COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND NATURAL RESOURCE SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

Clark University Institute for Development Anthropology Internatior.al Development Program 99 Collier Street 950 Main Street Suite 302, P.O. Box 2207 Worcester, MA 01610 Binghamton, NY 13902 INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ANTHROPOLOGY

INVOLVEMENT IN THE SENEGAL BASIN:

REPORT AND PROPOSAL TO USAID/DAKAR

9 May 1986 CONTENTS

REPORT AND PROPOSAL

REPORT 1

INTRODUCTION I

CONCLUSIONS 2

RECOMMENDATIONS 7

PROPOSAL 13

INTRODUCTION 13

SCOPE OF WORK FOR FY 1987-1991 13

1. DURATION 14

2. PERSONNEL 14

3. DIRECTION 14

4. MODE OF OPERATION 14

5. ACTIVITIES 15

A. ADVISORY 15

B. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 15

C. NETWORKING 15

D. COLLABORATION 16

E. WORKS"3PS 16

F. RESEARCH 16

RESEARCH PERSONNEL 17

BUDGET 22

APPENDIX I - TOR FOR UPPER VALLEY MASTER PLAN

APPENDIX II - 1985 PROPOSAL TO CREATE AN OVERSIGHT TEAM TO IMPROVE PLANNING, TRAINING, MONITORING AND EVALUATION FOR UPPER SENEGAL RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT

APPENDIX III - AGRICULTURAL ISSUES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENEGAL RIVER BASIN: REPORT ON THE IDA MISSION TO SENEGAL AND MAURITANIA 3/22-4/5/869 BY ANDRE GUINARD db/

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Coo, .z00 INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ANTHROPOLOGY 99 COLlIER SEEr.SUITE 3n2 P. O. BOX 207, BINGHAMTON. NEW YOBJC 13902 USA Telphone (07) 7724244 Teks t32433 Cab DEVANTHaO BNGHAUTON, NY

DATEs 9 May 1986 TOs Sarah Jane Littlefield, Director, USAID/Dakar FROM. Thayer Scudder and Michael R Horowitz, Directors SUBJECT: IDA Involvement in the Senegal Basin under the Cooperative Agreement in Human Settlement and Ra3ource Systems Analysis (SARSA)

REPORT

I NTRODUCT I ON In April 1985 the Institute for Development Anthropology (IDA) submitted to USAID/Dakar a five-year proposal to create an advisory team to improve planning, training, monitoring and eva­ luation for Upper Senegal River Basin development. More specifi­ cally, IDA proposed to provide advice to LUSAID on opportunities and constraints relating to the development of the Upper Senegal Valley, to provide advice to an AID-financed contractor to be selected to prepare a Master Plan for the Upper Valley, and to assist in the training of personnel for host country units, including planning those within the OMVS, within planning tries, and minis­ within such parastatals as SAED and SONADER. USAID/Dakar's reaction to this proposal was favorable. mission suggested, The however, that an even closer association should be established between the OMVS, the new Apres-Barrages planning unit within GOS Ministry of Plan, and the IDA team. Furthermore, USAID believed that serious consideration should be given to extending the scope of work of the IDA team to include, at the very least, the Middle Basin.

Since more discussions were needed between USAID/Dakar, various host country agencies, and IDA personnel, USAID proposed an initial one-year funding, with the scope of work for the remaining years to be discussed after a first visit of IDA personnel. This visit took place during March 21 - April 6, Members of the IDA team 1986. were Andre Guinard (agronomist and former director of France's Centre National d'Etudes d'Agronomie Tropi­ cale), Papa Nalla Fall (regional economist, faculty member at Centre Africain d'Etudes Superieures en Gestion, and former World Bank officer), Gilbert F. White (geographer and former senior

I river basin consultant to UNDP), Michael M Horowitz (socio­ economist and ecologist, IDA director and co-director of the IDA team), and Thayer Scudder (river basin specialist, IDA director and co-director of the IDA team).

Team members held discussions with officials of USAID/ Dakar and USAID/Nouakchott; the OMVS; the Senegal Ministries of Hydraulics, Plan, Protection of Nature, and Rural Development; the Mauritanian Department of Agriculture; SAED and SONADER; research and training institutions as CODESRIA, CREA, ENDA, and IDEP; FAO; the Ford Foundation; OXFAM, and UNDP. At the conclu­ sion of the mission, the team discussed its findings at a USAID/ Dakar staff meeting. In a final session, Horowitz, Scudder, the USAID Director and Deputy Program Officer discussed a scope of work for the next five year period. That scope of work, with supporting material, is outlined below following the team's con­ clusions and recommendations.

The IDA team is particularly grateful to the High Commis­ sioner of the OMVS, to the Senegalese Ministers of Plan, Pro­ tection of Nature, and Rural Development, and to the President Director General of SAED for giving us valuable time to explain their views. We are also grateful to USAID Director Sarah Jane Littlefield, Deputy Program Ofiicer Campbell McClusky, and Prog­ ram Office staff member Monique Cressot for expediting our acti­ vities in Senegal, and to Project Specialist Joe Guardiano for helping us in Mauritania. David Hunsberger, RBDO, USAID/Dakar, kindly provided the team with compute:- access in preparing a draft mission report.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Well aware of obstacles to the seedgy utilization of waters stored behind the Diama and Manantali dams for hydroQower genera­ tions irrigation and navigation_, officials in the OMVS and in Senegal and Mauritania have begun tc consider alternative uses for stored water.

