and chieftains lived on plunder. A few traditions lingered about it : among them that of a chief who had carried off, by force, the daughter of his bitterest enemy, in revenge for some deed of treachery. He had tortured her with insolent courtship, and then starved her to death in a garret in the tower, while her father and his followers assaulted its thick walls in vain. - p. 48/49/50 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 5

Women ought not to meddle in business matters

- p. 35 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 6

« I knew it would be a shock to you. I did not dare to tell you before. […..] I knew all hope for me would be at an end. But now, it seems to me my duty to tell you. If you wish for vengeance still, here I am at you mercy… take it”.[…..] “I want no vengeance. It is useless for women to try to fight against men ; they can only hate them !” […..] “In heaven’s name, what is the meaning of this ? ….Am I never to be forgiven ?”

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“I hate you…let me go !” “if this is the last time….” “I wish I could kill you ! ” - p. 433/434/437 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 7

Hadria entered the room, one evening, tired out and profoundly depressed. A table covered with books, stood beside the fire. She gave the top-heavy pile an impatient thrust and the mass fell, with a great crash, to the floor. A heap of manuscript…her musical achievement for the past year…was involved in the fall. She contemplated the wreck gravely. - p. 110 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 8

- It appeared that the Professor’s wife, whom Madame Bertaux had happened to meet in Paris, was a young, beautiful, and self-willed girl, passionately devoted to her husband […..]

- Seized with remorse, she had returned home to kill herself […...]

- She (Marion Jordan) had heard the country people say that the ghost of poor Mrs Forstecue walks along the terrace in the twilight. […..]

- p. 196/197/178 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 9

Nobody knows who the man was. […..] When she had her baby, she was like one out of her mind […..] She couldn’t stand the disgrace and the neighbours’ talking, and that Mrs. Walker she went and saw her, and brought her nourishin’ things, and kep’ on a-telling her how she must try and make up for what she had done”. - p. 151/152 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 10

Once, in her girlhood, when she was scarcely sixteen, she had gone with her parents and Algitha for a tour in Italy. It was a short but vivid experience which had tinged her life, leaving a memory and a longing that never died. The movement of travel, the sense of change and richness offered to eye and mind, remained with her always ; the vision of a strange,

-60- tumultuous, beautiful world ; of exquisite Italian cities, of forests and seas ; of classic plains and snow – capped mountains ; of treasures of art […..] and glimpses of cathedral domes and palace walls ; and villages clinging like living things to the hill-sides. [….] It was a if the sum and circumstance of life had mirrored itself in the memory, once and for all. The South lured her with its languor, its colour, its hot sun, and its splendid memories. - p. 422/423 -

‹ PASSAGE N° 11

Mrs Fullerton’s illness proved even more serious than the doctor had expected. She asked so incessantly for her daughters [.…]. The doctor said that the patient must have been suffering from many years, from an exhausted state of the nerves and from some kind of trouble. [….] If her children desire to keep her among them, it will be necessary to treat her with the utmost care, and to oppose her in nothing. Further disappointment or chagrin, she has no longer the power to stand. […..] Her life, if not her reason, are in her children’s hands. [….] “Oh, Hadria, I feel as if this were my fault” cried Algitha [….] “You ? It was I,” said Hadria with trembling lips. “Mother has never been strong”, Algitha went on. “And my leaving home was the beginning of all this trouble”. “And my leaving home the end of it”, her sister added. [….] The doctor had not disguised the fact that the patient was fighting hard for life, and that it was impossible to predict the result. [….] The sick-room was very still when the sisters entered. [….] A night-light burnt on the table, where cups and bottles were ranged. As the two figures entered, there was a faint sound of quick panting, and a moan. Hadria rushed to the bedside. “Quick, quick, some brandy” she called. Algitha flew to the table for the brandy. […..] Algitha had handed the cup of brandy to Hadria. The sisters stood by the bedside, scarcely daring to breathe. Mr Fullerton entered hurriedly, with face pallid and drawn. “What is it ? Is she …?” “No, no ; I hope not. Another moment it would have been too late, but I think we were in time”. - p. 359/360/361/362/363 -

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2-2-2) SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

In the next subpart, we have decided to make proposition of activities for we consider that the activities chosen by the language teacher are undeniably important to fulfil his/her task. Besides, we wanted above all to show how a literary work can be a rich source of materials for various kinds of activity (as role plays, discussion items, rearranging extracts, story making, problem solving, listening and reading comprehension, …).

