Internationale IUFRO-Konferenz „Kulturerbe Wald“ NEWS OF FOREST HISTORY Nr. III/(36/37)-2/2005

INTERNATIONAL IUFRO-CONFERENCE “WOODLANDS – CULTURAL HERITAGE”

NEWS OF FOREST HISTORY Nr. III/(36/37)/2005. PART 2

IMPRESSUM

Medieninhaber und Herausgeber: Bundesministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft Gesamtkoordination: Abteilung IV 4; Fö. Ing. Johann W. KIESSLING und IUFRO Research group 6.07.00 „Forest History“, Dipl.-FW. Dr Elisabeth JOHANN, Für den Inhalt verantwortlich :die jeweiligen Autoren; Bildnachweis: Bilder der Kapitelseiten BMLFUW; Schima, ForstKultur-Archiv; ansonst Bilder und Graphiken von den Autoren; Quellen beim Bild; 4 News of forest history „ Kulturerbe Wald “

Photo: SCHIMA News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 5

CONTENT – PART 02 SEITE/PAGE

Preface 07

Woodlands in the urban area – Wälder in der Stadtlandschaft 09

MAINTAINING OF FORESTS IN THE RUHR AREA: BETWEEN RURAL CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AND HIGH INTENSITY LAND USE AREAS

Bernward Selter, Centre for Forest Ecosystems, University of Münster, Germany

SITUATING TREES IN THE URBAN LANDSCAPE: OTTAWA; CANADA 1900 – 1930 Joanna Dean, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada

NACHHALTIGE PARKPFLEGE IM SCHLOSSPARK NYMPHENBURG – WALDBAU ZWISCHEN DENKMALSCHUTZ, NATURSCHUTZ, BÜRGERWILLEN UND VERWALTUNG

Jacques A. Volland, Schlosspark Nymphenburg, Germany

Conflicts in and around the forest – 45 Konflikte im und um den Wald

OFFENCES AGAINST FOREST REGULATIONS IN EARLY MODERN TIMES IN THE CANTON OF ZURICH

WALDFREVEL IN DER FRÜHEN NEUZEIT: DEVIANTES VERHALTEN UND / ODER FORM DER KONFLIKTAUSTRAGUNG

Katja Hürlimann, Dep. Forstwissenschaften ETH Zürich, Switzerland

STATE FORESTRY AND TRIBAL UNREST IN INDIA DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY Sushma Rawat, All Saints College, Naini Tal, India

THREE FORESTS AND A SACRED GROVE - CULTURAL ROOTS OF FOREST COMMONS IN THE HIMALAYAS 1800 – 2001

Minoti Chakravarty-Kaul, Dep. of Economics, University of Delhi, India

BIALOWIEZA UND SEINE DEUTSCHEN: JAGD, FORST UND MENSCHEN IN ZWEI WELTKRIEGEN

Kurt Kehr, Weimar, Deutschland

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Inventory of social, spiritual and cultural heritage in the woodland – Erhebung des sozialen, spirituellen und kulturellen Erbes in den Wäldern 83

INTRODUCTION TO A PROJECT IDEA: FOREST CULTURES IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES – NATURE, WORK AND FREEDOM AS CULTURALLY CONSTITUTED THEMES IN DIFFERENT FOREST CONTEXTS

Ingar Kaldal, Historisk Institut, Trondheim, Norway

INVENTORY OF CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ESTONIA Jürgen Kusmin, Estonian Agricultural University, Tartu, Estonia

HISTORISCHE KULTURLANDSCHAFTSELEMENTE IM WALD: ERFASSEN, SCHÜTZEN, INTEGRIEREN – BEISPIELE AUS DEM RHEINLAND

Gerrit Bub, Inst. Historische Geographie, Universität Bonn, Germany

CHARCOAL PRODUCTION SITES STORE INFORMATION ON WOODLAND HISTORY – EXAMPLES FROM THE BAVARIAN FOREST (GERMANY)

Oliver Nelle, Institute f Botany, University of Regensburg, Germany

FOREST-RELATED FAMILY NAMES AND WOODLAND COVER; AN EXPLORATORY STUDY TO POSSIBLE RELATIONS

J. N. van Laar, Wageningen University, The Netherlands

Forests and the public - Der Wald und die Öffentlichkeit 121

FORST UND TOURISMUS - EINE HERAUSFORDERUNG Wolfgang Sovis, Unternehmensberater, Stockerau, Austria

DER NATUR AUF DER SPUR. Gottfried Horvath, Museum Schloß Esterházy, Lackenbach, Austria

NEWS AND FOREST REPRESENTATION AT THE FRENCH TV Michel Dupuy, Institut d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, Paris, France

MUSEUMS AND EXHIBITIONS RELATED TO FOREST HISTORY Johann W. Kiessling, Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management, Vienna Austria News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald 7

PREFACE

Forests and other wooded land cover about social and economic pressure and the 1000 million ha in Europe and are a historical knowledge with regard to woodland characteristic element of the natural conservation and restoration. landscape. They create multiple benefits for The current issue of the “News of Forest economic welfare, biological diversity, water history” contains papers based on scientific balance and offer environmental, protective, research and practical experience focusing social and recreational services to the rural on the social spiritual and cultural and values as well as to the urbanised society. In that of forests. They have been presented on way the social, cultural and environmental occasion of an International Conference on values of sustainable forest management to “Woodlands - cultural heritage” which took society gain increasingly importance in place in Vienna / Austria, from May 3 - 7 international forest policy. Social and cultural 2004. The conference was organised by the values change over time as societies Research Group 6.07.00 Forest History, develop. However there is a loss of past jointly with the Federal Office and Research knowledge of how these forests were used Centre for Forests, the working party Forest and managed in a sustainable way. The History of the Austrian Forest Society, the multi-disciplinary research into the role of the Lehrstuhl für Forstpolitik und Forstgeschichte social and cultural aspects of sustainable TU München, the University of Applied Life forest management in the overall goal of Sciences Vienna and the Federal Ministry of sustainable development gains increasingly Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and importance worldwide. This has recently Water Management. The in-congress- been expressed by the Vienna Declaration excursion was carried out by the Vienna and Vienna Resolutions adopted at the Municipal Department 49 – Forestry Office Fourth Ministerial Conference on the and Urban agriculture. Protection of Forests in Europe and signed The meeting included 2 ½ -days paper by 40 European Countries and the European sessions, an in-congress tour to the Vienna Community (Vienna, 28-30 April 2003). forest (nature conservation, recreation th Because the outcome of the 4 Ministerial forest), and a guided evening tour to the Conference will shape the further work on forest museum Schloß Esterhazy in the protection and sustainable management Lackenbach. About 60 researchers and of forests in Europe there is a need to scientist from 4 continents and 21 countries provide society with the historical information interested in the role of the social and about land use, social perceptions and cultural aspects of forest management in the changing attitudes to trees and woodland, past and working in the fields of forest and origin of modern forestry in the context of woodland history, environmental history, 8 News of forest history „ Kulturerbe Wald “ social history, cultural history, history of of Europe such as Estonia, Norway or hunting and other disciplines attended the Germany, the change of tree species meeting. Some of them also took part in the composition due to forest management in 2-days post congress tour making parts of Denmark and France, the acquaintance with the social and cultural development of the woodlands in the aspects of forest utilization in the history of Mediterranean and Central Europe, the Austrian mountain forests and welfare sustainable forest utilization and its foot- functions of contemporary woodlands in the prints, woodland management and forest- Alpine region of Lower Austria and Styria. related social and political conflicts including the conflicting demands of forest villagers The conference received scientific as well as and state forestry, the urban landscape in political interest by the attendance of the Central Europe, the Mediterranean and Director General of the Forestry Department, elsewhere and in a broader sense with the Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, layered cultures of forestry and the Environment and Water Management DI accomplishments of environmental history in Mannsberger and his deputy DI Dr. Schima, the study of woodlands. the IUFRO Executive Secretary Dr. Mayer, the Head of the Federal Office and Research The comprehensive goal of the international Centre for Forests DI Dr. Mauser, the conference on the cultural heritage of President of the European Society of woodland was to contribute to the ongoing Environmental History Ing. Dr. Winiwarter discussion dealing with social spiritual and and the President of the Australian Forest cultural values of forests and to provide History Society Dr. Dargavel. The import- basic information related to these values. ance of this meeting one year before the The current issue of the News of Forest IUFRO World Congress in Brisbane was History” are the proceedings of this also demonstrated by the participation of the conference containing the presented papers. coordinators of the working groups 6.07.01 That way you can acquire an interesting Tropical forest History Dr. Rawat, Nainital, overview about different topics concerning India, 6.07.03 Ecological forest history Dr. Forest Culture in Europe. It is edited by the Watkins, Nottingham, UK, and 6.07.02 Ministry of Agriculture Forestry Environment Social and economic forest History Dr. and Water management, the Research Agnoletti. Florence, Italy. Group 6.07.00 and the Austrian Forest Society, Expert Group Forest History. The main themes which were addressed during the conference dealt with the Elisabeth JOHANN evolution of forest land and natural and IUFRO 6.07.00 Forest History (Coordinator) cultural forest landscapes in different parts of Email: [email protected] Europe, the inventory and documentation of forest-related cultural heritage in some parts News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 9

WOODLANDS IN THE URBAN AREA

WÄLDER IN DER STADTLANDSCHAFT

Photo: SCHIMA

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News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 11

MAINTAINING OF FORESTS IN THE RUHR AREA: BETWEEN RURAL CULTURAL LANDSCAPE AND HIGH INTENSITY LAND USE AREAS

Introduction forestry workers many female workers were employed primarily for the extensive re-a Does it make sense to research in forest and forestation work as "planting women" at that woodland history just in the most densely time. The 50 penny piece appreciated this populated German Land – all the more in its enormous performance. industrial heartland, the Ruhr region? In the following some typical aspects of the However, a first look in the sources, the forest history especially of the Ruhr region are literature and cultivated landscape itself represented briefly. They are facets of the shows us that various forms of interaction history of the urban forestry whose research is between man and woodlands have changed part of a project "Woodlands and Society in themselves in partly rapid speed particularly in the Ruhr District at the example of the city of the Ruhr District. Essen and surroundings" just started with. Who still knows today why a planting woman is shown on the old German 50 penny coin? After the Second World War - which not only claimed over 55 million human life’s but also left its destructive traces in the cultural landscape - North Rhine-Westphalia was in the first place with a negative balance of approximately 120,000 hectares of open space in Germany. In those days wooded area amounts only about 780,000 hectares; it is 915.800 hectares today. War damages, clear cuts in the course of reparations, fire disasters and bark beetle infestation led to soil erosion and an endangering of the supply of water. The ground was completely exposed to Fig. 1 : Sand drifts nearby Rees at the Niederrhein, North wind and sun, forest fires still extended the West of Ruhr District (Forstl. Dokumentationsstelle NRW); on the right above the old German “50-Pfennig” damages. It is hard to believe but there were coin with “planting woman”. real sand drifts in some regions. From lack of

12 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Ruhr District – Situation and the successful history of "coal and steel" Genesis started only in the middle of the 19th century. The Ruhr District is located in the west of As a new primary energy source the mineral Germany and part of the land North Rhine- coal displaced the traditional central resources Westphalia. About 5.4 million people live here wood and water. 1849 could be melted with on an area of about 4430 square kilometres. Ruhr coke iron. Already in 1837 they The Ruhr region isn't a main landscape. succeeded to break through the lime and marl During the last 150 years the heavy and major layers with the help of the steam engine and industry based on hard coal and iron have enable the effective deep mining with that. drawn its boundaries. From the mutual One could develop the enormous coal dependence relationship between coal and deposits also to the north of the Ruhr valley steel industry and population "a unique now. Within the following decades a north metropolitan area and a melting pot of walk of the Ruhr mining took place, from the numerous ethnic groups" (Gläßer 2003) Ruhr over the Hellweg region, then the arose, which gave itself the name Emscher lowlands and finally the Lippe zone. "Ruhrgebiet" only at the end of the 1920s. Everywhere locations of coalmines and smelting works extended rapidly, traffic arteries and work settlements ran through the landscape. The population grew from 220,000

Hamburg within the years 1816/1818 up to 2.6 million

Ruhr District (1905) and almost 5.7 million in 1967 (KVR). Berlin

Düsseldorf North Rhine- Phases of the forest develop- Düsseldorf Westphalia ment and the forest utilisation Who travelled through the Ruhr District at the beginning of the 20th century could hardly München imagine that there had been once a life there ahead of the industrialization. So Wilhelm

Fig. 2 : Situation of the Ruhr District Schäfer described in his story "Der Ruhr entlang zur Industrie" the city Essen with the In the Ruhr area the origins of the hard coal following words: „In trauriger Öde, zwischen mining reach back up to the early Middle Fabriken und Zechen eingeengt, ziehen die Ages. Within the following centuries the schwarzen Straßen zwischen schwarzen carbon only mined near the surface was Häusern hin, darin die Menschen wie in mostly used for forging and domestic fuel. But Höhlen wohnen. (…) überall Schienen – man News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 13

kann es nicht begreifen, was alle diese were some towns only in the south, in the Bahnen sollen – Drähte von elektrischen Hellweg region and the Ruhr valley. But even Bahnen und immer ein Geruch von nassen cities like Dortmund, Bochum, Essen, Schornsteinen in der Luft: eine Höllengegend Mülheim or Duisburg had only a few thousand (…) “ (cit. from Blotevogel 2001). inhabitants. One of the few witnesses from this time we Oaks, beeches, birches and alders were can see at the photo of the Dortmund central predominant in the woods. There were station which was taken in 1890. Only the so- gigantic alluvial forests and coppice woods, called "Femelinde" (lime-tree of a vehmic coppice with standards and high forests used court) reminds of pre-industrial times. The tree extensively. Large parts of the heath-lands, affected by a storm in the year 1871 owes its pasture grounds and woodlands were jointly surviving the fact that there was one of the used as common land, so-called “Marken”. most important so-called "Freistühle” (place of Woodlands and heath-land were integral a vehmic court) in Westphalia. The court constituents of the rural economy like in many cases held under such prominent trees knew European regions of this time. The farmers only the acquittal or death penalty which was put their cattle out to graze there, got litter and immediately executed on the spot. sods, peat and marl as well as fuel wood and timber. For example the city of Essen leased the oak-mast publicly still 1814. High stands with oaks and beeches only grew up in private plots of land right next to the farms and in noble and fiscal land. The common woodlands and the communal forests were for the most part coppice and brushwood and stocked with oaks, beeches, hornbeams, birches, alders etc. At that time,

all in all, many of the for the most part Fig. 3 : The so-called “Femelinde“ Dortmund central station (photo of 1890; from Haunfelder & Schorfheide scattered woods were described as 1999) devastated. During the last two centuries, the Ruhr Area At 1800 many regions of the northern Ruhr changed from a landscape shaped by District as well as the river mouth of Ruhr and agricultural land use, an urban industrial Emscher were covered by heath and landscape, up to the landscape areas of the woodlands. Wild horses still lived in the post-industrial civilization at present. Grown Emscher swamp. A tree-covered zone from a former agrarian region a conurbation extends over the ridge above the Ruhr. There arose with currently the highest concentration

14 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

of population and settlement as well as the conversion of the energy base to coal and largest concentration of industry and traffic all better transportation conditions, the demand over Europe. for charcoal sink rapidly within less years. Far into the 20th century the formerly widespread forest grounds were forced back For centuries the ore had walked to the to peripheral zones. The numerous marches carbon, the iron industry had established itself (“Marken”) were divided up in the course of in the low mountain ranges where the wood the land reforms in the 19th century and delivered sufficient fuel. Now the iron industry changed into private property or property of was moving near to the hard-coal mines. Also the municipalities. In this way a good quarter other energy dependent branches of trade of the area of administrative district and industry established themselves in the Recklinghausen was parcelled between 1821 course of the time. While the industrialization and 1848. enabled the reconstruction of the forests The heavy and great industrial development in somewhere else, it locally started the the Rhenish Westphalian industrial area was destruction of many woods. based on coal and iron. First landscapes created artificially by man spread after 1850, Between 1820 and 1865 the forest stands an industrial landscape arose as of 1870. In decreased for a while, since the cleared areas the course of this, land use and settlement in the Ruhr valley and in the Hellweg region very rarely showed consideration for natural were larger than the areas reclaimed by the settings of the landscape. partition of the common lands and the afforestations north of the river Emscher. Also in the first half of the industrial expansion phase between 1865 and the turn of the century we can notice a relatively balanced relationship between clearings and afforestations. Only after this, the reforestations of wastelands could no longer compensate for the forest deterioration.

The wooded area has already sunk in some Fig. 4 : Charcoal burning in South Westphalia (by the towns on a minimum in 1937. War and year 1905; Westfälisches Freilichtmuseum Detmold, recovery led to further losses, but the active photo: Heserbrink) The building phase of the Ruhr District efforts of forest preservation led to first between 1840 and 1870 was a turning point successes (green area policy, covering of for the forest development. On the basis of the slagheaps) and the further extension of the News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 15

Land use in Essen (1820-2002)

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0% 1820 1865 1878 1883 1893 1900 1913 1927 1937 1956 1990 2002

(1990 and 2002: settlement incl. gardens and recreation areas) Agricultural area Woodland Wasteland Settlement area Roads/Waters

Figur 5

The Development of the Forest Land in North Rhine-Westphalia 1883-2000 (in hectares)

coppice w ood

400.000 coppice w ith standards

oaks (1961: plenter w ood altogether, incl. conifers)

350.000 birch, alder, aspen, other soft hardw ood

beech, all other hardw ood

300.000 pine

spruce, fir, larch, other conifers 250.000

200.000

150.000

100.000

50.000

0 1883 1893 1900 1913 1927 1961 2000

Figure 6

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settlements was carried out more at the wood per annum and 2,650,000 cubic meters expense of the agricultural area. The first in 1907. mining crisis finally started a phase of the After at first only oak was almost used as a pit deindustrialization of the Ruhr District after timber, one changed on peeled and 1957, which, to this day, isn't completed and impregnated coniferous wood as soon as led to a renewed change of the cultural possible. Particularly they preferred pine but landscape in the region. While the central also larch and spruce. The beech was too Ruhr region was losing many forest grounds heavy and brittle. Its load capacity was too low during the industrialization, the northern and it didn't give any “warning signal”. Oak administrative districts of Recklinghausen, was almost only used for special purposes in Hamm, Moers and Geldern profited form the second half of the 19th century. For the use afforestations for the mining industry. After all, as pit props it was too heavy and thus the 1805 almost deforested Recklinghausen impractical. Despite the increasing wood district was wooded at 24.6% in 1900. prices and the pit development with metal the In the vast growing Ruhr area the demands demands for pit timber still played an for timber have shot up. The new markets and important role up to the time after World War the conversion to fossil energy sources II. Just the mining crisis starting in the late defined new forest functions. The expanding 1950s put an end to this. timber market (railroad construction, mining, house building) needed fast-growing softwoods. The rotation periods of many Characteristics of the forests exclusively followed the needs of the forestry in the Ruhr District mining industry. Between 1845 and 1865 the Afforestations for mining timber coal output in the Ruhr District steeply rose The extension of coalmines consumed huge from 1.227 m. tons to 8.256 m. tons, and 1913 quantities of timber and boosted the pine finally to 114.226 m. tons. forest management especially in small private Until the 1870s the shaft and processing forests. This changed the face of many types plants of the coal-mines almost exclusively of woodland on the edge of the region. Around were made of wood or half-timbering. In the 1850 many forest owners planted a number of underground mining the timber was used for pure oak stands, and after 1870 young pine the tunnel and shaft making. Also work stands arose around the Ruhr Area. As equipment, conveyor systems and the tracks mentioned above, 1870 people had usually consisted of wood. The pit discovered that the pine tree has a kind of development consumed gigantic quantities of “early warning system” which can be wood. At the beginning of the 1890s the Ruhr lifesaving in the underground mining. It is mining has used up 1,173,000 cubic meters of another advantage of the tree that it grows News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 17

fast and one could market its wood as pit was at about 4,900 tons (Schulte 2003b; timber in short time (30 to 60 years old). Landesumweltamt NRW, Emissionskataster Forestry hadn't wanted to lay out durable Luft: http://www.lua.nrw.de/d3ed1.htm.) monotonous pine and spruce plantations until But hardly anything happened for a long time. this time. On the one hand, medium-strong Only 1927 the “Siedlungsverband oaks could be sold well as railway ties and as Ruhrkohlenbezirk” (SVR) published a a mine timber. On the other hand, the memorandum with the title " Walderhaltung im temporary reforestation with little exacting tree Ruhrkohlenbezirk ”. Its central ideas said that species – like pine - seemed to be a way to "for decades the dying of forests in the cultivate the run-down heath-land at all again. “Ruhrkohlenbezirk” was spreading in an During this time in the southern regions the alarming way". For the first time “smoke recreational use more and more influenced damages and the dying of forests were the remaining forests. concerned with public precautions, government and general public were asked to Damages to forests by the industrialization preserve the woods of the Ruhr region for Among other negative effects, the vast social and ecological reasons ” (Schulte expansion of population, settlement, and 2003b). But a smoke damage commission industry led to deforestation in some areas, 1927, started up by the Siedlungsverband, and the quality of the remaining forest stands failed. The rules of the economy won over was reduced as a result of air pollution or ecology, environmental loads had to be “local subsidence caused by mining custom”, and with that accepted in industrial (“Bergsenkungen”). The Ruhr district is the areas. At the moment population and forestry probably biggest and at the longest and partly capitulated to the “acid gasses”. at the strongest area affected by air pollution They restricted themselves to silvicultural and "smoke damages" in Germany. operations and started with the cultivation of Already within the 1880s the "smoke plague" pollution-resistant tree species. The SVR reached a new dimension. The reports financed a first tree nursery in Hattingen in occurred increasingly about damages to 1923. " Next to few autochthonous tree woods nearby iron works in the Ruhr region in species the so-called exotic species the districts of Hagen, Dortmund, Bochum and ("Fremdländer") like red oak, acacia, black Recklinghausen at that time. The sulphur pine, Japanese larch, plane and poplar dioxide emission (SO2) of the coking plants in hybrids were the carriers of hope in the Ruhr Dortmund increased from about 4,000 t 1893 district " (Schulte 2003b). Interrupted by the to almost 28,000 t in 1913. World War II and the needs of the post-war For comparison purposes: In 1999/2000 the era, the debate on the “Rauchschäden” total emission of sulphur dioxide in Dortmund started once more against the background of

18 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

air pollution rising strongly at the end of the zugewendet, die zu den größten Hoffnungen 1950s. In the end this led into the fatal but for auf dessen Erhaltung und Verschönerung the industry cost-effective high chimney policy berechtigt. Die Verwaltungen größerer Städte (“Hochschornsteinpolitik”) of the 1960s till (…) erblicken (…) eine hauptsächliche 1980s. Aufgabe darin, dem Großstädter an der Stadtgrenze ausgedehnte vorhandene Waldgebiete für die Zukunft zu sichern, durch Ausbau von Wegen zu erschließen und somit Gelegenheit zur Erholung und zum Frohsinn in zwangloser Umgebung in ungekünstelter heimischer Natur zu verschaffen “ (cit. from Kastorff-Viehmann 1998). In the Ruhr District the first forest preservation projects already started at the end of the 19th century. Within the following decades more and more

woodlots passed into ownership of the communities with the aim of managing them park-likely. Humans in the industrial land- scape defined forests less and less by means of components of their working world, but as places of relaxation and leisure-time activities. Woodlands occupied a large part in a nature which was "maltreated” by industry and

pollution and because of that was worthy of Fig. 7, 8 : Tree nurseries (here: Hattingen) for the conservation. cultivation of pollution-resistant „rauchharter Baumarten“ (Forstl. Dokumentationsstelle NRW) - No fruit tree As a reaction against the negative results of plantation, but a 40 years old oak stand in „Hertener the disordered area consumption, the Wald“, summer 1926, which had to suffer under smoke population explosion and the damages damage since its establishment (Siedlungsverband caused by the industry the German Ruhrkohlenbezirk 1927). government 1920 founded the

“Siedlungsverband Ruhrkohlenbezirk” (today Protective measures and renaturation: “Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet”, KVR) by law. covering of pit-heaps The “protection and creation of larger areas The periodical "Gartenkunst" wrote in 1909: kept free of the buildings (woods, heathland „Ist im allgemeinen ein Rückgang der Wälder and water (“Wasserfläche”) as well as similar festzustellen, so wird in neuester Zeit Schutz recreation areas)" was confirmed as a legal und Pflege dem Wald von einer Seite News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 19

task (cit. from Wipf 2003). The results of the coal-mining industry were visible everywhere. So hundreds of bizarre mine waste tips or pit- heaps grew upward from the landscape. Many of them burned because of chemical conversions for decades. Planting them with grass and trees caused a number of broader problems (weathering, soil forming processes, and water balance) besides the discussion with the coalmine administrations. Fig. 9 : Renatured slagheap „Hoppenbruch“ used to the local recreation at Herten in the year 1995

(KVR, photo: J. Schuhmacher) After first afforestations before the World War

II the efforts were intensified after the war. In Concluding remarks 1951 the so-called “Begrünungsaktion Over a long period an ambivalent view of the Ruhrkohlenbezirk” was started up together industrially marked landscape lived in our with the “Schutzgemeinschaft Deutscher Wald heads. In the literature but also of some (SDW). The North Rhine-Westphalian people on the spot, the industrial landscape government placed subsidies for the covering was perceived as a counter concept to a of pit-heaps and wasteland at their disposal. "harmonious pre-industrial, essentially rural Up to the year 2000 in the “Begrünungsaktion” landscape" (Blotevogel 2001). Many attempts approx. 3,300 hectares pit-heaps and were made to make urban industrial wasteland were afforested with 34.5 Mill. landscape of the Ruhr region capable of plants in about 2,600 individual measures. identification - last by International Building The land conservation work of the association Exhibition Emscher Park (Internationale in the fields of woods preservation, creative Bauausstellung Emscher Park – IBA Emscher landscaping, reforestation and afforestation Park) from 1989-1999. Even the idea of under extremely difficult conditions setting up a "national park of the industry (recultivations, re-forestations, planting of culture" stood at the end of the IBA Emscher unvegetated areas, wastelands, slopes, Park. embankments etc., covering of pit-heaps) is Which role did woodlands play and are still nationwide path breaking. Meanwhile, the playing in a conurbation especially for the Ruhr District is covered with wood again to development of a regional identity? Which 17.6% (about 80,000 hectares.) influence did the nature conservation and “Heimatschutzbewegung” - arising at the be

20 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

beginning of the 19th century - as well as the Siedlungsverband Ruhrkohlenbezirk (ed.) 1927: political pedagogical literature of later years Denkschrift über die Walderhaltung im Ruhr- have? Which demands people had concerning kohlenbezirk. Essen: Siedlungsverband Ruhr- kohlenbezirk. the forests and how did their attitudes to the woodlands change? Also these are questions Siedlungsverband Ruhrkohlenbezirk (ed.) 1970: Siedlungsverband Ruhrkohlenbezirk 1920-1970. to which we would like to find answers in our Essen: Siedlungsverband Ruhrkohlenbezirk. project. Wehling, H.-W. 2000: Montanindustrielle Kultur-

landschaft des Ruhrgebiets. Raumzeitliche Ent- References wicklung im regionalen und europäischen Kontext. In: Stottrop, U. (ed.): Unten und oben: die Blotevogel, H. H. 2001:Industrielle Kulturlandschaft Naturkultur des Ruhrgebiets. Ruhrlandmuseum im Ruhrgebiet. Die Geschichte einer schwierigen Essen, 14. Mai bis 15. Oktober 2000. Essen, Annäherung. Diskussionspapier 3/2001. Uni- Bottrop, pp. 21-39. versität Duisburg, Institut für Geographie. Wentzel, K.-F. 1957: Sterbende Wälder Denk- Gläßer, E. 2003: Abriss der jüngeren schrift über die besondere Lage der Forstwirtschaft Wirtschaftsgeschichte. In: Schulte, A. (ed.): Wald im Industriegebiet dargestellt am Kreise Reckling- in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Vol. 1. Münster: Aschen- hausen (Westf.). Recklinghausen: W. Bitter. dorff, pp. 5-8. Wipf, J. M. 2003a: Haldenaufforstungen im Stein- Haunfelder, B.; Schorfheide, R. 1999: Westfalen. kohlenbergbau des Ruhrgebiets und ihre Nutzung. Zwei Jahrhunderte in Bildern; von der preußischen In: Schulte, A. (ed.): Wald in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Provinz 1815 bis in die Gegenwart. Münster: Vol. 1. Münster: Aschendorff, pp. 381-384. Aschendorff.

Kastorff-Viehmann, R. (eds.) 1998: Die grüne Stadt - Siedlungen, Wälder, Parks und Grün- flächen 1860-1960 im Ruhrgebiet. Essen: Klartext. Schulte, A. 2003b: Vom Rauchschaden zum Waldsterben. In: Schulte, A. (ed.): Wald in Bernward Selter Nordrhein-Westfalen. Vol. 2. Münster: Aschendorff, Centre for Forest Ecosystems University of pp. 640-675. Münster, Schulte, A. (ed.) 2003c: Wald in Nordrhein- Robert-Koch-Straße 26, 48149 Münster, Germany, Phone: +49 251 83-30123, Fax:+49 251 83-30128, Westfalen. 2 Vol. Münster: Aschendorff. E-mail: [email protected] , Selter, B. 2003: Holz als vorindustrieller URL: http://www.wald-zentrum.de Energieträger und universeller Werkstoff im

„hölzernen Zeitalter“. In: Schulte, A. (ed.): Wald in Nordrhein-Westfalen. Vol. 1. Münster: Aschendorff, pp. 189-201.

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OTTAWA’S CENTRAL PARK: ESTHETIC FORESTRY VS ORNAMENTAL GARDENS

In 1903 the Ottawa Improvement Commission L.A. Gordon argues that the Commission’s turned to the young landscape architect decision not to retain Todd was a financial Frederick Todd to draw up a parks plan for one, but an examination of one of the first Canada’s capital city. Todd proposed a parks created by the Commission, Central picturesque, wooded landscape. Against Park at Patterson Creek, suggests more those who wanted to create a “Washington of fundamental differences: Todd’s recommen- the North,” he argued that Ottawa should build dations for the preservation of natural on the grandeur of its setting high on the woodland were ignored and the Commission forested banks of the Ottawa River: “A plan built a formal ornamental garden. 3 (Plate 1) which would be ideal for Washington would be Failures are interesting; their contradictions ill adapted for Ottawa, whose picturesque reveal the tensions underlying urban situation must obviously form the foundation landscaping better than fully executed plans. and keynote of any proposed plans for the Examination of the debates around Central future.” 1 He urged the Commission to develop Park suggests that local knowledge of a a number of urban and suburban parks, many difficult site and a colonial sense of national of them wooded, and linked by a network of identity informed the Commission’s decision to parkways. Concern about conservation was choose a visibly controlled formal landscape growing in Canada in 1903, and he suggested over the apparent naturalness of the that a 2000 acre forest reserve be created to picturesque. serve as an example of “the forests which Frederick Todd’s initial excitement on viewing once covered a great portion of this country.” 2 the park site was palpable: “That there should

Todd’s thirty-nine-page Preliminary Report to 3 the Ottawa Improvement Commission is now David L.A. Gordon “Frederick Todd and the Origins of the Park System in Canada’s Capital,” considered a visionary document. At the time, Journal of Planning History 1,1 (February 2002), 40. This article provides a thorough background to however, the Commission chose not to retain Todd’s relationship with the Commission and his Todd and ignored much of his advice. David influence upon Ottawa’s landscaping. There is some confusion about the name of this park. Todd refers to it as Patterson Creek Park, and Meredith 1 Frederick Todd, Preliminary Report to the Ottawa follows this usage, but the Commission refers to it Improvement Commission (Ottawa: 1903), 2. For in 1912 records as Central Park. The park is now background on Ottawa see John Taylor, Ottawa: known as Central Park in the west and Patterson An Illustrated History (Toronto: J. Lorimer, 1986). Creek Park in the east. Linda M.M. Decaire also 2 Todd, Preliminary Report, 7. Canada’s first forest describes an esthetic difference between Todd and congress was held in 1906, and the first Canadian the Commission in her article, “The Rideau Canal: forestry schools were established at the University Founding Element in Ottawa’s Evolving of Toronto in 1907, in Fredericton in 1908, and Landscape,” Ontario History 89, 2 (June 1997), Laval University in 1912. 145.

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be so near the centre of a city as large as Boston fens was a “daring experiment of Ottawa a stream [Patterson Creek] with such engineering, ecology, landscape design and beautiful natural shores and with such fine city planning” 5. In Ottawa, however, Todd woods adjacent seems almost incredible and hoped to simply preserve the “natural beauty” it is difficult to understand why this land had of the site. “Patterson Creek and its remained unoccupied for such a long time.” surroundings are so naturally beautiful that if He recommended immediate purchase of the for taken park purposes its present natural land in order to “preserve in what will character should determine to a great extent practically be the centre of your city, a bit of its future treatment.“ He suggested some tree natural woods.” Todd’s prescriptions for planting and pruning: “I would suggest that Ottawa were heavily influenced by Frederick groups of trees be arranged in an artistic Law Olmsted’s aesthetics; he had apprenticed manner, over the north-eastern portion of this with the prestigious Olmsted firm from 1896- park, so that they will unite harmoniously with 1900, and his photograph of Patterson Creek the beautiful woods in the western portion…. resembles photos of the Olmsted landscaping the existing woods should be gone over as of the Boston fens 4. Olmsted had gone to soon as possible and some of the poor great lengths to recreate a natural shoreline in spindling trees removed so that others may be Boston; as Ann Whiston Spirn has shown, the enabled to spread out”. All of this, however, was to be done with caution. As he wrote in

4 Frederick Todd (1876-1948) was probably hired his report, ‘real landscape art is nothing if it is because of his apprenticeship with the Olmsted 6 firm, from 1896-1900. Robert Surtees, the OIC not conservative of natural beauty.” engineer, wrote: “The Board engaged some time Todd’s recommendations reflected an ago a Mr. Tod [sic] a pupil of the late Mr. Olmstead [sic] to prepare a report….” Surtee to Sidney approach to woodland management that he Fisher, Minister, Department of Agriculture, September 8, 1903. Letter book of Robert later elaborated on in a booklet titled Esthetic Surtees, p. 325. PAC, RG 34, Series A2, volume Forestry 7. Esthetic forestry, he said, was 29. Frederick Law Olmsted had retired before Todd came to the firm, and Todd likely worked with forestry for the production of pleasure; it was Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., John Charles Olmsted, Charles Eliot and Henry Codman The similarity distinct from commercial forestry, which aimed between views of Patterson Creek and the Boston at profit“ fens is apparent in photographs of the creek in both Todd’s Preliminary Report and The Report The governing principles of one are so and Correspondence of the Ottawa Improvement radically different from the other that it is Commission relating to the Improvement and Beautification of Ottawa, and the photograph of the impossible to consider them together.” It fens published in Ann Whiston Spirn, “Constructing Nature: The Legacy of Frederick Law Olmsted,” in involved the judicious management of the William Cronon, Uncommon Ground, (New York:1996). For a discussion of F.L. Olmsted’s consultations with engineers over the fens see 5 Spirn, “Constructing Nature: The Legacy of Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Frederick Law Olmsted and Frederick Law Olmsted.” the Boston Park System (Cambridge: Belknap, 6 See Todd, Preliminary Report, 3, 38, 23, 26. 1982), 150-155. Todd noted in his report that the 7 Frederick G. Todd, Esthetic Forestry, (Montreal: Boston parks had cost ten million dollars. Witness Printing House, n.d.) News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 23

forest: the trimming of the undergrowth to was seen to be the most restful for tired showcase large specimen trees, the careful urbanites; as Todd explained, " a crowded creation of groves and the cautious opening population, if they are to live in health and up of views. He advised readers, “I believe happiness must have space for the enjoyment always in doing too little cutting rather than too of the peaceful beauty of nature which, much and in never cutting a tree until it is because it is opposite of all that is sordid and absolutely necessary, for in cutting a tree we artificial in our city lives, is so wonderfully destroy what it may not be possible in our refreshing to the tired souls of city dwellers" lifetime to replace it is not at all difficult to do (This antipathy to ornamental flowers was irreparable injury to a wood in a very short typical of the Olmsted approach. When a time if we have no definite scheme before us.” commissioner in Chicago asked Frederick It is likely that Todd learned this approach Law Olmsted where the flower beds were to from Charles Eliot, an Olmsted partner who be placed, he is said to have replied: had published a pioneering book on "Anywhere outside the park"10 ). landscape forestry, Vegetation and Forest It appears from the tone of Todd’s report that Scenery for Reservations (1896) during he expected to face some opposition from the Todd’s apprenticeship with the firm. Todd’s Ottawa Improvement Commission --“the term choice of title suggests that he was also ‘improve,’’ he noted pointedly,”is so constantly familiar with the well known work of German misused that it means to many people almost forester, Heinrich von Salisch, Forstaesthetic the opposite of what it should”. The confident, (1885) 8. His Ottawa report is an application of even arrogant, tone in the report was that of a these principles to wooded urban parks, as young man recently apprenticed to one of the well as suburban parks and forest most famous landscaping firms in the world: reservations. “curious and fantastically shaped flower beds,” He strongly recommended against ornamental he observed, “unfortunately, cannot always be landscaping: “While [Patterson Creek] may be classed as artistic.” “Rustic bridges,” treated in a somewhat more ornamental style “monstrosities of buildings” and “Keep off the than the suburban parks, it seems to me that Grass” signs sacrificed utility to “questionable this object should be gained by the use of beauty.” 11 Todd did support the Commission’s trees and shrubs rather than the flowers or plans for a parkway system 12 . plants of an exotic character. 9”. He advised against “fantastic” flower beds, exotic plant 10 Witold Rybczynski, A clearing in the distance : material and rustic bridges. Natural beauty Frederick Law Olmsted and America in the nineteenth century (New York: Scribner’s, 1999), 301. 8 Heinrich von Salisch, Forstaesthetic 3rd ed. 11 Todd, Preliminary Report, 23, 26-27. (1885; Julius Springer: 1911). I would like to thank 12 Although he is generally given entire credit for Bostjan Anko for this reference. his report, it is not always clear which of his 9 Todd, Preliminary Report, 38. proposals were original. The Commission’s

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The Commission had already completed first priority lay in the construction of a much of the construction for a parkway along parkway. Robert Surtees, their consulting the Rideau Canal, leading from the Governor engineer, supervised the construction of two General’s residence to the Central Experi- broad avenues parallel to and crossing the mental Farm. The canal route had been new park, linked to the Rideau Canal blocked by the stables of the local agricultural parkway. This was financed by a curious mix fair grounds, and Todd concurred with the of private and public money. Local construction of an alternate route and landowners who were just at the point of suggested that it be built along Patterson developing suburban estates in the area Creek. With careful planning, he suggested donated the roadway allowance to the that this might become one of the finest Commission. In return the Commission built residential streets in Ottawa. broad macadamized avenues, lined with rows Within 6 months of considering Todd’s report of elms and maples, and set standards for the Commission acquired 13.5 acres of land construction including a stipulation for “houses adjacent to Patterson Creek. The new park not less than $2,500.00.” This was mutually was narrower than Todd had proposed, beneficial: the Chair of the Commission probably because it was largely built upon pointed out to one landowner that the avenues government owned ordnance lands, and would enhance the value of the adjacent extended further west into a wetland area at properties. As Todd had anticipated, a row of the head of the creek 13 . The Commission’s imposing homes gradually flanked the park 14 .