During feasibility studies for the Diama and Manantali Dams, projections of their economic viability were based on three major uses of stored waters: (1) hydropower generation for urban­ industrial usage, mining in Senegal Oriental, and electrification of irrigation pumps; (2) development of at least 250,000 hectares for pump irrigation; and, (3) cargo barge transport between St. Louis and Kayes.

Though the major justification for the dams was based on these three uses, government officials and river basin consul­ tants were well aware that it would take a good deal of time to bring on the irrigated perimeters. To provide water for such customary agricultural practices as recession (decrue) agricul­ ture during this period of transition, a decision was made to release annually--for ten to fifteen years--a controlled flood from the waters ttored behind the Manantali Dam. During that time period, village households would gradually be converted from a more diversified economic system including rainfed and recession agriculture, livestock management, and wage labor to irrigation agriculture based on double cropping of rice.

The decision to provide a simulated flood for customary uses during a lengthy transitional period is a major one. Indeed, it is unique in Africa. and perhaps anywhere in the tropics, where normally the flood regime of free-flowing rivers has been abrup­ tly terminated at the completion of dam construction irrespective of the impact downstream. In learning -1rom the lessons of the past, the OMVS and the three governments have shown great understanding of the human and environmental issues involved.

Now that the Diama and Manantali Dams are nearing comple­ tion, there is increasing awareness of the possibility--indeed the probability--that the duration of the required transition period has been seriously underestimated. Furthermore, there is a growing awareness that changing circumstances require a reas­ sessment of how the waters stored behind the two dams can best be used to achieve national , regional and local development goals.

Though a major financial search continues, at the moment funding does not exist for installing generators at Manantali or for developing a water transport system between St. Loui- and Kayes. The completion of the Selingue Dam on the Sankrani (a tributary of the Niger) has met Mali's needs for electricity for several decades. Though the demand for electricity in the urban areas of Senegal is growing, the development of major mining operations in Senegal Oriental seems unlikely in the near term, hence removing a major source of demand. In the meantime, should the proposed Ke::kreti Dam be constructed on the Middle Gambia, generating capacity would be greatly augmented and installation of generators at Manantali would perhaps be further delayed.

We suspect that it is because of such considerations that funds have not been forthcoming for generator installation at Manantali and that when installation does begin, it will be drawn out over a longer time period than has been anticipated. As +or the development of navigation upriver to Kayes, recent reports suggest that donor priority will be given instead to the rehabi­ litation and upgrading of the railroad (including provision of new rolling stock and improvement of unloading and storage faci­ lities in Bamako).

There is also a reappraisal of the speed with which irri­ gated perimeters can be developed, along with a reconsideration of capital development costs and recurrent expenditures, and of the wisdom of the previous emphasis on rice as opposed to other cereals and croos. Our own enquiries confirm the unlikeliness that SAED can pr oer] v develup as much as 2000 new hectares and rveL- 1 1 tate nre than 1000 previously developed hectares per annum. SONADER s capacity is even less, while the Malian gov­ ernmrent has little interest in developing irrigated perimeters in the Upper Valley because of the much greater potential of the Niger River. While the private sector, including both joint

-3 ventures and imaigrants from other parts of Senegal, can also be expected to develop new land once water for irrigation is avail­ able, issues relating to land terure will probably restrict such development to less than 30,000 hectares of Lower Basin land. Furthermore, development of such lands will not provide a substi­ tute for Middle and, to a lesser extent, Upper Basin residents who have in high rainfall years in the past cultivated in excess of 100,000 hectares of flood recession lands. With a reduced employment market both overseas and in West Africa, slower rates of development will further jeopardize the lives of these people unless alternate uses of Manantali waters enable them to practice a more reliable and intensive form of flood recession agriculture.

Though high officials understandably continue to emphasize the three major water management goals of Senegal Basin develop­ ment, we were gratified by the extent to which influential offi­ cials, including Ministers and civil servants, were not only examining alternate uses for- Manantali waters but were also establishing new institutional mechanisms for facilitating that examination or broadening the scope of existing institutions. Within the OMVS and within various ministries in both Mauritania and Senegal, we found individuals who were thinking seriously about how water stored behind the Manantali Dam might be used for enhancing flood recession agriculture, livestock raising, fish­ ing, agroforestry and reforestration. Among such options there was especial interest in how a regularized flocA would enable river basin residents to cultivate predrought hectarages and to in­ crease crop yields from decrue cultivation. In Senegal, techni­ cians within the Technical Division of the Ministry of Hydraulics were especially interested in options for increasing and intens­ ifying the scope of recession agriculture. In Mauritania, the Director of Agriculture expressed a similar interest. Moreover we were told that Mauritanian officials were also considering less capital intensive ways to use waters stored behind the Diama Dam for enhancing grazing and perhaps recessional agriculture in the Lower Basin.