Actually, the activities we propose are first of all student-centered activities for students must always be the center of the teaching process, not the activities themselves or the language itself ; the learner will have then more opportunity to take part in those classroom activities.

Secondly, these are activities which allow the teaching of integrated skills (that is they involve more than one skill) and so are more interesting.

ACTIVITY I : ROLE PLAY

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 1

levels : Première – Terminale

aim : to make the students produce (use by their own) the expressions of agreeing and disagreeing Useful expressions :

- I agree with you…

- I agree with you but…

- I disagree with you…

- I totally disagree with you…

- I strongly disagree with you…

- I don’t think you’re right…

- Do you agree with me that …?

- What do you think…?

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Materials : handouts on which the context is written

Hadria and Algitha are sisters. They have a problem to pay the rent of the house. Hadria proposes to sell her spray of diamonds in order to get

enough money. Algitha refuses the idea at first : it was passed from generation to generation ; it is so precious. But after an exchange of

arguments, Algitha accepted. Build up the dialogue between the two.

duration : 30 mn duration Steps 1 mn 1 – T. divides the classroom in pairs 2 mn 2 – T. shares the handouts 5 mn 3 – T. ellicits the context 10 mn 4 – The pairs build up their dialogues 12 mn 5 – T. asks two or three pairs to act out their dialogues

ACTIVITY II : DISCUSSION ITEMS

ß ADAPTATION OF PASSAGE N° 2

levels : Première – Terminale aims : listening – speaking – vocabulary items materials : a piece of paper on which the passage is written

My wife was one of the positive natures, capable of great nobility, but liable to error ! [….] she had the old notion that a husband was a sort of master, and must assert his authority and rights. To set her free from her injustice to herself, from her dependence on me was my dream. I hoped to hear her say someday : “the day of our marriage was the birthday of my freedom”.

duration : 29 mn

duration steps 1 mn 1 – T. tells to Ss that s(he) saw a magazine and in it an article was particularly interesting. It was an interview between a psychologist for families and a man.

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2 mn 2 – T. reads the passage twice, which s(he) says to be part of what the man said, aloud. 2 mn 3 – T. tries to explain it further. 1 mn 4 – T. divides the classroom in groups (it is better to have no less than three and no more than five Ss in each group). 1 mn 5 – T. tells the Ss to discuss in their groups and to decide whether their groups agree or not that girls, women should be taught to submit to men’s power, and make a list of the reasons why it is so. 10 mn 6 – Ss discuss, decide the position of their groups and make their lists of arguments. 5 mn 7 – T. asks which groups agree with it and asks a representative of one of them to give their ideas. Then T. asks the others if they want to add anything. 5 mn 8 – T. asks a representative of one of the groups who disagree to give their opinion and then asks the rest if they want to add some other arguments. 2 mn 9 – T. makes a summary of all the ideas.

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 3

levels : Première – Terminale aims : to present the topic “generation gap”, listening, speaking materials : - the passage which is to be put in a real life situation and told to the Ss.

Where did you get such extraordinary ideas from ? Does your mother know what sort of subjects you discuss ? She doesn’t know what you talk about ? Well, well, I cannot understand it ! You don’t quite know what you are talking about.

- handouts in which a set of questions is written.

1 – Do you think parents should know everything their children are talking about ? why ? 2 - What do you think about the parents who control all of their children’s actions ? 3 - What should be the bases of the relationship between parents and children ?

4 - What may happen if children are not understood by the parents ? 5 - Could children talk about everything at home ? If not, what subject(s) should not be discussed ?