Alexander Stuart, the superintendent of works consulting engineer, Robert Surtees, conducted who succeeded Surtees in early 1906, him on his initial tour of the city, and his offer to show Todd “the proposed work” suggests that subsequently supervised construction of the many of the parameters were already in place. 15 Surtees offered to “go over the proposed work for park itself . He may have encountered a day or two as a preliminary examination,” and then do it more thoroughly a week or two later, after the grant was made by the government. Avenue, were self interested, as they stood to gain Surtees to Federick Todd. June 28, 1903. by the creation of an exclusive avenue on their Letterbook of Robert Surtees, 298, Public Archives land. The park was ringed by a woodland that of Canada, RG 34, Series A2, volume 29. Todd disappeared as housing was constructed. thanks Surtees in his report, referring to his 14 Chairman of the Ottawa Improvement “cheerful and ready assistance and through Commission to H.B. Spencer, Superintendant of knowledge of Ottawa.” the Canadian Pacific Railway, November 8, 1902. 13 The OIC acquired about 12 acres of Ordnance Letterbook of Robert Surtees, 322. Public Archives land and 1.5 acres donated by Senator Kirchhoffer. of Canada, RG 34, Series A2, volume 29. David Todd’s proposal was for a shorter and wider park; L.A.Gordon has observed a “whiff of scandal” the Commission built a long narrow park angling to regarding the Commission’s operations. Gordon , the northwest along the line of the creek. For “Frederick Todd and the Origins of the Park further details on land acquisition see Principal System in Canada’s Capital,” 41. Parks and Driveways maintained by the Ottawa 15 The 1912 OIC Report credits Stuart with the Improvement Commission (Ottawa: 1925). Most design and construction of Central Park. [Sir Henry donations, such as H.C. Monk’s donation of land N. Bate, Chair] Special Report of the Ottawa for Monkland Avenue, and the Clemow estate’s Improvement Commission from its Inception in donation of 7 feet on each side of Clemow 1899 to March 31st, 1912 (Ottawa: 1912), 11. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 25

practical difficulties with Todd’s proposals for large rustic pagoda was constructed on an a picturesque landscape. Although Todd artificial island in the new lagoon. repeatedly invoked nature in his report – The wetlands at the head of the creek posed Patterson Creek had “beautiful natural more difficult problems 17 . In 1905 Robert shores,” “natural woods,” was “naturally Surtees wrote to the City of Ottawa raising beautiful” and should retain its “present concerns about their use of the wetlands as a natural character” – Patterson Creek was not “public dump for yard cleanup.” Surtees did a natural body of water, but was already an not ask City to stop dumping – just to ensure engineered landscape. The creek had been that the material stayed below the water diverted from its outlet in the Rideau River by level 18 . With this fill, additional “cellar the building of the Rideau Canal in the early material,” and, later, extensive tile drainage, 1830s, and rising water levels from the canal Stuart transformed the wetlands into a formal created the wooded inlet that charmed Todd 16 . sunken garden, lined with stone walls and Todd probably only saw the site in early July, filled with flower beds in fanciful shapes 19 . when the creek was full, newly flushed with (Photographs 1 and 2) (One flower bed, in the spring water, and the surrounding woods design of the crescent and star of the Ottoman green. Water levels fluctuate on the canal, Empire, was to cause controversy a few years however, and it is likely that the natural later when Canada was at war 20 ) The beds shorelines that Todd admired in Patterson were filled with exotic annuals raised in Creek would have required expensive greenhouses, laid out in the bright patterns of engineering if they were to retain their 17 picturesque appeal year round. Instead, under John Leaning, a National Capital Commission architect and local historian, speculates that night Stuart’s supervision, Patterson Creek was soil was used for the market gardens in the area. Leaning, The Story of the Glebe, 12. dredged, a cement and stone wall replaced 18 In Feb 23 1905 Robert Surtees wrote to Newton the shorelines that Todd had admired, and a J. Kerr, the City Engineer, on behalf of the OIC. Curiously he only asked for a slight modification in the dumping: “If you require a dump in this locality that you will please change the locality at once and 16 For the impact of the Canal construction in this only fill in the portion covered by water to water area, see John Leaning, The Story of the Glebe, level, lying west of the old dump at Bank St., under (Ottawa: J. Leaning, 1999) 12. A map published in the water level.” Robert Surtees Letterbook, 363. the Historical Atlas of Carleton County, Ontario The reference to the old dump suggests that this shows a wide inlet leading up to what is now area had been used as a dump for some time; it is Isabella Street. Historical Atlas of Carleton possible that Surtees had used it himself during his County, Ontario (Ottawa: H. Belden and Co: 1879), own tenure as City Engineer prior to his work with 8. The trees observed by Todd were likely to` be a the Commission. second or third growth.. The original surveyor had 19 The reference to “cellar material” is in the letter observed in 1793 “The timber is in general tall and describing the acquisition of the Ordnance lands straight, without any underbrush, and I should between O’Connor and near Lyon St. on March 22, suppose a man would be able to clear in the of 1904. Surtees to Newton J. Kerr, Feb 23, 1905. American method an acre fit for seeding in eight George Surtees Letterbook, 363. days.” John Stegman, Deputy Surveyor, cited in 20 Ottawa Horticultural Society Records, Minutes of Wilfred Eggleston, The Queens Choice, (Ottawa: Meetings (November 17, 1916) p 285. National 1961.) Archives of Canada, R27, 19-0-8-E.

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carpet bedding. The park was edged at the far Meredith was well connected and his end with a row of Lombardy poplars, the most comments, addressed to the Prime Minister, visibly exotic of landscape trees 21 . The park, were subsequently published in a which cost the Commission $58,140.19, parliamentary sessional paper on the included everything that Todd had warned beautification of Ottawa. In their defence, the against – fantastic flower beds, exotic plants, Commission argued that they “kept in view the rustic bridges, monstrosities of buildings and general outlines of [Todd’s ] report, but numerous signs warning residents to “keep off changing local conditions and a limitation of the grass. 22 ” The choice of a name for the financial resources obliged them to keep park was ironic: Ottawa’s Central Park was within narrower limits than those prescribed by the antithesis of its picturesque namesake. In Mr. Todd 24 .” They retaliated by publishing a 1912, a newly appointed member of the Special Report with scenic vistas of formal Commission, C.P. Meredith, wrote a scathing parks and driveways, including several of criticism of Commission landscaping, noting Central Park (see Photographs 1 and 2). that Central Park “is now laid out with wiggling walks, concrete margins to lagoons, fantastic flower beds, and rustic pagodas everything that should not be done has been done to mar its natural beauty and call for the severest criticism. In fact it is a shining and typical example of the harm and irreparable damage and waste that can be done by the unskilled 23 designer. ” Panel 1: Central Park East of Bank St. [Sir Henry N. 21 For the Lombardy poplars see photographs in Bate, Chair] Special Report of the Ottawa Improvement Commission from its Inception in 1899 to March 31st, OIC reports of 1912 and 1925. Aerial photos 1912 (Ottawa: 1912). ©NCC/CNN show what appear to be Lombardy poplars and residents confirm that a few remaining poplars ringed the park in the 1980s. See for example, A Although Meredith presented it as a simple 3332 -64 (1931) National Air Photo Library of matter of taste, the debate was a Canadian Canada. 22 This cost (from the 1912 Special Report of the rendition of the longstanding British battle OIC) did not include construction of Clemow and between the formal and picturesque. Meredith Monkland Avenues, which were reported in 1912 to cost 25,297.55 and $12, 912.07 respectively. The 1904 Report to the Ottawa Improvement Commissioners recorded a cost for one section of of the Ottawa Improvement Commission relating to Clemow Avenue of $18,016.01. There is no record the Improvement and Beautification of Ottawa, of the cost of Linden Terrace, the road next to Sessional Papers 51a, (Ottawa: 1912) 43, 45. The Central Park, although this is included in the list of report was extensively quoted in the press. See roads maintained by the Commission in the 1912 “Merciless Analysis of Commission Work,” Citizen report. February 23, 1912. 23 C.P. Meredith to Prime Minister Borden, 24 Special Report of the Ottawa Improvement February 7, 1912, in Report and Correspondence Commission (1912), 11. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 27

appealed to nature, as Todd had repeatedly done in his report. This appeal still holds power, and Meredith’s sentiments – his horror at the destruction of natural woodland and his distaste for the Commission’s formal garden – are widely shared today. But nature is a loaded term, as both environmental and landscape historians have revealed, and the evocation of the natural has often obscured Panel 2 : Central Park Flower Bed f [Sir Henry N. Bate, Chair] Special Report of the Ottawa Improvement the assertion of class and state power. As Commission from its Inception in 1899 to March 31st, Simon Pugh observed, “the ‘natural’ is the 1912 (Ottawa: 1912). ©NCC/CNN cultural meaning read into nature, meaning But whose power was asserted in Central determined by those with the money and Park? Despite Meredith’s comments about power to use nature instrumentally 25 ” The the bricklayer, there is little to suggest that slightly arrogant tone of Todd’s report and Central Park reflected local aesthetics. Ottawa Meredith’s contemptuous description of the was a lumber town, and was still rough around Commission’s superintendent, Alexander the edges at the turn of the century, but local Stuart -- “a so-called superintendent, who is residents appear to have valued shade trees. nothing more than a bricklayer” -- reveal the Anson Gard, writing one year after Todd’s visit play of class privilege in the reading of nature. said that “tree embowered Ottawa is Of course, Todd and Meredith’s vision failed in becoming a veritable beauty spot 27 ”. Blodwen Central Park. W.J.T. Mitchell has argued Davies described Ottawa as a verdant capital further that landscape “doesn’t merely signify in 1932: “Ottawa is a city in green plumage all or symbolize power relations; it is an the long summer, for its streets and parks; instrument of cultural power 26 .” gardens and drives are thickly covered with trees. From the clear, translucent green of

25 Simon Pugh: “the ‘natural’ is the cultural May until autumn, when they cover the city meaning read into nature, meaning determined by those with the money and power to use nature like an old tapestry of jade and gold, wine and instrumentally… .” Garden, Nature, Language russet, they are a crowning glory. 28 ” Aerial (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), 2. I would like to thank Verena Winiwarter for photographs of the City of Ottawa in the suggesting this line of interpretation 26 W.J.T. Mitchell “Introduction” in Landscape and 1920s and 1930s show a well-treed urban Power (University of Chicago Press: 1994), 1. Anne Helmreich provides a discussion of the debate between the natural and formal landscape at this time in England in The English Garden and National Identity: The Competing Styles of Garden Design, 1870-1914. Modern Architecture and 27 Gard, The Hub and Spoke, 35. Cultural Identity (Cambridge and New York: 28 Blodwen Davies, The Charm of Ottawa (Ottawa: Cambridge University Press, 2002). McLeod and Stewart, 1932), 15.

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landscape 29 . By this time the abundance of ability to design curious and fantastically trees on Ottawa’s streets had become shaped flower beds which unfortunately problematic: Ottawa’s Horticultural Society cannot be classed as artistic… to accomplish campaigned for better management of shade this public and especially the children are trees in the 1920s and the city’s park and tree forbidden to walk on the grounds 32 .” superintendent, R.F. Waugh went on record in He questioned “the sacrifice of utility to 1932 decrying the overabundance of shade in questionable beauty” and noted that European city streets 30 . cities were the first to discard the ‘Keep off the The presence of numerous “keep off the Grass’ sign. Meredith reiterated this point:“The grass” signs further suggests that these parks Commission does not seem to appreciate that were not designed, at least not primarily, for the parks are for people and the “keep off the public use. Public access to grass was a grass” sign is too frequent 33 ”. But the contested issue at this time in Ottawa. One whiteness of signs and their prominence both arch observer of Ottawa had said of Major’s in the parks and in the 1912 photographs (one Hill Park in 1904: “It is one of these little spots photograph, “Central Park East of Bank of beauty which only the park attendants fully Street”, incorporates two such signs) suggest enjoy. It is one of the “Don’t Parks.” The very that their presence was no accident. The lack air seems to bear a placard, “Don’t Breathe.” of access to the grass symbolized the purpose By way of a digression I will say that the day is of these parks; they existed for display, not coming, is now here in many cities, when recreation 34 . The construction of the parks “keep off the grass” is never seen – parks are coincided with the arrival of the automobile, paid for by a city for enjoyment of its residents and the angle of the photographs suggest that rather than park attendants 31 .” the parks were intended for viewing from the Todd, who emphasized the value of parks for parkways: the vivid colours of the carpet public health, had advised open access, “In bedding, the shapes of the flower beds, and many cities the chief and only aim… seems to the white pathways were designed for be to beautify the city and display the appreciation from a distance. These parks gardener’s art or perhaps more often his were built to impress visiting dignitaries. The pressures for civic beautification came 29 Aerial photos, A4570-22, May 14, 1928, and A from outside Ottawa. The Ottawa Improve- 3332-64, May 26, 1931, National Air Photo Library of Canada. 30 R.F.Waugh, City of Ottawa Departmental Report 32 Todd, Preliminary Report, 24. 1932, p. 320-321. Ottawa Horticultural Society 33 C.P. Meredith to Prime Minister Borden, Records, Annual Reports and Programs, 1917- February 7, 1912, in Report and Correspondence 1937, p. 33 (dated 1922) . “A Civic Policy for the of the Ottawa Improvement Commission relating to Control of Street Trees.” National Archives of the Improvement and Beautification of Ottawa, 43. Canada, R27, 19-0-8-E. 34 The contradictions between the national 31 Anson A. Gard, The Hub and Spoke or The mandate of the Commission, now the National Capital and its Environs, (Ottawa: Emerson Press, Capital Commission, and local needs continue to 1904), 2. cause conflict in Ottawa. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 29

ment Commission owed its existence to British, Imperial, that a citizen of the United imperial prodding: Lady Aberdeen, the States should be chosen to lay out the reforming wife of the governor general, Lord surroundings of the seat of government of the Aberdeen, pressed Prime Minister Wilfred Dominion of Canada.” 37 Laurier to create the Commission, and her The Commission’s landscaping reflected this husband’s successor, Earl Grey, maintained “Canadian, British, Imperial” identity. The the pressure by bringing British planners, like original parkway route symbolized the Thomas Mawson, on lecture tours 35 . The expansion of empire: the parkway travelled British saw Ottawa as an extension of empire from the seat of imperial power, the Governor – as Mawson put it in a letter to Prime Minister General’s residence at Rideau Hall, to the Robert Borden “Britain’s most prized Central Experimental Farm , the locus of possession.” 36 Canadians or at least the scientific agricultural control over the new Anglophone elite took pride in this connection. Northwest. The Canadian Parliament Twenty years later Canadians discovered a buildings, ironically, lay just outside this route. national identity in the Northern landscape, The parkway followed the Rideau Canal, itself through the work of the Group of Seven, (and an expression of imperial military power, built might have been more receptive to Todd’s after the War of 1812 to forestall an American natural woodlands) but before the Great War invasion. Canadians still framed their growing national The formal design of the parks along the ambitions within an imperial context. C.P. parkway confirmed this connection to the Meredith, for example, lobbied for the hiring of mother country. The manicured lawns and Mawson and resigned from the Commission flower beds evoked British municipal parks when an American landscape architect was (where the garish colours similarly offended hired instead in 1913. His letter to the prime elite sensibilities). 38 Carpet bedding – the minister revealed the layering of national and planting out of exotic annuals grown in imperial identity and his assumption that these greenhouses -- served as a visual reminder of identities were to be expressed through the reach of empire into southern climes, as landscape: “it seems absolutely farcical and 37 Meredith to Borden, December 27, 1913, C.P. contrary to all our national spirit, Canadian, Meredith Papers, 1913 correspondence file, cited in Gordon, “From Noblesse Oblige to Nationalism.” Gordon observes that Meredith’s outrage was 35 For an account of the governor generals’ roles in misplaced as the designer was born in England. the planning of Ottawa see, David L.A. Gordon, Meredith ignored Todd’s American origins when he “From Noblesse Oblige to Nationalism: Elite championed Todd’s report. For insight into the Involvement in Planning Canada’s Capital,” imperial dimensions of Canadian identity, see Carl Journal of Planning History 28,1 (November 2001): Berger, ed. Imperialism and Nationalism, 1884- 3-34. 1914: A Conflict in Canadian Thought, (Toronto: 36 Mawson to Borden, November 15, 1911, Copp Clark, 1969). C.P.Meredith Papers, NAC, 1911 correspondence 38 For a discussion of the continuing popularity of file, cited in Gordon, “From Noblesse Oblige to carpet bedding for municipal parks in Britain see Nationalism.” Elliot, Victorian Gardens, especially p. 128, 209.

30 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

well as evidence of the Commission’s ability to “naturalize” the western section of the park by overcome a northern climate 39 . Exotic shrubs planting trees in a belated realization of and trees in the Arboretum in the Todd’s Esthetic forestry, the water table – Experimental Farm were further testimony to made higher as the Commission’s tile the reach of the British Empire 40 . The tightly drainage deteriorated – drowned many of the focused photographs in the Commission’s trees 42 . The artifice of the Commission’s orna- 1912 Special Report suggest the importance mental landscape then reflected a partial of order and control in these parks. concession to, rather than victory over, natural This need for visible control may have, forces.The beautification of a capital city like ironically, reflected the limits to the power of Ottawa was an exercise in state power. The the Commission. The symbolism of the Canal decision to “improve” the national capital route was impressive, but until 1925 the reflected Canadian aspirations, but the choice parkway was blocked at one end by the of landscape design reflected Canada’s stables at the local agricultural fair grounds, ambiguous status as a Dominion. The and at the other end by a lumber yard 41 . The Commission’s sunken gardens and concrete concrete lagoons looked tidy but they were lagoons offered a simple and relatively cheap also relatively inexpensive solution for a solution to the problematic naturalness of Commission that did not have the engineering Patterson Creek – a solution that spoke to expertise or deep pockets that enabled imperial identity of British Canada of the turn Boston to create “natural” fens. The raised of the century better than Todd’s picturesque flower beds in a flat lawn may also have woodland. offered a practical solution to a difficult wet site. (Strathcona Park, another reclaimed Joanna Dean wetland landscaped by Stuart, was land- PhD, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada; scaped in a very similar manner.) In the e-mail: [email protected]

1990s, when local residents attempted to

39 The flowers used in carpet bedding were imported from Central and South America, and southern Africa. See Brent Elliot, Victorian Gardens, (London: B.T. Batsford, 1986), Chapter Four. 40 See Lucile H. Brockway, Science and Colonial Expansion: The Role of the British Royal Botanic Gardens (London: Academic Press, 1979). For directions to tourists viewing Ottawa, see Gard, The Hub and Spoke, 10. 41 For the routes, marked in red, see Principal Parks and Driveways maintained by the Ottawa Improvement Commission (Ottawa: 1925). The parkway eventually extended through the Central Experimental Farm to the Ottawa River. 42 Personal observation, 2000 News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 31

NACHHALTIGE PARKPFLEGE IM SCHLOSSPARK NYMPHENBURG Im Schloßpark zu Nymphenburg lässt sich der Retter des Abendlandes. „Voller Be- nicht nur die Entwicklung einer natürlichen wunderung nannten ihn die Türken wegen Waldgesellschaft über die absolutistische seiner blauen bayerischen Uniform >Mavi Unterwerfung der Natur hin zu einem Kral<, den >Blauen Kurfürsten<“ (Adalbert von englischen Landschaftspark mit künstlicher Bayern, 1979). Max Emanuel mit dieser, den Natur verfolgen. Gerade in der Gegenwart >Blauen König< ignorierenden, aber heute üb- werden Anforderungen und Probleme der lichen Übersetzung auf sein bayerisches Kur- Entwicklung und der Pflege dieses Parks, fürstentum beschränken zu wollen, hieße aber heute mitten in der Stadt München gelegen nicht nur, seine Bildung am Hofe des und vielfältigsten Ansprüchen ausgesetzt, französischen Sonnenkönigs und seine lang- deutlich. Zu deren Lösungen und der jährige Exiltätigkeit als Statthalter in den Zukunftsfähigkeit des „natürlichen“ Gesamt- Französischen Niederlanden zu ignorieren: kunstwerkes will auch der Verein der Schloß- Sie „verfehlt das Träumerisch-Irreale, den park-Freunde-Nymphenburg e.V. im Zuge unerfüllten Ehrgeiz und damit das Wesent- bürgerschaftlichen Engagements beitragen. liche an dieser Bezeichnung“ (Marcus Juncel- Hierzu gehören die Aufklärung und Weckung mann, 2001). Max Emanuel, dem ersehnten eines Problembewusstseins der Öffentlichkeit bayerischen Thronfolger, ist die Existenz der durch Führungen, die sich nicht auf öko- Nymphenburger Schloss- und Parkanlage zu logische oder historische Themen beschränk- verdanken. Denn nicht genug mit einem en, gleichzeitig aber die Entwicklung und „Churbayrischen Freudenfest“ zu seiner Ge- anstehende langfristige Umsetzung eines burt am 11. Juli 1662 und des Gelöbnisses Pflegekonzeptes für eine Vergleichsfläche im zum Bau der späteren Theatinerkirche St. Schloßpark Nymphenburg unter der Maxime Cajetan. Der Vater, Kurfürst Ferdinand Maria einer nachhaltigen Parkpflege. von Bayern (reg. 1651 bis 1679) verehrte seiner Gattin Henriette Adelaide von Savoyen „in die Kindbett“ auch die „Hofmark zu Kem- Einleitung nathen“ mit einer „Schwaige und Aichwald“ Kurfürst Max Emanuel II. von Bayern galt mit nordwestlich der Münchner Residenz.

seinem militärischen Talent, seinen ent- scheidenden Erfolgen gegen die anrückenden Dieser „Aichwald“ liegt auf der Münchner Türkenheere beim Entsatz Wiens 1683, der Schotterebene im Wuchsgebiet der Schwä- Kämpfe bei Harzan 1687 und der ab- bisch-Bayerische Schotterplatten- und Alt- schließenden Schlacht bei Belgrad 1688 als moränenlandschaft. Das Klima ist wegen des

32 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

fehlenden ausgeprägten Sommermaximums für das Waldwachstum ungünstig. Zusätzlich führt die starke Drainierung der würmeis- zeitlichen Schottermassen zu jungen und flachgründigen, relativ nährstoffarmen Boden- bildungen. Zur natürlichen Bestockung ge- hören Stieleiche und Buche, die sich in sub- kontinentalen (Labkraut-) Eichen-Hainbuchen- wald vergesellschaften und weiter im Norden der Schotterebene in Schwarzerlen- und Lustschloss Nymphenburg, Michael Wening 17o1 eschenreichere Auwälder übergehen. Zur regionalen natürlichen Waldgesellschaft ist die Erfolgen als Feldherr folgten europäische Ausbildung der äußerst seltenen Lohwälder Träume in Brüssel, Ernüchterungen im Zuge zu zählen, die sich im Schloßpark Nymphen- der spanischen Erbfolge. Gleichzeitig jedoch burg heute in Relikten nachweisen lassen. widmete sich Max Emanuel 17o1 dem

Schlosse seiner Mutter und dem Neuen Nach den Wünschen der als genauso lebens- Schloss Schleißheim. Während letzteres nach lustig wie ehrgeizig dargestellten Kurfürstin französischem Vorbild die Großmachtträume Henriette Adelaide entstand zwischen 1664 des Wittelsbachers zu Stein werden lassen und 1676 unter Agostino Barelli und Henrico sollte, behielt Nymphenburg seinen Character Zuccalli die „Churfürstl. Schwaig und Lusthaus als Sommerresidenz und wurde ganz im Nymphenburg“, ein Sommerschloss nach Zeichen des Barock umfangreich erweitert. Turiner Vorbild in italienischer Tradition, ihr

„borgo delle ninfe“. In dem Stich Michael Der Kurfürst begann, die umliegende Land- Wenings ist die Situation um 17oo dargestellt: schaft zu beplanen, seinem absolutistischen Hinter dem Schloß befindet sich ein typisch Anspruch hatte sich die Natur unterzuordnen: italienischer Garten, in dem die Elemente des nicht nur der Schlossbau setzte sich in dem Wassers auf sternförmiger Basis dominieren. angrenzenden, vom Franzosen Charles Car- Eine zentrale Achse führt nach Westen über bonet geplanten Park fort. Auch Sichtachsen die Schlossmauer hinaus durch den und Sterne entstanden, deren Zentrum der angrenzenden, relativ dichten Laubwald bis Souverän war – wenngleich er sich während zur Kirche des angrenzenden Dorfes Pipping. seiner Verbannung nur aus der Ferne be- Zur Zeit des Weningschen Stiches regierte teiligen konnte. Kurfürst Max Emanuel bereits 2o Jahre, den News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 33

folgenden Jahrzehnten bewahrheitet, 1888 fordert H. Jäger: „Als ein gutes Mittel, die künftige Ausbildung der Anlagen im Sinne des Planers zu sichern, auch nachdem derselbe vom Schauplatz abgetreten, betrachte ich eine Art Testament, eine schriftliche Ver- fügung über die hauptsächlichen Pflanzungen, wie diese in Zukunft gehalten und durch die Axt verändert werden sollen.“ Künstlerische Ideen in die Zukunft zu projizieren oder Reaktionsszenarien eines Künstlers in geänderter Umwelt zu entwickeln, kann dem Anspruch einer gesicherten Prognose nicht gerecht werden. Dies wird regelmäßig auf Schloß und Gartenanlage Nymphenburg, um 1755, BSV München Vermutungen basieren und sich an den gegebenen Umständen (Zeitgeist, Mode, Der Gartenkünstler Sckell in Kosten) orientieren. Nymphenburg Die ausgeführte Gartenkunst Sckells gar in Der Schloßpark zu Nymphenburg ist ein starre Regeln einer Bewirtschaftung einzu- hervorragendes Juwel europäischer Garten- fassen, scheitert bereits im Ansatz. Es liegen baukunst – in seiner heutigen Form ent- kaum eindeutig von Sckell definierte Unter- standen durch das Wirken Friedrich Ludwig lagen vor; Planungs-, Bestandes-, oder von Sckells. Das gärtnerische Gesamtkunst- Pflegepläne müssen in Art, Sinn und Zeit letzt- werk belässt dem barocken Schloß das lich zugeordnet werden. anliegende Parterre. Mit Wald, Wiesen und Besondere Schwierigkeiten treten natur- Wasser schuf Sckell den umliegenden gemäß bei Rückführungen unter geänderten Englischen Landschaftspark, der bis heute ökologischen und sozialen Bedingungen auf. eine bezaubernde Wirkung auf die Besucher Planungsgrundlagen für Gegenwart und ausüben kann. überschaubare Zukunft sollten daher erst mit „Die Fähigkeiten, natürliche Gärten zu den Beteiligten diskutiert und einvernehmlich erfinden, halten mit jenen der Ausführung zusammengefasst werden. gleiche Schritte und setzen die selben Das grundsätzliche Problem eines nicht Geschicklichkeiten voraus“, beurteilt Sckell vorhandenen „Testaments“ hängt sicher auch 1825 in seinen „Beyträgen zur Gartenkunst“ mit der Person Friedrich Ludwig Sckell selbst die Schwierigkeit notwendiger künftiger Pflege zusammen, der sich nach dem Studium der seiner Planungen. Dies hat sich bereits in den Gärten mit aufklärerischer Begeisterung mehr

34 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Sommerresidenz des Hauses Wittelsbach auch bewahrenden Schutz erfuhr. Behutsamkeit und Stetigkeit sollten sicher die Hauptmerkmale der Pflege des historischen Parks Nymphenburg sein. Auf diesem Wege hätte man sicher dem Erblasser und Künstler Sckell in die Zukunft folgen können. Hier hatten sich in der Vergangenheit allerdings einige Irrwege eingeschlichen, besonders deutlich am Übergang der Wald- zu den Wiesenbereichen.

Sckell „Beyträge ....“ 1825, München

und mehr zu einem eigentlichen Künstler und Waldrand 196o, BSV München Gartenphilosophen entwickelte. Deutlich wird dies bei der Betrachtung der Sckell`schen Die Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen Methode, den Verlauf der Wege mit einer Schlösser, Gärten und Seen hat bereits in den Stange „direkt in der Natur zu zeichnen“ - 1960er Jahren begonnen, dem Wildwuchs im Landschaft wird zum Gestaltungselement. Park zu begegnen und damit in der Öffent- Dies im Gegensatz zu den Landschaftsmalern lichkeit einen Sturm der Entrüstung hervor- des 18. Jahrhunderts jedoch durch direkte gerufen. Die Maßnahmen wurden dann – von Aktion und damit im Sinne der (150 Jahre der Fachwelt unterstützt – eingeschränkt fort- älteren) Land-Art als einer Form der Aktions- geführt, die zu erwartenden Probleme natür- kunst in der Moderne. lichen Wachstums jedoch außer Acht ge- Die Schwierigkeit der Pflege künstlich- lassen. Die Freilegung alter Blickachsen natürlicher Sckell`scher Parks wird auch im sowie anderer Gestaltungselemente findet Schloßpark Nymphenburg deutlich, der in den unter Berufung auf die vorhandenen frühen letzten 150 Jahren einige zum Teil wegen der Pläne und die Ergebnisse aktueller Forschung jeweils vorherrschenden Gartenmode be- bis heute statt. dingte Änderungen erdulden musste, aber als News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 35

Wirkung der Schlossanlage mit Ehrenhof und Park.

Waldrand 1961, ohne vorgelagerten Strauch-Wulst, BSV München

Der gesellschaftliche Wert des Nymphenburger Schloss- parks Der Schloßpark Nymphenburg verfügt noch heute über eine in München seltene ursprüngliche Naturnähe. Die Strukturen der natürlichen Waldgesellschaften, in die der Park von Sckell eingefügt wurde, finden sich noch heute. Der Park ist damit ein Stück dynamischer Waldnatur. Er erhält und Unter Max Emanuel entstand zwischen Schleißheim und entwickelt eine Natürlichkeit, die heute zur dem Starnberger See, Isar und Würm ein „Hirschjagd- Parque“, eine absolutistische Jagdlandschaft von etwa europaweiten Bedeutung führt und eines 35 x 20 km Ausdehnung, in dem ausgedehnte Parforce- Jagden, auch die berühmten bayerischen Seejagden entsprechenden Naturschutzes bedarf. stattfanden. Bestandteil war nicht nur Nymphenburg, auch die Schlösser Forstenried und Berg sowie Im Ballungsraum München ist der Schloßpark Starnberg sowie „fliegende Bauten“ wurden gegründet bzw. ausgebaut. Cuvillies, 1772 heute eine Oase der Ruhe und der Erholung. Er bewahrt unersetzliche Natur in der Stadt Gerade der Park wird von den Münchner und hat bedeutende soziale Funktionen. Bürgern auf vielfältigste Weise regelmäßig für Schloß Nymphenburg steht schon seit Erholung und Freizeitgestaltung, Natur- Jahrhunderten im Blickpunkt nicht nur der beobachtung und Genuss in Anspruch ge- lokalen Anwohner. In seiner Eigenart als nommen. Die Besucher entwickeln einen Residenz des Hauses Wittelsbach wurde es eigenen Blickwinkel für „ihren Park“, zum Begriff, bis heute natürlich auch mit fokussieren letztlich auch die Bedeutung des seiner architektonisch hervorragenden Parks auf eigene Bedürfnisse.

36 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Die Notwendigkeit von Denkmalschutz und schutz und Erholung gegeneinander stehen Denkmalpflege hat sich in den letzten oder lassen sie sich sinnvoll vereinbaren? Jahrzehnten in Bayern durchgesetzt und muss kaum mehr diskutiert werden. Ähnliches gilt für die Bedeutung des Naturhaushaltes und den Naturschutz. Ein historischer, durch die gestaltete sowie die sich eigenständig entwickelnde Natur geprägter Park nimmt hier immer eine Zwischenstellung ein. Dies gilt umso mehr für einen Landschaftspark. Dem Schloßpark Nymphenburg werden dabei

– zumindest außerhalb der barocken Anlage – von der Gesellschaft eher die Wertigkeiten des Naturraumes eingeräumt oder zuge- wiesen.

Diese einseitige Betrachtung führte bereits in den 1960er Jahren zu öffentlichen Ausein- andersetzungen um die Art der Pflege. Wiederholt hat sich dies in der jüngeren

Vergangenheit gezeigt, als die BSV unter Der „Rosengarten“ vor dem Palmenhaus 198o und nach der „Sckell-Rückführung“ 2oo1 Berufung auf die Interpretation der vorliegenden historischen Pläne begann, die Nach Vermittlung durch den zuständigen Parkanlagen auf die Sckell`schen Ideen bayerischen Finanzminister Prof. Dr. Kurt zurückzuführen. Umstritten ist hierbei Faltlhauser erklärte sich die BSV bereit, den besonders die Rückführung der Königlichen SCHLOSSPARK-FREUNDEN-NYMPHEN- Ziergärten, welche die Entfernung von BURG E.V. einem Teil des Parks zur alter- Rosengärten und Magnolienbäumen sowie nativen Bewirtschaftung zu überlassen. Springbrunnenanlagen bedingte, aber auch die Art der Bewirtschaftung der Wiesen und Historische Situation des Wälder, in denen sich Struktur- und Landschaftsparks Artenverarmung ausbreiten. Die Sammlung Von der natürlichen Waldgesellschaft hat sich von über 3000 Stimmen Münchner Bürger im Schloßpark Nymphenburg noch relativ viel sowie die Präsenz des Themas in den Medien erhalten. Dies ist der „Beruhigung“ durch macht die Aktualität des Themas deutlich: Nutzung des Waldes als königliches Müssen (Garten-) Denkmalschutz, Natur- Jagdgebiet – das sich bis zum Starnberger News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 37

See erstreckte – und des nachfolgenden Nymphenburger Parks im wahrsten Sinne „Schutzes“ durch den Schlosspark zu ver- schrittweise vor. Die im größeren Südteil ge- danken. Intensivste ungeregelte Beweidung machten Erfahrungen dienten ab 1811 den und Streunutzung fanden im Gegensatz zu Arbeiten im Nordteil – in dem sich auch die umliegendem Forstenrieder, Hofholdinger und Vergleichsfläche befindet. Bereits am 22. Ebersberger Park nicht statt. Dennoch muss Oktober 1814 berichtet Sckell, dass „die neue der Schloßpark einen unbefriedigenden Ein- Anlage bey Pagodenburg ihrer Vollendung druck erweckt haben, konnte er sich doch der nahe“ sei – damit die Arbeiten an der im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert üblichen Umgestaltung des Nymphenburger Schloss- Gepflogenheit, die devastierten Laubwälder in parks zu einem Landschaftspark abge- Nadelholzwälder umzuwandeln, nicht völlig schlossen sind. entziehen. Offensichtlich wurde auch die Vergleichsfläche zum Teil mit Fichte aufge- forstet, die sich allerdings wegen Lage, Wind- wurf und Kriegsfolgen nicht flächig durch- setzen konnte. Die sich aus den Akten ergebende Bestandesgeschichte verdeutlicht, dass der heutige Bestand – ausgenommen des Haines, einzelner (Rand-)bereiche und der Lärchen- gruppe – in den 1950er und 1960er Jahren durch Pflanzung von Laubholz entstanden ist. Kurfürst Maximilian IV. Joseph von Bayern beauftragte Friedrich Ludwig Sckell am 7. Juli 1801 „daß zwar der mittlere Theil des Sckell (zugeschr.) 1801/04, BSV München regulären Lustgartens nach seinen Anlagen belassen bleiben, die Seiten Parthien aber, Sckell hat mit dieser Umgestaltung eine bey Amalien-, Baaden- und Pagodenburg in einzigartige Verknüpfung zwischen alter natürliche Gartenparthien umzuschaffen“ formaler und neuer landschaftlicher seien. Zumindest einer der beiden vor- Gartenkunst erreicht. Die Übergänge sind liegenden Gesamtpläne lässt sich zweifelsfrei zwar zwangsläufig vorhanden, dem gehenden Sckell zuschreiben und kann – neben anderen Besucher aber und selbst bei genauer Detailplänen und Quellen – als Grundlage für Betrachtung der Pläne nicht zu hart. Diese die gartenhistorische Betrachtung bzw. Kunst des harmonischen, dabei durchaus Rekonstruktion dienen. Friedrich Ludwig kontrastreichen Überganges verfolgt Sckell Sckell ging bei der Umgestaltung des auch in den Waldpartien, ebenso in der

38 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Vergleichsfläche: Den mit seinen lichten Partien, deren Waldinnensäume sich vorhandenen Baum- und Straucharten relativ an den ehemaligen Achsen des Patte d`oie natürlichen Wald ließ er mit einheimischen orientieren. Arten wirkungsvoll unterstützend unterpflanz- en und ergänzen. Lichte Partien sollten mit dunklen abwechseln, geschlossener Wald und ein Hain finden sich in der Vergleichsfläche, dazu die „Schönheitslinie“ im Übergang von Wald zu Wiese.