The major new institutional initiative is within the Minis­ try ot Plan, where a Cellule d°Evaluation et de Planification de I'Apres-Barrages was established during 1985. As for broadening the scope of existing institutions, the OMVS is currently con­ sidering recommendations for reorganization that would increase the scope and influence of its Planning and Evaluation office. At the parastatal level, SAED has attempted to widen its perspec­ tive by reorganizing the Direction de la Planification et des Amenagements, and the Direction des Methodes de Developpement.

2. Because alternative uses of waters stored behind the two dams (and especiall' behind Manantali) have not been seriously consi­ dered in the past± there would appear to be an excellent OpDortu­ nity for AID and other donors to assist in a new assessment.

It is one thing to express the desirability of considering a wider range of options, but it is quite another to undertake the necessary assessments required for making informed policy deci­

4 sions. A case in point relates to recession agriculture. Though the decision to release a regularized flood from Manantali for a transition period of 10-to-15 years was based largely on the need to continue flood water farming until pump irrigation could provide an alternate living, in fact very little is known about the potential of flood water farming, both i.n the amount of land that can be cultivated when a specific amount of water is re­ leased from Manantali and to the extent to which yields of ce­ reals and other crops can be increased through better water management (which could be greatly facilitated by controlled releases) and use of urea and other fertilizers.

Though the literature on recession agriculture makes fre­ quent mention of 100,000 hectares being cultivated after a "good flood," this figure is based largely on analysis of the 1970-1971 d6crue season. During the 1970 flood some 400,000 hectares were inundated, of which somewhat over 110,000 ha. were subsequently farmed. We have seen no detailed analysis as to why there is such a discrepancy between the areas inundated and cultivated. Though a range of variables appears to be involved, including length of inundation, yields from upland (dieri) fields during the previous rains, and labor availability, the relative import­ ance of such variables is not established. Even if this were known, there are probably as yet insufficient data to undertake the hydrological modeling needed to assess how much water should be released to inundate specific areas for, for example, i 30-to­ 45 day period. Furthermore, aside from some data from the Mauri­ tanian side of the river (suggesting that better water management and use of fertilizer could increase yields of sorghum and millet threefold), little is known about the extent to which yields from recession agriculture can be increased.

Clearly, any attempt to estimate the potential for develop­ ment of recession agriculture requires a range of studies inclu­ ding decision-making at the household level (in regard to how labor is allocated under different rainfall, flood, and socio­ economic conditions--including access to livestock, wage labor and other resources), analysis of areas inundated under different flood regimes (which may or may not be possible using existing information), and response of recessional crops to different inputs.

3. Because of the inability of existing pglanning units effective­ ly to utilize available research it is not sufficient merely to undertake studies alone, including the inguiries and analyses discussed under the previous conclusion. The new studies that ------_ are reguired should be firmly linked with donor assistance_------­ to action.

The OMVS and uther agencies concerned with Senegal River develop­ ment are literally 'buried' in studies. Though we have no way of checking the figure's validity, one high official told us that the cost of studies completed to date exceeded one billion FCFA! Though rehabilitation of the documentation center of t'e OMVS is currently underway, much of the existing documentation is liter­

5 ally piled together with timber and other construction materials in a downstairs room. Even if adequately catalogued, however, it is doubtful that the OMVS or any national agency has the capacity effectively to utilize this material for decision-making without major donor assistance. Such assistance should, in our opinion, take two forms: institution building and information management.

4. Institution-building should focus on increasing the capAgity of e&;isting Raning units to store and analyse data to 2resent o tions to decision makers based on that analysis. and to monitor and evaluate EErogram/2E2Rect imelementation.

Existing planning and evaluation units include not just those in the OMVS and in parastatals with development responsibilities in the Senegal Basin, but also ministerial units such as the Cellule d'Apr~s Barrages in the GOS Ministry of Plan. Currently such units are unable to incorporate into planning the large number of studies completed to date. Nor have they the capability to coord­ inate, monitor, and evaluate the actual implementation of devel­ opment projects.

Very careful consideration need be given not just to staf­ fing such units (in regard to numbers of staff and the necessary mix of disciplines) and to staff training, but also to the posi­ tion of planning and evaluation units themselves within their agencies. Generally, the expertise of staff is unbalanced and too narrow. Furthermore, too little emphasis is usually placed on on-the-job training within the Senegal Basin and on study visits to relevant projects elsewhere in Africa and Asia. Final­ ly, global experience suggests that the head of the planning and evaluation unit should report directly to the most senior civil servant within the agency--a generalization that applies equally to international river basin authorities and to ministries and parastatal organizations.

5. Within planning and evaluation easily utilizable units there is need to develop information management systems to expedite the analysis of various data bases and to enable staff members to present glicy o3tions.

Throughout tropical Africa, organizations with major river basin development responsibilities lack the capacity to analyse the large numbers of studies that have been carried out with donor and host country funding. Because of the number of donors invol­ ved, their desire to correct deficiencies that have plagued river basin development projects elsewhere (including within their own countries), their often differing development strategies, and the lack of coordination among them, the number and diversity of studies tends to exceed those carried out in the industrial rorth. Often involving knowledgeable academics, these donor­ financed studies often employ advanced, "state of the art" metho­ dologies.