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duration : 35 mn

duration steps 1 mn 1 – T. shares the handouts to Ss and meanwhile tells them not to look at it first. 2 mn 2 – T. makes them listen, tells that (s)he overheard the conversation between her (his) sister and their nieces. The girls were talking about boy friends. His (her) sister’s reaction was : where did you get such extraordinary ideas from ? Does your mother know what sort of subjects you discuss ? She doesn’t know what you talk about ? Well, well, I cannot understand it ! you don’t quite know what you are talking about ! Then she went on with a long long sermon. She was furious. 1 mn 3 – T. tells the Ss to look at the questions now, asks them to work in pairs. Each partner has to ask and answer in turn the same question. T. gives an example : I ask you the question (1) and you answer, then you ask it to me and I answer. 10 mn 4 – The Ss do their work. 20 mn 5 – T. asks the questions one by one to the whole class. The Ss raise their hands to answer. It is better to get more than one student’s answer for each question. At the same time, the new words are written on the board. The new words : - freedom (n) - free (adj) - control (v) - overprotective (adj) - discussion (n) - confidence / trust (n) - trust in (v) - tolerate (v) - quarrel (n) - run away (v)

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ACTIVITY III : REARRANGING EXTRACTS

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 4

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : reading – speaking – listening – writing – vocabulary items

materials : photocopies of 4 extracts : extracts 1, 2, 3, 4

Extract (1)

“Can I direct you, or give you any assistance ?” she asked. “Oh, thank you, you are very kind. I have come to explore the country. I have

been trying to find out the history of the old houses. Could you tell me anything about that house with tower ?. I would have given anything to know its history

and what it is like inside ”. “Well, I can help you there, for that old house is my home. If you have time to

come with me now, I will show you “ said Hadria.

Extract (2)

It was Hadria’s habit to take rambles over the country. A passionate lover of Nature, she found endless pleasure in its aspects. [….] On one dim afternoon, when the sun was descending, Hadria was noticed by a

Lady, a tourist. The Lady started to follow her.

Extract (3)

“Well, I can’t resist the temptation”. They walked on together. […] It had been one of the old Scottish strongholds, built in the days when the country was plunged in feuds. [….] A chief had carried off, by force, the daughter of his bitterest enemy. [….] He had tortured her and then

starved her to death in a garret in the tower, while her father and his followers attacked the thick walls in vain.

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Extract (4)

Hadria’s pace was very rapid. […]. Hadria, feeling a presence behind her, turned nervously round and gave a start. It was so rare to meet anybody on

these hills. As the lady had stopped short, Hadria supposed that she had

lost her way, and wished to make some enquiries.

duration : 46 mn

duration steps 1 mn 1 – T. tells the Ss that they are going to make a game, a kind of competition. (S)he will divide them into four (4) groups and will give to each group a piece of text. When rearranged the four extracts will make one text. The goal is then for the groups to find the right order of the 4 extracts after each representatives has read them. The group(s) which find(s) the right order win(s). 1 mn 2 – T. divides the classroom into four groups : groups A – B – C - D 1 mn 3 – T. gives the photocopies of each extract to all the members of each group. eg : photocopies of the extract (1) to the members of group C. 3 mn 4 – T. gives the glossary on the board. GLOSSARY Extract (1) - to give assistance : to help - to explore : to discover Extract (2) - to take rambles : to go for a walk - dim : obscure Extract (3) - strongholds : fortresses - plunge : to be deep in - feuds : wars - garret : a room under the roof

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Extract (4) - to stop short : to stop suddenly - to make enquiries : to ask 2 mn 5 – T . asks them to read silently and underline the other words they do not understand. 2 mn 6 – T. asks them the words they do not understand, adds them on the board and explains. 2 mn 7 – T. asks them to read silently. 8 mn 8 – T. asks the representative of the group which has the extract (1) to read it aloud. (The others listen carefully and take notes), then the representative of the group which has the extracts (2), then, (3), then (4). 3 mn 9 –The members of each group discuss between them about the information they got, the possibility of order they have in mind. 8 mn 10- T. asks other representatives to read their texts aloud for the second time, one after the other. Each member adjusts his/her supposition. 3 mn 11- The members of each group combine their propositions. 1 mn 12- T. asks the proposition of order of each group. The right order is 2- 4 – 1- 3 8 mn 13- If no group found the right order yet, T. makes the representatives read for the third time and then asks for the new propositions. (The group which finds it wins). 2 mn 14- T. gives the right order while briefly summarising the whole text.