Cuvillies 1772, Ausschnitt Vergleichsfläche

Sckell (?) 18o1/o4, Ausschnitt Vergleichsfläche

Sckell (zugeschr.) 182o, BSV München (Jahr später zugefügt, verm. 18o5/o6 entstanden )

Sckell 182o, Ausschnitt Vergleichsfläche Das Sckell`sche Ideal ist an beiden Gesamtplänen gut nachvollziehbar – ebenso aber auch die Veränderungen und Unter- schiede der Pläne: Offensichtlich hat sich Sckell zwischen den Versionen 1801/04 und 1820 den natürlichen Entwicklungen ange- passt. Deutlich wird dies auch bei Betrachtung der heutigen Vergleichsfläche. Der erste Emmert 1837, Ausschnitt Vergleichsfläche

Gesamtplan 1801/04 zeigt einen Bestand mit News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 39

Diese sind nach fünfzehn Jahren im Bereich Schatten, Arten, Alter, Dicke-, Höhen- und der neuen Wege akzentuiert zugepflanzt, be- Schichten-differenzierter Wald. sonders im Süden aber offensichtlich bereits zugewachsen. Die Dynamik des natürlichen Bewertung Waldes einarbeitend, stellt Sckell 182o einen geschlossenen Waldbestand dar, der nun Der Nymphenburger Schloßpark gilt als lediglich von zwei gekrümmten schmalen herausragendes Beispiel europäischer Lichtungen durchzogen wird. Hieraus ließe Gartenbaukunst, als hervorragende Arbeit sich schließen, dass der erste Gesamtplan Friedrich Ludwig von Sckells, dem hier in 1801/04 noch eine theoretische Planung war, einzigartiger Weise die Zusammenführung der zweite (eindeutig Sckell`sche) von formaler und landschaftlicher Gartenkunst Gesamtplan hingegen die Situation 1820, den gelungen ist. Mode- und kriegsbedingte Fehl- Status quo, festhält. Ohne über weitere entwicklungen wurden bis in die 1990er Jahre mögliche Reaktionen Sckells auf die Natur größtenteils wieder beseitigt, weitere struk- spekulieren zu wollen und zu können (da von turelle Missstände, etwa im Bereich der seiner Hand keine weiteren Pläne vorliegen), Wegeführung, werden angegangen. Dies ge- muss festgehalten werden, dass sich der lang bisher allerdings nicht in den von Pflege- Gartenkünstler eine Entwicklung der rückständen dominierten Waldbeständen. Strukturen seiner Gesamtplanung zumindest In der Vergleichsfläche kommt der Struktur- vorbehalten hat. Entsprechend könnten Plan- ierung, Mischung und Verjüngung des Waldes Details auch als (gestalterische) Versuche sowie der Erhaltung alter Bäume und des angesehen werden, deren Sinn sich noch Haines große Bedeutung zu. erweisen sollte. Dies entspricht sicher auch Die Bedeutung des Nymphenburger dem künstlerischen Naturell Sckells, ein Werk Schlossparks für den Naturschutz wird er- zu „erschaffen“ – und Details mit dem Recht kennbar mit der Überplanung und Klassifizie- des Gestaltenden wieder zu verwerfen. rung verschiedenster Schutzkategorien bis hin Die Reaktion Sckells auf die Entwicklung des zur Ausweisung als Bestandteil des Waldes wird bei Vergleich beider Pläne auch europäischen Biotopverbundsystems Natura an den Schönheitslinien zwischen Wald und 2000 (wegen des Vorkommens europaweit Wiese bzw. Weg deutlich. Damit aber auch seltenster Arten). Der Erhaltung und Ent- Sckells Gespür für die Dynamik des Waldes wicklung als Trittstein für seltenste und und seine maßvolle Reaktion. Ziel war ein ab- stadtfremde Arten kommt große Bedeutung wechslungsreiches, gleichzeitig harmonisches zu. Bei der Regierung von Oberbayern soll Bild, das sich bestenfalls selbst einstellte, nach „Stadtratsbeschluss zur Ausweisung von aber durchaus der Unterstützung bedarf. So Naturschutzgebieten im Bereich der Landes- entsteht ein sehr naturnaher, in Licht und hauptstadt München“ der Schlosspark

40 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Nymphenburg (landschaftlicher Teil) als NSG Denkmalschutz; die Frage nach natur- beantragt werden. schützerischen Belangen oder konservativem Arten- und Biotopschutz. Das Konfliktfeld Teile der Wälder des Schlossparks besteht aus den Ansprüchen von Denkmal- Nymphenburg sind als Relikte der hier vor- schutz (Rückführung auf Sckell`sche mals flächendeckenden und auf der Münchner Planung), Naturschutz (Natura 2000 et al.), Schotterebene nur noch in Relikten vor- vielfältigen Bürgerwünschen und schließlich handenen natürlichen Waldgesellschaften zu der Verwaltung (Personal, Budget, Haftung). betrachten. Diese sollten wenigstens in den autochthonen Baum- und Straucharten- zusammensetzungen erhalten werden.

Der Schloßpark Nymphenburg wird von

Besuchern und Bürgern als unersetzliches

Erholungsgebiet auf vielfältigste Weise ge- nutzt und gewertet. Die Vergleichsfläche liegt in einem relativ stark begangenen Bereich des

Parks und muss in Ihrem ruhigen, ge- Vor dem Eisernen Haus um 198o und nach der „Sckell- schlossenen Eindruck erhalten bleiben. Rückführung“ 2oo1

Konflikte im Park?

Die Diskussion, die sich im Schloßpark

Nymphenburg zwischen den Ansprüchen des

Denkmalschutzes und besonders des

Naturschutzes, aber auch den Wünschen der

Bürger bereits in den 1960er Jahren zeigte, kann in der Literatur spätestens seit den

1980er Jahren regelmäßig verfolgt werden. Hinzu kommt noch das durchzuführende Ob verwilderte formale Gärten oder sich waldbauliche Vorgehen, dass mit notwendiger entwickelnde Landschaftsgärten: Natürlichkeit Verjüngung und Strukturierung allen An- und Natur stellen sich schnell ein, ent- sprüchen gerecht werden soll. sprechend der Umweltschutzgedanken seit den 1970er Jahren auch Schutzgedanken be- Entwicklung einer züglich der entstandenen Natur. Nach der ein- Zielstellung schlägigen Rechtsauffassung entsteht dann Der Schloßpark Nymphenburg hat als hist- auch noch eine Vermischung der Zuständig- orischer Park geistigen, kulturellen, keiten der Rechtskreise Naturschutz und News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 41

ökologischen und gesellschaftlichen Wert. Baumschutz der Altbäume und Misch- Unter Beachtung des Gesamtwertes soll das baumarten (Linde, Eiche, Kirsche) sowie der künstlerische Werk Friedrich Ludwig von Sonderformen soll der Grundsatz „Schützen, Sckells sichtbar bleiben, erhalten und gepflegt Pflegen, Entwickeln“ mit einem dynamischen werden. Die Ansprüche der Ökologie und der Phasenmodell verwirklicht werden. Erholung werden gleichwertig behandelt.

Daraus ergeben sich für das nachhaltige Pflegekonzept folgende Zielsetzungen: E • Erhaltung des künstlerischen Werks Friedrich Ludwig von Sckells, • Sicherung des Erholungswertes, • grundsätzlicher Baumschutz, P • baumerhaltende Maßnahmen finden an Wegen und bizarren Bäumen statt, • in den Wäldern soll sich eine differenzierte, mosaikartige und mehrschichtige Waldstruktur mit skurrilen Bäumen sowie stehendem und liegendem Totholz entwickeln. Die notwendigen Eingriffe werden mit dem A Phasenmodell der Nachhaltigen Parkpflege nach dem Grundsatz „Schützen, Pflegen, Entwickeln“ in zeitlich definierter Abfolge behutsam und stetig möglichst ohne Be- A einträchtigung der Besucher durchgeführt. Die E Maßnahmen werden dokumentiert, die Öffent- E P lichkeit wird begleitend informiert.

Entwurf einer Konzeptions- grundlage: Im Zuge des Phasenmodells der Nachhaltigen Nachhaltige Parkpflege Parkpflege werden die Waldbestände Die Dynamik des Waldwachstums erfordert (gegebenenfalls zusammengefasst und) in ein entsprechend dynamisches waldbauliches vier Phasen eingeteilt. Diese Phasen Konzept. Dieses hat natürlich kein orientieren sich grundsätzlich unabhängig von wirtschaftliches Ziel. Neben dem absoluten Alter und Baumart an den speziellen

42 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe” definierten Zielen des Bestandes und werden Projektgruppe in einer Karte dargestellt Um die Umsetzung der vorgeschlagenen Maßnahmen sicher zu stellen, den Zeitplan Das Phasenmodell der Nachhaltigen Park- halten zu können, aber auch um für pflege unterstützt die Dynamik der Verständnis und Vertrauen in den Wachstumsprozesse im Wald, will gegeben- verschiedenen Bereichen zu werben, sollte enfalls (analog Sckell) behutsam und stetig eine für die Vergleichsfläche zuständige (damit nachhaltig) ergänzen, schützen und er- Projektgruppe eingerichtet werden. Die halten (Baumpflege und -chirurgie). Es setzt Projektgruppe umfasst die betroffenen durchaus Akzente (Regulierung der Misch- Personen auf allen Ebenen bzw. Bereichen. baumarten und -sträucher, Unterholz, Wald- In Frage kommen. Vertreter der für die eigent- ränder, Erhaltung und Schaffung liegenden liche Umsetzung zuständigen Gärtner, Ver- und stehenden Totholzes) und kann grund- treter der Parkverwaltung Nymphenburg, Ver- sätzlich auch auf andere Parkbereiche (nicht treter der Gertenabteilung der BSV sowie der nur Wald) übertragen werden. Vielfalt und SCHLOSSPARK – FREUNDE - NYMPHEN- Differenziertheit, Skurrilität und Schönheit BURG E.V. Ziel der Projektgruppe sind die sollen gefördert werden. Steigerung der Umsetzungseffizienz und

gemeinsames Controlling der Maßnahmen. Bewertung und Konfliktanalyse haben die Sitzungen sind auf das unbedingt notwendige verschiedenen Ansprüche an den Maß zu beschränken, damit durch die Schlosspark verdeutlicht, ohne diese Projektgruppe keine Mehrarbeit entsteht. gegeneinander aufwiegen zu wollen. Die Konzeptionsgrundlage will das beschriebene Dokumentation Potential gleichwertig behandeln, für die Die Umsetzung des Pflegekonzeptes zur Vergleichsfläche eine Lösungsmöglichkeit. Entwicklung des Waldes im Schloßpark Die Situation auf der Vergleichsfläche ähnelt Nymphenburg wird in allen Phasen doku- der des gesamten Schloßparkes Nymphen- mentiert (Parkbuch) und den betroffenen bzw. burg. Abgesehen von einigen Randpartien interessierten Verwaltungen und Verbänden und Sonderflächen fällt neben wenigen kenntlich gemacht und kann von der erhaltenen Altbäumen und entsprechend Öffentlichkeit eingesehen werden. Die geringem Totholzanteil die vitale Dominanz Dokumentation dient ferner der Überprüfung der 40 bis 60jährigen Eschen-Ahorn-Bestände zur Erreichung der angestrebten Ziele und der mit einigen Linden, wenigen sonstigen Laub- möglichen Übertragbarkeit auf ähnliche holzarten und geringem Unterstand auf. Situationen im Schloßpark Nymphenburg und

anderen Landschaftsgärten.

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 43

Schlussbetrachtung deutlich. Zusätzlich in den letzten 30 Jahren In Parks und Gärten dienen Pflanzen der ein Konfliktfeld aus den Ansprüchen von bewussten Gestaltung eines Landschafts- Denkmalschutz, Naturschutz, vielfältigen ausschnittes. Dies gilt besonders für Bäume Bürgerwünschen und schließlich der Ver- und Wälder. Unter der Hand des Garten- waltung. künstlers werden diese eigenständiger Be- standteil der Kultur, sie sind Gestaltungsmittel, Objekt und Subjekt der Kunst historischer Gärten. Der Schloßpark zu Nymphenburg ist in seiner heutigen Form entstanden durch das 30-jährige Wirken Friedrich Ludwig von Sckells. Das Spätwerk des Künstlers arbeitet mit Licht und Schatten, dichten und lichten Waldbereichen, korrespondierenden und Der Wald muss ein ganzes Aufgabenbündel kontrastieren Baumformen und –farben. nachhaltig erfüllen. Schlüssel hierfür ist neben Dieser Park verfügt über eine in München der Zielvereinbarung das durchzuführende seltene ursprüngliche Naturnähe. Die waldbauliche Vorgehen. Das Phasenmodell Strukturen der natürlichen Waldgesell- der Nachhaltigen Parkpflege will eine Basis schaften, in die der Park von Sckell eingefügt für die nachhaltige Entwicklung des wurde, finden sich noch heute in Relikten. Der Schlossparks Nymphenburg schaffen. Dem Park erhält und entwickelt eine Natürlichkeit, Schloßpark Nymphenburg obliegen gerade in die heute zur europaweiten Bedeutung führt gesellschaftlicher und ökologischer Sicht und eines entsprechenden Schutzes bedarf. umfangreiche und differenzierte Aufgaben, für Im Ballungsraum München ist der Schloßpark die der Park stetig und behutsam zu schützen, eine Oase der Ruhe und der Erholung. Er pflegen und entwickeln ist. bewahrt unersetzliche Natur in der Stadt und „Historische Parks und Gärten sind ein hat bedeutende soziale Funktionen. geistiger, kultureller, ökologischer und gesell- Der Garten-Aktions-Künstler Friedrich Ludwig schaftlicher Besitz von unersetzlichem Wert.“ von Sckell behielt sich im Schloßpark (DEUTSCHES NATIONALKOMITEE FÜR Nymphenburg eine Re-Aktion auf die DENKMALSCHUTZ, 1996) dynamische Entwicklung der Natur vor, ohne sein gestalterisches Ziel vielfältiger Raum- Jacques Andreas Volland wirkung aus den Augen zu verlieren. Die Schlosspark - Freunde – Nymphenburg E.V. München, Deutschland. Schwierigkeit der Pflege seines künstlich- email: [email protected] natürlichen Landschaftsparks war Sckell be- wusst und wurde in den letzten 15o Jahren

44 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Photo: SCHIMA News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 45

CONFLICTS IN AND AROUND THE FOREST

KONFLIKTE IM UND UM DEN WALD

Photo: SCHIMA

46 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 47

OFFENCES AGAINST FOREST REGULATIONS IN EARLY MODERN TIMES IN THE CANTON OF ZURICH: DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR OR A SUBLIMATION OF CONFLICT? INTENSITY LAND USE AREAS

Introduction was called Frevel in Zurich and which roughly On 9 June 1779 the forester of Winterthur translates as an offence against forest discovered a hundred freshly hewn rootstocks regulations, are to be found in numerous in the forest of Tössrain, near the town of documents that have been studied. Frevel Winterthur 43 . Owing to their thickness the was the term applied to all minor delinquencies pertaining to the forest. It forester thought it likely that they had been cut for use as beanpoles (“Erbsstängeli”). He covered such acts as the illegal gathering reported his observation to the council of fallen wood, the grazing livestock and the theft Winterthur, the pertinent authority. The of wood, all of which, therefore, will be following inquiry revealed that Rudolf Kläui discussed in the following. and Christof Bretscher from Töss, a Before we enter into a discussion of Frevel we neighbouring village, had been seen with a lot would like to make some remarks on the area of beanpoles. They were duly accused of theft of historical research. One of the first studies on the history of criminality in Germany is Dirk of wood, which was, of course, an offence Balsuis inquiry 45 in which he discusses the against forest regulations. The defendants denied the theft and they were sent for further interaction between civil society and interrogation to Kyburg 44 . As we can see in a criminality. This work is very helpful regarding letter from the council of Winterthur to the the theme Frevel , especially the chapter about bailiff at Kyburg, the council had hoped that property and theft where Blasius also the accused would confess to the charge of addresses the issue of wood theft. He theft. describes a new law of 1821, which curtailed Records concerning wood theft from the the accustomed rights of the population – especially the rural population – to use the forests of the sovereign territory of Zurich in forests, for example to gather firewood. the 18th century are not difficult to find. Examples of this type of transgression, which Josef Mooser’s studies were constitutive for the German historiography on the subject of 43 Records of court proceedings of the bailiwick Kyburg StAZH (Staatsarchiv Zürich), B VII 21.90 p. 45 Blasius Dirk, Bürgerliche Gesellschaft und 81 (14.6.1779). Kriminalität. Zur Sozialgeschichte Preußens im 44 Castle Kyburg, near Winterthur, was the Vormärz (Kritische Studien zur residence of the baillif of Zurich. Geschichtswissenschaft, 22), Göttingen 1976.

48 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

wood theft 46 . In his view, wood theft was not that made new laws necessary 49 . A strong only a form of delinquency or criminality but forest police force was necessary to enforce also a social conflict. The latter was manifest the new regulations. Both studies are based in conflict between landlords and peasants, on the assumption that the increase in and as a protest against the modernisation of offences indicates a scarcity of resources. agriculture. Wood theft was also a result of What neither study takes into account is that poverty. Using methods of social history changes in the law might have arisen for Mooser interprets wood theft as a class social or political reasons. To ignore dominion struggle: By taking wood from the forest, the is a form of positivism of law. “lower classes” were fighting for their Infringements of forest regulations were a part traditional rights to use the forest 47 . of criminality, which means the breaking Bernd Grewe took up Mooser’s concept and codified laws. In medieval and early modern expanded it with the question of whether times regulations did not have necessarily offences against forest regulations were the written down in a codex or a corpus juris. result of overexploitation of forests and the Consequently the term “criminality” signifies in scarcity of wood 48 . Grewe’s extension of the the ancien régime offending the regulations of concept is important in the context of the the authorities. In the territory of Zurich it was analysis of the scarcity of resources in the late particularly the regulation of the council of 18th and at the beginning of the 19th century. Zurich. Criminality is a special case of While we have only rare statistical material for deviance, which means an infringement of the the period in question to prove the scarcities, norms of the society 50 . “Criminality” and we can use the known cases of wood theft as “deviance” can only be measured against an a measure. In the estimation of Uwe Schmidt existing “norm”. As the theory of subculture it was the increasing scarcity of timber showed in the first half of 20th century, combined with the rising number of offences however, the norms of any given society or the authorities are not always identical with

46 Mooser Josef, Holzdiebstahl und sozialer the norms of specific groups within that Konflikt, in: Beiträge zur Historischen Sozialkunde, society. Not all social groups or individuals 11, 1981; Mooser Josef, “Furcht bewahrt das Holz”. Holzdiebstahl und sozialer Konflikt in der ländlichen Gesellschaft 1800–1850 an 49 Schmidt Uwe Eduard, Waldfrevel contra westfälischen Beispielen, in: Räuber, Volk und staatliche Interessen. Die sozialgeschichtliche Obrigkeit. Studien zur Geschichte der Kriminalität Bedeutung des Waldes im 18. und 19. in Deutschland seit dem 18. Jahrhundert, hrsg. v. Jahrhundert, in: Der Bürger im Staat (Der deutsche Heinz Reif, Frankfurt 1984, S. 43–100. Wald), 51, 2001, S. 17–23. 47 See following chapter “Conflicts between 50 Hürlimann Katja, Soziale Beziehungen im Dorf. authorities and village people”. Aspekte dörflicher Soziabilität in den Landvogteien 48 Grewe Bernd-Stefan, Darum treibt hier Not und Greifensee und Kyburg, Zürich 2000, S. 66–70; Verzweiflung zum Holzfrevel. Ein Beitrag zur Lamnek Siegfried, Theorien abweichenden Sozial-, Wirtschafts- und Umweltgeschichte der Verhaltens, München 1993; Lamnek Siegfried, Pfalz 1816-1860, in: Mitteilungen des Historischen Neue Theorien abweichenden Verhaltens, Vereins der Pfalz, 94, 1996, S. 271–295. München 1994. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 49

follow the same norms, values and symbols 51 . forms of conflict, and not only those between In early modern times we find that village people and the authorities in the city. phenomenon in the context of offences The forest was also sometimes an object and against forest regulations as well. Acts of a space of conflict. The aim of this text is to wood theft or other infringements of forest show the daily interactions on the basis of regulations were often perceived, by those conflicts in the forest and conflicts on the use who committed the acts, to be their right. of forests. Exploring the records of the courts Bearing this in mind, we can explore the we will study the culture of the peasant specific norms of social groups to analyze society 54 . offences and, above all, the reasons for them. In the Rheinische Zeitung Karl Marx described The term “Frevel” the debates on the law on thefts of wood in Under the ancien régime the German word, 1842. “Holzfrevel” (offences against forest Frevel meaning “offences against forest regulations) should now be called regulations” had four different meanings. It 52 “Holzdiebstahl” (theft of wood) . Infringement covered a range of infringements from of forest regulations was only a minor offence audacious acts (1), wantonness or unauthoris- whereas theft was an indictable offence. Karl ed use (2), minor delinquencies or breeches Marx explained a phenomenon that in modern of the law (3) and, in certain regions; the term criminal theory is called “labelling approach”. was also used to describe the fine imposed for According to the theory, criminality does not this minor delinquency (4) 55 . The third exist per se, but is the result of process of meaning is important in the context of forest 53 attribution . history and theft of wood a very frequently In the following we turn our attention to occurring offence against forest regulations. infringements of forest regulations in the According to the law governing the use of the sovereign territory of Zurich in late medieval forest in Rheinfelden (Holzeinung) from the times and under the ancien régime from a year 1530 we can distinguish several varieties point of view of environmental history and of 56 of the transgression . For example, a thief historical criminology. We hope to show that the impact of the methods of the historical 54 The method is quite similar to Schindler Norbert, Wilderer im Zeitalter der Französischen criminology can furnish new interpretations of Revolution. Ein Kapitel alpiner Sozialgeschichte, delinquency in the forest. We advance the München 2001. 55 Cf. Schweizerisches Idiotikon. Wörterbuch der thesis that Frevel was a way to of solve other schweizerdeutschen Sprache (dictionary of Swiss German), vol. 1, Frauenfeld 1885, column 1287– 51 For the theory of subculture see Lamnek, 1288. Theorien, 1993, p. 142–216. 56 “Item, der ein türen boum ane est howet, der git 52 Marx Karl, Debatten über das v S. d, und von einem grienen boum x schilling. Holzdiebstahlgesetz, in: Werke, Bd. 1, hrsg. v. Karl Item, wer ein eychen abhouwet, derselbig git ein Marx /Friedrich Engels, Berlin 1961, S. 109–147. pfund d. Item, wer einen huffen holtz dem andern 53 Lamnek, Theorien, 1993, p. 216–236. zerpricht, derselb git ein pfund d. Item, wer ein

50 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

who stole timber during the night hours was But thefts were not the only kind of offence fined one pound, but daytime theft was against forest regulations. All damage to the punished with a fine of “only” ten shillings 57 . forest had to be regarded as infringements. The fine for cutting a branch from a dead tree The regime of Weiach (Holzordnung) in was five shillings, for a green tree, ten 1796 59 enumerates the forbidden forms of shillings. It was even more expensive to take forest use. In the introduction of the regime we wood from oak trees. The most severe find the reasons for the new restriction: The punishment was meted out to those who took village people cause damage to the forest. already hewn wood, i.e. instead of cutting the They cut and collected leaves or grass and, in wood themselves. In Rheinfelden this the estimation of the regime, such acts were category were fined one pound and banned very detrimental to the forest 60 . The agri- from the village or community for four weeks. cultural use of the forest to graze livestock We see a great difference in the severity of was very often seen as damaging to the forest the punishment meted out for the theft of in the 18th century, especially with regard to hewn timber if we compare Rheinfelden with timber production. Westfalen. In Westfalen in the 19th century Strangely enough, the term Frevel already the theft of hewn timber was treated as an existed in medieval times, at a time therefore ordinary theft, which carried the death penalty. where there was no regulation of the forest by The death penalty for theft was not unknown the authorities. At that time it was mainly in Switzerland in the 18th century but theft of employed to describe offences committed wood was more often treated as an offence, against the written or unwritten rules of each which carried a more lenient penalty 58 . village or community. Use of the forest was regulated according to the commonly agreed

rules, the so-called “Dorfoffnung”. For reiffstangen abhauwet, derselb git fünf schilling. example in Bliggensdorf the common forest Item, wer ein burde gert houwet, derselbig git drey schilling. Item, welcher ein purde limpasst was divided into four parts, each of which [Lindenbast] schnid, derselb git zehen schilling. Item, wer dem andern ein zun zerpricht und served a specific function. In the first, called hinweg tregt, derselbig git ein pfund d. Item, wer “Schönbül “ all use of wood was banned. The dem andern zwig ussgrabt oder verwüstet, der gibt ein pfund. Item, welcher dem andern holtz hinweg wood in the second part, the “Spilbül” was fürt, es sye by tag oder by nacht, derselb git ein reserved for the production of fences and pfund und vier wuchen vür die statt.” cit. Wullschleger Erwin, Forstliche Erlasse der barrels, and in the third, the “Bann” the use of Obrigkeit im ehemals vorderösterreichischen Fricktal. Ein Beitrag zur aargauischen birches was only allowed for the production of Forstgeschichte (Bericht der Eidgenössischen Anstalt für das forstliche Versuchswesen, 323), 59 StAZH A 199.7 (Fasz. 2454) (18.3.1796). Birmensdorf 1990, p. 459. 60 The regime was necessary, because “viele 57 In the 18th century Switzerland there were dortige Bürger durch frevlen, schneiden, lauben, twenty shillings in one pound. grasen und dergleichen dem Holz äuserst 58 For Westfaalen see Mooser, Holzdiebstahl, schädlichen handlungen selbige […] in 1984, p. 43–45. zusehenden Abgang bringen…” News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 51

besoms, or drawbars for sledges or strings. a place of social action. The two villages of Wood from the fourth section, the “Bachtal”, Dorlikon 65 and Altikon had co-possession of a was reserved for the manufacture of sledges forest called Schlatt. The border separating or carts. 61 Other infringements surrounding the the two villages passed through the forest. forest were offences committed against Three documents are extant that document a hunting laws. In the documents available for conflict about grazing pigs that seems to have Germany one sees that poaching was taken lasted, on and off, between 1499 and 1511. quite seriously, whereas we find hardly any According to the claims of the people of evidence of this offence in Switzerland in the Altikon in the year 1499 the pigs from Dorlikon early modern times. 62 Hunting regulations trespassed into their part of the forest. The were very diverse in Switzerland’s people of Dorlikon argued that it was not their autonomous regions but we can deduce that, fault that the pigs escaped because the fence very often, peasants had the right to hunt in was broken and that the people of Altikon the forest, although they sometimes had to should repair the fence that marked the pay a fee to do so. 63 As the laws concerning boundary. The court at Kyburg adjudicated hunting play only a minor role, we will limit our that the function of a fence was only to keep discussion to offences committed against out horses and cows and not pigs, which had forest regulations with regard to the wood and to be herded. 66 Already in the year 1501, the trees. villages went to court again. The foresters of Altikon testified that they had again The forest as an area of discovered the pigs of Dorlikon in the forest. 67 social interaction Ten years later, in 1511, a complaint was 68 We will use an example from the 16th brought by one Junker Hans from Schönau , century64 to discuss the aspect of the forest as who claimed once more that the people of Dorlikon had been herding their pigs in the

61 See, for example, the “Korporationssatzungen” common forest of Altikon and not in their own from Blickensdorf (near Zug), in: Gruber Eugen, 69 Die Rechtsquellen des Kantons Zug. Band 2: Stadt forest. On each occasion the people of Zug und ihre Vogteien Äußeres Amt (Sammlung Dorlikon were fined for trespassing. Our Schweizerischer Rechtsquellen, Abt. VIII, Die Rechtsquellen des Kantons Zug), Aarau 1972, p. research into the court archives was 1014–1018. 62 See Knoll Martin, Umwelt – Herrschaft – Herrschaft. Beiträge zur ländlichen Gesellschaft in Gesellschaft. Die landesherrliche Jagd Kurbayerns der östlichen Schweiz (1200–1800), Zürich 1999, im 18. Jahrhundert (Studien zur neueren S. 163–186. Geschichte, 4), St. Katharinen 2004, p. 293–340 or 65 This is Thalheim today. Schindler, Wilderer, 2001. 66 Cf. StAZH, Urkunden Stadt und Landschaft 63 See e.g. Lutz Albert, Die Zürcher Jagd. Eine Zürich, C I no. 2587 (23.10.1499). Geschichte des Jagdwesens im Kanton Zürich, 67 StAZH, Urkunden Stadt und Landschaft Zürich, Zürich 1963. C I no. 2588 (18.11.1501). 64 See Hürlimann Katja, Erinnern und aushandeln. 68 A Junker is a donzel. Grenzsicherung in den Dörfern im Zürcher 69 StAZH, Akten Vogtei Altikon, A 106 no 5 Untertanengebiet um 1500, in: Wirtschaft und (25.9.1511).

52 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

discontinued at this point but it is quite to take them to court. The issue of grazing the possible that the people of Dorlikon continued pigs seems to be a secondary conflict, to offend and that the conflict did not end comparable to insults, which regularly here. occurred in medieval villages 71 . Frevel was a The record of the year 1501 is of particular form of solving conflicts in the villages in the interest. 70 According to this document, it sovereign territory in late medieval times. seems probable that the conflict was not While we can no longer uncover the real primarily an argument about the use of the reason for the conflict the aim of the forest, but more a history of mutual delinquent was not gain profit but a means of provocation. In court a pig herder from provoking the population of the neighbouring Dorlikon explained that they could not drive village. the pigs back because they were obstructed from doing this by the foresters. The foresters, Conflicts about forests on the other hand, had quite a different story Conflicts between authorities and village to tell and stated that the pig herders from people Dorlikon had not even attempted to drive the Offences against forest regulations were a pigs back until they saw the forester. More form of crime or deviancy, but they can also important than the question of who was telling be a conflict between subjects and the the truth is the analysis of the arguments authority. The people in the sovereign territory advanced by either side. The fact that the pigs deliberately infringed the forest laws to show trespassed into the forest of the neighbours the authorities that the use of the forests was was not discussed and seems not to have under the control of village and that they were been in dispute. The herders’ explanation not prepared to accept the proclaimed appears to be weak, but what is interesting is regulations. The functionaries, who had to that the conflict came to court on numerous enforce the authorities’ rules, were them- occasions. It looks strongly as if each party selves generally inhabitants of the village. tried to provoke the other, which means that This naturally led to additional conflict the forest was used as a substitute battlefield between the functionaries and the village to wage an unrelated dispute. The people community. 72 Such conflicts can also be inter- from Dorlikon drove their pigs into the preted as conflicts between villages and the neighbouring forest or at least they did nothing authority in town. to prevent them crossing the border.

Subsequently, the neighbours prevented the 71 For insults, see Hürlimann, Soziale herders from driving the pigs back, preferring Beziehungen, 2000, p. 100–116. 72 See also the example of the deputy bailiffs in the territory of Zurich who failed to penalise illegal 70 StAZH, Urkunden Stadt und Landschaft Zürich, innkeepers. Hürlimann, Soziale Beziehungen, C I no. 2588 (18.11.1501). 2000, p. 260–264. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 53

We would like to take Weiach as an example. Heinrich Bersinger, the village smith, was Weiach is a village in the north of Canton penalized more severely still. He had to pay Zurich, not far from the Rhine River, but quite 10 pounds, was given ten lashes in the village a long way from Zurich. On 31 March 1797 24 square, witnessed by the community, and was citizens of Weiach were accused of cutting sent to prison for a day. His punishment was a and gathering heather. 73 We know from the mixture of fine, honour punishment and economic tables of 1774 that Weiach74 had corporal punishment. He was punished not 472 inhabitants. That means that around five only because of his offences against forest per cent of the village population was indicted regulations, but also because of his for offences against the forest regulations. 75 disrespectful answers to the judge and his The 24 accused were fined between ten and attempts to incite a rebellion in the village 78 . twenty pounds, depending on the number of We perceive in the records that in Weiach times they had offended. Some of the there are quite a lot of people who insulted the accused, however, were punished more forester, whom they considered a traitor, but severely than others. The wife of an ex-officer also because he was seen to symbolize the (“Alt-Weibel”) and her daughter, for example, authorities. As the former forester Felix had to pay a fine of 30 pounds to the court Schurter reported, he was not only verbally and 5 extra pounds to the forester. Above all, assaulted, but the village people also got they were made to apologise to the forester violent and destroyed the windows of his and to the “Stillstand”, which was the instance house 79 . Similar conflicts also broke out in in the village responsible for moral concerns. 76 Weinfelden, where the local forester stopped The reason for their more severe penalty was his nightly controls because he was afraid he that they had insulted the honour of the forester by calling him a dog and a rogue 77 .

78 “Heinrich Bersinger, Isenschmids, […] und der 73 StAZH, Urteilsprotokoll der Obervogtei Neuamt, selbst beÿ allen Anlaasen die Leüthe aufzuwieglen B VII 28.23, no. 13–16 (31.03.1797) sucht; wurde dahin verfällt, daß er 10 lb obrigkeitl. 74 StAZH, Statistische Tabellen über Buß bezahlen und so dann wegen seinen Haushaltungen etc. der Gemeinden im unteren verschiedenen Vergehungen, besonders aber Neuamt (1771 und 1774), B IX 5 (5.2.1774). wegen seiner heütigen frechen und 75 They were accused of “frevlen in hölzeren, respektwidrigen Aufführung auf 24 Stund in den besonders wegen gheiden”. StAZH, Ölenbach gesezt und mit 10 Streichen an der Stud Urteilsprotokoll der Obervogtei Neuamt, B VII mit der Sulhe gezüchtiget werden solle.” StAZH B 28.23, p. 13–16 (31.3.1797), here p. 13. VII 28.23 (31.3.1797) p. 14. 76 “so ward darauf erkannt, sie solle 30 lb Buß, und 79 “Altforster Felix Schurter erzählte, daß er 2 J. 5 lb dem Forster bezahlen, auch lezteren um Forster gewesen, und gesucht, seine Pflicht Verzeihung bitten und entschlagen, so dann zuerfüllen, den Schaden in Holz und Feld könfftigen Sonntag vor den Stillstand gestellt zuwenden, es seÿen ihm hierauf die Fenster werden, und einen nachdenklichen Zuspruch eingeschlagen worden, wovon er aber die Thäter erhalten” StAZH B VII 28.23 (31.3.1797) p. 15. nicht wiße, durch diesen u. andere solche 77 “und überdiß die Frau den Forster einen Hund Beleidigungen habe er sich endlich gezwungen und Schelm gescholten” StAZH B VII 28.23 gesehen, den Posten aufzugeben.” StAZH B VII (31.3.1797) p. 15. 28.22 (18.3.1796), p. 140.

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would be attacked by thieves in the wood 80 . The third field of conflict included conflicts The position of the forester was a difficult one within the villages. Most of the time these in the village. On the one hand, he had to were conflicts between the foresters, who, as enforce forest regulations passed by the functionaries of the authorities, had to fine authorities and it was his duty to fine the offences against forest regulations, and the misdemeanours carried out by the village village people who could not understand how people in the forests. On the other hand, he “one of their own” could punish them in the lived amongst them and they saw his work as name of the authorities. The latter area of a form of betrayal. If he fulfilled his duties conflict arose from the fact that the offenders conscientiously the forester lived in a did not (or did not want to) understand that permanent state of conflict with the population they were doing something wrong and illegal. of the village. The deputy bailiff (“Untervogt”) Acts such as cutting heather and grazing the explained that in Weiach the old forester was livestock in the forest had been the right of the removed for doing his duty. 81 For the bailiff it villagers for hundreds of years and was still was clear the reason for the election of a new widely considered to be a rightful, everyday forester was because a majority of the use of forest 82 . population broke forest regulations. The example of Weiach nicely illustrates four Wood theft resulting from poverty areas of conflict. First, an offence against the Naturally, forest offences were not committed forest regulation was an attack against the solely by people defending their ancient rights authority. This was the main interpretation the of usage in the forests around Zurich. For a authorities in Zurich placed on the reason for very large proportion of the population it would offences even though for some of the seem that poverty was one of the major offenders the main purpose was to provoke. reasons for wood theft. Cleophea Attinger from Dübendorf, for example, justified her 80 Bürgerarchiv Weinfelden B II 5 p. 93 83 (25.11.1756): “und wann er beÿ nacht zeit sich thievery in the forest of Schwamendingen nicht getrauwet allein in daß holtz zu gehen, so 84 solle von seiten der vorgesetzten einen mann with her poverty . There are many records mitgegeben werden auch solle er samt seinem sohn geflißener sein …” 81 “Da von dem Untervogt zu Weÿach im Namen 82 See Mooser, Holzdiebstahl, 1984. sämtlicher Vorgesezten allda über das 83 This forest is just outside the border of the höchstschädliche und alle Schranken commune in the direction of Zurich. übersteigende Freflen und Verderben der dortigen 84 The summary of the court case said: “Daß die Gemeind- und Privathölzer die stärksten Klagen Beklagten beschuldigt und geständig sind, in der geführt worden, zudem Ende auch getrachtet Schwamendinger Waldung unbefugter Weise worden, den alten Forster, der seinen Dienst meist geholzet, die Attingerin über das auch noch Laub mit aller Treue und zum allgemeinen Nuzen gesammelt zu haben, zur Entschuldigung zwar versehen, beÿzubehalten, ohngeachtet von der ihre Armuth verschutzen, indessen aber nicht in Gemeind, durch das Mehr, wozu eben die Frefler Abrede stellen können, schon früher wegen das meiste Übergewicht gegeben, ein neuer ähnlichen Frevel theils gewarndt, theils zur Forster erwählt worden,…” StAZH B VII 28.22, p. Verantwortung gezogen worden zu seÿn und 139 (18.03.1796) daher nach Gebühr bestraft zu werden verdienen.” News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 55

that prove this to have been a form of defence out some details or stressed particular often used by the accused at the end of the aspects of the matter. In addition, it must be 18th and well into the 19th century to explain remembered that court proceedings in early their delinquency in the forests 85 . In some modern times were not verbatim protocols, but villages almost half of the population received summaries of trials written by a clerk of the sustenance from the state 86 . In the same court. It is evident that the clerk wrote down period we find an increasing number of the important facts for the verdict. The records that tell of offences against forest statements from the accused, while of great regulations. A direct connection between interest for social history, were not considered poverty and wood theft therefore seems important to the trial, and were not generally conclusive. Nevertheless, we would like to put included in the documents. To return to the forward other explanations for the thefts. example of Cleophea Attinger, perhaps she First, we must be aware that in court the took the wood from the forest of accused used those arguments in their Schwamendingen, because it was closer to defence that they imagined would be most her home. Wood was often stolen simply helpful to them. In other words, the accused, because forests where wood could be legally even when they did not deny the theft, did not removed were too far away from dwellings. give always the true reason for their actions in Secondly, from early modern times until the their testimonies. In her recent analysis of mid-19th century, when a federal constitution early modern court proceedings, Natalie was adopted, the political system in Zemon Davis writes about the “fiction in the Switzerland underwent very radical changes. archives”. The accused explained their The judiciary was reorganised and given far delinquency in the way they thought would more powers over the lives of the rural please the judges in the hope of receiving a population. The consequence of these milder punishment. 87 They did not lie outright changes was that more thefts, as well as or categorically deny the charge, but they left infringements of forest regulations, were 88 punished . To sum up, we do not want to StAZH, Oberamtsgericht Bezirk Zürich, K III 142.2, deny that many instances of wood theft No. 40 (Beil. a) (23.02.1823) 85 See the study of Blasius, who statistically proves occurred for reasons of poverty, but it seems the increase in Prussia. Blasius, Bürgerliche unlikely that, in region of Zurich, thefts of Gesellschaft, 1976. See also Schmidt, Waldfrevel, 2001, p. 21. wood increased as strongly as the increase in 86 See Fritzsche Bruno / Lemmenmeier Max, Die revolutionäre Umgestaltung von Wirtschaft, court records might lead one to believe. Wood Gesellschaft und Staat 1780–1870, in: Geschichte des Kantons Zürich, Bd. 3, hrsg. v. Niklaus Flüeler (†) / Marianne Flüeler, Zürich 1994, S. 20–157, 88 Gut Franz, Die Übeltat und Ihre Wahrheit. here p. 54–81. Straftäter und Strafverfolgung vom Spätmittelalter 87 See Davis Natalie Zemon, Fiction in the bis zur neuesten Zeit – ein Beitrag zur Winterthurer Archives. Pardon Tales and Their Tellers in Rechtsgeschichte (Neujahrsblatt der Sixtennth-Century France, Standford 1987. Stadtbibliothek Winterthur, 326), Zürich 1995.