It is paradoxical, however, that donors support if not require the most sophisticated studies to be carried out in those

6 nations that are least able to make use of them. Though better coordination could reduce the number of studies, river basin development is complex and dynamic. Since complex studies are essential, host country planning and evaluation units need to increase their capability to coordinate them (hence reducing duplication) and to utilize their results. In addition to a better trained, interdisciplinary staff, such units badly need improved information management systems that make use of micro­ computers for data analysis (including the analysis of remote sensing, hydrological and socioeconomic data) and of audio-visual means for displaying the results of analysis to policy makers.

6. There is a major need for more donor continuity jrjeg@ad t o studies, pojetrCogram formulation, Eroiect_g__ogr0a_ img__enta­ tion, and monitoring and evaluation.

An excellent example of lack of continuity in regard to different stages of the river basin development process relates to insuffi­ cient utilization of the wide-ranging environmental and socio­ economic impact studies that have been pioneered and funded by USAID. The first major one was carried out by Gannett Fleming in the Senegal Basin. Subsequent studies include the TAMS evalua­ tion of Sri Lanka's Accelerated Mahaweli Project, the University of Michigan Gambia Basin studies and the current Associates in Rural Development Juba Basin studies in Somalia. Without excep­ tion African host countries have been unable to utilize the findings.

AID can assist host countries in correcting this deficiency by designing more follow-on projects that build directly upon the information presented in environmental and socioeconomic impact studies. Another way is to broaden AID's involvement in particu­ lar zones--Bakel in Senegal or Di.-ol in Mauritania, for Example-­ so that a series of carefully phased interventions have a wider impact on production, rural living standards, and nonfarm enter­ prise. Some specific suggestions are outlined below.

RECOMMENDAT IONS

1. USAID development assistance for the Senegal River Basin during the next ten to twenty ytears should focus on habitat restoration and on increasing the productivity and living stan­ dards of the existing population of the Basin, with s 'ecial emphasis on a'ternative uses for waters stored behind the Manan­ tali Dam during the period of controlled downriver flooding.

Focusing on the resident population of the Senegal Basin makes sense for several reasons. First, recent research on linkages between agricultural anJ urban-industrial development shows not only that appropriate rural development can have major multiplier effects but also that the major multiplier comes not from agro­ industry but from the rising living standards and increased disposable income of tens of thousands of village households. For this reason, increases in productivity must move local popu­ lations beyond subsistence. Only then will increased demand for a

7 widening range of goods and services foster the generation of nonfarm employment through the development of private enterprises to meet increasing household demand.

Second, focusing on the resident population and their habi­ tat is consistent with present USAID portfolios in Senegal and Mauritania. In Senegal, efforts at reforestration are directed at local communities, while agronomic research and research on farming systems and land tenure have direct implications for local development, including how best to incorporate immigrants (including small, medium and larger scale entrepreneurs from elsewhere within Senegal). Furthermore USAID's geographical focus on the Bakel Zone is directed at villzge residents through the technical, agricultural and organizational development of small-scale irrigated perimeters.

We make three recommendations in the following sections: first, that AID assistance within the Senegal Basin be more specifically directed at village communities; second, that assis­ tance be more specifically focused on the Bakel area; third, so that Bakel might become a prototype for other portions of the Upper Basin--including Kayes in Mali, that assistance be expanded beyond irrigated perimeters to include a carefully ordered and phased attempt to faciliate the rural and urban development of the Bakel Zone including the lower reaches of the Faleme.

In Mauritania we recommend a similar approach, although there the focus would be on the Dirol Plain which would become a development prototype for the Middle Basin, as Bakel for the Upper Basin. Such an approach would be consistent with AID's similar approach currently being implemented in Sri Lanka in connection with the Accelerated Mahaweli Project.

We also recommend that AID assist the OMVS, the various national government agencies, PVOs, and local communities to make the best use of the controlled flood which will be released from the Manantali reservoir for a minimusn of 10 to 15 years. We say "minimum of 10 to 15 years' because during the past year an increasing number of government officials have become aware of the probability that it will be decades before demands for hydro­ power, pump irrigation and riverine navigation will necessitate elimination of a controlled downriver flood. The question there­ fore arises, how can this annual flood best be used for environ­ mental rehabilitation, and for intensifying the production sys­ tems of the riverine populations.

Elimination of the annual flood will have serious ecological impacts. Among other things, it will lower water tables and increase scouring, both effects making it more di';ficult to carry out reforestation and rural development projects in the valley. Elimination of the annual flood will also have adverse effects on peoples resident in the valley. Recession agriculture, for exam­ ple, will be greatly curtailed since river flow at the end of the dry season will be increased and flows during the rains and the current flood season will be decreased (some flooding, however,

8 will continue since significant amounts of flood water enter the Senegal River below the Manantali Dam). At the same time, dry season grazing for livestock will be reduced while fisheries productivity can be expected to drop significantly. Certain development projects, such as USAID/Nouackhott's Dirol Plain Project, will also be adversely affected.