ACTIVITY IV : DISCUSSION BASED ON PROVOCATIVE STATEMENTS

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 5

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : listening – speaking – vocabulary items

material : The passage written on the board

“Women ought not to meddle in business matters ”

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duration : 23 mn

Duration steps

3mn 1 – T. prepares the Ss for the discussion by putting the passage in a real-life

context.

eg : When I was on the bus this morning I overheard the conversation

between two men. They were talking about business and I heard them

talking particularly about a woman (probably a colleague of them). As I

heard it, the woman made a mistake in her job and the two men were

not happy for that because one of them said “ dondrona mihitsy, izany

no manahirana amin’ny miara-miasa amin’itony vehivavy itony, tsisy

ilàna azy mihitsy ”. I thought about it deeply and I want to know your

opinion. Do you agree or not that

“Women ought not to meddle in business matters ” ?

(T. writes it on the board)

8 mn 2 – T. makes them work in groups of four, discussing whether they agree or

not.

5 mn 3 – T. asks who agree. Ss raise their hands and T. points at some of them to

give their reasons.

5 mn 4 – T. asks who disagree. Ss raise their hands and T. points at some of them

to give their reasons.

[If it happens that everybody disagrees T. should provoke the Ss, to

make them speak, by saying that it may be right in some way for a

reason or another].

2 mn 5 – T. summarizes all the ideas.

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ß OTHER PROVOCATIVE STATEMENTS

- Independent girls are not good to marry. (p. 27) - Children should always respect their parents’ decision. (p. 55) - Mothers must give up their job to bring their children up. (p. 64) - Housekeeping hold is the only task for which women are good. (p. 78) - A woman should just to be a wife and a mother. (p. 439)

ACTIVITY V : BUILDING UP THE BEGINNING OF THE STORY

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 6

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : reading – listening – speaking – writing – vocabulary items

materials : photocopies of the dialogue

“I knew it would be a shock to you. I did not dare to tell you before. I knew all hope for me would be at an end. But now, it seems to me my duty to tell you. If

you wish for vengeance still, here I am at your mercy ”. “I want no vengeance. It is useless for women to fight against men, they can only hate them !”

“What is the meaning of this ? Am I never to be forgiven ? I who love you ? “ “I hate you, let me go ”

“If this is the last time …” “I wish I could kill you ! “

duration : 36 mn

duration steps

1 mn 1 – T. asks if the Ss have already heard of the story of the man who revealed a

secret to his partner, then asks if they want to know about it.

1 mn 2– T. shares the handouts to the Ss, tells them it is just the end

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of the dialogue between the 2 partners, that they (the Ss) have to guess what

really happened.

2 mn 3 – T. makes them read silently.

2 mn 4 – T. asks them if there are words they do not understand, writes the words

on the board and explains.

2 mn 5 – T. makes them read it again silently.

5 mn 6 – T. asks orally :

a. How many people are there in the dialogue ?

b. What is the relationship between them ? (friends, lovers,..?)

c. What did the man reveal ?

d. Why did he not do it before ?

e. How did his partner react ? what did she say ?

5 mn 7 – T. asks the Ss what kind of secret it could be in their opinion. Ss raise

their hands and T. points at three or four of them (one by one).

8 mn 8 – T. makes them work in pairs, write a whole dialogue ending with this

passage. They have to invent then the beginning of the dialogue, with

the revelation of the secret they imagined.

They can ask vocabulary items to T. or directly use a dictionary.

2 mn 9 – T. makes them practice their dialogues.

6 mn 10 – T. makes two or three pairs act out their dialogues one after the other in

front of the classroom.

2mn 11– T. tells briefly that the secret was that the man (Theobalt) got a baby

with another woman. He left the mother and the child alone. Then, the

mother died. As a matter of fact the child was adopted by Hadria

(the woman of the dialogue). He never told her that he was the father. Then,

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when he was sure that Hadria was going to marry him, he decided to reveal

her the secret.

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 7

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : reading – listening – speaking – writing – vocabulary items

materials : photocopies of the passage :

Hadria entered her room, tired out and profoundly depressed. A table

covered with books, stood beside the fire. She gave to the books an

impatient thrust and the mass fell, with a great crash to the floor. She

contemplated it gravely.

duration : 36 mn duration Steps

1 mn 1 - T. asks the Ss if they have already heard of the story of Hadria, the girl

who was depressed.