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theft also certainly taken place in previous The few examples have shown the important times but under a less inefficient police and role of the methodology of the historical judiciary system and, in addition, prior to 1600 criminology for the research of offences not all judgements were systematically against forest regulations. The application of recorded. Thirdly, there is no direct link the methodology of historical criminology between the poverty of people at beginning of helps to avoid the danger of positivism of the 19th century and theft or scarcity of wood. laws. The different forms of misdemeanours in Most of the inhabitants of the villages in the forest can be interpreted as deviant sovereign territory of Zurich had the right to behaviour, as well as an instrument for solving use that part of the forest which belonged to conflicts and can help to interpret everyday the common property, and even those without social interactions in the villages. a right received a small portion of firewood. Offences against forest regulations are a Katja Hürlimann Forest History, Department of Environmental common occurrence but are nevertheless only Sciences, ETH-Zentrum F 13, CH-8092 Zurich, very scantily explored for early modern times [email protected] in Switzerland. In this paper we were only able and to focus on a few aspects. Further studies are Anton Schuler required, especially on serial records of the Forest History, Department of Environmental courts in different regions of Switzerland. Sciences, ETH-Zentrum F 14, CH-8092 Zurich, [email protected].

Photo: SCHIMA

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 57

STATE FORESTRY AND TRIBAL UNREST IN INDIA DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

There has been a surge of environmental fallacies and misconceptions. As Britain had consciousness in the last decade in India but no tradition of managing forests for sustained inspite of that our forests are dwindling at a timber production, the forest department was rapid pace. This unhappy condition is primarily started in India by the German foresters, and owing to their wanton destruction for for many years until it was established on a commercial purposes. In India and the firm footing the department was manned at neighbouring countries, which share the the helm by German foresters. Himalayan eco-system, the discussion is how to prevent the rapid decline of forests and a Stages Prior to the Develop- concomitant loss of natural resources. The ment of a Forest Policy: 1776- debate centres round forest policy. But the 1850 historical forces which have shaped the It is assumed that the growth of forest policy in management of forests today are being India was extraordinarily slow. There were overlooked by foresters and many mitigating factors at first. Stebbing, the environmentalists. author of the book, 'The Forests of India', is of The historical development of forestry and the the view that "scientific knowledge amongst interdependence of ecological and social the European officials was confined almost change that came in the wake of colonial rule entirely to the members of the medical has not been accorded due recognition in profession", and had this not been the case, agrarian history. Although an overwhelming "in the early years of British occupation the population in India was dependent upon Botany of the forests, the species of trees they forests during the alien rule, forest history contained and their respective values was an even to this day has not been given its due unopened book". However, inspite of place in the purview of history, so much so Stebbing's statement it is interesting to note that even environmentalists, while discussing that whatever attempts were made to the onslaughts of environmental degradation, establish forest plantations in Malabar, in do not take into consideration the forces of Bengal or in Burma between 1805 and 1822, history which have shaped the management the medical service was involved and it played of forests today. an important role. Some Surgeons lobbied The history and evaluation of scientific history strongly against the deforestation they in British India is complex and therefore poorly witnessed taking place during the 1820s and understood a situation that gives rise to favoured plantation programmes. Nathaniel

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Wallich, Director of Calcutta Botanical Garden followed, prohibiting the felling of teak trees being pre-eminent among them. below 21 inches in girth. Nothing further To the Government and the officials, the happened until 1805, when a despatch was important part which forests play in nature and received from the Court of Directors, enquiring the beneficial influences they exercised was to what extent the king's navy might, in view of not known those days. The whole policy was the growing deficiency of oak in England, to extend agriculture and the watchword of the depend on a permanent supply of teak timber time was to destroy the forests with this end in from Malabar. This enquiry resulted in view. But soon the time arrived when, with the immediate appointment of a forest committee increased demands of both population and charged with a comprehensive programme of trade, the depletion of forests began to be enquiry regarding not merely the forests but regarded with grave apprehension. The the status of the proprietary rights in them. spread of railways at a later period brought The immediate result was a general the matter to a head. Bur before their proclamation, declaring the royalty right in appearance, the increased area under teak trees as vested in the Company, and agriculture and the rapidly multiplying flocks prohibiting all unauthorized felling of such and herds, which ensued, under settled trees. Under further pressure of the Home Government of the British Rule, caused Government, and with regard to the future greater demands upon the forests and their strength of the King's navy, it was decided to produce. appoint a special officer acquainted with the With the defeat of Lally in Madras the French language and habits of the people and having power in India came to an end in 1760. knowledge of forests, with a view to the Moreover, as a result of the first defeat of Tipu preservation and improved production of teak Sultan by the British in 1792, Malabar and and other timber suitable for ship building. Coorg were ceded to the British, who already Thus Captain, Watson of the police was held Canara. Tipu's final defeat and death at appointed the first Conservator of forests in the capture of Sreerangapatnam in 1799 put India on 10th November 1806. The an end to the struggle for supremacy in Conservator soon established a timber Madras, and the civil administration of monopoly throughout Malabar and Presidency by the British thereafter proceeded Travancore. But the repressive methods by on comparatively peaceful lines. The growing which this was done by him and later his demand for teak timber was one of the successor were intolerable, and gradually it matters which received early attention. An gave rise to seething discontent amongst both order was issued by the Bengal-Bombay Joint proprietors and timber merchants. The feeling Commission to enquire into the availability of rose to such a pitch that the Conservatorship teak in the forests of Malabar. Regulations was abolished in 1823. In 1831, the Indian News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 59

Navy Board recommended the re- of the concept that deforestation affects establishment of the Conservatorship. Even stream flow and rainfall had become very so in the 1820s anxieties about deforestation common and in October 1847 the Court of had been frequently expressed. Bishop Heber Directors issued orders to different in 1824, for instance, warned that excessive Presidencies requiring information & deforestation of the kind he had observed in "respecting the effect of trees on the climate the Siwalik foothills might lead to general and productiveness of a country or district and aridification. However, when a general the result of extensive clearance of timber." awareness of the possible hazards of The Governor General of India in Council deforestation did emerge it was mainly that wrote the same year". In the course of the deforestation might cause rainfall changes researches instituted in the Department, the with a political awareness of the occurrence of effect of trees upon the climate and the famine in the late 1830s. In 1836 Surgeon productiveness of a country and the results of Ronald Martin produced a pioneering report extensive clearances of timber have been on the need for public health measures and brought under notice that an abundance of the universal provision of clean water in wood increases moisture and that a deficiency Calcutta. Similarly Surgeon Donald Butter in promotes aridity are conclusions which seem his Topography of Oudh' drew attention to the clearly deducible from the researches and connections between the growing aridification observations which have been made on the of India and that which had taken place subject." Similar sentiments had been historically elsewhere. Butter had drawn his expressed by the Bombay and Madras insight from the work of Alexander von Presidencies. Earlier in 1846, regarding the Humboldt. From 1839 onwards Humboldt's Nilgiris it had been reported that owing to argument linking deforestation, aridification deforestation, "the preservation of the woods and temperature change on a global scale on the hills and with them the springs, is a was projected as the main issue by the subject of paramount importance." medical service in India in its increasingly In 1847, the Bombay Presidency appointed determined efforts to illicit Government control Dr. Gibson as a first regular Conservator of on deforestation as part of their wider Forests. Madras followed suit some years programme of public health reforms. later and in 1865 appointed Dr. Cleghorn as Surgeons in India were prompt in accepting Conservator of Forests in Madras Presidency. this argument and in Bombay Presidency Dr. Both these officers signalled their appointment Alexander Gibson and in Madras Asst. by some valuable reports in which the Surgeon Edward Balfourr by 1839 had started physical value of the forests was for the first to persuade the authorities on the need for time taken into consideration. Dr. Gibson conservation of forests. In 1840s the linkage reported the serious consequences which the

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great destruction of forests was having upon government, their exploitation was done by water supplies in certain parts of the country, private proprietors also. In 1854, Dr. and on erosion in the hills and silting of rivers, McClelland, who for months had been creeks and harbours on the coast, which thirty travelling in the forests, submitted a report in years previously had been known to be free. which he proposed curtailment to the Dr. Cleghorn's early reports and letters move exploitation by private parties. This report much on the same line and both officers evoked a memorable reply by the Government strongly advocated that Government should of India, dated 3rd August 1855 in which Lord claim and exercise the proprietary right to all Dalhousie the Governor General issued the such forests as could not be clearly proved to "Charter of the Indian Forests", outlining forest be private property, a stricter conservative conservancy for the whole of India. control, and above all an immediate restriction This was a great step towards advancement, of shifting cultivation in the hills. and the man to carry out such policy in the The seriousness of the situation was face of the worst opposition was found in not however, recognized and none of the Dietrich Brandis, who was appointed in steps recommended by them took effect till January 1856, Superintendent of Forests in much later and forest conservancy in those Pegu. With this appointment the dawn of provinces hardly rose above the level of a scientific forestry in India was launched. In revenue administration. As a matter of fact 1857 the forest of Tenasserim and Martaban hardly anybody believed in the possibility of a were added to his charge. He introduced from conservative treatment of State forest property the very outset principles of enumeration and through a State department ever being organization of the working of forests, which remunerative. still form the basis of forests working plans in India, as well as the system of local Dawn of Forestry in India contractors. He also introduced measures for the protection and improvement of forests. In In 1852, the province of Pegu was annexed by this work Brandis set a sound example, and the British for nearly a hundred years teak timber in Burma had been one of the staple introduced system of valuation surveys, so exports from Rangoon and the forests had eminently adapted to the circumstances, that been claimed as royal property by the but with slight modification, is still in vogue to Lamprey dynasty, following this precedent all the present day. Brandis named his methods, forests were declared to be government the 'Linear Valuation Survey.' In this method, property almost immediately after annexation, the trees along certain lines, roads, ridges or and Dr. McClelland was appointed streams were counted, classified according to their girth and ticked off on small pieces of Superintendent thereof. Although the forests bamboo, split into ten pieces, which could be were the undisputed property of the News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 61

turned down one by one. Different pieces Girth in feet Age in years were carved for different classes of trees. This 3 feet 18 device was extremely useful in a country 4 feet 6 inches 39 those days where, on account of rain or dew, 6 feet 62 it was often difficult to use a pocket book. Brandis accordingly laid down that one At the beginning all the trees that could be twenty-fourth of the first class trees in each seen from the line traversed were counted forest might annually be felled, and assumed and to give a somewhat more accurate that as the number of fourth class trees had estimate of the rest of the forest area under been found largely to exceed those in other observation, a fixed distance, 50 feet on each classes, the forests would gradually improve side of the line traversed, were kept. under the proposed system of working, and Brandis made the teak, which at that time was become richer in teak than were in 1856. the only tree the extraction of which was As regards the method of working of forests regarded remunerative, the main object of his he introduced the selling of the whole of the observation. He divided the trees into four seasoned timber in a certain forest to the classes: highest bidder. He discontinued the then (1) Trees of 6 feet and above in girth. system prevalent in Burma of the levying of a (2) Trees of 4 feet 6 inches to 6 feet in duty on every log brought from the forests, the girth. felling of trees being either free or restricted to (3) Trees of 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches in the holders of a permit or grant. His method girth. encouraged private enterprise and left the (4) Trees less than 3 feet in girth. forest staff free to devote their time to general During the first year's observation, Brandis forest administration. found that the number of trees in the first three In December 1862, Brandis was placed on classes were very nearly equal in all but special duty with the Government of India to recently worked forests, and having thus assist in organizing forest administration in obtained some idea of the proportion of the other provinces, and on the 1st of April 1854 different classes, he proposed to himself the he was appointed the first Inspector General principle that, in any forests to be worked out, of Forests to the Government of India. He as many first class trees as would be replaced recruited trained personnel for organizing during the year by the growing stock of forest operations and for establishing the second class trees, could and should be felled Forest Departments in the states. in that period. Indian Forest Act 1865 From the data at his disposal, he constituted The Indian Forest Act was introduced by the the following table: British in 1865 and was a first attempt at forest

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legislation. The aim was to create forest enquiring into and settling the rights which it reservations to meet national and regional so vaguely saved, and gave no power for long term needs for resources such as water regulating the exercise of such without supply, soil conservation etc. However, the appropriating them". In 1875 a memorandum merits of a particular block of forest chosen for was published by D. Brandis, entitled, reservation were determined by a revenue Memorandum on the Forest Legislation officer and not by a forest officer. The Proposed for British India, in which the subject interests of the agriculturists presumably were was discussed in all its bearings, and definite amply safeguarded during the creation of the suggestions regarding forest legislation for reserve forests. In the hill region 50 per cent India were made. of the forest area was generally excluded from reservation and the plains the non-reserved Indian Forest Act of 1878 area set aside as village commons were about In the year 1878, the Indian Forest Act VII was three times as large as the reservation. In passed, extending to all provinces of British tribal areas, the needs of the tribes were India, except Madras, Burma, the Hazra identified and provided for within the reserved district in Punjab, Ajmer, Coorg, Berar and forest. Baluchistan. When the Indian Forest Act of Shortly after it had been passed, the Act of 1878 was first drafted, it was intended to 1865 was found to be insufficient, and as early create only one class of democrated state as 1868 proposals for its amendments were forests, viz. reserved forests, originally so submitted to the government. At the Forest called because the areas were reserved for Conference held in Allahabad in 1873-74, the cultivation, but as their formation would take defects of the Act of 1865 were brought time, provision was also made for the prominently to notice. Baden Powell protection of the government forest areas presented in the Conference, a paper entitled, generally, until it could be decided what areas "Forest Legislation and the Defects of the should be maintained permanently as forests Existing Law" and criticized the act of 1865 by constituting them demarcated or reserved severely. However, the main deficiencies were forest. The constitution of reserved forests those noticed by Hope in the Viceregal was surrounded by every safefuard against Council which met on 6th March, 1878. He any possible infringement of private rights and observed, "It drew no distinction between the secured a permanent settlement, where as forests which required to be closely reserved, the second class of demarcated state forests, even at the cost of more or less interference known as protected forests offered but an with private rights, and those which merely insufficient guarantee for their stability and needed general control to prevent improvident protection Existing rights were recorded in working. It also provided no procedure for such forests, but not settled. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 63

A separate Act was passed for Burma in waste lands in Berar were declared as the 1881, as the Chief Commissioner declined to indisputable and entire property of the state. extend the Indian Act to his Province. The same year a Forest Regulation was Similarly, the Madras Government declared passed for Baluchstan in consonance with the that the Indian Forest Act could not be Berar Forest Law. In 1887, the Upper Burma extended to Madras, as the formation of Forest Regulation was passed. It moved reserves, as contemplated by the Act, could generally on the lines of the Burma Forest Act, not be accomplished. The rights of the entirely so with regard to the creation of villagers over the waste lands and jungles reserves. As regards property rights and user, were considered to be of such nature as to it was distinctly laid down that the practice of prevent government from forming independent shifting cultivation conveyed no right and states property. Madras therefore pereferred could be abolished at the pleasure of the to legislate locally. Brandis was then deputed government. to Madras in October 1881 and one of the In 1890 the Upper Burma Forest Regulation most important results of this deputation was was extended to the Shan states. Next year in the passing of the Madras Forest Act of 1862, 1891, the Assam Forest Regulation was which came into effect from 1st January, sanctioned and was formulated entirely on the 1883. Upper Burma Regulation. As a sequel of the The Burma and Madras Acts proceeded on passing of the Indian Forest Act of 1878, the the same general lines as the Indian Act, but area under the control of the Forest they differed on an important point, that the Department at the end of March 1888 general Indian Act recognized two different amounted to 79,710 square miles of reserved classes of state forests, i.e., reserved and and protected forests. By 1889-90 the area of protected, while the later enactments reserved and protected forests had risen to recognized only one class. The Burma Act on 86,000 square miles. the other hand provided that any land at the disposal of the government could be constituted as a village forest for the benefit of Indian National Forest Policy, any village community or group of such 1894 communities. This was a much more The next step towards forest management in expedition’s method of procedure, and in this India was the declaration of the forest policy in respect also the Burma Act was superior to 1894, following the report of Dr. Voelcker on the India Act. The Madras Act contained no the "Improvement of Indian Agriculture", provision for the constitution of village forests published in 1893, which stressed the need in the above sense. In 1886 the Berar Forest for formulating the forest policy in Law was sanctioned according to which all conformation with the agricultural interests of

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the country. The main objective of the forest Although it was not until 1865 that the formal policy was: structure of an all India Forest Department (1) The sole object to which the was set up, the environmental debate in which management of forests is to be directed is to state forestry originated had already been promote the general welfare of the country. going on for three decades before the (2) The maintenance of adequate forests promulgation of this Act, and these debates is dictated primarily for the preservation of the were dominated by conservationists-cum- climate and physical conditions of the country surgeons. It is obvious that when the Forest and secondly to fulfil the needs of the people. Department was constituted in the 1860s, the With the above two safeguards, it can be state of those forests which were of easy stated that, (a) permanent cultivation had access was extremely poor and chaotic and priority over forest, (b) to meet the demands of the ideas for their management and the local population free or at nominal rates, administration vague. In certain areas the meant overriding of all considerations of progress of the department was also slow. revenue, and (c) after fulfilling the above two However, the establishment of the Forest conditions, realization of maximum revenue Department gradually brought this wasteful was to be the guiding factor. The salient system of exploitation to an end. features of the forest policy were to classify The drafting of proper forest laws for the existing forests into four classes: (a) forests, different provinces was considered between the preservation for which was considered 1869 and 1878. The first question which came essential on climatic or physical grounds, (b) up for settlement was, to what extent the long forests which afforded a supply of valuable continued right of user, to, the free collection timber, (c) minor forests, and (d) pasture of small produce such as fuel, grass, lands. bamboos, grazing and shifting cultivation in The forests of the first two categories were the waste lands, should be regarded as ordinarily to be settled and declared reserved constitution a prescriptive right, on the other forests, and those under third and fourth hand, it was acknowledged that government category, with extensive rights and to be as the guardian of all public interests must managed mainly in the interests for the local insist on the regulation of these rights so as to community, were to be declared as protected render possible a good management of the forests. New rights could spring up in a reserved forests in the interests of the country. protected forest but not in a reserved forest. However, the profit motive prevailed and still Broadly speaking in a reserved forest prevails. To obtain a sustained revenue from everything was an offence that was not the forests, Brandis evolved a very simple permitted while in a protected forest nothing method on the concepts of Dauerwald and was an offence that was not prohibited. method du controlle. This method required News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 65 complete enumeration of the forests, and the Forests Conflicts during the permissible cut was related to the actual Nineteenth Century increment in terms of the number of trees of Early years of forest administration in India all size and classes. The silvicultural system were beset with problems. As the Forest was, "Protection-cum-Improvement," an Department was assigned a difficult and innovation and an unorthodox departure, but unpopular duty of protecting the heritage of eminently suited to the condition of the crop nature from the rapacity of man—a duty which then prevailing. This definitely resulted in aroused strong antagonism of the improvement of the growing stock and was predominantly agricultural population, the also a guarantee against overfelling. troubles could be anticipated. Before the management of forests was taken up, In the early days of forest administration villagers had absolute rights over them, like another great difficulty was apathy and their own property. In the villages, subsistence disbelief in the destructiveness of forest fires. use of forests contributed primarily to the When the Forest Department came into gradual deterioration of quality in nearby existence, the great majority of the forests in woodlots and grazing lands. Moreover shifting India were in an extremely poor condition, cultivation in some parts of the subcontinent open and interspersed with grass blanks, made growth of young trees difficult and thus large areas frequently containing no tree to the continued viability of forests. growth whatever because of the impossibility of extending fire protection. When the whole With the introduction of organized forestry, the countryside was ablaze, it was only some British on the one hand promoted extension of isolated pockets that could be protected. Fire agriculture consequent upon the growth of protection was thus introduced for the first population, but on the other access to forests time in Madras Presidency in 1860. But the was restricted, so as to ensure commercial work did not progress and as late as 1882, exploitation and promote rapid growth of the only 300 square miles of forest, were under railway network especially in the last decade fire protection in Madras. Concomitantly fire of the nineteenth century. This must have protection was also introduced in other parts resulted in the overuse of the remaining of India like the Central Provinces, North forests available to villagers and drastic Western Provinces and Bombay and at the reduction in the forest support base for end of 1880-81, about 11,000 square mile of agriculture on unit area basis. It was thus forests were artificially protected from fire in obvious that inroads on indefeasible and India; by the end of 1884-85 this area had immemorial rights created a general sense of been increased to 16,000 square miles and in insecurity and resentment amongst the 1900 it was 39,000 square miles. people.

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The villagers were also against the forest A detailed analysis of the 'anti-agriculture' policy of fire protection which involved attitude of the Forest Department was arranged burning so as to reduce to the presented by J.A. Voelcker in his 'Report on minimum the danger of accidental or the Improvement of Indian Agriculture 1893'. incendiary fires. The burning of pastures and Referring to the enormous stress under which forests in an unrestricted way was traditional Indian agriculture was functioning Voelcker in the tribal and Himalayan region, for the called for an immediate constitution of 'Fuel people knew that it promoted the growth of Fodder Reserves', somewhat akin to the idea grass. Further, the burning removed the of Brandis of village forests. The government accumulation of chir-pine needles which on took cognizance of the point raised in being accumulated became slippery and Voelcker's report and in the forest policy of made cattle movement hazardous. Regarding 1894 it was provided that agricultural and the restriction on this practice, Pt. Govind other local requirements could be satisfied as Ballabh Pant (who later on became Home long as they did not affect the Imperial Minister of India) commented in his book "The interests. Forest Problem of Kumaon" which was Whatever are the provisions made in this published in 1922. ”This is a source of forest policy regarding the requirements of widespread hardship and the opinion of all local population, the situation worsened classes of people seems to be unanimous on further as priority was given to the Imperial this point." interest. Ribbentrop Inspector General of Further before launching the forest policy no Forests from 1885-1900 has himself stated information was sought on the requirements of that by the end of 1897-98, 33, 738 square the different villages. It was only on paper that miles of forests were closed to all animals and the authorities determined the nature and 28,146 square miles to browsers. extent of the rights alleged to exist in favour of The British forest policy affected most the any person or on any forest produce of the forest dwellers and people from hills, who same. There was little or no compensation were either living in the forests for centuries or awarded to the claimants, whose rights were were dependent upon the forests. The disregarded under section 29, clause 3 of the management disturbed the relationship India Forest Act. According to this clause, "No between them and the forests. These such notification shall be made unless the communities were rendered alien in their own nature and extent of the right of the homelands. Thus there was a marked government and of private persons in or over antipathy and hostility towards the measures the forest land or waste land comprised adopted by the Forest Department in several therein have been enquired into and recorded areas in the subcontinent. One of the most at a survey or settlement." important examples of the manifestation of News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 67

this hostility was the insurrection, of the Chota opposition to state forestry was therefore Nagpur area in the 1830s. After this more intense amongst the tribals. insurrection, the British declared this region as Another example of forest conflict can be a 'Non-Regulated Area'. Later the tribal areas observed in the Gudem Rampa risings. were demarcated as 'Agency Areas' and still Gudem and Rampa are hill tracts, located later on as 'Scheduled Areas' and still later on near the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. as 'Scheduled Areas and their administration During the nineteenth century the denizens of was a separate affair, But the inhabitants this region also protested against the forest continued the struggle for their rights. policy which threatened their territory and Similar sentiments were expressed by the customary ways of life. Apart from other people of Bastar in the nineteenth century causes the policy of forest management which against the forest policy. But the embers of was against the agricultural practice of shifting dissent soon died down to surface later in cultivation or 'Podu' and grazing and forest 1910 as a forest rebellion. In Bastar the taxes, manifested in the form of dissent measures taken to implement forest against the colonial forest management. administration and the way in which they were Forests as an unfit homeland for tribals were a implemented were the main cause of the tribal colonial construct to using their rights over uprising of 1910. In a report on the rebellion forest. Their long association with the as cited in the book. 'The Hour of the Fox... woodlands was brought to an abrupt end. An "The Government was informed of the main equally significant resistance to organized grievances of the tribals: the inclusion of forestry came up from the tribals in Jaunsar village lands in reserves of forest, with a Bawar. From 1860s the forests of Jaunsar subsequent forced removal of villagers and Bawar in Dehradun district had attracted the the burning down of their dwellings, and, in attention of the alien rulers. There forests general, the high handed treatment and unjust were important mainly for three reasons, viz., exactions on the part of forest officials." The as a source of perennial supply of wood for alienation of the locals from forest use and the the railway, for training the rangers of the consequent discontent can also be observed forest school at Dehradun which had been amongst the tribals of Thane district in established in 1878 and for supplying fuel and Bombay Presidency during the nineteenth timber to the cantonment at Chakrata. century. In the tribal areas forest were treated In the settlement of 1868 the state divided the as a community resource. The locals had free forests into three classes. While first class access to forest land for grazing their cattle, forests were closed totally for protection, in fuel wood and timber required for construction the second class villagers had restricted rights etc. Even shifting cultivation was not of pasturage and collection of timber. The considered illegal and improper. The third class forests were meant for the

68 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

exclusive use of the peasants, but they were been set apart to meet the demands of the not allowed to exploit them for commercial urban population and the national needs, had purposes. The unsettled state of forest to support the growing demands of the demarcation made the villagers suspicious increasing population up to 1947 and even in that the government would gradually take over the aftermath of independence the major the third class forest too. Early protests were concern of the government was to meet the thus directed at this government monopoly increasing demand for food for the teeming and later at the confused legal status of the millions. Grow more food was the call of the third class forests. It was not clear, who held day. Since the time of forest reservation the the actual proprietary rights over this class of human population has increased more than forest, the state or the peasantry. Gradually three fold coupled with a phenomenal the peasants of Jaunsan Bawar resorted to increase in the cattle population. Large areas agitational forms of protest and defied the of forest lands were released for agriculture governments' control over commercial and other developmental activities. Between exploitation of forests. 1951 and 1976 agricultural land had increased In the beginning commercial forestry in the by 172.105 acres. Central Himalayas depended on the torrid Most of this area was obtained by clearing the following rivers of the hills to carry felled logs non-reserve forests. which were originally to the plains where they were collected by intended to meet the fuel wood and fodder forest contractors and sold as railway demands of the rural population. To give a sleepers. The floating logs were considered fillip to agriculture large dams and reservoirs as the property of the Forest Department and were constructed. Since dams are constructed even though villagers had been repeatedly on the most fertile forest lands, this warned that government property is sacred, construction has become a part of the theft became endemic and pilfering state destructive process. In addition to the loss of timber became a chronic form of crime in vegetation due to submergence, the villagers Jaunsar Bawar during the nineteenth century. uprooted were resettled elsewhere, which The early foresters while administering the resulted in further deforestation. Various forest did not constitute fuel and fodder reserve forest areas have also been released reserves. As a matter of fact reserve forests for agriculture. Forest cover has thus were never established to meet the fuel wood decreased owing to the lack of foresight and and fodder needs of the rural population. priorities of the policy makers. These needs were thus to be met by forest Thus for understanding forest management, it areas set aside for other specific purposes. is necessary to go deep into the history of With the disappearance of unadministered forestry from which forest management has village forests the reserve forests, which had evolved over the past century. It is also News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 69

essential to examine the forest practices of Anonymous 1819 Public A, Public Works the past and the fallacies of yester years, so Department No. 8278, Letter dated 3rd December, as to meet the challenge and the dilemma National Archives New Delhi 1-7. faced by the planners and foresters today, Anonymous 1867 Indian Forester, December, which are owing to the inadequate response Dehradun 3-18. of the authorities concerned when the Anonymous 1887 Indian Forester, September, Dehradun XVI.353. problems first began to surface. But the government still fails to recognize the danger Anonymous 1983 Indian Economic and Social History Review XX.301-324. signals of deforestation and the ecological Anderson, Robert S. and Huber Walter 1988 The imbalance resulting into increasing floods, soil Hour of the Fox Balfour, E.C. Balfour, H.G. 1819 erosion, heavy siltation and change in micro Notes on the influence exercised by trees in climate. It is unfortunate that even after over inducing rains and preserving moisture, 25 state five decades of independence, forestry Archives, Lucknow PP. 402-408. continues to be just a legacy of the British Brandis, D. 1880 Review of the Forest rulers and is yet to reconcile to the needs of Administration in Several Provinces under the the locals as well as ensure continued Government of India for the Year 1877-78, Supdt. resurgence of the forest wealth. Government Printing Press Simla, 2.

Guha, Ramchandra and Gadgil, Madhav 1988- State Forestry and Social Conflict in British India: A Literature Consulted study in the Ecological basis of Agararian Protest, Technical Report January, No 51. Anonymous 1816 Public Consultation A, 14th Centre of Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of March, No. 22, National Archives, New Delhi 1-3. since, Bangalaore. Anonymous 1817 Home Public A, Letter No. 21 of Heber, A. 1828 Narrative of a Journey through the 1817 dated 28th August, National Archives, New Upper Provinces of India from Calcutta to Bombay Delhi 2-5 1824-25 London 274. Anonymous 1848 Home Public A, 16-18 Hill, H.C. 1890 Review of the Forest Administration Consultation, 30th September, Letter of Assistant in British India for the year 1887-88 Supdt. Surgeon Edward Balfour, Madras Army to the Government Printing Press Calcutta-2. Secretary, Government of Madras, National Nadkarni, M.V. 1989- The Political Economy of Archives, New Delhi 9-19. Forest use Management Sage Publications New Anonymous 1819 Public A, Proceedings, 23rd Delhi. 56-57. June No. 9, Letter of Major General W. Cullen, Powell, Baden and J. Skves Gamble, (editors), Resident at Travancore and Cochin, dated 8th 1874 Report of the Proceedings of the Forest December to J.F. Thomas, Esq. Chief Secretary, Conference 1873-74 held at Allahabad, January Government, Fort St. George, National Archives, 15-19, 1874 Supdt. Government Printing Press New Delhi 1. Calcutta 3-29.

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Ribbentrop, B. 1900 Forestry in British India, Stebbing E.P. 1933 The Forests of India, London Supdt. Government Press Calcutta, 65-175. 1: 62-367. Schlich, W. 1884 A Review of the Forest Tucker, Richard 1979- Forest Management and Administration for the year 1881-82, Supdt. Imperial Politics : Thana District, Bombay 1823- Government Printing Press Simla -2 1887. The Indian Economic and Social History Singh J.S. (Editor) 1985 Environmental Review Vol XVI (13), July-September. Regeneration in Himalaya : Concepts and Strategies Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital- 262- 292.

Sushma Rawat All Saints College, Naini Tal, India

Photo: SCHIMA News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 71

THREE FORESTS AND A SACRED GROVE CULTURAL ROOTS OF FOREST COMMONS IN THE HIMALAYAS 1800-2001

Introduction cheating and shirking is held in abeyance. On July 14th, 1993, following the lead of many Such a correlation can best be assessed in other Indian states and the central the case studies documented here. government, the Punjab Government passed The forests of Shahpur Kandi, Brindaban- a resolution acknowledging the needs and Karanpur and Panjaur in the foothills of North- rights of communities to play a role in the West Himalayas were sustained as buffers for management of forests 89 . This was a needless an entire region by sedentary cultivators and and a-historical irony. Punjab, and for that nomadic pastoralists. They thus ensured matter the whole of northern India, has a rich natural diversity through mutually devised and cultural heritage of customary law sensitive to jointly monitored rules of access. Any misuse insecure conditions and the consequent was sanctioned with the help of cultural mores necessity for dynamic agri-pastoral of shame and ostracism rather than through communities. recourse to monetary fines or legal Culture is thus both a catalytic agent and a punishment. In the process they ensured preservative in forest environments. A ‘forest stability of not only the forests but the natural ethic’ based on principles of reciprocity and eco-systems of the doabs or interriverine trust provided the framework of a moral areas of the Punjab to which they were economy for forest resource-users. This related. deterred free-riding and a consequent tragedy on the mountain forest commons in the last This was remarkable because of increasing 200 years which would otherwise have most erosion of common property resources certainly occurred since dependence on caused by external factors like: first, the forests for livelihoods was heavy in the north- Forest Department controlling shamilat forests west Himalayas. Culture, understood thus, and thus undermining co-operative systems of can be discerned in the long run as those management; second, by the encroachment institutions which induced those values of self- from the reservoirs built for three dams – the governance which mattered in regulating Thein, Pong and the Bhakra - which are access, use and policing of forests such that almost tacked on to the forest boundaries; and third, from the pressure of population 89 Government of Punjab "Joint Forest Management: Resolution No. 46/27/93-FT- growth both inside the forests and in the III/8284," Chandigarh, Department of Forests, 14 surrounding hills and plains of northern India. September, 1993.

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Such resilience can best be assessed by graziers and the cultivators agreed on comparing these forests to a sacred grove in customary rules of access, of use and of the Siwaliks which had been insulated by policing to minimise conflicts. Thus it is that religious institutions from all those factors the pastoralists and farmers were able to turn which had threatened our sample forests in "open access" forests and pasturelands into a the same region. system of controlled "common access" resources. The Culture of a Forest Ethic Such forest-use were linked to a net-work of The Evolution of a Forest Ethics: common property resources which consisted Northwest India of specific common lands or shamilat-deh of The three forest commons in this paper are the agricultural villages and were used in remnants, albeit in a modified form, of a conjunction with the regional common pastur- situation of resource-use which continue to be es situated in the chhambs or marshes in the based on principles of reciprocity and trust. In flood plains, in the bar or upland ridges 1961, it was estimated that over 1500 square between the rivers, the lowland riparian tracts miles of shamilat-ban (communal forests) still (belas), and to the grazing runs of the forested covered the lower Siwaliks , representing hills of the Lower Siwaliks and the alpine much of the Punjab's remaining forest meadows of the Upper Himalayas. Thus our resources 90 . This resilience of the shamilat three communal forests were linked to a system of managing forests continues to be whole region even though its problems had to largely a response to the need to survive be handled by those who held them as against natural threats. Thus the three forests common property. of Shahpur Kandi, Karanpur- Brindaban and Thus the shamilat forests like the three in our Panjaur were part of the Greater Punjab study of the Siwaliks are of particular interest region of six inter-riverine regions or doabs . because they do not conform to a self- Each of these doabs defined an eco-system sufficiency model of "one-village-one-forest." and the forests stood like dividers between the Instead, their management integrates the mountains and the plains below. These needs of diverse communities across varying forests then were like buffers for transhuming distances in a range of human-ecological graziers who moved through these forests systems. These management systems were from the plains below to the mountains above founded on complementary needs and through these forests. The forests were held synergistic linkages between users, optimally by sedentary farmers as their commons. Such tapping into the inherent characteristics of use could only be sustained if both the different ecological niches. For example, when J.B. Lyall visited the Kangra area of Himachal 90 Punjab Forest Administration Report, 1960-61: Pradesh in the 1870's, he noted the limited 1. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 73

carrying capacity of livestock in the upper the forest stock buffer area, while needs of Himalayan pasturage. This forced the Lahuli outside pastoralists for extensive sheep and pastoral nomads to use their summer grazing goat pasturage could also be accommodated. lands for very short periods and only for a Operationally, shamilat (commons) institutions limited number of sheep. To compensate, the have provided an effective structure of Lahulis hired professional outside herders to disincentives to counter tendencies of graze their additional animals in the lower cheating, shirking, free-riding, and more elevation commons. 91 Such co-management generally, to dissuade the urge to overexploit arrangements allowed the Lahulis more time forests. Access regulations have been design- to trade and supplement their earnings, while ed to minimise supply and demand gaps also providing them with capital to negotiate caused by seasonal variations in product and further reinvest in mutual resource use availability, as well as to share the uncertainty agreements. Without such agreements, the over time and space among a large number of fragile alpine pastures would have been users dependent on different forest products. rapidly degraded through overexploitation. A "forest ethic" or strategy has been followed Hence the survival of collaborative forest which assumes that survival is dependent on management stemmed from its function as a minimising risk, rather than optimising returns critical mediator between the farming from forest extractions92 . This approach has communities of the plains and the pastoralists emphasised the stability of product flows and of the Himalayas. In the doab (land between the sustainability of the forest as top priority -- two rivers) the shamilat forests of the foot hills rather than the maximisation of short term complemented the vegetation of the upper productivity. hills and lower plains, serving as important buffer resources which absorbed the shocks Mapping out a Culture of of uncertainty in the two contrasting ecological Accommodation: An zones. In the absence of access control explanation: agreements, potentially conflicting use For centuries, human populations in northwest patterns might have led to constant India have relied on the characteristic regional confrontation and social disruption. The variations in rainfall, temperature, and shamilat tracts were also seasonally comple- vegetation to develop appropriate resource mentary to regions in the north and south. use systems which minimise risk. Forest They provided moist and fertile soil which was diversity in the Punjab can be explained by suitable for cultivation and pasture. The small- scale agricultural lands needed for intensive 92 I am borrowing the term "forest ethic" from Scott's use of the term "subsistence ethic". James use by local cultivators could be drawn from C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant, (Yale University Press, New Haven, 1976, 1978) : 91 Kangra Settlement Report, 1865-72. 2.