The unanswerable question for the present is just how advan­ t.ageous a controlled downriver flood will prove to be in terms of enviro-imental betterment and meeting development goals within the Basin. Despite this uncertainty, in our opinion too little attention has been paid to potential advantages. While recent droughts have restricted the extent of recession agriculture, they have also restricted the extent of rainfed agriculture within the basin. If release of water stored behind the Manan­ tali Dan can not only guarantee some recession agriculture, but also reduce, through regulation of river flows, some of the associated risks to the producer, villagers may well place more emphasis on decrue cultivation than in the past. This should be especially the case if crop research and extension lead to signi­ ficant increases in yields (there is some evidence from Mauri­ tania that better water management and fertilizer use can in­ crease yields of sorghum and millet from approximately 400 kg per hectare to 1200 kg). At the same time, the opportunity exists better to integrate livestock management into the cropping system and to combine reforestration with agroforestry.

Conceivably, the advantages realized from better utilization of a controlled flood might even justify its indefinite continua­ tion, especially if riverine navigation to Kayes is not deve­ loped, if supply of hydropower continues to outstrip demand (a not unlikely outcome if dams are built on the Upper Gambia and if a West African electricity grid eventually connects the region's wealth of sites for hydropower generation); and if the costs of pump irrigation continue to increase along with doubts concerning the economic and social feasibility of the double cropping of irrigated rice.

There are, on the other hand, many unknowns needing clarifi­ cation before the value of a regulated downriver flood can be adequately calculated. For example, will sufficient water be stored in the Manantali reservoir to achieve the necessary flood conditions? What are the flood conditions (in terms of cubic meters per second and duration of flooding) necessary for ex­ tending and intensifying recession agriculture in those areas of the basin most dependent on it? Furthermore, if the necessary floods do occur, will village populations utilize them in econo­ mically justifiable ways? Such questions can be best answered through additional studies and the careful monitoring and evalua­ tion of projects based on those studies.

2. USAID should assist planning units with major responsibilities for Senegal River Basin development to store process± and ana­ lyse data for decision-making. and to monitor and evaluate pro­ jet and program iplementation outcomes. Assistance should

9 include institution building., staff devel ogment and data manage­ menit.

The justification for this recommendation is outlined in the fourth conclusion under the previous section.

3. Because of its emphasis on sophisticated studies. and because of the impaired ability of host country institutions pEroerly to utilize their results, USA ID should assist with the development o an effective information management syste that can be used both for analysing existing and future data and for presenting a ange of optios to policy makers. The justification for this recommendation is outlined in the fourth conclusion under the previous section. 4. Unless other donors are sponsoring the necessary research USAID should fund whatever studies are necessary to assess the uncertainties associated with recessioii agriculture "Apres Bar­ rages".

Before additional research is undertaken, a careful assessment should be made of the utility of existing video imagery, aerial photography, remote sensing (including both Landsat and French satellite imagery), hydrological modeling, and socioeconomic analysis for determining inter alia river flows needed to inun­ date the more favorable areas and local decision making con­ cerning their utilization. If additional research is necessary, USAID might reconsider, for example, the February 1986 proposal of the Arizona Remote Sensing Center concerning "The Use of Aerial Video Imagery for Estimating the Area of Recessional Agriculture in the Senegal River Basin". Fundamental to the development of recession agriculture in the Senegal Basin is knowledge of the amount of suitable land that is flooded by a given amount of water. If the necessary information is not available, its acquisition should be given high priority.

5. USAID assistance should be used to plang, implement, mcnitor and evaluate development prototypes for a single area in the Upper Basin the Middle Basin and perhaps the Lower Basin. While initial emphasis should be 21aced on how best to utilize the controlled flood downs'-ream for the benefit of environmental rehabilitation and the local population a longer term goal would be to create a more diversified economy within the basin.

What we are recommending here is that USAID--by concentrating its efforts on several carefully selected areas--should help plan, implement, monitor, and evalute a wider range of options for the development of the Senegal Basin. Careful ordering of priorities and schedules is essential, however, to avoid the managerial and other problems that only too often are associated with projects attempting to accomplish too much in too little time.

Initially, we suggest that USAID assistance be focused on alternative uses of the Manantali controlled downriver flood. In

10 the Bakel area this would mean broadening the current emphasis on small scale irrigated perimeters to include recession agricul­ ture, agroforestry, reforestration, livestock management and fisheries. We suggest a similar focus for the Dirol Plain, and here more attention should also be paid to the possibility of gravity-fed irrigation, especially below small dams in marigots.

Diversification and intensification of the current economy makes sense for a number of reasons. First, this can build on existing activities, being congruent with current economic stra­ tegies at the household level. Second, diversification not only makes better use of family labor resources, but it also helps raise the status of all family members, since both spouses as well as children and other dependents are more apt to have their own well-defined activities which contribute produce and cash to the family's income and in that sense, diversification is consis­ tent with AID's concern with gender roles). Third, diversifica­ tion produces a wider range of produce both for agro-industry and for the provisioning of nonfarm employees. Fourth, diversified systems are n.ore resilient both economically and ecologically. Where agroforestry is integrated into the system it can make a positive contribution to environmental betterment. Fifth, diver­ sification tends to increase production and to raise family incomes. In that regard, it helps move producing households beyond subsistence, thereby enhancing such multiplier effects as nonfarm enterprise development and employment. The realization of such effects, however, also requires timely and finely adjus­ ted and tuned development assistance. Because of the lack of infrastructure and nonfarm enterprises in the Upper and Middle Basin regions, special attention needs to be paid to marketing, to market towns, and to the as yet poorly studied area of rural­ urban linkages in general.