T. asks if they want to know about it.

1 mn 2 - T. says that before telling them the story, they are going to make a sort

of game : (s)he will tell just the end of the story and the Ss will have

to imagine the beginning. They will see how good they are at

guessing.

1 mn 3 - T. divides them in groups of four.

1 mn 4 - T. shares the handouts.

2 mn 5 - T. asks them if there are words they do not understand.

5 mn 6 - T. elicits the passage by asking orally :

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f. What is the name of the girl ?

g. How was she when she entered her room ?

h. What did she do ?

i. In your opinion, what might have happened to her ?

10 mn 7 - T. makes them write the story, ending with this passage.

They can ask vocabulary items to the T. or use a dictionary.

4 mn 8 - T. asks three volunteers (or points at them) to represent their groups

and write their stories on the board (the board is shared in three

parts).

6 mn 9 - T. corrects grammar and vocabulary items.

4 mn 10- T. briefly asks the other groups what happened to Hadria in their

stories.

2 mn 11- T. briefly tells the story that Hadria loved music passionately and she

was particularly good at playing the piano. She wanted to follow

music courses but when she mentioned it to her parents that day, they

refused the idea.

ACTIVITY VI : STORY – MAKING

ß EXPLOITATION OF THE PASSAGE N° 8

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : reading – listening – speaking – writing – vocabulary items

materials :

* The three passages to be written on the board

1 – Ellen was a young, beautiful girl, passionaly devoted to her husband.

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2 – Seized with remorse, she had returned home to kill herself.

3 – People say that her ghost walks along the terrace in the twilight.

* A picture of an old house stuck on the board or held by the T. and shown to

the class.

duration : 30 mn

duration steps

1 mn 1 – T. asks the Ss if they like telling stories.

2 mn 2 – T. tells them that they are going to make a story, the story of this old

house and its ghost, and tell it to the whole class. For that, (s)he will

give them three sentences to serve as a skeleton of the story. They will

complete it .

1 mn 3 – T. writes the skeleton on the board

Ellen was a young, beautiful girl, passionately devoted to her husband ………….…………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… Seized with remorse, she had returned home to kill herself… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………… People say that her ghost walks along the terrace in the twilight.

1 mn 4 – T. asks if there are words they do not understand and explains them.

10 mn 5 – T. makes them work in groups of four. They can ask about vocabulary

items to the T. or use a dictionary.

10mn 6 – T. asks volunteers to tell their stories to the whole class.

5 mn 7 – T tells her (his) story

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ACTIVITY VII : PROBLEM SOLVING

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 9

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : listening – speaking – vocabulary items materials : - A paper on which a summary of the scene is written so that T. could read it.

Nobody knows who the man was. When she had her baby, she was like one out of her mind. She could not stand the disgrace and the

neighbours’ talking that she went out no more then. Mrs Walker brought her nourishing things at home kept on telling her how she must

do with all this.

duration : 15 mn

duration Steps 4 mn 1 – T. says that (s)he read a foreign feminine magazine and in it (s)he saw an article telling the story of a young woman who was pregnant without being married. (Then T. continues with the summary). Nobody knows who the man was. When she had her baby, she was like one out of her mind. She could not stand the disgrace and the neighbours’ talking that a Mrs Walker brought her nourishing things at home. She went out no more then. Mrs Walker kept on telling her how she must do with it. 10 mn 2 – T. asks orally : j. What would you say if you were Mrs Walker ? k. What would you do if you were the girl ? 1 mn 3 – T. tells what happened to the girl : she was so sad because the father of the baby did not to want to marry her, that she took fever and died.

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ACTIVITY VIII : LISTENING

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 10

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : listening – writing - speaking – reading - vocabulary items

materials : - a cassette on which the text below was recorded

- a cassette player

- photocopies of the blanked text (that is without the words between

brackets)

Once, in her (girlhood), when she was scarcely sixteen, Hadria had gone with

her parents and Algitha for a (tour) in Italy. It was a short but (vivid)

experience leaving a memory that never died. The movement of travel, the

(sense) of change and richness offered (to) (eye) and mind, remained with

her always ; the vision of a strange, tumultuous, (beautiful) world, of

exquisite Italian cities, of forests and (seas), of classic (plains) and snow-

capped mountains, of (treasures) of art and glimpses of (cathedral) domes

and (palace) walls ; and (villages) clinging like living things to the hill-sides.