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the rainfall map, which approximately century, the plains, valleys and lower hills corresponds to altitudinal contour lines. Rain- served primarily as the arable crop lands. fall varies from 5 to 10 inches a year in the Residents of the less fertile upper hills and Great Indian dessert (the Thar), increasing to mountains depended primarily on pastoral over 30 inches in the progression northeast resources. Neither region could be completely toward the higher elevation Siwalik and divorced or survive independent of the other. Greater Himalaya. In the plains and lower While the plains faced long droughts with Siwalik hills, low and erratic rainfall averaging highly unpredictable rains, flash floods, and between 20-25 inches, combined with the volatile river action during the monsoons, the heat of tropical latitudes, creates a forest upper hills confronted heavy rain throughout comprised of thorny shrubs and Acacia the monsoons, as well as harsh winters. The species (e.g. khair, babul). Moving toward the middle hill Siwalik region occupied a midway, higher altitudes of the Siwaliks and moderate position between the upper Himalayas, greater rainfall creates conditions Himalayas and the plains. It provided conducive for deciduous and temperate pasturage, forest vegetation, and land for vegetation types. This vertical and horizontal cultivation, acting as a common resource pool variety in the range of forests stretching from and buffer. A symbiotic relationship thus the Hindu Kush mountains in the northwest to coalesced between the two major user the Dhars of Kangra is further vivisected by groups, the sedentary cultivator and the several major rivers, delineated by their own nomadic pastoralist. (Figure 1) distinct ecosystems. Within each interriver Many of the fodder requirements of plain and plain ( doab ), the mountain forests experience hill communities were met through grazing the higher rainfall during the monsoons, colder stubble from cultivated fields during fallow and more severe winters, and more pleasant periods, as well as grazing the community summers than those forests of the lower hills, commons. However, seasonal shortfalls valleys and tropical plains. These sharp, but arose, especially when crops were still in the simultaneous differences in temperature and fields, effectively closing them to grazing. moisture at varying altitudes create conditions During these periods, grazing needs were of resource complementarity over time and primarily met from pasturage in the Siwalik hill space. These complementary niches have forests. The Gujars (transhuming grazer) historically been understood and effectively would travel from the southern plains in utilised by traditional grazers. summer to graze their animals in these Such complementarity of regions depended forests, while in the winter, the Gaddi shep- on a culture of accommodation because there herds travelled down from the alpine ranges of is both regional specialisation as well as a the upper Himalayas. The Siwalik buffer situation of interdependence. In the nineteenth forests served as the seasonal commons, News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 75

supplementing fodder shortages in both north and south.

Figure 1

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The Siwalik forests like Shahpur Kandi, use patterns in each area of the doabs was Brindaban-Karanpur and Panjaur were also linked to the larger region by these seasonal perceived as a reserve or buffer, comparable pastoralist movements, as shown in figure1 by to those lands which lay under long fallow. arrows indicating winter and summer Sedentary cultivators would alternate their movements. The location of long fallow pastures between fields under short fallow pastures for grazing in the sub-montane tract, (banjar jadid ), and fields of uncultivated, long above the Shamilat hill forests, determined fallow ( banjar kadim ). In the plains, these these seasonal movements. longer fallows were maintained as the In the spring, or after the rabi crop was shamilat-deh or village commons. The Siwalik harvested, animals could return to the fields to forests provided long fallow pastures graze on the rabi stubble and grass. In the throughout the year for both nomadic livestock summer, cattle of the highland Gaddis would from the mountains and plains, as well as for again move down to the hills and the local farming communities. Functioning as a mountain valleys ( duns ) in search of fodder 94 . regional commons, access was well regulat- The Gujars livestock would be herded up into ed. This allowed sustainable cycles of the sub-montane forests to graze on medicinal resource use and recovery. shrubs such as artemezia. When the The region's natural ecology clearly provided monsoons broke, the herders would drive the the basis for complex land-use patterns and cattle back from the forested tracts in the hills processes in the doabs . In the drier, pastoral to the drier ridges of the doabs and then lands to the south, as well as in the mountains further to the lower Siwalik forests (see figure to the north, open grazing was common. 1) 95 . Thus, the Siwalik hills, doabs and Cattle owners entrusted their livestock to submontane forests all provided winter grazers, who moved them in large herds pastures for cattle from all three agricultural (gols ) across arid tracks, through riverine and zones (ie. mountain, hill, plains). 96 forest fallow, and to the hills. 93 In each zone, Reciprocal arrangements between cultivators productive pasturage was found (see figure and pastoralists frequently increased during 1). unseasonable weather cycles and drought. 97 The three regular seasonal movements of A shortfall in rain or excessive summer pastoralists occurred before the monsoons, 94 Ibid. 95 after the kharif crop in winter, and after the Ibid. Also Kangra Settlement Report, 1865-72, p 40. rabi harvest in summer. Additional "stress" 96 J.M. Douie, D.C. Karnal to Commissioner and migrations were also practised during floods, Superintendent, Delhi Division, 8/8/1884, para 7, Land Revenue and Agriculture (Famine) droughts, scarcities and famines. The land Proceedings 3-4 A, Sept. 1885. 97 J.M.Douie, D.C. Karnal to Commissioner and Superintendent Delhi Division 8/8/1884, para 7, 93 Land Revenue & Agriculture (Famine) Land Revenue and Agriculture (Famine) Proceedings 3-4 A, Sept. 1885, p 324. Proceedings 3-4 A, September 1885. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 77

temperatures drove the cattle from water groups 99 . In the nearby Lohara forests, the holes of the arid southern plains in the districts scattered communities had specific winter use of Sirsa and Hissar to the riverine grasslands, agreements for their shamilat forest pasturage or up to the Siwalik and lower Himalayan with migrant cattle herders from as far off as forests 98 . The lower temperatures and greater Chamba, Lahul and the Dhaula Dhar 100 . rainfall of the hills created a natural refuge from scarcity or famine in the plains -- and a Messing with the Forest logical destination for grazers from the south. Ethics - The Case of Three The sub montane forest fallow, chambs and Siwalik Buffer Forests riverine grasslands were the most exploited Canals and dams messing with the ethics? areas, as they provided supplementary fodder While the riverine plain and the Siwalik hills resources to both the montane and plains continued to support the pastoral systems to regions. The fertile sub montane zone, the north and south throughout the colonial consisting of the districts of Hoshiarpur, period, agricultural intensification in the plains, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Ambala and southern facilitated by canal irrigation, resulted in a Kangra, was sandwiched between two shortening of fallow. At the same time, pastoral areas. This zone met the pastoral communal village pasturage on the long fallow demands of two adjoining regions, unless (banjar kadim ) was shrinking through unusual scarcities occurred. privatisation and intensified cultivation. These Due to these multiple pressures, the changes increased pressures on the sub- management of sub-montane grazing grounds montane and Siwalik hill forests. The growing and forests like our three forests required number of civil court cases over grazing complex institutions to monitor access and conflicts in the forest tracts indicates the rising impose sanctions when necessary. The pressures 101 . shamilat forests had patches of cultivated This process was further intensified by the fields which were kept as long fallow. Grazing construction of the Bhakra Nangal, the Pong access to crop stubble, as well as long and the Thein dam between 1947- 2001. Each grasses and forest areas, were shared with of these has been in the proximity of the three both Gujars and Gaddis by sedentary villages. forests. Consequently large tracts of pasture Prior to 1961, 11 villages in the Hoshiarpur both inside and outside of these forests have area shared their shamilat forest with Gaddi been inundated. In Shahpur Kandi even the

99 Una, Hoshiarpur Settlement Report, 1876, para 98 From Baden-Powell, Officiating Conservator of 103. Forests, Punjab, to The Secretary to Financial 100 Ibid, para 108. Commissioner, Punjab, Letter No.335, dated 101 See Minoti Chakravarty-Kaul, "Common Land : Camp Simla, 27/7/1869, para 30, Revenue & The Study of an Economic Asset with reference to Agriculture, Forest Department, pros 3-5 B, Oct. Delhi, Haryana & Punjab." PhD dissertation 1887. submitted to the Delhi School of Economics, 1990.

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forest lands have now been submerged. This formerly controlled by 11 villages in Punjal has distorted the movement of the Tappah (now in Himachal Pradesh). The transhumant grazers and increased the Forest Department did not acquire the same pressure of grazing in other areas which are rights in all four areas, even though they were fragile. In the case of the Shahpur Kandi each designated reserved forests because the forest grazers from outside have been more or British could not completely disregard less stopped. This means that the relation customary rights. In the cases of shamilat between the cultivators and grazers has been Panjal Khas, and Karanpur and Brindaban, snapped. the advocate of unilateral state control. Baden-Powell had argued in 1869 that the The Forest Department and forests "are the property of Government both the Shamilat-Ban in soil and trees; and the people have no In the nineteenth century, the state gained rights therein, " yet went on to note that, "by authority over four forest ranges in the practice, grazing is allowed and the collecting Siwaliks. Two were inherited from the former of brushwood for fuel and grass." However, he Sikh rulers. The Shahpur Kandi tract covering concluded "It is perfectly clear that Govern- over 26,800 hectares of low hills has an actual ment can place such restrictions on the 103 area of forest cover slightly more than exercise of these rights as it pleases." In 11,0000 hectares, distributed over three Lohara forest, these prior usufructs were not ranges. Ownership of the forest soils and honoured. In essence, the Forest Department wastes was vested in the village co- could abrogate customary forest rights and proprietary body, which acknowledged the treat them as "privileges" or indulgences reservation of rights of Gaddi shepherds and which the Government then could chose to Gujar herdsmen. The second was the bamboo honour or not. forests of Brindaban (4,310 acres) and Even after independence the Forest Karanpur (7,535 acres) forests, which were Department was unable to appreciate the generously endowed with "gregarious" critical nature of customary relationships bamboo ( Dendrocalamus strictus ), and between self-governing nomadic pastoralists associated valuable trees such as khair and sedentary agriculturists sharing the forest (Acacia catechu ) and teak ( Tectona commons, and therefore standardised policy grandis )102 and two were shamilat forests in measures and procedures. Once adopted, Lohara and Punjal Khas which had been such measures thwarted officials of the Forest

103 From Baden-Powell, Officiating Conservator of 102 From C.A. Roe, Settlement Officer, Hoshiarpur, Forests, Punjab, to The Secretary to Financial To The Commissioner and Superintendent, Commissioner, Punjab, Letter No.335, dated Jalandhar Division, No 217, 13/11/1872, Revenue Camp Simla, 27/7/1869, para 30, Revenue & and Agriculture (Forests), Proceedings 3-5 B , Oct. Agriculture, Forest Department, pros 3-5 B, Oct. 1887. 1887. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 79

Department from better understanding traditional controls undermined confidence in traditional controls used by agriculturists and old agreements, stimulating distrust and pastoralists to protect resources. For example, spurring conflicts between co-managers. the Forest Department simply assumed that In the early 20th century, the degradation and all grazing practices were uncontrolled by clearing of the reserve forests in the upper community user groups. A 1959 report by the catchments of the Siwalik hills are reported to Himachal Pradesh Forest Department have exacerbated flash flooding, washing out mentions" these grazers with their large flock, 30,000 acres of revenue-paying cultivated which are ever on the increase, have always land. Concerned over this loss of revenue, the been conspicuous enemies of the forests“, etc Punjab Government passed legislation to etc." 104 strengthen access controls 105 106 . Yet new In the minds of these foresters, conservation government regulations did little to slow meant total "closure," or strict grazing deforestation and conversion in the reserve restrictions on forest use. Therefore the Forest areas or to solve the problems of erosion and Departments of the colonial and the post- degradation, income from shamilat forests independence period have pursued a policy to continued to flow. These funds were halt grazing on forestlands, both by collectively used in Panjaur to start the first transhumant users and also by those who Cooperative Credit Society in 1892. With the have had customary rights on them. passing of the Co-operative Credit Societies Inconsistently, official policy did not at the Act in 1912, the society was officially same time restrict commercial exploitation of sanctioned. both timber and bamboo exploitation as in the Yet, while the Forest Department could Karanpur and Brindaban forests, instead demonstrate the de-jure power to dictate exposing the forests to rapidly expanding access and use rules, it rarely had the market forces. The entrance of commercial presence on the ground for implementation. utilisation, encouraged by the Forest This reality left the local communities as the Department at a time when traditional rights de-facto managers of the resource. For such as grazing were being curtailed, placed example, while the Brindaban and Karanpur increasing strains on communal systems. bamboo forests were taken over by the state, Complementary forest resource-user local communities continued to use them for relationships were forced to compete with the grazing and the collection of timber and non- growing role of state-supported, commercial timber products. The Forest Department could extraction. Ultimately, the eroded authority of

105 R.Temple, Secretary Chief Commissioner Punjab to D.F. Mc. Leod Financial Commissioner 104 B.S. Parmar, Report on the Grazing Problems for Punjab, Hoshiarpur Settlement Report, 1856 : and Policy of Himachal Pradesh. (Simla : 106 Hoshiarpur Settlement Report, 1885 : 18. Government Press, 1959 ) : 14. Census of India, 1901, Vol. XVII, Part I : 62.

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do little to stop them. This split between the The situation was further complicated by inter- government's legal rights and the community's institutional tensions within the agency and by customary rights on Shamilat required delicate shifting policy positions. negotiation and compromise, opportunities for which were frequently stymied. Minoti Chakravarty-Kaul Independent Researcher, New Delhi, India; E-mail: [email protected]

Photo: SCHIMA News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 81

BIALOWIEZA UND SEINE DEUTSCHEN: JAGD, FORST UND MENSCHEN IN ZWEI WELTKRIEGEN

Am Ende meines Berichtes über Bialowieza Nimbus zu retten, bis zum Tod und über den zur Zeit der deutschen Besetzung im Zweiten Tod hinaus. Weltkrieg, über Vorgänge, Begebenheiten und Vor der Debatte über Scherpings Anteil an Täter in einem Umfeld, das wohl als einzig- Mittäterschaft sollte man die Bialowies be- artig innerhalb der Jagdgeschichte eingestuft treffenden Seiten des „Kriegstagebuches werden muss, habe ich die Feder mit einem Polizeibataillon 322“ gelesen haben, Juni bis Gefühl der Bedrückung niedergelegt. Wie wird August 1941. Dort wird Scherpings Rolle bei die Öffentlichkeit der deutschen Jäger, denen der „Evakuierung“ und Zerstörung der Wald- noch heute gerade die Namen Ulrich dörfer offen gelegt. Scherping und Walter Frevert viel bedeuten, auf diese Neuigkeit aus dem Urwald Frevert hingegen war ab Frühjahr 1943 ein reagieren? Täter, nachdem Göring ihm den Auftrag der „Befriedung“ erteilte, die den Kampf gegen Zwei der prominentesten Jagdbeamten der „Partisanen“ betraf, aber auch Geiseler- Vergangenheit wurden, unter Einwirkung des schießungen und Hinrichtungen zuließ. In obersten Jägers, Reichsmarschall Hermann Andreas Gautschis Dissertation ( Die Göring in Kriegsverbrechen verstrickt, konnten Wirkungen Hermann Görings auf das deut- aber in der Nachkriegszeit wiederum in sche Jagdwesen ) vom Jahre 1997 sind zum höchste Positionen aufsteigen. In Ernst Klees Schluss die Vorfälle sorgfältig dokumentiert. Personallexikon zum Dritten Reich: Wer war Vorausgegangen waren die Veröffentlichung was vor und nach 1945… sind sowohl des erwähnten Kriegstagebuches durch eine Scherping wie Frevert nicht gelistet. Ihre polnische Kommission 1967 sowie das Buch neuen Karrieren waren – Frevert ausge- von Waldemar Monkiewicz, Bialystock 1984 nommen – nicht gefährdet. Das ist ein gerade- (Bialowieza w Cieniu Swastyki, B. unter dem zu typisches Phänomen, das Zeitgeschichtler Hakenkreuz ). In meiner Studie liegt der auch für andere Berufssparten der Nach- Akzent zunächst auf dem Urwaldpark kriegszeit belegt haben. Könnte man, sollte Bioalowisza selbst und darauf, wie die man – aus was für Gefühlen auch immer – die deutsche Jagd- und Forstverwaltung mit dem entdeckten Spuren verwischen, die begang- Gebiet und seinen Menschen verfahren ist. enen Grausamkeiten vergessen? Ulrich Das führt zu einem traurigen Kapitel Scherping wie Walter Frevert haben es ver- deutscher Jagdgeschichte, wie es sich nicht standen, ihr Ansehen zu wahren, ihren wiederholen darf. Gleichwohl muss es aufge-

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deckt werden – spätere –Generationen könn- Kurt Kehr

en mit mehr Abstand urteilen. Geiersbergstrasse 7, D-35096 Weimar-Roth,

Photo: SCHIMA

Photo: SCHIMA News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 83

INVENTORY OF SOCIAL, SPIRITUAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE IN THE WOODLAND

ERHEBUNGEN DES SOZIALEN; SPIRITUELLEN UND KULTURELLEN ERBES IN DEN WÄLDERN

Photo: SCHIMA

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News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 85

INTRODUCTION TO A PROJECT IDEA: FOREST CULTURES IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES – NATURE, WORK AND FREEDOM AS CULTURALLY CONSTITUTED THEMES IN DIFFERENT FOREST CONTEXTS

The project presented in this paper, is 'under ‘freedom’. The chosen themes are also construction'. It is still not an ongoing project, relevant on several levels to current public and it has no financial funding yet. But some debates: plans do already exist, and I hope to be given a chance to realize them, in some way. How a ‘Nature’ real project might be designed, finally, is an During the last decades the forest has been open question. Therefore I will only write a one of the main mobilizing subjects for cursory, rough draft of a paper in order to environmentalists around the world. present some main points that indicate how I Moreover, the forest has also been a place to am thinking about a possible project, and to look for what is ‘natural’ in a wide range of invite interested colleagues to join a network contexts, from romantic dreams of alternative where the ideas could be identified and lifestyles, to the use of wood as a building developed further. material because of it is ‘natural’ qualities. The Here it should be added, that the rationale for forest has been symbolizing ‘natural’ qualities presenting these ideas is equally to get in in very different situations. How many books touch with relevant contacts for my own have been written for children, where the research, as well as to initiate a large common characters representing a ‘natural’ friend- project (which seems to be an investment with liness, humanity and morale, come from the uncertain results). So I have two main aims forest (thus ‘naturalizing’ culture/culturalizing with my presentation: 1.To discuss ideas and ‘nature’)? But the ‘natural’ aspects of the perspectives that might be useful for my own forest have also been seen as something to field of research. 2. To get in touch with be cultivated, controlled, civilized and researchers who are working on related modernized. Therefore the ‘natural’ aspects of topics, and where some also might be the forests have also been wild, raw and interested in coming along in developing a undisciplined. The meanings of the forest as new project. The idea is to concentrate the ‘nature’ have been multivalent, and they are studies within a project on three themes that changing. Although it seems obvious to are supposed to have been culturally anyone that the forest is ‘nature’, the constituted with varying meanings within meanings of it as ‘nature’ have been varying different forest contexts: ‘Nature’, ‘work’ and between different and changing contexts.

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Here it should be mentioned that the the forest have been used to represent ecological ‘nature’ of a forest focused on by idealized, and often mythologized aspects, environmentalists and biologists, is no less have also influenced the ways of thinking culturally constituted as ‘nature’, than what about ‘work’ in quite different contexts (then could be said about any romantic view of the often also told about as ‘work’ without some of forest as ‘nature’, or about the forest as a its essential and ‘original’ characteristics, that place for ‘natural’ lifestyles. And it is the are then assumed to have been reality in the various ways of culturally constituting the forest). Much could be learned about the forest as ‘nature’, that I want to focus on. meanings of ‘work’ by historicizing the concept. Analyzing cultural meanings ‘Work’ associated with ‘work’ in various forest The forest has been associated with many contexts may thus be useful to broaden our different kinds of work. It has been perspectives on work during a time of economically utilized on several levels, from profound and rapid change in the ways of the multitude of ways to use the forest thinking about it. In many ways this project resources for fuel, clothing, tools, housing and may also deepen our understanding of the relations between work, nature, identities and food, to the modern forestry and timer other aspects of everyday life. industry, which have themselves undergone radical changes during the last generations. The idea with a project like this is not so much ‘Freedom’ to reconstruct how work has been done in The forest has been associated with freedom different situations in the forest, as it is to and independence within a wide range of analyze how ‘work’ has been culturally ideological and cultural contexts. Life in the constituted with varying meanings in various forest used to be one of the frequently forest contexts. From the forest many stories portrayed motifs in national romanticism in have been told about what ‘real work’ is (was), Nordic as well as other cultures around the and about how hard, heroic and masculine world. In some situations the forest has also work was in the past, prior to mechanization of been referred to as a symbol for national and the forest industry – in times before the big ethnic strength and pride. One example is machines took over. The forest has in many how the forest and nature are integral to many situations been associated with ideal qualities aboriginal cultures. They have often used their of ‘work’, and a common narrative custom has harmony and contact with the forest and been to contrast the picture of the ‘free’ and nature as themes in their building of identities. ‘natural’ work in the forest, to the clock- Another example to be mentioned is how the controlled, dirty and noisy work in factories. 1930s nazi-ideology was also constructing Images of ‘work’ where stories about work in images of the forest as a place where ‘natural’ News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 87

purity and ‘Ordnung’ was realized. At the between different contexts and historical same time, the forest has also been periods. An aim with a project like this should considered a place of freedom for oppositional be to investigate how those variations have groups, radicals and criminals, for people been expressed and constituted in selected living in conflict with authorities, or in some contexts where the forest has been important. way ‘outside of society’. The forest has also The three chosen themes have often been been seen as a source of survival for poor culturally constituted in very essentializing people, as many resources in the forests were ways. Whether the subject has been ‘nature’, not under the control of landed proprietors. In ‘work’ or ‘freedom’, the forest has often been modern times the forest has been seen as an mentioned as a ‘home’ for the most ‘real’, arena for recreation for growing urban ‘pure’, ‘genuine’, ‘true’, ‘primeval’, ‘original’ or populations. People in the cities have been ‘primitive’. Countless stories have been told telling their stories about the forest as a place about the forest as ‘genuine nature’, about the of ‘freedom’ (and ‘natural’ life). By analyzing forest as an arena for ‘real work’, or the forest such attitudes, it should be possible to as a place where the most heartfelt forms of illuminate interesting aspects of identity- ‘freedom’ can be experienced. The meanings building processes in general, especially how expressed in the stories and told in such they are often getting their themes and situations have much in common, but they metaphors from the nature. As identities break also vary. Although the essentialized ways of up, it is important to consider how they have talking make the stories sound ‘the same’, been made and maintained, not at least their meanings are seldom exactly the same through stories and myths about the when they are told in different contexts. relationship between ‘nature’ and the The focus in a project like this should be on characteristics of life for various groups, continuity as well as change, on similarities as peoples and nations. well as differences, between the meanings Themes like the three roughly outlined above, connected to ‘nature’, ‘work’ and ‘freedom’. are always difficult to delimit and concretise. And when one is concerned with ways of ‘Nature’, ‘work’ and ‘freedom’ are themes talking about themes that seem to have been appearing almost everywhere in our culture. stable and common, it should anyway be an They are woven into almost all fields of life, in aim to investigate how those meanings have more or less identifiable ways. And their been connected to – and constituted in – presence can in some way easily be found in specific historical contexts. When investigating the most different social and cultural this, one will probably discover that even the situations. Although ‘nature’, ‘work’ and apparently most stable and fixed meanings ‘freedom’ can be seen as themes common to vary in their cultural makings. Because when many cultures, their meanings have varied the contexts change, the meanings of the text

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will also vary, no matter how similar the among loggers in different situations and words, stories, expressions and signs might stages of history. At the same time this could look at first sight. Thus the meanings of be compared with meanings of ‘work’ being stories told all over the world about forest life expressed in other forest contexts, where the emphasizing ‘nature’, ‘work’ and ‘freedom’, work has been more concentrated on utilizing are never quite the same, regardless of how forest resources other than timber (this could similar they might seem to be on the surface. also be compared historically within the same For example, the forest has been associated regions, because in North America and with ‘freedom’ among manually working Scandinavia the use of the forests has also loggers in Nordic forests, and it has been included non-timber forest products, traditional seen as a source of ‘freedom’ among German botanicals and recreation, as it has in other tourists who have been searching forests for a forest regions of the world). kind of ‘Waldeinsamkeit’ (loneliness in the forest). The content and meaning of the There have been not only similarities and ‘freedom’ of the logger and the ‘freedom’ of differences, but also interrelations between the tourist has then been very different. the various contexts where the three selected Another example is that the forest is themes have been involved. The forest as considered an arena for ‘hard work’, ‘real ‘pure nature’ has of course been associated men’s work’, and as work for masculine with other meanings for environmentalists heroes. Images like this probably apply more interested in biodiversity, than for poets immediately to the experiences and meanings searching for some kind of natural virginity in of the loggers in the highly mechanized and the forest. But when ecologists and poets capitalized North American forest industry, have both seen some kind of harmony in the than of the small Norwegian farmer. Until forest (as well as wilderness and conflicts), recently, the small Norwegian farmer has they might have been influenced by each logged only a few weeks every winter in the others ways of talking about the forest as forests close to his farm, with much less harmonious. Cultural meanings are never industrialized kinds of technology and capital fixed in certain contexts. Rather, they are fluid, than in North America. Although the logging and therefore their meanings are also flexible. has been a work for men here to, the Thus it can easily be imagined that stories told meanings of the masculinity it might have by environmentalists about the forest as been associated to, has not been quite the ‘nature’, might have ‘borrowed’ words, same as for the loggers in more industrialized metaphors, meanings and narratives from forest cultures (which later developed in stories told about forest and forest life by Scandinavia too). It could be interesting to poets. It might also have been the other way, compare the different meanings of ‘work’ and ‘eco-poetry’ may have been influenced News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 89

through ecological ways of imagining the webs like this have worked within different ‘natural’ aspects of the forest. concrete forest contexts around the world. A further example is that machine One of my main incentives for putting forward entrepreneurs in modern forestry may have the present ideas about how to study themes adopted aspects from previous ways of telling like these within different forest cultures, is about work in the forest. Their ways of that my own research on cultural aspects of mythologizing their lives as ‘free’ but ‘hard’ life in Scandinavian forest regions, needs to working men in the forests, and their ways of be compared and contrasted with the ways constituting themselves as heroes of work, the ‘same’ themes have been culturally might have been influenced by stories told constituted in forest contexts in other parts of about mens forest work in previous periods. the world. During a visit to the Pacific Interrelations like this, constituted Northwest (Washington, USA and British diachronically and synchronically through Columbia, Canada) in the summer of 2002 I historical and cultural processes, would be made observations that incited me to think in interesting to explore in studies where new ways about my own Scandinavian source material from various cultures and contexts materials. In the north american forest regions could be comparatively investigated. Between there are a lot of traces telling about the various forest contexts there has probably influences from Scandinavian forestry been much continuity and intertextuality as (through immigration), but at the same time well as change. The meanings of stories told there are also differences in the ways of about life in connection to the forest should be utilizing the forests. Here it should be interpreted with this in mind. emphasized that this is a region with many None of the three themes should be analyzed common characteristics with Scandinavia. It in isolation from each other. Logging has been might be even more exciting to do seen as ‘real work’, but also (and therefore?) comparative analysis of forest cultures in as work in harmony (or in disharmony) with much more different regions of the world. ‘nature’, and it has been seen as work in What about studying systematically how ‘freedom’ from industrial control and discipline. meanings of ‘nature’, ‘work’ and ‘freedom’ Aspects like this might have been mixed have been culturally constituted (or may be together in similar stories (and when loggers not present at all) in tropical forest areas in explain their feelings of ‘freedom’, they often Africa, in the cultural encounters between argue that their work is not only ‘real’ but ‘free’ Maoris and European colonizers on New because it is situated in the ‘nature’). Thus the Zealand, or in areas with much more extreme meanings of ‘nature’, ‘work’ and ‘freedom’ conflicts about the forests, as in Amazonas or have often been intertwined in complex Papua New Guinea, or in regions where the cultural webs. The idea is here to study how forests have been subject to quite different

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kinds of use than as timber resource for dimensions been marked by global themes, industrial exploitation? relations and relevance. It would not be realistic to explore to a very A ‘Forest Cultures’ project or network could be large extent material from a variety of places organised and framed theoretically and in the world within the same study, or by the methodologically in a lot of ways. One of the same researchers. However, with an courses of interpretation that I want to try out international network of colleagues and within the project, is to focus on the narrative contacts from different disciplines and places aspects of the cultural processes through around the world, it should be possible to which the cultural meanings of ‘nature’, ‘work’ some extent to exchange ideas, literature and and ‘freedom’ have been constituted. In a information in ways that would be fruitful to all wide range of situations people have been the participants of a project. And of course a telling their experience with the forest. project like this would need a lot of money for Through stories and figures of speech the travelling, arranging conferences and for themes from the forest have been manifested. publishing the results. It should be a goal to And thus the meanings of forest have been make it possible for the participants to visit culturally constituted through narrative forest milieus in other countries in order to presentations. Among the sources for studies carry out fieldwork as well as to collect of this, it could be relevant to interpret not only information and sources on some level. memories told by people living in woodland Regardless of all the problems associated communities (I base much of my research with doing extensive research in remote upon memories told orally in interviews, but regions, it would be fruitful for any study within also on written stories and diaries, from this field to involve cross-cultural and global woodland regions in Scandinavia). Also, perspectives in the analyses. Forest culture is various kinds of literature, texts, traces and a topic where this is very relevant. Since early landscapes are ‘telling’ in various ways about colonization the forest has been subject to the forest as arena for ‘nature’, ‘work’ and international interests and relations on many ‘freedom’. In the regions where the forest has levels. The forest was all over the world one of been important to people, be that as a mean the resources that most of all interested the of livelihood or as theme in ways of life, and in colonizers. Therefore it became a frequent life stories, there are accessible narrative theme for conflict when western interests in representations on various levels, from oral timber and wood collided with traditional tradition and local history to fictional stories interests in utilizing and living in the forests. where the forest is made a subject. Other So in forest cultures the globalization has a kinds of art could also be studied, from long history, which can be studied on many paintings and sculptures to films and poetry. levels. And forest cultures have in many Museums and historical exhibitions could in News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 91

such a project be used not only as a base of To conclude, I want to underline that my information about past forest life, but as intention with this paper has just been to primary sources, because they have mention some themes and ideas for a themselves been actively making and possible project and cooperation. These are constituting culturally various aspects of life in too unspecified to be presented as plans in and with the forest. Many of those sources are this paper, but they may be as roughly easily accessible. In such a project formulated, as they often need to be, when researchers from various disciplines could inviting colleagues to take part in further come together and make cross-cultural as developing them. well as local and regional studies of how people have been talking and telling about ‘nature’, ‘work’ and ‘freedom’ in various forest contexts. Ingar Kaldal

Institute for History and Classical Studies, The Norwegian University for Technology and Science, NTNU, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway; E-mail: [email protected]

Photo: SCHIMA

92 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

INVENTORY OF CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ESTONIA

Abstract farmsteads, memorial stones and old place- names. The data and the photos of the The term ‘object of cultural heritage’ can be taken to signify an anthropogenic historical objects were digitalised after the fieldwork and object in the natural landscape. The a digital map layer was created in the MapInfo identification, registration, and exposition of GIS software. The digital map, which is these objects, as well as the problems of the integrated with the database and cultural heritage in the natural landscapes photographs, can serve as a tool in making (mainly in the forest) have started to receive decisions related to forestry and planning, more attention in Estonia over the last few image development of the region and tourism development. The objects of cultural heritage years. L. Tarang has developed a method for identifying and finding these objects. The found in the forestlands provide added value method was tested on 850 km2 area in the to the forest. As a result of the work, initial Western Estonia. The possible objects have conclusions were made on the nature and been categorized into 98 types, which are condition of the objects of cultural heritage divided between six groups of types. The and the applied method proved to be suitable method distinguishes three stages of for a broader inventory of the objects of inventorying: preliminary selection of regions, cultural heritage in Estonia. fieldwork and digitalisation of the collected data. The preliminary selection of the regions Introduction is based on archives, museum collections, Estonia is in the 15th year of its regained topographic maps and interviews with the independence. Looking back at the history, we local population. This work resulted in a map see that Estonia has been independent only of preliminary selection of regions. During for 35 years. Is this a sufficient amount of time fieldwork, all pre-selected objects were to make the people identify themselves as a inspected. The geographic coordinates of the free nation? The freedom would have to be object were determined, a photo was made such that we would not borrow our culture of and a questionnaire filled with 33 different living from other nations, but would create and characteristics of the object. During the develop it from our own roots. fieldwork, 270 objects of cultural heritage were New tendencies in Estonia during the last found in the pilot area; 46 % of these objects decade have highlighted a problem, which has were located in woodlands. The most not been noticeable before. Namely, it is the common types of objects were old problem of continuous preservation and News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 93

maintenance of Estonian land culture long stone fences could not mark the borders (including the forest culture). The somewhat of ancient or medieval land possession and late recognition of the problem is to some some historians of culture believe that they extent probably natural, because the nature of are related to the ancient astronomy. The list this problem always becomes apparent only could be complemented with many more signs after certain time gap. The same happened in of culture related to the way of life of the the Nordic countries 30 years ago and as a peasants – turf cutting sites of the farms, ruins result of the development of the society, the of limestone kilns, charcoal kiln sites, tar kilns, problem was recognized here as well. old argil works and potash kilns.

The nature of the cultural heritage From the various existing definitions of culture, one of the most likeable comes from Hando Runnel, a renowned Estonian writer. ‘Culture is not only some high intellectual product, but first of all, it is home, the way of being, acting and behaving as a free person.’

As a guiding principle in the society, the Figure 1 . A rare stone hay barn in the woodland culture is primarily the people’s way of life, which is related to health, ability to work and In the last decades, only one part of the the quality of life. If the culture is primarily a cultural heritage – semi-natural communities – way of life, it surely must express itself – it has received more attention. As the need for expresses itself in the signs of people’s way of preserving and restoring biological diversity is life. The signs of the way of life coming to us a global problem, the funds from both internal from the earlier generations are the signs of and external sources have been used for their cultural heritage. protection and study. However, semi-natural These could be forest roads between villages communities themselves are parts of the that have long disappeared, age-old trees heritage landscape. It also includes other around forsaken forester farms, or limestone remnants of human activity, such as cattle cellars that are the only remaining signs of old paths, winter roads, barns, etc. Consequently, farmsteads. These could also be stone fence the heritage landscapes are valuable in systems, whose purpose and time of twofold sense – they are priceless from both construction is unknown and that pass the biological and cultural point of view (see forests from the Northern coast to the Western Figure 1). coast and the islands. The many kilometres

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Cultural Heritage in Estonian from 30 to 60 % over the last centuries. Forests Consequently, the signs of human activity or It would be wrong to assume that only the cultural heritage have been variably remnants of the peasant culture have heritage distributed over the forest areas, depending value. Each age has a different way of life and on the time of their origin. Estonian settlement corresponding attributes. The land and system remained almost completely forestry culture includes milk trestles at the unchanged from the ancient times to the end gates of forester farms, piles of bricks on land of the 18th century. As a result of the improvement objects, a forest range office development of manors, many villagers had to built according to several different designs, leave their lands at this time and settle into temporary timber industry on a weather- less fertile periphery. The settlement that beaten wood cutting plot, historic forest developed in this period persisted largely until management facilities (old national forest the World War II. After that, the old villages trails). Even the military objects left behind by and farms in distant woodlands and periphery, the Russian army should be preserved – we on marsh-islands and water meadows behind cannot delete this part of our history and the forest started to be abandoned. Over culture. Historic place-names should also be many centuries, the whole countryside had considered – many parts of the forests, forest followed the principles of natural economy and roads and trails, ridges and meadows had depended greatly on the forest in setting up their own folk names. their fields and gathering food. Consequently, Consequently, one could say that the activities the traces of culture of the life of many perpetuating the whole Estonian folk culture – generations lie hidden in the forest. The from the ancient archaeology to the local ethnographers have studied and recorded the traditions and family biographies in the folklore nature of the culture; the archaeologists have collections – have been aimed primarily studied human settlement based on the towards preserving our cultural traditions. locations of settlements and funeral sites. Yet, Acknowledging, recording, preserving, the signs of daily life culture in Estonian forest protecting and promoting the objects of landscape have not been systematically cultural heritage belong to the process of recorded, mapped or acknowledged. conserving and developing the folk culture. Thus, one could assume that most of the national cultural heritage in the forest areas is The importance of the still unidentified, its importance has not been inventory of the cultural felt by the people and it is unprotected against heritage conscious or unconscious destruction. There The forests cover more than a half of the area are examples of accidentally destroyed of Estonia, whereby this indicator has ranged funeral sites and demolished ruins of historic News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 95

limestone kilns, while several unique stone context of forestry – be driven primarily by the fences (see Figure 2) have been used as a forestry officials themselves? The reason is reinforcement for the roads used for timber simple – being in direct contact with their transportation. It has happened even after object of study, the forestry officials have Estonia regained its independence. more knowledge and more sensitivity to the It has to be kept in mind that only laws are not changes in the forest. The discovery of the enough to protect cultural treasures. The ex- objects of cultural heritage, alteration of their periences from Northern Europe indicate that condition or their damaging usually takes better results are achieved through the place under their supervision or in their area. protection by the owner after the owner has However, this approach does not require that been informed of the unique sign of culture all forestry officials be laid under obligation to located on his land. This gives additional search and record the objects of cultural value to his property, distinguishes the heritage in the forest. On the contrary, the property from the neighbouring land and im- work groups have to be made up of volunteers proves the self-concept of the owner. In a who are interested in this kind of work, and wider sense, the exhibited objects of cultural the work should be based on individual heritage add value to the whole region and projects. The experiences from Sweden improve the image of the community. enable drawing the conclusion that even The inventory of the objects of cultural though the registration of the cultural heritage heritage should produce a data collection and found in the forest has been set out by law, it information source that could be used when is not obligatory to carry out this work in each making decisions related to forest manage- year in equal volume in all regions. The work ment. In this context, the concept of cultural in a region could be postponed if there is no heritage is one of the factors shaping the initiative group with sufficient motivation and general forest policy. interest in the culture.

The method of inventory taking

The method for taking the inventory of the objects of cultural heritage, developed by L. Tarang in 2000 and later improved through

test inventories, divides the performed works Figure 2 . A stone fence in the woodland in three stages: preparations and preliminary Why should the registering and protection of selection, fieldwork, formalisation of results cultural heritage – an atypical activity in the and digitalisation of data.