If USAID assistance is used to follow through on planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating a more diversified econo­ mic system in the Bakel and Dirol zones, the former could become a development prototype for the Upper Basin (including, of course the Malian portion of the basin), while the latter could become a prototype for the Middle Basin. The timing is good, since USAID activities in both areas are already underway. What the geo­ graphical extent of both areas should be needs careful explora­ tion. USAID's current work in Bakel is too restricted to provide a "laboratory" for development purposes. On the other hand, including, for example, the lower portion of the Faleme might create too large an area.

We do not yEt have as specific a set of recommendations as to what USAID's strategy should be in the Lower Basin. Whereas land tenural and other considerations suggest that the Upper arid Middle Basins should be developed largely by resident popula­ tions, there would appear to be both room and opportunity for immigrants in $he Lower Basin. What those opportunities will be, however, is currently surrounded by "unknowns." For example, government officials apparently have not yet decided how to handle applications for land that are accumulating in St. Louis.

11 Furthermore, the potential of Lac du Guier and the lower portion of the Vallee du Ferlo for recession agriculture, livestock management, and other activities will depend on the height of water stored behind the Diama Dam, which in turn will be influen­ ced by still-to-be-made Mauritanian decisions in regard to the Right Bank Dike.

6. USAID should amend the scope of work for the UppeE AII y Master Plan by putting more emhasis on how to increase the roducti vit of existinq economic activities (espcially rainfed agriculture and livestock management) and less emphasis on irri­ gated perimeters. Such an amendment would significantly reduce person months in the field and detailed ma7i ng eguirements hence cutting costs of the 2lanning exercise by An much as 50 percent.

The reasoning behind this recommendation is outlined in Appendix One to this report.

12 PROPOSAL

INTRODUCTION

Current funding is sufficient to finance two IDA missions to the OMYS member states during the 1986 fiscal year. The first visit was by the team of Fall, Guinard, Horowitz, Scudder, and White described in this report. Although the team did not travel to Mali, Horowitz had visited both Bamako and the Manantali area during a February trip to supervise a complementary AID-funded IDA cooperative agreement dealing with the monitoring and evalua­ tion of Manantali resettlement.

The second trip will cover a two-to-three week period in late June to early July. Team members at that time will include Fall, Horowitz, Charles Howe (a water resources economist concen­ trating on African river basins), and Scudder. Although itinera­ ries remain to be worked out, this will be primarily a field trip with time spent in the Manantali area (accompanied by IDA Asso­ ciate Dolores Koenig and IDA field research assistant Curt Grimm), Bakel, Dirol, and the Lower Basin. Information collected during that time will be used to supplement, alter and refine the various conclusions and recommendations included in this report.

SCOPE OF WORK FOR FY 1987-1991

The Cooperative Agreement in Human Settlement and Natural Resource Systems Analysis (SARSA), held jointly by the Institute for Development Anthropology (IDA) and Clark University (CU), has ongoing research programs in natural resource systems management, settlement and colonization, and rural-urban linkages. all of which are directly germane to the development of the Senegal Basin. IDA invites USAID/Dakar to continue to buy into this program by supporting under SARSA an additional five-year activity.

Should USAID find the strategy outlined in the above report attractive, IDA proposes to continue providing background re­ search and advice to OMVS, to the member states, to USAID, and to AID-financed contractors as outlined in our proposal of 27 April 1985, entitled "To Create an Oversight Team to Improve Planning, Training, Monitoring and Evaluation for Upper Senegal River Basin Development." A copy of that proposal is attached as Appendix II.

We now propose that the scope of work outlined in the 1985 proposal be expanded to include the Middle and Lower Basins as well as the Upper Valley. Without de-emphasizing the provision of advice to whatever contractor is selected to formulate the Upper Valley Master Plan, we suggest that closer relationships be established with the various planning units mentioned in this report, and that the IDA team play a wider advisory role in regard to USAID's overall program in the Senegal Basin. Granted the importance of AID-funded activities on the Dirol Plain as a prototype for Middle Basin development, we would also hope to

13 establish a closer relationship with USAID/Nouakchott. (We are already in contact with USAID/Bamako and the Malian authorities regarding IDA's ongoing involvement in the Manantali resettlement program).

1. Duration: We suggest that any future scope of work cover a five-year period on a rolling basis. This approach is cost effective for several reasons. First, for any program involving different stages of the project and program cycles (running from identification to evaluation), there is a need for continuity in providing advice. Second, optimally more than 2 to 3 years are needed for working closely with staff members in the office and in the field, and with trainees during their study periods, in order to meet the training and information management needs of the OMVS member states. Third, the IDA team can provide better advice to AID-funded contractors if the team proceeds contractors in the field. Fourth, more effective utilization of studies and other contractor outputs can be made if the IDA team can follow­ up on recommendations after the contractor's work is completed. 2. Personnel: To broaden its expertise to deal with an expanded scope of work, IDA has added a number of names to the list incorporated within the April 1985 proposal. We are especially pleased to note the incorporation of Papa Nalla Fall (regional economist), Andre Guinard (agriculturalist), Charles Howe (water resources economist); Peter Rogers (engineer/hydrologist), Michael Burton and Thomas R. Whitney (information management specialists). Additional personnel will be added as needed, with a special effort made to recruit team members from the OMVS member states. IDA wishes, however, to keep the total number of team members to no more than 20 to faciliate coordination and network ing.