It was as if the (sum) of life had (mirrored) itself in the memory. The South

lured her with its languor, its colour, its (hot) (sun), and its splendid

memories.

duration : 40 mn

duration steps 1 mn 1 – T. tells the Ss that they are going to have a listening activity, shares the handouts while telling them not to look at them first. 2 mn 2 – T. makes them listen to the passage once (still without looking at their papers). 1 mn 3 – T. asks what this passage is about generally. 2 mn 4 – T. asks them to look at the handouts and read the text silently.

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2 mn 5 – T. makes them listen for the second time. Ss start to fill in the blanks. 1 mn 6 – T. makes them exchange information in pairs. 2 mn 7 – T. makes them listen for the third time. Ss fill the blanks. 1 mn 8 – Ss exchange information again in their pairs. 20 mn 9 – T. and Ss proceed to the correction . l. T. plays the cassette and everytime stops it just before the omitted word. m. T. asks the omitted word to the Ss but does not tell right away whether it is true or false. Instead T. plays what follows and asks which of the words they proposed is true. If none is true, T. tells what the exact word is. The same procedure is carried out for the seventeen missing words. 5 mn 10 – T. asks them the words they do not know and writes them on the board, then explains. 2 mn 11– T. plays the cassette for the fourth time. Ss follow. 10 mn 12– T. makes them repeat words and phrases.

- scarcely - vision - glimpses

- sixteen - tumultuous - cathedral

- tour - beautiful world - cathedral domes

- Italy - exquisite - palace

- vivid - cities - villages

- memory - snow - mirrored

- movement - snow-capped - lured

- travel - snow-capped mountains - languor

- richness - treasures - splendid

- remained - treasures of art

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ACTIVITY IX : READING COMPREHENSION

ß EXPLOITATION OF PASSAGE N° 11

levels : Première – Terminale

aims : listening – writing - speaking – reading - vocabulary items

duration : 37 mn

materials : photocopies of the text and the activities

Mrs Fullerton’s illness proved more serious than expected. She asked incessantly for her

daughters. The doctor said that the patient must have been suffering from an exhausted

state of nerves. He exclaimed ‘if her children desire to keep her among them, it will be

necessary to treat her with the utmost care, and to oppose her in nothing. She has no

longer the power to stand more chagrin. Her life is in her children’s hands’.

[….] ‘Oh Hadria, I feel as if these were my faults’ cried Algitha.

’You ? It was I’ said Hadria with trembling lips.

’Mother has never been strong’, Algitha went on,’ and my leaving home was the

beginning of all this trouble’.

‘And my leaving home the end of it’, her sister added.

[….] The doctor had not disguised that the patient was fighting hard for life, and that it

was impossible to predict the result. [….] The sick-room was very still when the sisters

entered. A night-light burnt on the table. As the two figures entered, there was a strange

sound. Hadria rushed to the bed. ‘Quick, quick, some brandy’ she called. Algitha flew to

the table for the brandy then gave it to her mother. The sisters stood watching

breathlessly for signs of revival. The patient’s breathing was easier. Another moment, it

would have been too late.

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duration steps

I – WHILE – READING ACTIVITIES 5 mn 1) Read the text silently 5 mn 2) Choose the correct answer : 2.1 – This text is about a – death b – health c – birth 2.2 – The patient is a – Algitha and Hadria’s father b – Algitha and Hadria’s sister c – Algitha and Hadria’s mother 10 mn 3) Answer the questions 3.1 – What is the name of the patient ? 3.2 – What did the doctor say about the cause of the patient’s suffering ? 3.3 – What did he say the girls should do to keep the patient alive ? 3.4 – Did the doctor mention when the patient would recover ? if not, what did he say ? 3.5 – In the second paragraph, in which part of the day did the action take place ? Justify your answer. 3.6 – What drug did they give her ? 3.7 – At the end, was the patient still alive ? Justify your answer. 3 mn 4) True (T) or False (F). If false, give the correct sentence 4.1 – She never wanted to see her daughters 4.2 – The doctor did not tell that the patient was fighting hard for life 4.3 –The patient’s breathing was better at the end. 2 mn 5) Find in the text the synonyms for the words below 5.1 – always 5.2 – tired 5.3 – run to 5.4 – to tell in advance 2 mn 6) Find in the text the opposite of the following words 6.1 – to accept

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6.2 – happiness 6.3 – showed 6.4 – death

10 mn II - POST –READING ACTIVITIES : DISCUSSION 1) What make children want to leave home ? 2) What should be the bases of the relationship between parents and children ? (parents’ power, children’s independence or what ?)