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During preliminary selection, the objects that preliminary story of development, will be worth seeking out in the fieldwork are accompanying natural treasures (possible identified. The sources used for this purpose precious habitats, occurrence of rare plant or include: forestry databases, the collections of animal species). The registration of an object Sagadi Forest Museum, the cultural history of cultural heritage involves filling out the archive of the Estonian Literary Museum, the following fields in a fieldwork questionnaire: collections of local museums, topographic o Name of the object as known among maps, and other information (oral reports, the local inhabitants. manuscripts). o Location of the object. The county, It is always necessary to verify, if something parish, village and the name of the real has been preserved of the objects of property are identified in words. The preliminary selection. Useful information could land registry number (if exists), the be obtained from local forest workers and page number on the base map of local inhabitants. The local lore studies written Estonia, the number of the forest by the pupils in schools should be reviewed. compartment are identified in Some additional potential sources include: old numbers. forest inventory data, woodland inventory o Ownership type of the plot is marked data, soil and hardpan maps, research data with numeric code (private property, from the universities and project-managing public property or status unclear). organisations. All pre-selected objects are o Source of information – the sources marked on the fieldwork maps. A fieldwork used during pre-selection are entered map could be the base map of Estonia or the with codes. copies of the base map of the land register. o Registration number of the object, All sites marked in pre-selection should be which is unique for each object. The visited during fieldwork. The purpose of the number is recorded in the following inspection of the pre-selected object is to form: XXX:YYY:ZZZ, where XXX is the assess, whether it has cultural value. The code of the local government, YYY is following definition could serve as a criterion: the code of the type of the object and all objects that show traces of human activity ZZZ is the number of the object in the should be viewed as objects of cultural given local government and given heritage. type. The following data is considered during the o Object type code consists of three inspection of the objects of cultural heritage: characters and is based on the list of the main processes leading to the current object types. condition of the object (natural processes, o X and Y coordinates of the object are human impact, etc.), the temporal origin and determined in the centre of the object News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 97

with a GPS device; one pair of immediately or after a small effort coordinates is used for a compact usable for its original purposes. In the object, two pairs for a line object (the case of a group of objects, the coordinates at both ends); in the case condition is determined based on the of more complicated objects or a group condition of most of the members of of objects, the questionnaire is the group. supplemented by a plan of the objects o Human impact and possible human drafted on the plan of the land unit. impact in the future. Letter codes are o Type of land characterises the use of used to describe past or potential the land around the object; the future risk factors caused by human following classification is used; forest activities. The impact is classified as land, natural grassland, arable land, follows: demolition and destruction; swamps and marshes, water bodies, digging; construction, which has house yards or gardens. damaged the original condition of the o Dimensions of the object from its object; land improvement; felling of centre (in meters). It gives an idea of timber; littering. the size of the object or group of o Notes; here is entered other objects, based on the point fixed by information that the inventory taker the coordinates. considers important. o Composition of the object. The fields o Date of inventory. are filled using type codes if there are o Method of digitalisation of the object. other objects in the area in addition to Dot, line or polygon. the registered object. o Traditions. Known legends and their o Condition of the object. The following source. classification is used in the description: o References to literary sources. object destroyed and no sign of the Reference to the publication or library object visible in the landscape; signs in card number if available. the landscape indicate the presence of o Numbers of the photos. Each photo of the object, but it is impossible to the object is given a unique code, determine clearly its type; the type of which is written on the back of the the object cannot be determined, less photo. The photos on paper are stored than 20 % of the object has been with the inventory cards. preserved; 20-50 % has been o Characterisation of the stand – preserved; 50-90 % has been description of the composition, age preserved; object has been preserved and thickness (thick, medium, thin) of in good or very good condition and is the stand around the object. A

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separate note is made on thinning or clear cutting if it occurred during the last ten years. In addition to inventory sheets, object registration lists are also kept with the following data: the name and registration number of the object, sheet number of the base map of Estonia, number of the photo, and date. A separate list of registration kept in each parish for each type of objects is Figure 3. A map window in the MapInfo GIS software required in order to determine the registration showing the photo of the object and the data table record number of the object and to obtain overall inventory data. The data collections created in the process of Potential uses of the mapping the cultural heritage can be used for digitalised data several purposes. First, it can serve as a basis During the formalisation of results, the borders for further and more detailed research on the and locations of the objects are transferred cultural heritage, with the possibility of from the fieldwork maps onto the sheets of the entering additional information or corrections if base map of Estonia (5 x 5 km). The data on required. The inventory of cultural heritage is the inventory cards is entered into single a support material for the researchers and it electronic database and the photos are could lead historians, archaeologist and digitalised. ethnographers to interesting discoveries. A respectful attitude towards cultural and historic During digitalisation, the data and the photos monuments is a matter of honour for all of us, are integrated with the map using a and the information collected during the geographic information system. Digitalisation mapping of cultural heritage is a valuable of data is also a prerequisite for making the asset for the institutions that manage the use data available on the Internet. A digital map of the environment. This applies for protecting layer will be created of the objects (see Figure individual objects as well as to finding and 3) based on the shape and location indicated protecting valuable landscapes. In this way, on the inventory card. Separate symbols have the inventory of cultural heritage could been developed for each work group (see influence planning on the county or parish below). level. The databases could be used in local schools as a study material introducing local history. The databases could also be helpful News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 99

to the developers of local and natural tourism Iron and ochre mines, argil industries, when they prepare hiking trails. limestone quarries, limestone and tar kilns, Making this information available to the public charcoal burning sites, glass-works, turf on the Internet would persuasively cutting sites, boat harbours, ship construction demonstrate a possibility of combining the sites, seamarks, retting pits, rafting sites, sites traditional and modern aspects of life and related to hunting, fishing and apiculture, land would help to popularise our folk culture, improvement objects, old electric power preserve natural riches and cultural stations and substations, railway facilities, old monuments for the future generations. sawmills. IV. BUILDINGS AND FACILITIES The classification of the Old village and farm sites, forester guard objects of cultural heritage stations, farm buildings (barn houses, forges, farm granaries, cellars, saunas, etc.), wells, 98 different types of objects with letter codes stone fences, gates, windmills, watermills and have been developed in order to systematize dams, swing hills, clock towers, wooden this complicated field and simplify the gongs, objects of manor architecture, taverns, registering of objects. These types have in post stations, houses of manor workers, stone turn been divided between six groups. It is bridges, old signposts, hay barns, historic possible to draw some general conclusion on boundary marks, chapel ruins, grave sites, the results of the inventory taking in the pilot grave marks, plague graveyards, worship work group. buildings, objects erected in joint and relief I. PRESERVES RELATED TO THE works, examples of home culture from 1920- DEVELOPMENT OF CULTIVATED 40, parts of the manor culture, signs of cultural LANDSCAPE heritage from Soviet times (milk trestles, Ancient settlements or funeral sites, plough production facilities, silage pits, stone piles). lands. V. MILITARY MONUMENTS II. NATURAL OR SEMI-NATURAL MONU- Ancient citadels, military objects from the MENTS Middle Ages to the last century, objects Old trees, sacred groves, trees connected related to the National Defence League, with traditions, hills and trees of crosses, objects from the occupation period, sites of memorial stones, sacrificial stones, old forest the crimes of occupation authorities, partisan and winter roads, marsh bridges, log roads, bunkers. healing springs, hideouts, chapel hills, old VI. FOREST AS A CULTURAL PHENO- place-names. MENON III. MONUMENTS RELATED TO WORK AND Stands planted by famous persons, stands ACTIVITIES related to historic events, pilot forests, stands

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planted for specific purposes, significant situation in the country, as Estonia’s forest stands with foreign species, stands planted coverage exceeds 50 %. A significant number with unusual technology, stands with special of objects were also located on natural usage (resin areas, ship building forest, sap grassland (27 %) and residential land (19 %). forest), resin collection stations, stands related In total, the area included 60 types of objects to traditions, unique stands, afforested parks, of cultural heritage. The most common type natural and cultural heritage composites was old farmsteads (59), followed by (woodlands, wood pastures), traces of historic memorial and sacrificial stones related to forest management. traditions (17), old place-names (15), objects of manor architecture (13), forester guard Results of inventory taking stations (13) and stone fences (13). The during the pilot project number of identified objects of other types In the summer of 2003, a pilot inventory was was less than ten. taken in four parishes in Western Estonia, Dots, polylines and polygons were used in supported by the Environmental Investment digitalisation. The majority of the objects (226) Centre and requested by the Estonian Society were dot objects; the number of line and plane of Foresters. objects was 21 and 23, respectively. The total According to the type of ownership, nearly half area of plane objects was 354 ha. of the objects are located on private land, 20 In order to get the idea of the dimensions of % on public forestland and 36 % on the land objects described as dots, the size of the with unclear status. The latter part consists object was described. If the objects are taken mainly of the land that has not been returned to have a round shape and if the radius of the to the owners from the time before the World circle is equal to the dimension of the object War II. from the centre, the total area of dot objects is 85 ha. The calculation of the area of line objects is impossible, because the width of the line is not described and in the opinion of the authors, it is also not important. Consequently, the total area of objects of cultural heritage is 439 ha, which is approximately 0.5 % of the total area of the pilot region. However, these numbers are only rough estimates, because in

Figure 4 : Location of the inventoried areas the case of objects that have been destroyed According to the type of the land, nearly half on the landscape and have been inventoried of the objects (46 %) are located on only based on oral or written sources, it would forestland. This is comparable to the overall be difficult to determine their original size. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 101

was smaller. Of the possible human impact in Distribution of the inventoried objects by the the future, the inspectors mentioned wood- type groups cutting in 11 % and demolition in 5 % of the Preserves cases. 77 % of the objects were recorded as Forest as a related to the cultural development of Natural or semi- having no potential human risk factors in the phenomenon cultivated natural 3% landscape future. Military 4% monuments monuments 19% 4% In 42 % of the cases, the data on the object of Monuments related to w ork the cultural heritage was obtained from a local Buildings and and activities facilities 11% inhabitant; in 27 % of the cases, the data was 59% derived from a topographic map. In ten per cent of the cases, the information was obtained from museum collections and other Fig. 5 sources; nearly a tenth of the objects were This also applies to the type ‘old place- found accidentally in the course of the names’. In 150 cases, the inventoried object fieldwork. The high importance of local was a part of a group of objects. Other objects inhabitants in the acquisition of source data in the group in addition to the inventoried indicates that, if possible, the inventorying object (the main type) included old farmsteads should be carried out by a person familiar with and farm buildings in various combinations: the local situation in order to facilitate residential house and yard trees, residential communication and collection of source house and a well, residential house and a materials has been preserved from half of the granary, etc. According to the condition, less objects. than a fifth has been preserved from half of In the case of objects located in the the objects. The cause is probably not the woodlands, the age, thickness and overall bad condition of the objects of cultural composition of the stand were described. The heritage in Estonia, but the fact that the descriptions were based on visual estimates, inspectors devoted more attention to the because the data are needed only to get a objects in worst condition. Additionally, it better idea of the surroundings of the object. should also be kept in mind that there are no The age of the stands varies to a great extent signs of the ancient objects left on the ranging from a couple of years on fresh clear landscape, and the old place-names do not cutting areas and bushy fields up to one and a have a material expression. 70 % of the half centuries in old manor parks. Most of the objects were undamaged by human influence. stands are aged between 40 and 60 years. Damage caused by demolition occurred in 9 Nearly a half of the objects located in the % and damage by woodcutting in 5 % of the woodlands are surrounded by stands with cases; the relative importance of other factors medium thickness, a third of the stands are

102 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

thin. Consequently, one could claim that the should play an important part in the objects of cultural heritage located in the inventories. In the protection of the objects, a woodland are not endangered by the compromise is required between continuous excessive thickness of the stands. According managing of the forest and ensuring the to the composition of the stand, most of the preservation of the object. objects in the woodlands are located in fir • Only less than a fifth has been forests. preserved from approximately half of the Conclusion objects. The reason is that the inspectors • Estonian cultural heritage deserves preferred traditional (non-material) and older protection and a wide-ranging inventory would (more decayed) objects. create the necessary preconditions. • More than two thirds of the objects are • In addition to enforcement by laws, the unharmed by human activity and, in the importance of the objects of cultural heritage opinion of the inspectors, will not be harmed in should be explained to the landowners, thus the future. In spite of this, the damages and facilitating the development of the protection risk factors should be thoroughly analysed of the objects by the owners. and a method should be developed for • The inventory data can assist in identifying, which objects are in the greatest making forestry and planning decisions by danger. environmental authorities and local governments. Jürgen Kusmin • In the future, the objects of the cultural Estonian Agricultural University, heritage could be included in the forest Kreutzwaldi 5, Tartu 51014, Estonia, management plans. [email protected]

• The pilot inventory showed that the and method developed by L. Tarang is suitable to be used in a countrywide inventory. The Lembitu Tarang inventory will be more efficient in the case of Estonian Society of Foresters, Ungru tee 2, Haapsalu 90403, Estonia, local initiative. [email protected] • The inventory found nearly two thirds of all possible types of objects. This shows the diversity of the cultural heritage, even though only areas in one region of Estonia were inventoried. • Almost half of the objects are located in forest landscape and, thus, forestry officials News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 103

HISTORISCHE KULTURLANDSCHAFTS- ELEMENTE IM WALD: ERFASSEN, SCHÜTZEN, INTEGRIEREN – BEISPIELE AUS DEM RHEINLAND

Problemaufriss Defizite und Möglichkeiten Die meisten historischen Zeugnisse der Winfried Schenk (1997) beurteilt den Verlust Kulturlandschaft sind in landwirtschaftlich von Elementen und Strukturen menschlichen genutzten Flächen unter dem Pflug Handelns und Denkens als einen nicht verschwunden. Im Wald hingegen über- wiedergutzumachenden Schaden. Für ihn dauerten zahlreiche Relikte menschlichen sind Kulturlandschaften als Zeugnisse der Handelns, die für sich allein oder im Zu- Alltagswelt früherer Zeiten ähnlich hohe sammenwirken räumliche Aussagen über ver- Kulturleistungen wie berühmte Bauwerke, gangene Nutzungen bekunden. Gemälde oder Romane. 109 Die Vielzahl von historischen Relikten bereichert den Im Regierungsbezirk Koblenz z.B., einem der Informationsgehalt einer Landschaft und waldreichsten Landesteile von Rheinland- erweitert die Biodiversität, also die Vielfalt Pfalz, liegen 90 % der erfassten Boden- eines Ökosystems durch eine historische denkmäler im Wald. Davon sind lediglich rund Komponente. 10 % erschlossen. Der Wald ist damit ein Solche Kulturlandschaftselemente tragen Archiv, und es gilt, dieses als kulturland- entscheidend zur regionalen Identitätsbildung schaftliches Erbe wie eine alte Karte zu bei. Kulturlandschaftselemente sind Punkt-, schützen. 107 Aber der Wald ist auch ein Wirt- Linien- oder Flächenelemente. Sie vermitteln schaftsraum. Die Forstbetriebe unterliegen im räumlichen Miteinander eine Aussage über zurzeit einem hohen Rationalisierungsdruck. die gewachsene Kulturlandschaft. Das lässt fürchten, dass Belange der Boden- Die Waldlandschaften in Deutschland werden denkmalpflege zum Teil aus Unkenntnis jedoch unter dem derzeitigen Rentabilitäts- immer weiter zurückgedrängt werden. 108 Der druck der Forstbetriebe zunehmend bean- folgende Vortrag geht der Frage nach, sprucht. Dabei können Konflikte zwischen inwieweit und in welcher Form kultur- Forstbehörden und Vertretern der historische Objekte besonders unter Wald Bodendenkmalspflege entstehen. Statt der geschützt werden sollen. betriebseigenen, ortskundigen Forstwirte, die „ihren Wald und alle Objekte darin“ noch 107 Vgl. Hildebrand, Helmut (2003): S. 236 ff., vgl. auch Berg, Axel v. (1994): S. 13 ff. 108 Vgl. Berg, Axel v. (1990): S. 13. 109 Schenk, Winfried (1997): S. 3.

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kannten, arbeiten im Wald jetzt zunehmend Die vorhandenen und erfassten Kulturland- betriebsfremde Unternehmen mit leistungs- schaftselemente berücksichtigt die Forst- fähigen Maschinen. Dadurch sind die zu behörde in der Betriebsplanung. Als Beispiel erhaltenden historischen Elemente gefährdet. dient die Forsteinrichtung in Rheinland-Pfalz. Dem versuchen die Ämter für Bodendenk- Dort werden die Ergebnisse der Waldbiotop- malpflege entgegenzuwirken, indem sie kartierung mit den Kulturlandschaftsobjekten Kulturlandschaftsobjekte im Wald erfassen. in eine zehnjährige Forsteinrichtung aufge- Ein lobenswertes Beispiel geben Nordrhein- nommen. Der Forsteinrichter integriert die Westfalen und Rheinland-Pfalz. Dort beraten Bodendenkmäler in das Bestandesblatt, das und unterstützen die Bodendenkmals- er für jede Abteilung im Revier erstellt. Der pflegeämter als Träger öffentlicher Belange zuständige Revierleiter kann dann aufgrund die Gemeinden und Landkreise. dieser Information den Arbeitsauftrag für den Werden in den Wäldern Kulturobjekte, wie Unternehmer, z.B. in Form einer Skizze, z.B. Hügelgräber, entdeckt, so begutachten entsprechend ergänzen. die Experten, zumeist Archäologen, den Fund. Die Bodendenkmalspflege in Rheinland-Pfalz Sie entscheiden darüber, ob er in die bemängelt jedoch, dass nicht alle Objekte Bodendenkmalliste aufgenommen wird. Ein erfasst, in die Waldbiotopkarte (Forstein- prinzipieller Schutz des historischen Erbes richtung) eingetragen und damit in die durch Gesetz besteht jedoch nicht. 110 Planung integriert werden. Auch im Bundes- Allenfalls wird das Bodendenkmal durch einen land Bayern wird solches gefordert. 113 Der Verwaltungsakt oder eine Rechtsverordnung Mangel an Personal bei den Bodendenk- nach einer Anhörung der Träger öffentlicher malämtern führt dazu, dass die Kulturobjekte Belange geschützt und in einem Denkmal- nur bruchstückhaft erfasst werden können. buch verzeichnet. 111 Maßnahmen, die eine Das in Rheinland-Pfalz begonnene digitale Zerstörung des Objektes nach sich ziehen, Verzeichnis ist bisher nicht flächendeckend sind dann genehmigungspflichtig. 112 Erst implementiert. 114 Die Spärlichkeit der Informat- durch das Denkmalbuch finden Kulturdenk- ion über das historische Erbe im Wald hat zur mäler ihren Weg in Planfeststellungsver- Folge, dass z.B. Hohlwege zugeschüttet und fahren. Wüstungen im Wald durch Holzernte- Doch wie werden nun die vorhandenen maßnahmen zerstört werden, weil die Relikte im Wald in die forstliche Planung Forstleute sie nicht erkennen und deuten eingebunden? können. Die hier beschriebenen Defizite erfordern, dass Möglichkeiten aufgezeigt

110 DSchPflG § 8. werden, die historischen Kulturlandschafts- 111 Landesgesetz zum Schutz und zur Pflege der Kulturdenkmäler (Denkmalschutz- und pflegegesetz vom 23.3.1978. § 8, § 10. 113 Irlinger, Walter (2004): S. 34. 112 Luley, Helmut (1995): S. 9. 114 Kuhnen, Hans-Peter (2002): S. 93. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 105

objekte den heutigen Bedürfnissen von Anreiz entschädigt private Forstbetriebe für Gesellschaft und Betrieben zugänglich zu Nutzungseinschränkungen und Minderein- machen und damit deren Erhalt zu sichern. nahmen. Die Zeugen menschlicher Kultur Zum Beispiel zeigen Helmut Hildebrandt werden erhalten. Zudem erhöht sich die (2003) im Westerwald und Gerrit betriebliche Flexibilität, wenn bekannt ist, wo Himmelsbach im Spessart (2004), wie die Zeugen menschlichen Erbes verborgen historische Elemente einer Kulturlandschaft in sind. ein Konzept des sanften Tourismus integriert Für die forstliche Praxis bedeutet all dies: werden können. Am Beispiel eines historisch- Trotz zunehmender Arbeitsbelastung infolge geographischen Entdeckungspfades legen vermehrten Engagements für Kulturdenkmäler beide ein Muster vor, wie historische Zeugen im Wald empfiehlt es sich, die folgenden in den Fremdenverkehr eingebunden werden Maßnahmen mit besonderer Sorgfalt zu können. Auch der Forstbetrieb kann aus planen: das Aufarbeiten und Bringen des Hinweisen der Bodendenkmalpflege und der Holzes, die Erschließung des Waldes sowie archivisch erarbeiteten Forstgeschichte der Arbeitsauftrag für den Unternehmer vor profitieren. Mit Informationen über Standorte Ort. mit übermäßiger Streunutzung und Be- Das Gespräch mit Forstleuten ergab: Diese weidung lassen sich Standortpotential und Empfehlung stellt keine zusätzliche betrieb- Baumartenwahl differenzierter beurteilen. 115 liche Einschränkung dar, sofern man sich auf Eine historisch-genetische Betrachtungsweise das Konzept der naturgemäßen Wald- könnte die Diskussion über die Bewertung der wirtschaft verständigt hat 117 . Forstleute fragen infrastrukturellen Waldfunktionen neu be- nun, wie sie die verschiedensten Bodenauf- leben. Die Reinhaltung der Luft, des Grund- werfungen einordnen können? wassers oder der Erholungswert eines Waldes lassen sich nicht durch einen Markt- Beispiele von Kulturland- wert beziffern. Die von Blum 1996 aufge- schaftsobjekten worfene Frage, welche Infrastrukturleistungen Kulturlandschaftselemente sind historische dem Forstbetrieb zugeschrieben werden Relikte in der Kulturlandschaft als 116 können , ist im Hinblick auf die überlieferten Einzelobjekte anthropogener Herkunft. Treten kulturhistorischen Objekte im Wald zu er- sie gehäuft auf oder bilden sie mit anderen weitern. historischen Zeugen der Landnutzung eine Beispielsweise könnten Forstbetriebe Relikte räumliche Struktur, so spricht man von im Wald als Ausgleichsflächen in einem Kulturlandschaftsbestandteilen. 118 Ökopunktekonto gutschreiben lassen. Dieser

115 Schaal, Reinhold (1999): S. 179. 117 Vgl. dazu auch Irlinger, Walter (2004): S. 34. 116 Blum u.a. (1996): S. 22. 118 Vgl. Burggraaff, Peter (2000): S. 11.

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Die folgenden Beispiele aus dem Rheinland punkten nachweisen. 121 Im Mittelalter dienten sind als Hinweise zu verstehen. Sie der Landbevölkerung Turmhügelanlagen, die verdeutlichen die Vielfalt menschlicher so genannten Motten als Schutzburgen. Spuren, die in den Wäldern des Rheinlandes Wurden sie eingenommen, nutzten die erhalten geblieben sind. Dabei ist Bauern sie als Steinbruch. Daher sind heute entscheidend, dass die Waldbesitzer und nur noch Hügel im Wald zu erkennen, die mit Forstleute anhand von Bodenmerkmalen Gräben umgeben sind. Um die Grenze eines historische Elemente erkennen, damit diese Territoriums zu sichern, errichteten die Elemente von der Bodendenkmalsbehörde Landesherren im späten Mittelalter Grenz- geprüft und erfasst werden können. wälle. Diese so genannten Landwehren 1. Beispiel: Vordringlich ist die Sicherung des leiteten außerdem den Handelsverkehr zu den Limes, weil er Weltkulturerbe werden soll. jeweiligen Zollstellen122 . Die ehemaligen Weitere Beispiele: Nach einer vorgelagerten Grenzen sind heute nur noch an linien- Landausbauphase wurden um 1350 förmigen Geländeerhebungen zu erkennen. Siedlungen in großer Zahl wieder Zeugnisse alter Handelsbeziehungen sind die aufgegeben. 119 Nach den ersten Hinweisen überregional verlaufenden Handelsstraßen. aus archivalischen Quellen sind auch in der Die Räder schwer beladener Wagen gruben Landschaft Spuren zu erkennen, z.B. Acker- sich im Laufe der Jahrhunderte in den flächen. Diese findet man heute unter Wald weichen Untergrund und hinterließen rinnen- als gewölbte, terrassenförmig angeordnete hafte Eintiefungen, Wegspuren und Hohlwege Strukturen, die so genannten Hochäcker oder entstanden. 123 Wölbäcker. 120 Auf den Wald als Rohstoff wirtschaftlicher Ferner: Huteeichen mit tief ansetzenden Nutzung verweisen zumeist sehr unschein- Kronen verweisen auf historische Mittelwälder bare Kulturlandschaftsobjekte. Sie lassen sich mit ehemaligem Waldweidebetrieb. In der schwerpunktmäßig ins Mittelalter und die unmittelbaren Nähe zu den Siedlungen hin frühe Neuzeit datieren. Im Westerwald dürften finden sich häufig breite Geländeeinschnitte, die meisten Relikte im 17.-18. Jh. entstanden die als Viehtriften genutzt wurden oder sein. 124 Überwiegend hat der Bergbau sie dadurch entstanden. hervorgebracht, z.B. im rheinischen Wester- Noch früher als die mittelalterlichen wald. Ein unruhiges Bodenrelief mit Ein- Wüstungen lassen sich die im Rheinland tiefungen und Auswürfen verrät den Erzab- häufigen keltischen Bestattungshügel, sog. bau. Man bezeichnet die trichterförmigen

Hügelgräber, zumeist an markanten Gelände- 121 Luley, Helmut und Wolfgang Wegener (1995): S. 40. 122 Ebd.: S. 24. 123 Vgl. Luley, Helmut und Wolfgang Wegener 119 Abel, Wilhelm (1976): S. 14. (1995): S. 28. 120 Schenk, Winfried (2000): S. 5-7. 124 Bub, Gerrit (2003): S. 83 ff.. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 107

Bodendellen als Pingen. Darüber hinaus historischen Strukturen und Relikten zählen zum historischen Bergbau Meiler, gekennzeichnet ist. 126 Kohlplatten, Eisenhütten, Rennöfen und 2. Hierin kann man die Wende zur Schlackenhalden. 125 Wurzel des Naturschutzes im späten 19. Jh. Sind die Kulturlandschaftsobjekte im Wald be- erkennen, die Heimatschutz war und den kannt, stellt sich die Frage nach ihrem gesetz- Natur-, Landschafts- und Denkmalschutz lichen Schutz. einschloss. Beispiel 2: Im Raumordnungsgesetz vom Gesetzlicher Auftrag 1.1.1998 der Bundesrepublik Deutschland Die gesetzlichen Bestimmungen zum Schutz steht in § 13, dass gewachsene Landschaften der Kulturlandschaft sind aufgesplittert. in ihren charakteristischen Merkmalen Beispiel 1: In der aktuellen Fassung des einschließlich der Natur- und Kulturdenkmäler Bundesnaturschutzgesetzes von 2002 liest geschützt werden sollen. Es zielt auf das man im § 2, Abs. 14 folgendes: „Historische europäische Kulturlandschaftserbe als einen Kulturlandschaften und –landschaftsteile von wichtigen Wert für die regionale Entwicklung. besonderer Eigenart, einschließlich solcher Der erste Hinweis findet sich im Gesetz zur Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung (UVP) Anfang von besonderer Bedeutung für die Eigenart der 1990er Jahre. und Schönheit geschützter Kultur-, Bau- und Bodendenkmäler, sind zu erhalten.“ Das Beispiel 3: In der föderalen Struktur der Gesetz lässt es bei diesem unbestimmten Bundesrepublik hat jedes Bundesland sein Rechtsbegriff. eigenes Denkmalpflegegesetz und eine eigene Praxis. Die Naturschutzbewegung erforscht jedoch Das Denkmalsschutz- und -pflegegesetz heute gerade die Kulturlandschaft, und dies Rheinland-Pfalz vom 23. März 1978 definiert aus zwei Gründen: in § 3 den Begriff des Kulturdenkmals: Danach sind Kulturdenkmäler Gegenstände 1. Die klassische Strategie des aus vergangener Zeit, die Naturschutzes, einzelne Arten zu schützen, wird von der Öffentlichkeit wenig akzeptiert. 1. Zeugnisse, insbesondere des geistigen Deshalb suchen die beteiligten Institutionen oder künstlerischen Schaffens oder des neue Tätigkeitsfelder. Ein Gebiet ist die handwerklichen oder technischen Wirkens, „historische Landschaft“. Das ist eine 2. kennzeichnende Merkmale der Städte Landschaft, die durch einen hohen Anteil an oder Gemeinden sind und an deren Erhaltung und Pflege …. u. a. zur Belebung und

125 Bub, Gerrit (2003): S. 83ff., vgl. Preißing, Heinz 126 Vgl. dazu das Projekt von Burggraaff, Peter (1996): S. 163 ff.. (1997): S. 23.

108 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Werterhöhung der Umwelt ein öffentliches entwickelnde Kulturlandschaftspflege gerät Interesse besteht .127 derzeit in Deutschland allerdings zwischen Dies Gesetz schützt zwar Einzelobjekte und alle Stühle der gesetzlichen Bestimmungen. auch Denkmalzonen, aber nicht eine Es ist daher ihre Aufgabe, ein Konzept zu historische Landschaft als übergeordnete schaffen, um die divergierenden Ansprüche Raumeinheit. der verschiedenen Institutionen zu über- Beispiel 4: Im Gegensatz zu den genannten winden. Gesetzen sind den Forstleuten durch die Dies wird ein offener und dynamischer Waldgesetze nur unzureichend Möglichkeiten Diskurs über den bewussten Umgang mit zum Schutz historischer Relikte genannt. Ein natürlichen und menschlichen Potentialen der Beispiel: Im Landeswaldgesetz von Rhein- Landschaft sein, in dem Wertmaßstäbe land-Pfalz ist eine historische Dimension über- ständig neu definiert werden müssen. 129 Das haupt nicht erwähnt. 128 Für den zukünftigen bedeutet, jedes historische Landschaftserbe Umgang mit historischen Relikten im Wald nicht wie „unter einer Käseglocke“ zu kon- und eine Leitbildentwicklung der „Kulturland- servieren, sondern für regionale Ent- schaft Wald“ ist zu wünschen, dass der wicklungen zu nutzen. 130 Gesetzgeber das Waldgesetz um eine Dafür ist ein Kulturlandschaftskataster not- historische Komponente in einzelnen Ab- wendig (In Nordrhein-Westfalen KULADIG). 131 schnitten erweitert. Damit wäre dem Gemein- Als grundlegendes Inventar befindet es sich wohl gedient. Zeugen der Vergangenheit derzeit vielerorts in Erprobung oder An- blieben damit erhalten und dienten als wendung. Ein flächendeckendes Kataster liegt Wegweiser in die Zukunft. in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland noch nicht Aber wie könnte nun ein umfassendes vor. Als Vorbild dient das Schweizer Inventar Schutzkonzept aussehen? der Verkehrswege. Es ist eine Bestands- aufnahme schützenswerter historischer Ver- Konzept der Historischen kehrswege auf Kantonsbasis. Geographie Das Kulturlandschaftskataster bedarf be- Die Historische Geographie liefert das stimmter Kriterien: interdisziplinäre Konzept für die Raumplanung o wichtig ist das Alter der Elemente und des historischen Kulturerbes. Landschaften Strukturen. sollten als Archive menschlichen Handelns o ihre Besonderheit und Seltenheit im und als Grundlage nachhaltiger Ent- regionalen Kontext; wicklungen behandelt werden. Die daraus zu

127 DSchPflG, RhPF. (1978), § 3, 1. 129 Ebd. S. 6 128 Schaefer, Stefan u.a. (2001): Kommentar zum 130 Schenk, Winfried (1997): S. 6. LWaldG Rheinland-Pfalz. 131 Recker, Udo (2004) News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 109

o ihr ästhetischer Ausdruck und ihre Es ist es denkbar, Relikte durch Aussagen Wichtigkeit für die Identität einer Region. von Archivalien zu einem Beziehungsgefüge Die Arbeitsschritte zu einem flächen- zwischen Objekt, Raum und Gesellschaft zu deckenden Kulturlandschaftskataster wären verknüpfen und als thematische Karte dabei: 132 darzustellen und diese öffentlich auszulegen. - Inventarisierung: Erfassen, Be- Denn viele Menschen kennen den Wert der schreiben, Erklären historischen Landschaft nicht. Nur wenn sich - Bewertung: Der Wert einer ein Bewusstsein über den Wert einer Kulturlandschaft setzt sich zusammen aus der historisch gewachsenen Landschaft ent- einmaligen Wechselbeziehung verschiedener wickelt, können historische Objekte nachhaltig historischer Relikte. geschützt werden. Daher bedarf es nicht nur - Pflegemaßnahmen: hierbei sollten die eines Kulturlandschaftskatasters, sondern Interessen der Bewohner der Region mit einer Basiserziehung, der Feldführungen, der eingebunden sein. Einrichtung von Landschaftsmuseen und der Das Landschaftskataster besteht aus einer Dokumentation in gedruckten Landschafts- Mischung aus Gesetzen und der Mitwirkung führern. Der Umgang mit kulturhistorischen von Naturschutz, Denkmalpflege und regio- Elementen sollte in verschiedene naler Planungsbehörde. Nicht zu leisten wäre Ausbildungsgänge der Landesplanung wie es, die regionaltypischen Zeugen der Ver- z.B. Landschaftspflege, Landschafts- gangenheit insgesamt zu schützen. Das architektur oder Forstwissenschaft verstärkt Zusammenwirken der einzelnen Relikte hin- eingebunden werden. gegen ergibt eine Gesamtaussage, die durch Zum Schluss möchte ich noch einmal die den Erhalt nur der Struktur, d. h. durch Be- wichtigsten Punkte zusammenfassen: wahren einer räumlichen Einheit überdauern kann. Beispiele einer Raumstruktur sind: Meileranlagen, Brennöfen, Schlackenhalden, Zusammenfassung Eisenhütten, Hohlwege. Regionalspezifische Unter den Wäldern hat sich im Gegensatz Elemente wie z.B. Burgruinen oder Hügel- zum Offenland eine Vielzahl historischer gräber müssen einzeln aufgenommen und Objekte, erhalten. Der Wald ist aber nicht nur erhalten werden. Wichtiger als die Forderung ein Archiv, sondern auch ein Ort der des Schutzes von allem und jedem ist die Wirtschaft. Die Forstbetriebe in Deutschland Diskussion über die Schutzwürdigkeit eines sind einem zunehmenden Kostendruck aus- Reliktes oder „historischen Ensembles“ am gesetzt. Dabei besteht die Gefahr, dass die Einzelfall vor Ort mit allen Beteiligten. Belange des Denkmalschutzes weiterhin zu- nehmend in den Hintergrund gedrängt werden. Dennoch können auch die Forst- 132 Schenk, Winfried (2001): S. 12

110 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

betriebe von ihrem historischen Erbe Bub, Gerrit (2003): Waldnutzung und profitieren. Waldentwicklung in der mittelrheinischen Die gesetzlichen Bestimmungen zum Schutz Grafschaft Wied vom 17.-20. Jh.: Landschaftswandel unter gegensätzlichen der Kulturlandschaft sind aufgesplittert. Ansprüchen. Bonn 2003. Schutzmaßnahmen müssen erst noch Berg, Axel v. (1990): Ur- und Frühgeschichte an verstärkt in die forstliche Planung integriert Mittelrhein und Mosel. Koblenz 1990. werden. Dabei beabsichtigt der Kulturland- Berg, Axel v. (1994): Archäologie im Luftbild am schaftsschutz keinen statischen Schutz in Mittelrhein und Mosel. Koblenz 1994. Form eines Museums, sondern die Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz (1978): Landesgesetz dynamische Weiterentwicklung, die den zum Schutz und zur Pflege der Kulturdenkmäler Schutz einzelner Objekte und regionaler (Denkmalschutz- und pflegegesetz – DSchPflG - ) Raumstrukturen einer Landschaft einschließt. vom 23. März 1978. Das interdisziplinäre Konzept der Historischen Burggraaff, Peter und Klaus-Dieter Kleefeld Geographie bezieht das historische Erbe im (1997): Naturschutzgebietsausweisung und Wald in die Planung der Träger öffentlicher Kulturlandschaftspflegemaßnahmen am Beispiel Belange mit ein. Welche Objekte dabei zu der „Bockerter Heide“ (Stadt Viersen). In: Andreas Dix (1997): Angewandte Historische Geographie schützen sind, bedarf einer ständigen im Rheinland. Köln 1997. politischen Diskussion und der fortlaufenden Burggraaff, Peter (2000): Fachgutachten zur Ergänzung eines verbindlichen Kulturland- Kulturlandschaftspflege in Nordrhein-Westfalen. schaftskatasters. Münster 2000. Angesichts der gegenwärtig sich ändernden Brunotte, Ernst, Hans Gebhardt, Manfred Meurer, politischen und wirtschaftlichen Rahmen- Peter Meusburger und Josef Nipper (2001): bedingungen in der Europäischen Union ist Lexikon der Geographie. Heidelberg und Berlin die Frage nach dem Schutz des kultur- 2001. historischen Erbes zugleich ein Blick nach Goudie, Andrew (1994): Mensch und Umwelt – vorn: eine Herausforderung an alle mit dem Eine Einführung. Darmstadt 1994. Wald und mit der Landschaft befassten Hildebrandt, Helmut (2003): Ausgewählte Schriften Arbeitsbereiche, das historische Erbe im Wald zur Historischen Geographie Deutscher Land- schaften. Mainz 2003. gemeinsam zu bewahren. Irlinger, Walter (2004): Schutz archäologischer

Geländedenkmäler im Wald – am Beispiel der Literatur keltischen Viereckschanzen. In: Bayrisches Amt Abel, Wilhelm (1976): Die Wüstungen des für Denkmalpflege (2004): Denkmalpflege ausgehenden Mittelalters. Stuttgart 1976. Informationen. München 2004. S. 32-34. Blum, Brandl, Oesten, Schanz, Schmidt, Vogel Kuhnen, Hans-Peter (2002): Archäologische (1996): Wirkungen des Waldes und Leistungen der Fundstellenerfassung („Listenerfassung“) und Forstwirtschaft. In: AFZ Der Wald 1996. S. 22. Landesaufnahme – Leistungen und Defizite am News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 111

Beispiel der römischen Villa Bitburg-Stahl. In: Germanischen Altertumskunde. Band 17. Berlin, Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Rheinland-Pfalz New York 2001. S. 617-630. Abteilung Archäologische Denkmalpflege (2002): Schenk, Winfried (2001): Wir brauchen ein Archäologie in Rheinland-Pfalz 2002. Mainz 2002. Kulturlandschaftskataster. In: Landschaftsverband Luley, Helmut und Wolfgang Wegener (1995): Rheinland: (2001): Beiträge zur Landes- Archäologische Denkmäler im Wald und ihre entwicklung 55 – Rheinisches Kulturlandschafts- Gefährdung. In: Koschick, Harald als Hrsg. kataster, 11. Fachtagung 25.-26. Oktober 2001 in Landwirtschaftskammer Rheinland, Heinsberg. S. 9-15. Landschaftsverband Rheinland (1995): Archäologisches Denkmäler in den Wäldern des Gerrit Bub Rheinlandes. Köln 1995. Forstliche Versuch- und Forschungsanstalt, Preißing, Heinz (1996): Spuren alter Geschichte – Abteilung Waldschutz, Wonnhalde 4, 79100 Freiburg, Deutschland; Archäologie im Kreis Neuwied. Horb am Neckar E-Mail: [email protected] 1996. Recker, Udo (2004): Hessen braucht ein Kulturlandschaftskataster. Vortrag anlässlich der

Jahrestagung des Vereins für Kulturland- schaftspflege in Frankfurt am Main 2004.