3. Direction: IDA Directors Michael Horowitz and Thayer Scudder will co-direct the effort. Though they will cooperate closely as project activities evolve, Horowitz will assume prime responsibi­ lity for networking in the OMVS states and Scudder in the United States and among IDA team members. The co-directors will be backed up by a part-time research associate and a near full-time research assistant and IDA administrative staff in the Bingham­ ton, New York headquarters, and by part-time research assistance in Pasadena, California.

4. Mode of Opration: Though operational flexibility is essen­ tial, IDA would anticipate sending at ledst two four-person teams to the OMVS states annually. IDA would also anticipate sending out individuals to deal with particular advisory, research, and training issues. An immediate need relates to developing an appropriate information management system within planning and evaluation units for analyzing and presenting policy options. Another need relates to ensuring that hydrological models can be used to calculate river flows needed to extend and intensify recession agriculture.

While each team member will be responsible for her/his areas

14 for coordinating their activities in regard to AID and OMVS member states' needs. We anticipate that Fall will play an important coordinating role from his Dakar base of operations in regard to USAID, the OMVS and other agencies with research and development responsibilities in the Senegal Basin.

5. Activities.

a. Advisory.

This report provides an initial indication of the type of advisory role that the IDA team would play. In this case the advice is directed at USAID. We would hope that a similar advis­ ory role could be worked out with the various planning and eva­ luation units in the OMVS member states. As for AID-funded contractors (including the contractor selected for the Upper Valley Master Plan), the IDA team could assist in designing their work plan and data collection methodologies in the same way that the Juba Valley Advisory Panel, of which Scudder is chair, of the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council is as­ sisting ARD in undertaking environmental and socioeconomic stu­ dies in Somalia's Juba River Basin. Such a role also involves USAID and the relevant government agencies since scopes of work and methodologies have important policy implications that need to br discussed with planners and policy makers before, during, and after the undertaking of studies.

b. Information Management.

A high IDA priority will be the development of an informa­ tion management system relevant to the needs of the various planning and evaluation units in the OMVS member states. Cur­ rently no agency has the time, the staff, or the expertise to pull out the policy implications of the existing studies and to recommend additional studies where necessary. A major responsi­ bility of each IDA team member is not merely to become familiar with whatever studies have been carried out in her/his areas of expertise, but also to identify information which has major policy implications and to identify where additional information is needed. Team members will have the additional responsibility of advising on what data and studies should be included within the information management system (granted the number of studies, selectivity is essential in order to keep data management under control).

Important data and key studies will be incorporated within an information management system to be designed by IDA for use by the OMVS member states, AID and other donors, and other inter­ ested organizations. Microcomputers will be used for accessing this system. Audio-vistial methods will be designed to convey the results of datL analysis to policy makers.

c. Networking.

15 Because of the large number of agencies involved in Senegal Basin studies and development, networking is required to facili­ tate access to relevant data. Networking should occur on two levels. On the one hand, each team member should be responsible for networking with colleagues in similar areas of expertise. On the other, co-directors Horowitz and Scudder, with the help of Fall (Dakar) and Guinard (Paris), must ensure that networking occurs with the key agencies involved with Senegal Basin research and development, including, for example, the World Bank, FAO, and UNDP, and key research institutions in the United States (inter alia, the Universities of Arizona, Michigan and Wisconsin, and the members of the Water Synthesis II Cooperative Agreement), Europe (inter alia, ORSTOM and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis), and Africa (inter alia, CREA at the University of Dabar, CODESRIA and ENDA).

d. Collaboration with and Training of OMVS Member State Personnel.

A major reason for suggesting a five-year rolling scope of work is to provide more conti-uity for collaboration with, and training of, host country personnel. We would expect each member of the IDA team to work closely with host country colleagues, and to assist in drawing up appropriate training progams, including ongoing on-the-job training, workshop- , course work, and study tours. Training activities would occur both in the office and in the field. IDA personnel would also keep in close contact with trainees sent out of the country, and would be available to accompany officials and trainees alike on study tours to other projects and countries.

e. Workshops.

We anticipate organizing three types of workshop. The first type will enable IDA team members to share their expertise in regard to project procedures; methodologies and design of appro­ priate information management systems; research conclusions and gaps; project analysis; and major policy issues. The second type will be for soliciting information from, and providing informa­ tion to, AID, and to OMVS member states and other organizations. The third type will take the form of training workshops, de­ signed, for example, to train OMVS and other host country staff to use whatever information management system is designed. (Host country views of how that system could provide options in a policy-relevant form.)

f. Research.