As seen all along this third part of our dissertation, The Daughters of Danaus can be used for the teaching of English in Malagasy Lycées. The fact that it introduces some moral lessons makes it right away valuable. However, what leaves it more interesting, especially in a more pedagogical consideration, is that as a novel, it presents the advantageous characteristics of literary works used in language teaching. First of all, the texts extracted from the novel are authentic ; and so let the learners discover the different facets of the language both in its written and spoken forms. Secondly, the exploitation of these texts improves among the learners the four basic language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing). Then, the same texts can be a source of cultural enrichment, giving pieces of information to both teachers and learners. Finally, the materials (texts) taken from the novel, when well selected, and / or adapted can develop personal involvement among the students.

However, to make them more motivating, the activities used, based on these materials, should be well-chosen as well, according to the learners’ ages, interests, cultural backgrounds and language level, and above all, these activities should always be warming-up.

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CONCLUSION

For advanced learners or students of literature and civilization, or for teachers,

The Daughters of Danaus is very enriching for one’s cultural knowledge. In fact, the novel brings the reader back to the late nineteenth century when women were still so much suffering from their low status in almost all parts of the world, particularly in Britain, one of the

Countries which could be considered as in advance concerning women’s rights and independence as opposed to others.

First of all, from this novel the reader could have an idea of the sex discrimination set up in Britain at that time, of the way how women were kept in a low position by the social conventions and how these common concepts were inculcated into people’s mind. Further research gave more information about the laws related to marriage and motherhood, to employment and education, to politics, leaving women’s subservience as a legal status.

Secondly, complemented by the results of the research made on books and on internet,

The Daughters of Danaus reflects the New Women Movement, a feminist movement which arose among some of the writers of the period. Mona Caird, like other New Women novelists, displayed her resentment against the female domestic-limited life and directly attacked it through her literary works by introducing heroines braving the old conventions and other sympathizing characters cherishing women’s freedom.

Our dissertation, based on The Daughters of Danaus , dealt actually with the various main features which could make it a New Women novel. Meanwhile, the research brought about additional information on the writer’s biography, her life and works most of which were linked with women’s fate, revealing her unconventional views of marriage and motherhood.

On the whole, we value Mona Caird’s The Daughters of Danaus as a very interesting novel to study the subject matter that is feminism in the late nineteenth century Britain.

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The research we made on the case of Britain and of some other parts of the world, on the current feminist groups and actions, the sketches, the pictures (used or not as illustrations inside the dissertation) proved to be so,…

Apart from this fact that the novel is particularly interesting for advanced learners for it enriches their cultural knowledge, it could be exploited as well for less advanced learners (ex: students at the Lycées)’s benefit. First of all, the English used is not particularly difficult that after a judicious selection or / and adaptation, the text could be directly used in teaching.

Then, when also well adapted, the excerpts extracted from the novel could fit to various topics and language elements of the syllabus in Malagasy Lycées. Only, once again, teachers should make a good choice of the passages to be exploited while taking into account the age, the cultural background, the interest and the language level of the learners. Moreover,

the activities based on these materials should be well-chosen, aiming at keeping the learner’s attention focus on them and hence at making them participate more in the learning process. Accordingly, the activities (role play, discussion activities, rearranging extracts, story-making, problem solving, listening and reading comprehension activities) we tried to present in our work could serve as models to those who want to use literary extracts as materials for classroom activities. Though Mona Caird and her novel The Daughters of

Danaus seemed unknown to the large public, this novel presents undeniably both cultural and pedagogical advantages leaving it worthy to read and to study.