Schaal, Reinhold (1999): Darstellung der Waldentwicklung durch Auswertung von sequenten Waldzuständen – Bedeutung der Ergebnisse für Forstwirtschaft, Naturschutz und Raumplanung. In: Schenk, Winfried (1999): Aufbau und Auswertung „Langer Reihen“ zur Erforschung von historischen Waldzuständen und

Waldentwicklungen. Tübingen 1999. S. 179-202.

Schaefer, Stefan und Peter Vanvolxem (2001):

Landeswaldgesetz (LWaldG) Rheinland-Pfalz – Kommentar. Wiesbaden 2001. Schenk, Winfried, Klaus Fehn, Helmut Denekcke (1997): Kulturlandschaftspflege – Beiträge der Geographie zur räumlichen Planung. Berlin und Stuttgart 1997. S. 3-9.

Schenk, Winfried (2000): Hochacker. In: Beck,

Geuenisch, Steuter (2000): Reallexikon der

Germanischen Altertumskunde. Band 15. Berlin, New York 2000. S. 5-8. Schenk, Winfried (2001): Landschaft. In: Beck, Geuenisch, Steuter (2001): Reallexikon der

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CHARCOAL PRODUCTION SITES: STORE INFORMATION ON WOODLAND HISTORY – EXAMPLES FROM THE BAVARIAN FOREST (GERMANY),

Historic land-use impacts are relevant for The legacy of the charcoal today’s landscape management and nature makers conservation, as well as to the knowledge of For the palaeobotanist, the advantage of the the cultural heritage. method is the omnipresence of the charcoal maker’s relics. Charcoal kiln sites are found Researchers from several disciplines, from abundantly at different altitudes and topo- arts and sciences, are occupied with the graphical situations, often in the mountain history of woodlands. Palaeoecologists ranges of Europe, but also in the lowlands, investigate vegetation and woodland history though they are often not conserved due to mainly using pollen analysis, which reveals land use practices or are difficult to find due to the regional vegetation change over time, and topography. However, archaeologists some- macrofossil analysis, which informs about the times find objects related to charcoal more local plant distribution. production in the context of iron smelting sites or sometimes within a settlement context. The analysis of charcoal (anthracology: Compared to sites of charcoal consumption determination of species, timber diameter, (e.g. iron smelting sites), the investigation of etc.) from historic charcoal production sites is charcoal production sites allows to assume a increasingly used as a tool to reconstruct site-related origin of the timber, which most woodland history in various regions of Europe probably was cut in close vicinity. Kiln sites (Müller 1939/40; Krause 1972; Hillebrecht are recognisable as small terraces on a slope 1982; Kauder 1992; Bonhote & Vernet 1988; (Fig. 1, 2), where charcoal makers used to Bonhote et al. 2002; Davasse 1992, 2000; build their upright circular kilns (stehende Montanari et al. 2000, 2002; Ludemann 1994, Rundmeiler). 1996, 2002a; 2002b, 2003; Ludemann & Nelle In Austria, another type of kiln was and is still 2002; Nelle & Kwasniowski 2001; Nelle 2001, used: the so called Langmeiler (horizontal 2002a; 2002b, 2003). In this paper, examples kiln); their remains can be found in the from the Bavarian Forest in Germany are landscape as 15-20 m long and 5 m wide given to illustrate how this type of mounds with a long-oval shape (Fig. 3). palaeoarchive contributes to the research on During medieval times, pit kilns were in vegetation and landscape history. operation. Within the context of interdisciplinary palaeoecological research, News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 113

we know by now over 200 charcoal production sites in the Bavarian Forest and Oberpfälzer Forest (Fig. 4). Of them, 66 are investigated anthracologically so far (Nelle 2002b).

Fig. 3 : Horizontal kiln site (Langmeilerplatz), field situation. Eisenerzer Ramsau, Steiermark, Austria. Black line indicating extension of the relic (Photo: O. Nelle 2003).

Fig. 1: Scheme of kiln sites, located on a slope. A round or oval terrace with charcoal fragments in the soil is characteristic. From this charcoal layer, samples are gained for wood analysis (Nelle 2003).

Fig. 4: Historic charcoal kiln sites in the Bavarian Forest (black dots). Black circle: location of „Forstmühler Forst“ (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 2: Example of a kiln site (upright circular kiln) in the Bavarian Forest. White line indicating extension of the site, with diameter 6 - 7 m (Nelle 2003)

Fig. 5 : Kiln site ensemble Forstmühler Forst, Bavarian Forest. Charcoal spectra from 14 kiln sites, based on 17191719 charcoal fragments in total (Nelle 2002b).

114 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Fig. 6 : Charcoal pit kiln „K 66“, Forstmühler Forst, Bavarian Forest. a: field situation. b: planum. c: W-profile. d: N- profile. Numbers 1-2 C-horizon, 3-9 differentiable layers. Black layers are rich in charcoal, grey layers have some charcoals, and light layers are charcoal-free. Layer c and 7 contained charcoal from beech (Fagus) and fir (Abies), Layer 4-5 and Layer a contained only charcoal from oak (Quercus). (Nelle et al. 2003

Gaining the botanical Information on the size of the charred wood is information gained using a diameter stencil. The bending Charred wood shows all the anatomic features of the growth rings and the angle of the rays which enable the botanist to determine the make it possible to measure the diameter, if woody species of the fragment in question. At the piece is not too small. Thus, the botanist each site, a minimum of 100 fragments is can tell what tree species were used at the sampled from different parts of the charcoal- sites, and whether it was of small or large rich layers, and analysed microscopically diameter, i.e. of small or large trees. The (stereomicroscope and incident light proportions point to the dominant tree species microscope) using an identification key in the vicinity and the composition of the (Schweingruber 1990a, 1990b) and a charcoal forest, assuming the charcoal makers used sample collection. Usually, determination to the available wood. The above mentioned genus level is possible. In most cases, the studies have shown that generally all tree genus can be narrowed down to a particular species which were present in the forest were species, due to the knowledge of plant used for making charcoal, although some distribution (e.g. Fagus – Fagus sylvatica ). historical records on charring wood indicate

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 115

that certain species were more suitable than assume that it was used several times to others (cited literature in Nelle 2002b). make charcoal. More research is planned to investigate also the other pit structures along Medieval pit kilns in the the slope. The upright kiln sites, which can be Bavarian Forest dated in the Modern Times, show fir- A charcoal kiln site ensemble is located in the dominated spectra. This is interpreted as „Forstmühler Forst“, which belongs to the either a man-made enrichment of fir, or the Thurn und Taxis-estate, around 15 km NE of usage of fir-dominated stands. The use of oak Regensburg, in the Western Bavarian Forest. wood in Medieval times is proved with the We found in very close vicinity objects which charcoal data, but remains surprising. From a are the relics of pits used for charcoal burning, geobotanical point of view, one would expect and sites where upright kilns were operated beech dominated forests at these altitudes (Fig. 5). Samples from two pit objects gave and sites as the natural vegetation (Rüther datings of 1408 ± 44 radiocarbon years before 2003). present (544-547, 560-686 AD cal., 2 Sigma) and 1399 ± 41 (563-588. 596-688 AD cal., 2 Combining palaeoarchives Sigma). Thus they were operated in early or and methods in palaeo- high medieval times, at a time when people ecology started to settle the more accessible areas of In palaeoecological research, it is essential to the Bavarian Forest. These two radiocarbon combine as many methods as possible, within dates and the related charcoal production one discipline, and between disciplines. It is activities are the earliest finds on woodland also crucial to use as many palaeoarchives as use in this area. With an archaeological possible to gain the data about the past excavation, we proved that the pits were used vegetation. At the Institute of Botany of the for charcoal production (Fig. 6). We were a University of Regensburg, we investigated the team of two archaeologists, a soil scientist Western Bavarian Forest with different and a botanist (Nelle et al. 2003). In the botanical methods, including vegetation profile, different charcoal layers can be seen, science combined with research in toponyms which are differentiated by charcoal free and archives (Rüther 2003), and palynology mineral layers, and differ further with their and anthracology (Nelle 2002b). In co- charcoal spectra. At the bottom and middle operation with geographists and archaeo- layers, oak (Quercus) charcoal prevails, logists, we come to new insights in the history whereas the upper layer consists of charcoal of the landscape. The palaeobotanists relies from beech (Fagus) and fir (Abies). No other on available palaeoarchives; therefore co- finds, like slag or ceramics, were made. operation with other research disciplines is Because of the different layers in the pit, we essential.

116 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

An example of the increasing interest of disciplines questions of land use history, archaeology in the subject of charcoal making technical aspects related to wood selection, is a current project in the Eisenerzer Alps near wood usage, the story of vegetation dynamics Eisenerz, Steiermark, Austria. In the context and the vegetation change due to the of montane archaeological research, kiln sites activities of man. were mapped (Klemm 2003). A medieval pit kiln was found during excavation of a bronze References age copper smelting site, in 1045 m a.s.l. Bonhote, J., B. Davasse, C. Dubois & V. Izard (Klemm 2003). The archaeological and (2002): Charcoal kilns and environmental history in anthracological investigations are under way the eastern Pyrenees (France). A methodological and will be published soon, together with the approach. - In: S. Thiébault (ed.): Charcoal results of the excavation of a horizontal kiln analysis. Methodological approaches, palaeo- site (Langmeiler) near-by. ecological results and wood uses. Proceedings 2nd Int. Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, Objects of interdisciplinary September 2000, BAR Int. Series 1063, Archaeopress (Oxford): 219-228. research Bonhote, J. & J. L. Vernet (1988): La memoire des In conclusion, the investigation of charcoal charbonnieres. Essai de reconstitution des milieux production relics contributes to the knowledge forestiers dans une vallee marquee par la of distribution and importance of the old trade metallurgie (Aston, Haute-Ariege). - Revue and helps us reconstruct the composition of Forestiere Francaise 40 (3): 197-212. the former woodlands. As a by-product of the Davasse, B. (1992): Anthracologie et espaces botanical research, investigating charcoal forestiers charbonnés. Quelques exemples dans la production sites reveals information on moitié orientale des Pyrénées. - Bull. Soc. Botanique France 139: 597-608. settlement history, time and intensity of Davasse, B. (2000): Forêts charbonniers et woodland use, and throws light on the paysans dans les Pyrénées de l'est du moyen âge immense importance of the charcoal à nos jours. Une approche géographique de producers in former times. Their legacy can l'histoire de l'environment. GEODE (Géographie de serve as an instrument to foster l'environment) (Toulouse), 287 p. interdisciplinary research and bring together Hillebrecht, M.-L. (1982): Die Relikte der Holz- archaeologists, historians, forest researchers, kohlewirtschaft als Indikatoren für Waldnutzung geographers, botanists and today’s charcoal und Waldentwicklung. Untersuchungen an Bei- burners. However, the social history of the spielen aus Südniedersachsen. Göttinger Geo- graphische Abhandlungen 79, Verl. Erich Goltze charcoal makers is up to now ignore by (Göttingen), 157 p. academic research. The charcoal production Kauder, B. (1992): Relikte der Waldköhlerei im site seems to be an ideal research object to Winkelhofer Forst bei Ebrach (Steigerwald). - stand on and discuss across the edges of News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 117

Heimat Bamberger Land 4: 23-28. und Köhlerei. - Freiburger Forstliche Forschung Klemm, S. (2003): Montanarchäologie in den 15: 139 p.

Eisenerzer Alpen, Steiermark. Mit Beiträgen von J. Montanari, P., S. Prono & S. Scipioni (2000): The Resch, H. Weinek, H. Proske, B. Emmerer, E. study of charcoal-burning sites in the Appenine Steinlechner, P. Trinkaus, W. Gössler und R. mountains of Liguria (NW Italy) as a tool for forest Drescher-Schneider. Mitteilungen der Prä- history. - In: M. Agnoletti & S. Anderson (ed.): historischen Kommission 50, Verlag der Öster- Methods and approaches in forest history., IUFRO reichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Wien), Series 3, 79-91. 205 p. Montanari, P., S. Scipioni, G. Calderoni, G. Krause, A. (1972): Bestimmung von Meilerkohlen Leonardi & D. Moreno (2002): Linking anthra- aus dem Hunsrück und ihre vegetationskundliche cology and historical ecology: suggestions from a Aussage. - Decheniana 125: 249-253. post-medieval site in the Ligurian Apennines Ludemann, T. (1994): Vegetations- und Land- (north-west Italy). - In: S. Thiébault (ed.): Charcoal schaftswandel im Schwarzwald unter anthropogen- analysis. Methodological approaches, palaeo- em Einfluß. - Ber. Reinhold-Tüxen-Ges. 6: 7-39. ecological results and wood uses. Proceedings Ludemann, T. (1996): Die Wälder im Sulzbachtal 2nd Int. Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, (Südwest-Schwarzwald) und ihre Nutzung durch September 2000, n 1063, 235-241. Bergbau und Köhlerei. - Mitt. Ver. Forstl. Stand- Müller (1939/40): Das Waldbild am Feldberg jetzt ortskunde u. Forstpflanzenzüchtung 38: 87-118. und einst. Dargestellt auf Grund neuer Unter- Ludemann, T. (2002a): Anthracology and forest suchungen. - Mitt. Bad. Landesver. Naturk. u. sites - the contribution of charcoal analysis to our Naturschutz. N.F. 4 (3-4): 143-156. knowledge of natural forest vegetation in south- Nelle, O. (2001): Der Wald vor 200 Jahren - west germany. - In: S. Thiébault (Hrsg.): Charcoal Naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchungen von analysis. Methodological approaches, palaeo- Köhlereirelikten bei Ringelai (Lkr. Freyung-Grafen- ecological results and wood uses. Proceedings au). - Ostbairische Grenzmarken 43: 69-75. 2nd Int. Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, September 2000, BAR Int. Series 1063, Nelle, O. (2002a): Charcoal burning remains and Archaeopress (Oxford): 209-217. forest stand structure - examples from the Black Ludemann, T. (2002b): Historische Holznutzung Forest (south-west Germany) and the Bavarian und Waldstandorte im Südschwarzwald. – Frei- Forest (south-east Germany). - In: S. Thiébault burger Forstliche Forschung 18 (Wissenstransfer (ed.): Charcoal analysis. Methodological approach- in Praxis und Gesellschaft, FVA-Forschungstage es, palaeoecological results and wood uses. 5.-6. 7. 2001): 194-207. Proceedings 2nd Int. Meeting of Anthracology, Ludemann, T. (2003): Large-scale reconstruction Paris, Sept. 2000, BAR Int. Series 1063, 201-207. of ancient forest vegetation by anthracology - a Nelle, O. (2002b): Zur holozänen Vegetations- und contribution from the Black Forest. - Waldnutzungsgeschichte des Vorderen Bayer- Phytocoenologia 33 (4): 645-666. ischen Waldes anhand von Pollen- und Holzkohle- Ludemann, T. & O. Nelle (2002): Die Wälder am analysen. - Hoppea, Denkschr. Regensb. Bot. Schauinsland und ihre Nutzung durch Bergbau Ges. 63: 161-361.

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Nelle, O. (2003): Woodland history of the last 500 Vorderen Bayerischen Waldes, mit einem Beitrag years revealed by anthracological studies of zur jüngeren Waldgeschichte. - Hoppea, Denkschr charcoal kiln sites in the Bavarian Forest, Regensb. Bot. Ges. 64: 475-876 Germany. - Phytocoenologia 33 (4): 667-682. Schweingruber, F. H. (1990a): Anatomie europ- Nelle, O., E. Guggenbichler, U. Putz & J. äischer Hölzer. Ed. Eidgenössische Forsch- Schmidgall (2003): Eine mittelalterliche Kohlen- ungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft meilergrube im Vorderen Bayerischen Wald. (Birmensdorf) Haupt (Bern, Stuttgart), 800 p. Ergebnisse archäologischer, anthrakologischer Schweingruber, F. H. (1990b): Mikroskopische und bodenkundlicher Untersuchungen. - Arch. Holzanatomie. Formenspektren mitteleuropäischer Korrespondenzbl. 33 (3): 457-467. Stamm- und Zweighölzer zur Bestimmung von Nelle, O. & J. Kwasniowski (2001): Untersuchung- rezentem und subfossilem Material. Eidg. Anstalt en an Kohlenmeilerplätzen im NSG Eldena für das forstl. Versuchswesen (Birmensdorf/ (Vorpommern) - Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Schweiz), 3. Aufl., 226 p. jüngeren. - Greifswalder Geographische Arbeiten Oliver Nelle , 23: 209-225. Rüther, C. (2003): Die Waldgesellschaften des Historische Geobotanik / Historical Geobotany Oekologie-Zentrum / Ecology Centre Vorderen Bayerischen Waldes, mit einem Beitrag Christian-Albrechts-Universitaet Kiel zur jüngeren Waldgeschichte. - Hoppea, Denkschr. post: Olshausenstr. 40 | D-24098 Kiel haus: Olshausenstr. 75 | D-24118 Kiel Rüther, C. (2003): Die Waldgesellschaften des fon +49(0)431-880-4062 | fax +49(0)431-880-4083 [email protected]

Photo: ForstKultur-Archiv AST News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 119

FOREST-RELATED FAMILY NAMES AND WOODLAND COVER;

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY TO POSSIBLE RELATIONS

Abstract Many words, mainly from medieval origin, refer to woodland. For this research a The Netherlands are known for its polders and selection of these words has been made, open landscapes, but not for their woodlands. namely ‘bos’, ‘haag’, ‘hout’, ‘laar’, ‘lo’, ‘vorst’ Only ten percent of the land area is covered and ‘woud’. Each word has its own with forests and woodlands. This used to be ethymological meaning related somehow to much less two centuries ago. Despite the poor forest, woodlands or trees in the landscape. forest cover in the Dutch landscape Also many derivative names exist, for nowadays, many forest related family names example: ‘bos’ has 114, ‘woud’ has 36 and do exist in the Netherlands. This suggests that ‘laar’ has 5 derived simple family names. at the time family names were adopted, the Names in general and also these selected forest cover was still larger. A study therefore names can be categorized into four groups, was made to assess whether a clear namely categories regarding decent, relationship between (a selection) of forest profession and characteristics and a category related family names and the appearance of names from geographical origin or address. the present and historical landscape and its The last one points at the existence of identity can be discovered. woodland geographically and might be linked Having a name was already common in to landscape identity. medieval times, but from 1825 every Dutch From a regional perspective regarding citizen was mandated by a law enacted in abundance of the selected names, the data 1811 to have a first and a last name. Thus, demonstrate an interesting distribution of traditional forest-related family names came names over the eleven Dutch provinces that into existence in the beginning of the 19th existed in 1947. The share of persons with century. forest-related family names in each province As a basis for the study, the so-called Dutch differs strongly with respect to absolute Repertorium of Family Names Database, numbers as well as to relative numbers. based on the census of 1947, was used to Interestingly, relatively high numbers of forest- select forest-related family names. After related family names did occur in provinces selection, the meaning of the words used as which at present have a relatively low forest names were ascertained. cover and the other way round. This indicates

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a regional removal of forests. It is concluded that present landscape appearance and dispersal of forest-related family names show no clear positive relationship, but that former landscape appearance and forest cover might have such a positive correlation.

J. N. van Laar Wageningen University, Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group, Droevendaalsesteeg 3, 6708 PB Wageningen , The Netherlands; E-mail: [email protected]

Photo: SCHIMA

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 121

FORESTS IN THE PUBLIC

DER WALD UND DIE ÖFFENTLICHKEIT

Photo: SCHIMA

122 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

Photo: SCHIMA

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 123

FORST UND TOURISMUS EINE HERAUSFORDERUNG

Präambel 133 Vielfalt der Möglichkeiten Der Tourismusmanager sieht in der Natur ein Einige Beispiele für freizeitwirtschaftliche wesentliches Element des freizeit- Nutzungsformen in Zusammenhang mit dem wirtschaftlichen Angebotes – mancher Forst- Wald aus unserer Beratungspraxis: verantwortliche sieht im Touristen eine latente • Veredelung forstwirtschaftlicher Produkte Gefahr für den Bestand. Konflikte sind vorpro- • Belieferung von Gastronomie und Hotellerie grammiert, so scheint es. Dass Freizeit- mit forstwirtschaftlichen Rohprodukten und projekte auch in einem gedeihlichen Mit- veredelten Produkten einander von Eigentümern, Forstfachleuten • Direktvermarktung von Rohprodukten oder und Nutzern funktionieren können, haben veredelten Produkten aus dem Wald einige erfolgreiche Versuche eindrucksvoll • Zimmervermietung “Urlaub im Wald” gezeigt. • Landschaftsgestaltung als Beitrag zum Urlaubsprodukt Ohne natürliche Angebotsfaktoren (unver- • Lebensraum für Tiere und Pflanzen, die eine fälschte Landschaft, angenehmes Klima, freizeitwirtschaftliche Zielsetzung mittragen Vegetation, Tierwelt, natürliche Heilvor- • Wegesystem und “Kulisse” für Wanderer, kommen, etc.) kann ein touristisches Produkt Biker, Walker, etc. nicht entstehen. • Fachbesuchertourismus: Symposien, Se- Zur perfekten Gesamtkonzeption eines minare, Exkursionen zum Thema Wald Urlaubserlebnisses werden zu diesen • Forstwirtschaftliche Sammlungen und le- natürlichen Faktoren so genannte abgeleitete bendige Museen Faktoren hinzukonzipiert: ohne Beherbergung, • Themenwege und Themenparks zum Thema Gastronomie, Transporteinrichtungen, Infra- Wald struktur, Einzelhandel- und Gewerbeein- • Bräuche, Feste und Feiern rund um das richtungen kann sich ein Freizeitprodukt am Thema Wald weltweiten Nachfragermarkt nicht mehr • Wald als Bühne für Themen-Events behaupten. • Basis für Freizeitanlagen, z.B. Golf • Teichwirtschaft und Fischerei mit tourist- ischen Nutzungskomponenten • Jagd 133 Kurzfassung des Referates im Rahmen des Symposiums Woodlands - Cultural Heritage vom 4. Mai 2004 in den Räumen des BFW Mariabrunn

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Produktinnovationen • Qualität ist: die Hoffnungen der Gäste zu- Jede neue Idee wirft natürlich eine Reihe von mindest zu erfüllen kritischen Fragen auf, die sorgfältig zu prüfen • Qualität ist: die Erwartungen ein klein wenig sind, bevor Investitionen getätigt werden, es zu übertreffen stellt sich also die Frage, was ein • Qualität ist: einfache Dinge ganz besonders Erlebnisangebot alles bieten soll, damit es gut zu machen. vom Nachfragermarkt positiv aufgenommen wird. In unserer täglichen Beratungsarbeit Wichtige Erfolgsfaktoren prüfen wir jeweils nach den folgenden Ferner gilt es bei der Umsetzung von neuen Kriterienblöcken: Produkten mindestens die in der Folge Angebotseigenschaften (Sicht des genannten Kriterien zu beachten, deren Gastes): Erfüllung zur Voraussetzung in der • Neuigkeitswert klar erkennbar Konzeption von erfolgreichen thematischen • Konkurrenzvorteil klar erkennbar Erlebnisinszenierungen zu sehen ist: • Nutzen klar erkennbar für Zielgruppe • Positive Wirkung für den Gast Planung und Management • Kommunizierbarkeit - leicht erklärbar • Betriebswirtschaftliche Vorbereitung, inhalt- • Unverwechselbarkeit/Merkbarkeit liche Konzeption und Finanzierungskonzept Zusätzliche betriebliche Fragen (Sicht des • Professionelles Management mit hoher Unternehmers): Dienstleistungsqualität, Marke, Zielgruppe, • Ist das Produkt mit den Zielen und dem Sicherheit, professionelle Mitarbeiter bzw Leitbild des Eigentümers vereinbar? Marketing, CI und CD-Linie • Ist ein genügend großes Marktpotenzial vorhanden Standort • Ist das nötige Gewinn- und Umsatzziel er- • Authentische Einbettung in das Umfeld, reichbar? Eigenständigkeit, regionalspezifische Ideen • Sind Personal, Kapital und Know-how im • regionale Kooperation, Potenzial an Be- Betrieb vorhanden? wohnern und Touristen, verfügbare Flächen • Ist der Zugang zum Nachfragermarkt ge- und optimale Größe, latente Nachfrage, Ver- geben? netzung mit dem regionalen Angebot, • Ist die notwendige Produktqualität erzielbar? Konsens mit Einwohnern, Nachhaltigkeit Es gibt kaum eine allgemein gültige Definition für Qualität. Mit den folgenden Hilfs- Produkt und Angebot definitionen kommt man aber - mit einer • Innovation und Einzigartigkeit des Ange- individuellen Qualitätssichtweise - den Er- botes, Attraktivität, Originalität, innovative wartungen des Gastes schon recht nahe: News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 125

Detaillösungen, Merchandising, strategische aus der Sicht von knapp zwei Drittel der Allianzen, Befragten eher nicht mit Konflikten verbunden. • Barrierelose Verfügbarkeit des Angebotes, Im Vergleich zum Wandern sehen knapp zwei ganzjährig, wetterunabhängig, verkehrsmäßig Drittel der Befragten ein höheres Konflikt- ausreichend erschlossen. potenzial beim Mountainbiken. Hauptsächlich sieht man mit Jägern, Förstern, Grund- Auf dem Weg von der ersten Idee zu einem eigentümern und Wanderern ein Konflikt- Infotainment oder Edutainmentansatz - ins- potenzial, mit Radfahrern, Reitern und besondere im Bereich der modern auf- anderen Mountainbikern wird kaum ein bereiteten inszenierten Erlebnisangebote - Konfliktpotenzial gesehen. sollten die Gäste schließlich die folgenden Angebote und Möglichkeiten vorfinden: So ist zum symbiotischen Miteinander oftmals • Angebot als Gegenwelt zum Alltag ein längerer Näherungsprozess nötig, in dem • Veränderung der emotionalen Befindlichkeit Forstfachleute und Touristiker Schritt um bei der Konsumation des Angebotes Schritt eine passgenaue Vereinbarung treffen, • Multisensualität von Angebotsteilen die immer wieder den aktuellen • Verschiebung von Raum und Zeit Erfordernissen angepasst werden muss. • Wechsel von Animation und Interaktion, sowie von Spannung und Entspannung Als Beispiel: ein in der touristischen Praxis • und ein wenig künstliche Realität entstandenes Regelwerk als Beispiel für einen Versuch der konsensualen Konfliktver- Konflikte und Spielregeln meidung im Bereich der Niederöster- Nicht nur in Österreich spielt der Wald mit all reichischen Mountainbike-Strecken (Kurz- seinen faunistischen und floristischen fassung): Besonderheiten, aber auch den „stillen“ • Wir befahren nur markierte Routen und nur im März bzw. Oktober von 9.00 bis 17.00 Uhr, Erlebniselementen eine eminent wichtige im April bzw. September von 8.00 bis 18.00 Rolle. Je nach der Intensität der freizeitwirtschaftlichen Nutzung entstehen Uhr, von Mai bis August von 7.00 bis 19.00 dadurch nicht nur positive Imageeffekte, Uhr. sondern auch konkret wahrnehmbare • Wir halten die geltende Straßenverkehrs- Konfliktsituationen zwischen den unter- ordnung (STVO) ein und überholen Wanderer schiedlichen Systemmitgliedern (Eigentümer, und Reiter nur im Schritttempo. Pächter, Jäger, Wanderer, Biker, etc.). • Wir sind Gäste im Wald und benehmen uns Das Thema Konflikte wird etwa von befragten wie Gäste, auch gegenüber dem Forst- und Jagdpersonal. Mountainbikern (MTB-Studie der NÖ-Landes- regierung) so gesehen: Das Mountainbiken ist

126 News of forest history „Waldland – Kulturerbe”

• Wir hinterlassen die Natur, wie wir sie gerne viele Projektverantwortliche einen emotional- vorfinden würden - ohne Abfälle. en Rat geben: • Radfahren abseits der Routen und außer- • nie aus einer Schwäche heraus agieren, halb der freigegebenen Zeiten macht uns zu besser ist es, seine Stärken zu stärken illegalen Bikern. • auch einmal den Mut aufbringen, etwas Neues, ganz Ungewöhnliches zu wagen Nutzenstiftung durch • sich nicht scheuen, kompetente Partner zu Tourismus suchen, lieber auf Kooperation setzen • professionelle Begleitung nutzen - Beratung An welchen Begriffen kann nun der Nutzen und allenfalls auch persönliches Umsetzungs- von professionell aufbereiteten freizeitwirt- coaching zu nutzen schaftlichen Angeboten im Wald festgemacht • Qualität in allen Betriebsbereichen durch- werden? setzen versuchen, denn das Gesamtprodukt • Umsatz- und Gewinnsteigerung im Betrieb ist leider nur so stark, wie das schwächste • Image und Imagetransfer Teilprodukt • Regionalwirtschaftliche Vorteile • nie etwas nur wegen der erhofften • Positives Denken und Berichterstattung finanziellen Förderung tun und • Ansehen und Identität • gute Ideen schnell realisieren, bevor es die • Perspektiven für die Jungen anderen tun! Ganz konkret kann man – im Einzelfall sehr unterschiedlich – von folgenden Kennzahlen Wolfgang Sovis für den regionalwirtschaftlichen Nutzen einer Unternehmensberatung, Touristische Projektentwicklung, Orts- und Regional- touristischen Einrichtung ausgehen: entwicklung, • Pro investierter Million Euro = Sicherung von A-2000 Stockerau, Am Damm 11; E-mail: [email protected] um die 15 Beschäftigten in der Errichtungs- phase

• Pro laufenden Million Euro Umsatz =

Schaffung von rund 20 Arbeitsplätzen im laufenden Betrieb

• Pro Umsatzeinheit = rund ein Drittel Steuern und Abgaben (Bund, Länder, Gemeinden)

Ein Appell zum Schluss

Am Schluss darf ich als Unternehmens- berater, aber auch als langjähriger Coach für

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 127

DER „NATUR AUF DER SPUR“

Das Mäzenatentum des Fronleichnam vor den Honoratioren der Hauses Esterházy vom Gemeinde geschwungen wird, das weithin 17.Jhdt. bis heute bekannte „Neckenmarkter Fahnenschwingen“. In weiter Folge erwarb sich die Familie unter Die Wurzeln der Familie (Sippe) gehen hohem Blutzoll große Verdienste bei den vermutlich bis auf die Landnahme der Türkenabwehrkämpfen. Das Haus Esterházy Magyaren 894 bis 900 zurück, wo sie auf der verstand sich als Mittler zwischen Ost und großen Schüttinsel in der Donau um das Jahr West und war in seinen Handlungen stets 1038 Ländereien in Besitz hatte. Auf einer im Habsburg-, d.h. kaisertreu. Eine Folge davon Jahr 1186 ausgestellten Urkunde König Bélas war sicherlich die Erhebung von Paul III., scheint erstmals an einer Stelle der Name Esterházy in den Fürstenstand im Jahre 1687, der Sippe Salamon auf, aus der sich über durch Kaiser Leopold V. einen Zweig „de Zerház“ die Familie Die Geschichte des Fürstlichen Hauses Esterházy herausbildete. Große Bedeutung Esterházy beginnt also mit Fürst Paul, geb. erlangte die Familie durch Graf Nikolaus 07.09 1635 in Eisenstadt, gest. 26.03.1713, Esterházy, geb. 08.04.1583, gest. am das heißt er ereichte ein Alter von 78 Jahren, 11.09.1645, der es bis zum Palatin davon regierte er 61 Jahre. (Stellvertreter des Königs in Ungarn) brachte. In seine Zeit fiel auch ein bedeutendes Ziel meiner Betrachtungen ist aber nicht die Lokalereignis, nämlich die berühmte Schlacht Genealogie der Familie, sondern ihre von Lackenbach im Jahre 1620, wo Graf Bedeutung als Träger von Kultur, Errichter Esterházy vom aufständischen von Bauten und Förderer der Künste. Eine Siebenbürgerfürst Gabor Bethlen im Schloß lückenlose Vorstellung der einzelnen Lackenbach eingeschlossen und belagert Regierenden, die sich über 12 Generationen wurde. Durch eigene Kraft und kräftige erstreckte, beginnend von Fürst Paul und Mithilfe eines habsburgisch kaiserlichen endend mit Fürst Dr. Paul Esterhazy, würde Reiterheeres, sowie der Bevölkerung der den Rahmen dieses Vortrages sprengen, umliegenden Ortschaften, speziell der sodass ich mich auf vier besonders Neckenmarkter Bauern, wurde das herausragende Persönlichkeiten beschränke. überlegene Heer der Aufständischen A. Fürst Paul: Universale Ausbildung in vernichtend geschlagen. Als Dank für die die Künste und Wissenschaften seiner Zeit, Unterstützung stiftete Nikolaus den ebenso in Schauspiel und Komposition, durch Neckenmarktern eine Standarte, die seit mehr die Jesuiten in Graz und in Tyrnau (heutige als 380 Jahren am Sonntag nach Slowakei). Äußerst großes politisches und

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militärisches Geschick, avanciert zum 1766 Joseph Haydn zu seinem obersten Feldmarschall und Oberbefehlshaber der Kapellmeister. In gleicher Weise fördert der Militärgrenze im Kampf gegen die Aggression Fürst die bildenden Künste, Architekten, des Osmanischen Reiches. Hohe Bildhauer, Maler und Kunsthandwerker in wirtschaftliche Kompetenz-Begründer des großer Zahl. Rasch verbreitete sich der Ruf Fideikomisses in der Familie- Interesse an vom großartigen Mäzenatentum des Architektur, Dichter und Kompositeur Magnaten. Im Schloß Eszterháza kommt es (Harmonia Caelestis). Erbauer der neuen - zur Aufführung strahlend inszenierter Feste nach den Türkenkriegen zerstörten - Basilika und musikalisch-theatralischer Darbietungen, von Frauenkirchen. Als Kind seiner Zeit sodass dem Fürsten der Beiname „der befasste er sich schon mit jungen Jahren mit Prachtliebende“ gegeben wird. 28 Jahre bis Naturwissenschaften und Astronomie. zu seinem Tode am 28.09.1790 regierte Fürst B. Fürst Nikolaus I. , „Der Pracht- Paul sein „Esterházy´sches Feenreich“ liebende“ wurde am 18.12.1714 in Wien C. Fürst Nikolaus II. „der Mezän“ geboren. Verschiedene Studien in Wien und geb.12.12.1765 in Wien. Tritt nach einer in Leyden. Schlägt 1740 die militärische universalen Ausbildung im Jahr 1794 die Laufbahn ein und bringt es in den Regierung an und erweist sich seinem Preußenkriegen bis zum Feldmarschall- Großvater als Kunstmäzen und Sammler Leutnant und Träger des Maria-Theresien- ebenbürtig. Anlegung einer riesigen Ordens. 1763 beginnt er das kleine Schloß Gemäldesammlung (heute in der ungarischen Süttör am Südufer des Neusiedler zu einem Nationalgalerie). Umbau von Schloß Palast umzubauen, der im ungarischen König- Eisenstadt. Joseph Haydn erhält einen reich nicht seinesgleichen hatte. Bald großzügig dimensionierten Saal, mit bester kursierte der Begriff vom „ungarischen Akustik für die Aufführung seiner Werke. Im Versailles“. Fürst Nikolaus wird das Schloß Schlosspark lässt der Fürst einen naturnahen zum Ruhme der Familie „Eszterháza“ nennen. Landschaftsgarten entstehen. Durch den Als Krönungsbotschafter für Kaiser Josef den Ankauf der Herrschaft Edelstetten, (in Bayern II. in Frankfurt am Main, inszeniert er die liegend) kommt Nikolaus in den Rang eines Abläufe, was wieder großes Aufsehen erregte, Reichsfürsten. Napoleon bietet ihm im Jahre sodass selbst Johann Wolfgang Goethe 1809 die ungarische Königskrone an. dieses Erlebnis in sein Werk „Dichtung und Nikolaus der II. lehnt aus Loyalität zu Wahrheit“ einbringt. 1765 wird dem Fürsten Habsburg dieses Angebot ab. 1805 holt er mit der Orden des goldenen Vlieses verliehen. Johann Nepomuk Hummel einen weiteren Seine Residenz wird immer mehr zum Eisenstädter Meister an den fürstlichen Hof. glanzvollen Mittelpunkt der damals Beteiligungen am Wiener Burgtheater, am herrschenden Kultur. Nikolaus macht im Jahre Kärtnertortheater, sowie am Theater an der News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 129

Wien, zeugen vom großzügigen Mäzen. In Fürst, der neu im Jahre 1960 entstanden seinen beiden Wiener Palais gilt der Fürst als Diözese Eisenstadt, seine für 78 Pfarren splendider Gastgeber der zum Wiener bestehenden Patronate ab. In weiterer Folge Kongress versammelten Diplomatie. Nach wurden die durch die russische Besetzung vierzigjähriger Regierungszeit stirbt der Fürst völlig devastierten Forstbestände durch am 25.11.1833 in Como. waldbauliche Maßnahmen wieder in einen D. Fürst Dr. Paul V. geb. am 23.03.1901 ausgeglichenen, nachhaltig bewirtschafteten in Eisenstadt, erlebte der zwölfte und letzte Betrieb umgewandelt. Nebenbei erfolgte Fürst die Teilung der Esterházy´schen Güter. durch ständig begleitende Baumaßnahmen, 60.000 ha wechseln von insgesamt 187.000 die Renovierung der Burg Forchtenstein und ha ihre Staatszugehörigkeit. Mit 05.12.1921 des Schlosses Eisenstadt. Der letzte Fürst Dr. wurden die westlichen Teile der drei Paul Esterházy verstirbt am 25.05.1989 nach ungarischen Komitate Wieselburg, Ödenburg neunundsechzigjähriger, durch große Um- und Eisenburg unter dem neuen Namen wälzungen geprägter Regierungszeit, in Burgenland an Österreich angegliedert. Paul Zürich. 134 V. studiert in Budapest und promoviert 1925 Das Mäzenatentum, die Unterstützung zum Doktor der Rechte und talentierter Künstler, die Bautätigkeit, die Staatswissenschaften. Im selben Jahr Förderung der Kultur im Bundesland vermindert sich sein Grundbesitz in Ungarn Burgenland ist auch durch die segensreiche durch eine Bodenreform um 13%. Dem Dritten Tätigkeit der Fürstin Melinda Esterházy, der Reich und der Pfeilkreuzler Regierung steht Witwe nach dem letzten Fürsten, in einer der Fürst ablehnend gegenüber. 1946 großzügigen Weise gegeben. Großartige verehelicht er sich in Budapest mit Melinda Ausstellungen (Landesausstellungen) auf Ottrubay. Damals Primaballerina assoluta an Burg Forchtenstein, Konzertveranstaltungen der ungarischen Staatsoper. Noch im selben im Schloß Eisenstadt, sowie die Errichtung Jahr wird die Konfiskation seiner sämtlichen des Museums „Der Natur auf der Spur“ auf Besitzungen in Ungarn eingeleitet. In einem Schloß Lackenbach, sind Zeichen dafür, das Schauprozess wird er vom kommunistischen der Geist des Mäzenatentums weiterlebt und Regime zu fünfzehn Jahren Haft verurteilt. fruchtbringend für die Kultur bis in die heutige Während des Volksaufstandes 1956 aus dem Zeit wirkt. Gefängnis befreit, entscheidet er sich für ein Die Menschen des Landes sind dafür sehr Exil in der Schweiz. dankbar. Von seinen österreichischen Besitzungen tritt er zwischen 1959 und 1961 9000 ha 134 Quellenstudium Katalog zur Landesausstellung landwirtschaftlich genutzten Boden an 1995, J.M.Perschy, Eisenstadt, „Die Fürsten burgenländische Bauern ab. 1963 löst der Esterházy –zwölf kurzgefaßte Lebensbilder“.

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Das Museum „Der Natur auf Jagd zur Sicherung des Überlebens, zum der Spur“ Jagdvergnügen der Herrschaft bis zur Der Startschuss für die Errichtung eines Jagdregelung der Gegenwart. Ganz bewusst Naturerlebnismuseums im Schloß wird auch in den Themenbereichen der Lackenbach fiel im Jahre 1997. Forstwirtschaft auf die Vergangenheit Bezug Auf Initiative von Fürstin Melinda Esterházy genommen, um hier Geschichte und sollten die alten, verfallenden Wirtschafts- Tradition der Gegenwart gegenüberzustellen. gebäude des Schlosses Lackenbach Waldnutzung in der jüngeren Vergangenheit, restauriert und für Museumszwecke adaptiert die Arbeitsweise der modernen werden. Als Zielpublikum wurden Kinder, Forstwirtschaft, und die Leistungen des Jugendliche, Schulklassen und Familien Waldes für die Gesellschaft werden definiert. Neben griffiger Infomations- thematisiert. Probleme der Gegenwart, wie vermittlung sollte auch ein hoher Erlebniswert zum Beispiel der Wildschäden werden auf erzielt werden. Unter Berücksichtigung dieser sachliche Art präsentiert. Wildtiere und ihr Vorgaben erfolgte schließlich die Konzeption Lebensraum ist das Thema des folgenden der Räume und Themenbereiche. Die Spur Raumes. Tiere des Waldes, der Wiesen und als zentrales Motto dieses Museums führt in Felder und des Schilfgürtel sind in einem verschiedenen Interpretationsmöglichkeiten großen Diorama zu sehen. Ein Computerspiel durch die Räume: Menschliche Geschichte animiert zur Wildtierbestimmung anhand von hinterlässt Spuren in unserem Bewusstsein, Spuren, Federn oder Tiersilhouetten. Das die Landnutzung der Menschen zeichnet Jagdzimmer verweist auf die vielfältigen deutliche Spuren in die Landschaft, Tiere Verflechtungen der Jagd mit unserem kann man an ihren Spuren erkennen und Alltagsleben. Unbewusst begleitet uns die verfolgen. Jagd in der Sprache, im Spiel und in prägt Der erste Raum ist ein Rundgang durch die unseren Geschmack in Mode und Stil. Jagd Geschichte der Jagd und der Forstwirtschaft. hat auch einen großen Einfluß auf das Gemeinsamer Nenner dieser Landnutzungs- Kunsthandwerk ausgeübt. Wertvolles formen ist der Wald als Lebensraum des Jagdporzellan aus dem Esterházy´schen Wildes und Lieferant von Holz. Den Besucher Fundus Forchtenstein wird im Jagdzimmer empfängt ein Potpourri von Märchen, Mythen ausgestellt. und Sagen – Waldgeschichten- die unsere Im Discovarium, dem Labor des Museums, Vorstellung vom Wald geformt und nachhaltig wird der Besucher zum Entdecken und beeinflusst haben. Den räumlichen Vorgaben Erforschen eingeladen. Berühren ist erlaubt folgend, wird die Jagdausübung in drei und erwünscht. Durch ein Mikroskop und unterschiedlichen Epochen skizziert. Der Lupen können die Besucher den Formen- Bogen spannt sich von der steinzeitlichen reichtum der Natur und den Reiz der News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 131

Vergrößerung alltäglicher Objekte bestaunen. zufrieden stellende Besucheranzahl in ein Arbeitsmethoden der modernen Wildtierkunde Museum zu bringen. werden vorgestellt. Weiters finden sich im Ein modernes Museum hat die Aufgabe eine Discovarium Anregungen für Arbeiten in und Bildungsstätte zu sein, die das menschliche mit der Natur. Am Ende des Museums- Spektrum in seiner Vielfalt abdeckt. Es soll besuchs kann sich der Besucher im den Gästen Freude machen, sie einladen, Auditorium bei einem Video oder Musik länger in den Räumlichkeiten zu verweilen erholen. Auch die Biblioteria ist ein Raum zum und stets mit freundlicher und kompetenter Entspannen, Ausruhen und Lesen, Betreuung für sie da zu sein. Schmökern, Spielen und Kaffee trinken. Das Museum bietet großzügige Möglichkeiten für On nature’s trail Wechselausstellungen und ist mit seiner Aus- The idea to establish a museum enabling stattung auch für Seminare und Kurse (Stich- visitors to experience nature in the castle of wort: Waldpädagogik, angewandte Biologie, Lackenbach arose 1997. Jagdprüfung) bestens geeignet. Um das Princess Melinda Esterhazy wanted to Museumsgebäude ist ein Arboretum angelegt revitalize old farm buildings of the castle and und für Kinder gibt es einen Abenteuer- make them into a museum. The goal was to spielplatz. Im Schloß Museum Lackenbach reach children, adolescents, schools and verbinden sich modernstes Ausstellungs- families. The rooms have been arranged, with design, Hightech in der Präsentation und die various topics that give information and a sorgfältige Restaurierung der alten Räume zu hands-on experience with nature. The central einem harmonischen Gesamteindruck. ”Der motto of the museum is the “trail” which leads Natur auf der Spur” ist ein Erlebnis für alle the visitor through the museum: human history Sinne, soll neugierig machen, und einladen leaves tracks in our mind, the use of land sich auf Spurensuche in unserer Vergan- leaves enormous tracks in the landscape, and genheit und in der Natur zu begeben. animals can be recognized and followed by

their tracks and scent. Umsetzung des Konzeptes- The first room offers a survey of the history of Erfüllen mit Leben the hunt and forestry. The forest is the living Ein sehr gut durchdachtes Konzept - in space of game as well as the supplier of äußerst professioneller Weise umgesetzt, ist wood. The visitor is welcomed by a potpourri trotz allem - nicht Garant für die Annahme of tales, myths and stories of the woods that durch das Zielpublikum. have formed and influenced our ideas over Nur unter Ausnutzung eines vielfältigen time. The practice of hunting is shown in three Angebotes, das den Interessen der different periods. The survey reaches from the Zielgruppen entspricht, ist es möglich, eine

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hunt in the Stone Age, the main task of which know ways to work in and with the nature. was to secure survival, to the fun of the hunt After visiting the museum you can relax in the for the privileged and finally to the present-day auditorium while watching a video or listening regulations of hunting. The exhibition also to music. The library is another room, named deals with forestry in the past and compares biblioteria, to relax, read, play and drink history and tradition with the present. The coffee. The museum offers great possibilities usage of the wood in the past, methods of for exhibitions and seminars (key word: Forest work in modern forestry and the impact of the pedagogic, wood, biology, hunting exam and wood in society are shown. culture events). Problems of the present such as damage Outside the museum there is an Arboretum caused by game are realistically presented. and a fine playground for the children. In the Game and their space is the topic in the museum of the castle Lackenbach most following room. Animals of the wood, of modern exhibition-design, hi-tech in the meadows, fields and reeds can be seen in a presentation and the careful restoration of the large diorama. A computer game challenges old rooms offer the visitor a harmonious visitors to define game with the help of tracks, experience. feathers or the silhouette of animals. The “On Natures Track” is an experience for all hunting room presents the many comparisons senses; it aims at making people curious and between hunting and daily life. Unconsciously invites the visitor to explore the past and the hunt is with us in our language, in playing nature. games, in fashion and style. The hunt has always influenced deeply the industrial arts. Valuable hunting porcelain belonging to the Forchtenstein branch of the Esterhazy Foundation is being shown in the hunting room. In the discovarium, the labaratory of the museum, the visitor is invited to explore and study. Touching objects is allowed and even desired. With the help of a microscope and a Gottfried Horvath magnifying glass visitors can marvel at the great variety of forms in nature and see Esterházy Kultur Museum „Der Natur auf der Spur“ (Leiter) enlargements of every-day objects. Modern 7322 Lackenbach, Schloß Tel. 02619/20012 oder 0664/6207160 scientific working methods concerning game Fax 02619/8626-75 are being shown. Moreover you will get to E-Mail: [email protected], Internet: www.naturspur.at

News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 133

NEWS AND FOREST REPRESENTATION

AT THE FRENCH TV

This study is part of a two-year research equipped with a television set; 58% were project examining the television archives equipped in 1967. The study here is limited to about the forest. A first study analysed the France and with the two national chains relationship between the forest and the storm regularly viewed by the French and which since 1963 within the framework of the cover the whole of the territory: the first program “Grand vent et patrimoine arboré” channel (TF1) and a second channel launched after the storms of December 1999. (Antenne 2-France2) where the news appears This study broadens the field to the forest in in 1967. general and then the relations between forest The textual records for television archives are and fire in particular. poor for the fifties. Initially, sources were

What is the place of the forest in the television classified only according to the contents of the news? The forest is initially the space which images, for their subsequent utilisation. It was burns. Each summer, Mediterranean space only after 1995 that they were classified requires attention because of the holidays and according to the information contained in the the multiple fires, which are regular. However, broadcast. Most of the broadcasts before my study of the forest in the television news 1987 have not yet been transferred to the since 1961 reveals that the forest is not only a video or DVD formatting; we have only more fuel, it is also a place of memory, a place of or less complete textual records. The oldest tragedy, a polluted space, a space with reference to the forest appears on August 8, environmental conflicts, etc. Some of these 1941, referring to acts of a forest fire, but it is aspects are permanent; the others emerge only after 1961 that we have regular reports. over the years. Their emergence is then an excellent indicator of the public awareness of The assertion of the forest the issues. Why does the forest appear in the broadcast? The news is the most popular daily program in The dynamic of information is the catastrophe, France, especially the 8 p.m. edition. It has the abnormal situation; it is initially the existed since October 1949. It has been destruction of the forest, which holds the broadcast at 8 p.m. since 1954, but it was in attention: the fire, the storm, pollution, etc. It is the sixties that it took its current form by also the place of plane and helicopters attaching more importance to the image. In crashes, which come to finish their flight there. 1957, only 6% of the households were It is then the setting of a human tragedy.

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Thus, the forest is secondary to the event, each year the reports about the forest according to a journalistic logic. It is related to increase in summer (table 1). The forest is a the catastrophe, which took place the day fuel. This overall vision must be moderated, before, or which is awaited, like the second however. storm of December 1999. The event can be Until the second half of the 1970s, the forest is prophesied, like the forest fires which are not very present in the media. It is only at the anticipated from spring. end of 1980 that it really emerges to attain the heights with the turning of the 20th century,

Evolution of the reports about the forest since 1961

300 Reportage about the forest Reportage about forest fire 250

200

150

100

50

0

Tab. 1

The forest is initially a space which burns: 57 following the storms of December 1999 and % of the reports relating to the forest since the fires of the summer 2003. This slow 1962 are devoted to fires. This rhythm emergence of the forest in the 1970s is accelerates in the summer. This prevalence of confirmed by the description of the storms. fire occurs again with images about the The storms are described regularly from 1963, foreign countries, above all the United States, but the reports only referred to the trees to Portugal, Italy, and Greece in July or August, illustrate the force of the winds, and did not and Australia in January and February. In focus on the damage in forest until 1976. News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 135

This change is due in part to technical urbanisation and the motorization of the progress. At the beginning of the 1980s French society. By affirming a space like the television journalists were equipped with the forest, the journalists also anchored names of Betacam, a more portable video camera certain forests in the minds: the Maures and which requires less personnel and which Esterel, not far from Marseilles because of the allows them to produce more images for the fire; Fontainebleau and Rambouillet, two viewers. Other changes intervened thereafter forests located at the south of Paris and with the satellite and the video camera of the finally, in Brittany, Brocéliande, since 1990, amateurs. The middle of the 1970s coincides the mythical forest of king Arthur. with a diversity of the topics concerning the forest. The forest becomes an economic From a sum of trees to an issue; the first report considering this aspect, ecological vision of the forest entitled: "the forest economic problems" (La The vision of the media is above all a vertical forêt problèmes économiques) is broadcast on look on the forest. There is a forest when we April 16, 1977. Environmental questions must raise the eyes. The fallen tree, the small relating to the forest have become more trees do not make the forest. The storm lies common since 1976 with celebration of the down, the fire eradicates the forest. Until the “days of the tree” and the participation of the end of 1980, the forest remained the world of President of the Republic. The effects of the the tree, and the fauna which was present air pollution are mentioned for the first time on was limited to big game, that which holds the French television on April 12, 1984; in attention in the broadcasts about the opening Germany, it had been on the front pages of of the shooting season: the stag, the roe-deer, the newspapers since 1982. The metaphor and the wild boar. In 1984, on July 24, a new "lung green" appears in 1989, in the animal returns in forest, the lynx, with a lot of descriptive records, in connection with the polemics at the local level. It threatens the Amazonian forest. It is not automatically used, herds of sheep, competes with the hunter, but but the formula is employed occasionally, for the images are in favour of this animal. Two example in 1998 in connection with the fires in years before, the vision of the stag, animal Greece around Athens. symbolic of the forest, also changed, from Since the 1990s, other issues have arisen, now on he threatens the agriculture and the like the appearance of all terrain vehicles in forest, because of the absence of predators... the forest and the paint ball, and the social On September 11, 1989, following a new fire stakes too with the homeless located near the in the massif of the Maures (Var), the cameras great urban centres. These people used the are diverted from charred trees to focus on the forest as place of dwelling. The topics relating animals: snakes, dormouse, tortoises, etc. We to the forest are multiplied with the can wonder whether this vision of the forest

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does not lie with the images of the virgin of the forest, we can ask the following forest, symbolised by the Amazonian forest, question: what is ecology for the journalists? where the richness of fauna was marked in Also on August 30, 2000, an assessment is 1986 with reports of the Raft of the Summits. operated after the fires in Corsica: the Faunistic richness is found in the forests of ecological disaster arises initially from the continental France too. On August 25, 1990, a disappearance of the Laricio pine in these broadcast carries the following title: forests, and then as a consequence of "ecological catastrophe fires" (catastrophe erosion, and there is nothing on fauna. In fact, écologique incendies - TF1). The report behind the word "ecology", when it applies to concerns the role of the forest in the a management of the forest, journalists hear maintenance of the soil and its hydrobiologic reference to a variety of the tree species and and hydrous functions. For the first time, the ages, even one the laisser-faire of nature. journalists detail the impact on the Against the power of nature, it is necessary to environment of the forest’s destruction. It is oppose diversity; this is the conclusion not any longer one landscape, which professed by local ecologists groups or by the disappears, but an ecosystem. These types of foresters in 1999. reports are rather rare, and are more likely to appear in documentaries than in television A forest with the multiple news. On February 12, 1997, it is a beetle (in representations fact it was an insect) in forest of Bercé that A space of outside was in the news because of the construction One of the senses of the word forest, derived of a freeway, which threatened its biotope. On from the Latin foris, is: ”outside of the December 24, 2000, in the forest of enclosure ”. It is this space out of society, the Rambouillet, a report is presented on the place of the tragedy, the place of the newt, an index of a biodiversity as a result of helicopter or air plane crash, making the the storm of December 1999. research more complicated. Since 1962, and The forest destroyed by a storm or by fire even before, since 1953, the forest has been symbolises the “ecological catastrophe”. This used as setting for plane crashes. It is also the expression is mentioned for the first time in place where the bodies are hidden, given up. 1986 in the news, when it appears in Before 1983, the broadcasts do not make connection with the forest following the storm mention of this point, or, at least, the tie of November 1987 in Brittany. This expression between forest and corpse does not appear in appears regularly especially from the end of the descriptive cards. Since the end of 1980, 1990 with Erika after the oil pollution, the this type of news returns regularly to the front storms of December 1999 or the fires of the page of the television news. Most famous is summer 2003. If we have a more global view that known as "the fiancées of Fontainebleau" News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 137

(Les fiancés de Fontainebleau): they since 1950. This return of the past also disappeared in forest in October 31, 1988, operates on September 20, 1997, in the their bodies were found on January 10, 1989, Donon, in the Vosges Mountain (East), where their supposed murderer, a hunter, was the regeneration of the trees is contrasted to stopped February 1999 and was discharged in the yellowed leaves noted in May 1989. December 2001. Television looks for these archives, but The forest must conceal all traces, it compares the images. It forms its own dissimulates. It offers this role to the outcast. memory. The example is more obvious with On October 19, 1975, TF1 devoted a report to the storms. In November 1982, a violent storm a family which lived for six months in the fell down on Auvergne (in the centre of forest to escape to their debtors. In December France), but at the time, the media didn’t 1988, in a new report, the forest of speak a lot about it. However in 1987 and Fontainebleau is described as a refuge for the 2000, following important storms with the poor. Since 1997, the reports on this topic, the considerable damage in forest, reports come poor in forest, are found regularly in the news back in Auvergne. They want to show how the during the winter. Sign of a certain degree of forest can be regenerated since 1982. It is exclusion in a rich country, certainly, but also used as standard to measure how in time the sign of a forest’s conception, mask-misery, forest is reconstituted. It entered the television refuge, field in which the poor will not be memory. dislodged, because poverty is not visible any This relation to the time of the forest arises more. regularly from the broadcasts related to the A particular relation to time fires and the storms. The long time of the The forest also carries memory. It forest is put in parallel with the short time of keeps the traces of the dramas passed in its the catastrophe. In a few minutes (storm), a trees and in its landscape. On November 11, few hours, a few days, a forest disappears: "In 1988, channel 3 provides a report on strafed the one night, Brittany lost 20 % of its forest" wood in its evening edition. The second (29/11/1987 - TF1) 135 . This short time is all the channel speaks too about this subject on more serious as the forest will reappear November 10, 2002 and entitles a report: "the painfully from these ashes: "On the whole four trees carry the scars from there" (les arbres billion franks lost for the owners of the en portent encore les cicatrices). The forest Gironde and the Landes (south-west), it will keeps in it the tragic events, the traces of the catastrophes, from this point of view the fires are no exception. On July 29, 2003, France 2 broadcasts a report on the Maures in which 135 “ En l’espace d’une nuit, la Bretagne a perdu the journalists analyse the fires in this area 20 % de sa forêt ”. A same comparaison is did when the journalists speak about the earthquates.

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take them one century to reforest" (30/12/ image which strikes more imagination, it is 1999 - France 2) 136 . obviously the uprooted trees, an image The place of the forest world is limited. Which synonymous with desolation which translates personnel officiate in forest? Initially, one the impotence of the men against this could say the fireman, who protects the forest situation " (05/02/1990 – Midi 2) 137 . This anger from fire and the neighbourhoods (cities, is exerted on a forest pacified, organised, and villages). Among the persons who appear worked by man. The damage is not rather regularly, we find the logger. The attributable to nature, but to man: " The storm earliest report about a logger is broadcast on and these three hundred million cut down September 23, 1942. The logger also appears trees are well a catastrophe, but a catastrophe in the background at the time of reports on the where the man is his responsible " (19/01/2000 damage brought by the storm. The forester is – France (Channel) 3) 138 . By privileging the the object of a report on April 22, 1973. One coniferous tree, the man weakened the forest, year before, a report refers to the forest it broke a pact, and the nature let know. He research centre in Nancy, for the first time. must then restore this lost balance. Humanity Foresters seem at the same time the guards must react by privileging the diversity of the of the forest and the environment. They are ages and of the tree species, says the report the experts of the forest, the ones who protect of December 24, 2000 heading: " Storm: a it. Their role is not criticised, unlike that of the chance for the ecology " broadcast by TF1. forestry administration ONF, whose policy of This violence inflicts some scars. It’s a battle, privileging the coniferous trees was criticised sometimes a war. When the first storms from at the end of the storms of 1999. 1999 reach the East of France, the reference to the war is made manifest with the name of Behind the forest the nature Verdun. It is no longer a forest, it’s Verdun. The forest became the witness of the effects Under the violence of the offensive, the trees were hurled to ground. " The forest lost its of the storm after 1976. This change of combat against the wind. By entire forest, like prospect indicates a conception of nature. The storm plays with human constructions and the a set of giant dominoes, the coniferous trees forest is one of these constructions. Since the were swept each fir tree by involving others in end of 1970, since the appearance of the forest in the broadcasts about storms, Nature, 137 when it gets angry (personification), seems “ Au lendemain de la tempête, l’image qui frappe le plus l’imagination, c’est évidemment celle pitiless: " At the following day of the storm, the des arbres déracinés, une image synonyme de désolation qui traduit, ma fois, l’impuissance des hommes face à cette situation ” 136 “ Au total quatre milliards de francs perdus pour 138 “ La tempête et ces trois cent millions d’arbres les propriétaires de Gironde et des Landes, il leur abattus est bien une catastrophe, mais une faudra un siècle pour reboiser ”. catastrophe où l’homme a sa responsabilité ” News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 139

139 its fall " (27/12/1999 - TF1) . The trees are Bibliography: extended to ground. The vocabulary gives the Dassié V., Dupuy M., “Les arbres sous l’œil des impression of a mass grave. The image médias ”, in A. Corvol (ed.), Grands vents et confirms it. The trees and the forests which patrimoine arboré, 2004 (Under press). resisted carry some traces which seem Dreveton C., “ L’évolution du nombre de tempêtes indelible (marks, scars). An organic vision of en France sur la période 1950-1999 ”, La the forest is presented to the public; like the Météorologie, 37, 2002, pp. 46-56. tree, like us, the forest suffers. Dupuy M., “ Images et environnement ”, in A. Corvol, Guide de recherches archivistiques et Without this forest, life does not exist any bibliographiques sur l'histoire de l'environnement more. This metaphor emerges on August 25, Tome III : 1900-2000, Paris : L'Harmattan, 2003 1990 following a fire in the massif of the (sous presse). Maures: the fire left behind a " lunar Jeanneney J.-N., L’écho du siècle. Dictionnaire landscape ", where the life does not have its historique de la radio et de la télévision en Franc. place any longer. The metaphor is confirmed by the aerial images of burnt spaces. This Michel Dupuy expression comes regularly each year. Institut d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, The image which remains dominant is the 45 rue d’Ulm, 75005 Paris, France; E-mail: [email protected] forest as a victim of nature, but especially of men by fire, pollution or storms. The forest is never the aggressor, nor is it threatening. In 1977, at the time of a voyage of the President of the French Republic in Brazil, where he goes to Manaus, a report is broadcast on the trans-Amazonian, with a favourable point of view. In 1989, the tone is different. The journalists propose the negative consequenc- es, the environmental as well as of economic matters. We are clearly in the presence of a change in the attitudes toward the forest, both in France and abroad.

139 ““ La forêt a perdu son combat contre le vent. Par massifs entiers, comme un jeu de dominos géants, les résineux ont été balayés chaque sapin en entraînant d’autres dans sa chute ”.

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MUSEUMS AND EXHIBITIONS RELATED TO FOREST HISTORY

Relation to forest history ? addition to its economic and ecological Austria’s forests in their present form and dimensions). These different cultural aspects extension are the result of centuries of comprise: cultivating activities of humans. "Forest- • Arts (painting, literature, music, wood Culture“ is the committed attempt to carving, etc. demonstrate the causes and effects of all • Landscape (historical utilisations such these mechanisms and relations between as pollard willows) forest (landscape) and humans and to • Wood processing (wood architecture investigate in them as far as possible. Forest etc.) history has raised a multitude of questions • Recreation (well-being, health, etc.) related to forestry from the biological point of • Sights and monuments (castles etc.) view (for example the history of forest • Tradition (folk art, songs, knowledge development and forest treatment), but this about officinal herbs etc.). multitude of questions has been further From the point of view of the history of extended by questions from the technical settlements, but also from the point of view of point of view (e.g.) forest utilisation, wood the development of states in Central Europe transport), from the legal point of view (forest the networks, the causes and effects, regulations), as well as from the point of view operating mechanisms, in and around the of social history and from the folkloristic point forest have become considerably more of view. The Fourth Ministerial Conference on evident. More museums and exhibitions in the Protection of Forests in Europe (a Austria cast, with their collections and cooperation of 40 European countries and the exhibits, a light on these interrelations.

European Community at highest political level) raised under the heading “Common benefits, Forest-Culture-Initiative – a shared responsibilities” (Vienna, 28-30 April way out? 2003) the issue of forests between rural area Forest-Culture should by no means be just a and urban life, as well as of partnerships look at the past. Its objective and its task must between forestry and other sectors. Moreover be to learn from history for the future, and to 5 resolutions were signed on this occasion. achieve from the wealth of “forest-cultural” Among these resolutions the third is dealing options and offers economic success for the for the first time with the social and cultural present and for the future forest owners. The dimension of a sustainable forestry (in preservation and the tending of the diverse News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 141

cultural structures are often understood as a high informative value. The workshop on the negative aspect, as a cost factor. The proof topic of “Austria’s forestry culture- tourism – that this must not necessarily be the case, and information/new ways –new customers“ which that cultural heritage can yield returns, and took place at the invitation of the Forestry that museums and similar institutions can be Department of the Ministry of Life and the workshops for learning for the future has Working Group (now technical committee) already been furnished in practice on many Forest History of the Austrian Forest places. Important framework conditions in this Association under the direction of Mrs respect are the voluntary participation on the Elisabeth JOHANN at the Forestry Training part of forest owners and the inclusion in the Centre in Ort near Gmunden (Upper Austria) business plan of the respective holding. on 21 October 2003 marked the beginning of As a result of the globalisation of the market the initiation of the Austrian-wide forest culture the economic strength of the individual network. In addition to the preservation of initiative does frequently not suffice to place buildings related to forest history, which is an offer accordingly. Cooperation is the also supported by museums and related dictate of the hour. Networking within forestry institutions and associations, it is the wealth of and the wood-processing industry, together information on certain issues and/or of with private and public museums, and regional information provided by these science, but also with tourism is required. museums, which could make them, or will increasingly have to make them in future, a focal point of forest culture initiatives. The Fundamental Survey technical work of collectors and other Since 2002 surveys on the Austrian cultural- “interested laymen” also frequently yield historical heritage have been permanently surprising results. made, within the framework of the Working Many foundations of museums which have Group “Forest History“ of the Austrian Forest nowadays at least been taken notice of at Association, for the time being via museums. national level, have taken place thanks to the Apart from a number of university and extra- initiative of collectors or “hobby researchers”. university research institutions, forestry But exactly these persons, collections and enterprises and representations of interest of private archives are sometimes very difficult to trade and industry with its member be detected, registered, and integrated. enterprises, the representatives of religious communities (religious orders, etc.) it is first Libraries and Archives and foremost the multitude of museums, libraries, and archives, which is of great The forest library of the Austrian Federal interest from the technical point of view and of Office and Research Centre for Forests

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(BFW) is the biggest technical library of forest first referred to a “Royal Library” in 1504, research in Austria and ranks among the most which he arranged and enlarged in important forest libraries of Europe. It was accordance with the Emperor’s wishes 143 . The established upon the foundation of the present library has been impressively enlarged in the Federal Office and Research Centre for course of the centuries so that the 2002 Forests in the year 1874 and holds a rich and Holdings’ Statistics 144 showed 6,405,579 valuable collection of scientific expert “physical units”, 3,226,303 of which were literature on the research topics of the printed materials and serials and 1,656,379 BFW 140 . (More information at http://bfw.ac.at ) picture documents. ANL performs central Upon the foundation of the University for tasks. At the Institute of Conservation of the Agricultural Sciences also a university library ANL, established after WW II, new ways of was established. As did the University itself conservation are developed steadily and also its library was first housed in the 8 th applied for the conservation and restoration of District of Vienna. It was based on the the holdings of the Austrian National Library. holdings of the Imperial Ministry of Agriculture Comprehensive holdings have also been by the takeover of a book collection of the made accessible to the public as museums. former Forest Academy of Mariabrunn and, Apart from the “State Hall”, mainly the due to donations and acquisitions, contained collections of manuscripts, autographs and already 9,630 volumes (monographs and closed collections; the special collection for magazines) in 1875/76 141 . Presently the geography, established in 1906; the present library of the University of Natural Resources collection of maps to which the world’s only and Applied Life Sciences comprises 454,450 globe museum has been affiliated since 1956; volumes; 2,160 titles of currently held the collection of incunabula, old and precious magazines and periodicals; 8,797 audiovisual prints, established in 1995 as well as the media, as well as atlases and maps 142 . (You Archive of the Austrian Central Organisation will find more information at for Folk Songs (Österreichisches http://www.boku.ac.at/bib/ .) Volksliedwerk) and the Picture Archive are of The biggest, and probably also the most prime importance for questions concerning famous, of Austria’s libraries is the Austrian forest culture. National Library (ANL), the heir of the Imperial As at 1994 Austria has about 100 independent Court Library (http://www.onb.ac.at). The publicly accessible scientific libraries of the famous humanist Conrad Celtis (1459-1508) Federal Government, the Federal Provinces,

140 SCHMIDBERGER G., Online text 143 ANONYMUS, Geschichte der Österreichischen http://bfw.ac.at/040/41.htm Nationalbibliothek, 141 ANONYMUS, Geschichte der BOKU-Bibliothek, http://www.onb.ac.at/about/index.htm http://www.boku.ac.at/bib/ 144 2002 statistics of the holdings of the Austrian 142 Figures from http://www.boku.ac.at/bib/ National Library, (Holdings). http://www.onb.ac.at/about/index.htm News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 143

Chambers and religious communities, as well public and private – are needed on a daily as several hundreds of expert libraries at basis as the source of identity and information university institutes (open to the public as of the past which continue to affect our rights, well) as divisions of university libraries. These entitlements and decisions today and in the libraries contain more than 20 million volumes: future. The value of an archive is its About 5 million thereof belong to the libraries accessibility. Preservation of cultural heritage, of the Universities in Vienna, about 2.4 million to arrange archival material and provide to the University of Graz, about 2.3 million to research and educative information are the the University of Innsbruck; further, there are fundamental tasks of archives“ 147 . The State also the libraries of the university colleges and Archives comprise the Archive of the academies, the libraries of the teachers’ Republic, the General Administrative Archive, academies, the offices and authorities, of the War Archive, the Finance and Aulic scientific institutes, museums, and the Federal Chamber Archive, the Family, Court and State Provinces 145 - and there are many more! Archive as well as the Library with the On its homepage http://www.oeaw.ac.at/ collections of bequests, maps and plans. ksbm/lit/frame.htm , the Austrian Academy of Sciences lists Austria’s “Manuscript libraries”. In addition, 9 provincial and 58 municipal 139 libraries, secular and spiritual archives, archives, 9 diocesan archives, 36 archives of privately owned museums and museums of orders and monasteries, 2 archives of the the Federal Government, the Provinces and Protestant Church, 2 private archives, 10 communities are given as institutions archives of universities and institutes, as well committed to the maintenance of as a great number of other archives and manuscripts 146 . documentation units are open for interested The homepage http://www.oesta.gv.at persons 148 . There exist also a large number of /deudiv/arch_oe.htm of the Austrian State private, often hardly known, archives that Archives provides a good overview of provide important information related to forest Austria’s archives. Hon.-Prof. Dr. Lorenz culture. Examples include the archive of the Mikoletzky, Director General of the Austrian “Feld- und Industriebahnmuseum (FIM) State Archives, defines their task: “Archives Freiland” on light railways, forest and are the key to the understanding of past industrial railways, or the (picture) archive Ast governmental decisions. Archives – both of the Association of the Friends of Gutenstein 149 (“Gesellschaft der Freunde Gutensteins” ), 145 Source: „Österreich Lexikon“ – „aeiou – the cultural informtion system of the bm:bwk“ – Libraries 147 Mikoletzky, Hon.-Prof. Dr. Lorenz in (http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.b/b444915.ht http://www.oesta.gv.at/willkomm.htm m). 148 Archives in Austria; at 146 GLASSNER Christine, Austrian Academy of http://www.oesta.gv.at/deudiv/arch_oe.htm Sciences 149 sic: www.waldbauernmuseum.at

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which is of great significance particularly in the activity, the trade of the last mother-of-pearl fields of forest and regional history. tuner at Felling, Lower Austria, or the last Austrian “Pecher” (extraction of tree resin) at Museums, Collections and Hernstein, Lower Austria, are not (yet) Exhibitions “museums” or “exhibitions”, but nevertheless The number of Austrian museums is even represent essential parts of forest culture. more impressive than that of its archives. Also the special exhibitions organised at many Forest culture is a very broad topic and one places and partly initiated by organisers should not only think of museums that are outside the real cultural scene, are difficult to specialised in collecting forest-related objects. record. Apart from the excellent annual Forests and wood are parts of everyday life. exhibitions of the Provinces (“Landes- The many different museums linked to “forest ausstellungen”), which in most cases also culture” reflect people’s “spheres of life”: They lead to an improvement of regional infra- include museums of local history and culture structure, also a multitude of other events are and Austria’s famous collections of graphical offered every year, among them private art, museums focusing on special topics (e.g. exhibitions that may be presented just for a carriages museums, winter sports museums, few days at public places (e.g. restaurants or railway museums), open-air museums and municipal halls). I would like to draw your folkloristic collections, the century-long attention also to the many presentations of scientific work of monasteries as well as (contemporary) art taking place at various collections of famous Austrian families. places. Individual objects still add to the broad The efforts to establish an inventory of range of Austrian museums and collections on Austria’s museums have so far led to over forest culture. Not all museums have 2,000 entries. However, also in this field inventories or indices of their exhibits that are regular updating is a must. Especially in the open to the public or accessible via Internet. case of the small, often privately organised, Some museums have no or no up-to-date, collections and exhibitions changes are inventory and can at best rely on lists or card frequent. As such collections are often not catalogues. Presently both the Federal (yet) open to the public or do not have regular Government and the Provinces strongly opening hours as museums do, obtaining support and request the establishment of a information on them requires excellent complete inventory and its digitisation. The knowledge of the region concerned. The last Federal Office and Research Centre for five charcoal farmers in Lower Austria are Forests is treading a new, future-oriented path another example of the “undefined zone” in its Division of Documentation. The concerning “Museums, Collections and collections of the libraries and of the Museum Exhibitions”. This complementary farm of Forest Experimentation will in the future News of forest history „Kulturerbe Wald“ 145

also be available by electronic means at http://www2.uibk.ac.at/fakultaeten/c6/c620/link http://bfw.ac.at/040/40.html . However, lack of s/museen_und_freilichtmuseen/ staff and technical capacities often hamper Museums and open-air museums – ICOM (by especially this urgently necessary Federal Provinces): inventorisation and digitisation. http://www.icom-oesterreich.at/ It would exceed the scope of this article to give the complete list of Austria’s museums The International Council of Museums, ICOM, and collections. Below please find a number is a non-governmental international organi- of important sources (mostly websites) sation of museums and museum providing information about Austria’s professionals and maintains formal relations museums: with UNESCO. It promotes professional Austrian Federal Museums: cooperation and exchange, advocates the http://www.nhm-wien.ac.at/bundesmuseen/ concerns of museums, and supports the Austrian museums, general: training of museum personnel as well as the http://webmuseen.de/ advancement of professional standards. Its Museums in Burgenland: General Secretariat is in Paris. At present, http://www.burgenland.at/index ICOM is composed of 111 active National Museums in Carinthia: Committees, 28 International Committees as http://www.kultur.ktn.gv.at/ well as 7 regional and 14 affiliated Museums in Lower Austria: organisations. Of course there are unions and http://www.volkskulturnoe.at/museen/ umbrella associations of museums also in Museums in Styria: Austria on government as well as on http://homepage.sime.com/musis/ provincial level. Museums in Salzburg: http://www.land- sbg.gv.at/kultur-sport/museen.htm Fö, Ing. Johann W. KIESSLING

Museums in the Tyrol: Assistant (Forest Culture) http://www.tirol.gv.at/themen/kultur/index.shtm Division IV / 4 - Forest Area Planning, forest protection and landscape development Museums in Vorarlberg: Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management http://www.vorarlberg.at/vorarlberg/tourismus_ Marxergasse 2 kultur/kultur/kultur/weitereinformationen/adres 1030 Vienna Austria Phon: +43 1 71100 7239 Fax: +43 1 71100 7399 sen/museeninvorarlberg.htm [email protected] Museums in Vienna:

http://www.wienmuseum.at/ Vienna Museums http://www.wien.gv.at/ma53/museen/ Museums and open-air museums:

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NOTICE

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