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CONTENTS Pages

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………… i

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….. ii

PART I – WOMEN’S POSITION DURING THE LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY IN BRITAIN 1. The legal status of women in the nineteenth century in Britain ……………………. 1

1.1 Women’s legal status in marriage and divorce…………………………………… 1

1.2 Women’s legal status in the working world……………………………………… 4

1.3 Women’s legal status with regard to elections…………………………………… 4

2. Patterns of women’s gender roles …………………………………………………… 5

2.1 The gender roles of the middle and upper-class women…………………………. 5

2-1-1) Wives’ duties……………………………………………………………. 5

2-1-2) Mothers’ duties………………………………………………………….. 6

2-1-3) Women and the working world…………………………………….…… 7

2-1-4) Women’s charity work…………………………………………………. 8

2.2 The multiple roles of the working-class women…………………………………. 9

2-2-1) Wives’ roles…………………………………………………………….. 9

2-2-2) Mothers’ duties…………………………………………………………. 10

2-2-3) Working-class women as economic agents……………………………... 11

3. Girls’ education in the nineteenth century …………………………………………. 15

3.1 Education of poor girls…………………………………………………………… 15

3.2 Education of middle and upper-class girls……………………………………….. 17

3-2-1) Girls’ schooling…………………………………………………………. 17

3-2-2) Middle and supper-class women’s fashion and leisure………………… 20

4. Feminism of the late nineteenth century in Britain ………………………………… 21

4.1 Definition of Feminism…………………………………………………………… 21 4.2 Feminist movements of the period……………………………………………….. 23

4-2-1)Women’s suffrage movement……………………………….…………… 23

4-2-2) The New Women movement……………………………………………. 24

PART II – MONA CAIRD’S THE DAUGHTERS OF DANAUS (1894) AS A REFLEXION OF THE NEW WOMAN MOVEMENT IN BRITAIN 1. Mona Caird as a New Woman writer ………………………………………………. 27

1.1 Mona Caird – Her life and works………………………………………………... 27

1.2 The writer’s unorthodox ideas of marriage and maternity………………………. 28

1-2-1) Marriage as a direct legal means of oppression of women…………….. 28

1-2-2) Maternity as a subtle means of oppression…………………………….. 31

2. The Daughters of Danaus , a New Woman novel, …………………………………. 32 reflecting the New Women movement of the late nineteenth century in Britain

2.1 Denouncing the evil of the status attributed to women………………………….. 33

2.2 The Daughters of Danaus , as an attack on girls’ education……………………... 40

2.3 The Daughters of Danaus , extolling women’s capacity outside domesticity…... 43

2.4 New Women ‘s dream of a changed society…………………………………….. 46

PART III – THE DAUGTHERS OF DANAUS , ADAPTED TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN THE CLASSROOM 1. Links between Literature and Language teaching …………………………………. 52

1.1 Literary texts as “valuable authentic materials”…………………………………. 52

1.2 Literary texts as a source of further “ language enrichment”……………………. 53

1.3 Literary extracts as a source of “cultural enrichment”………………………….. 54

1.4 Literary works as a means to develop “personal involvement”…………………. 54

2. The Daughters of Danaus , a good source of teaching materials ………………….. 55

2.1 General and pedagogical interests of the novel…………………………………. 55

2.2 Suggested activities based on passages taken from The Daughters of Danaus … 57

2-2-1) Some passages taken from the novel…………………………………… 57

2-2-2) Suggested activities……………………………………………………. 62

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………... v

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………….. vii

BIBLIOGRAPHY

- CAIRD, Mona, The Daughters of Danaus , London, 1894, BLISS, SANDS, and FOSTER.

- BURGESS, Anthony, English Literature – A Survey For Students , England, 1974, Longman.

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- OUSBY, Ian, The Cambridge Paperback Guide to Literature In English , Hungary, 1988, Cambridge University Press and the Hamlyn Publishing Group ltd.

- HEALY, Maura, Women , England, 1984, Longman Imprint Books.

- Claire Buck, Women’s Literature A-Z, United Kingdom, 1994, BLOOMSBURY.

- SAGE, Lorna, The Cambridge Guide to Women’s writing In English , Cambridge, 1999, Cambridge University Press.

- LEINGWAND, Gerald, The Pageant of World History , Needham, 1990, Prentice-Hall.

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- RABARIJAONA, Rollande, Social Aspects Of The Industrial Revolution As Seen Through Dickens’s Hard Times , Antananarivo, 2005, ENS.

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