During the coming years, ongoing data col]ectiorn and analy­ sis will inevitably identify new research needs. In most cases, those needs can be best met by contracting them out to other organizations. Situations cart be anticipated, however, where preliminary information, at least, is needed in a hurry. A case in point relates to Somalia's Juba Valley. During th-ir first

16 in-country tour and workshop organized for government, AID and ARD personnel, the NAS-NRC Juba Valley Advisory Panel concluded that there was an urgent need for a senior soil scientist to evaluate the soil surveys of the Bureau of Reclamation in regard to a wider range of development alternatives, including recession agriculture around the edge of the future Baardeere reservoir. Within a month, the Panel was able to identify and field an expert who was then invited to join the Panel as a regular member.

We can anticipate similar needs in regard to assessing and achieving the potential of recession cultivation in the Senegal Basin. Although in the instance cited, USAID/Somalia was able to provide independent funding for the soil scientist's visit to the Juba Valley, the availability of such funds on short notice cannot be assjmed. We therefore have proposed that funds be included in the budget for meeting some unanticipated research and evaluation activities. Whenever possible research and eva­ luation would be linked closely to the relevant planning units and to the research programs of host country institutions so that they could contribute to and benefit from the planning, e xecu­ tion, and utilization of research activities.

RESEARCH PERSONNEL

Under the SARSA Cooperative Agreement, the Institute for Development Anthropology will organize a team of 16 to 20 specialists whose topical, areal, and linguistic expertise represents the best available in dealing with the natural resources, production and marketing systems, peoples and settle­ ments of the Senegal Basin. Drawing from both our core staff and our international network of associates, the Institute will form a team comprised of natural resource managers with environmental and engineering backgrounds, agronomists and agricultural/rural economists, and development social scientists knowledgable about the socioeronomics of production and marketing, settlement, river basin development, rural-urban linkages, and urban functions.

From this roster, missions of 3 to 5 members will provide periodic (i.e., semi-annual) advisory, research, and training visits, working closely with OMVS and member country planning, implementation, management, monitoring and evaluation personnel, with officers of USAID/Dakar, Nouakchott, and Bamako as approp­ riate, with the Upper Valley Development Plan and other contractors, and with representatives of local government and private sector producer and marketino organizations.

Though only 3 to 5 team members would work together in the Senegal Easin at any one time, our intention is that the entire team should coriEtitute a collegium rather than juqt an aggregate of individuals. Though mechanics remain to be worked out, it will be de-irable for the entire team to "meet" periodically, probably through computer conferencing to minimize costs. Reports will be circ.lated throughout the team to allow for wide review and to keep all team members current. The annual

17 workshops proposed, tied onto field visits again ".o minimize costs, will facilitate interaction and exchange between team members, USAID and host country personnel.

The indicative listing of project personnel below is not meant to be exhaustive, for we wish to have the flexibility of adding persons and/or expertise not yet identified:

1. Dr. Antoinette Brown, Adjunct Associate Professor, Georgia State University. Specialties: nutrition, health delivery systems, river basin development. West African experience: Senegal, Burkina Faso. Dr. Brown recently participated in an AID-funded evaluation of the Onchocerciasis Control Program under IDA's Rural Development Design and Evaluation IQC.

2. Dr. Michael Burton, Professor, University of California at Irvine. Specialty: Information management and quantitative methodologies in social science.

3. Dr. Monique Cohen, geographer. Specialties: spatial analy­ sis, marketing networks and systems, rural-urban functions, regional development. West African experience: mainly Ivory Coast but also Senegal. Dr. Cohen is participating with the Institute in development of methodologies for mapping new and upgraded water points in Central Tunisia, in a project funded by USAID/Tunis under the SARSA Cooperative Agreement.

4. Dr. Papa Nalla Fall, Consultant and CESAG/Dakar faculty member. A Senegalese national, Fall is a regional economist and former World Bank officer. He participated in the March- April IDA mission to USAID/Dakar.

5. Dr. Robert Fernea, Professor, University of Texas. Specialties: riverine communities, small-scale irrigation systems, marketing systems in arid habitats. No West African experience, but extensive fieldwork in Morocco, Egypt, and Iraq. Professor Fernea is President of the American Research Center in Cairo.

6. Dr. Elon Gilbert, agricultural/rural economist. Specialty: West African farming and marketing systems. West African experience: extensive work throughout Sahelian states, Dr. Gilbert is currently employed through CRED (University of Michigan) on the studies of the Gambia River Basin and the Gambia Agricultural Sector Project.

7. Andre Guinard, agronomist. Specialty: tropical and irrigated agriculture. Extensive West African experience. Guinard retired as Director of the French Centre National d'Agronomie Tropicale, wils World Ban liaison officer to FAO/Rome, and Director of Research at BDPA. He was the agronomist on our March-April 1986 mission to USAID/Dakar, and his report is attached to this proposal as Appendix I1.

8. Marcus J. Healey, consultant in natural resource

is management. Specialties: environmental analysis, rural water supplies, river basin development. West African experience: Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, Mali. Wolof-speaking, Healey was a member of the Gannett Fleming team on the Senegal River. 9. Dr. Nicholas Hopkins, Professor of Anthropology, American University in Cairo. Specialties: rural-urban linkages, local level political systems, regional development, urban functions. West African experience: several years research in Kita, one of the few towns in the Malian portion of the Upper Basin. Professor Hopkins has extensive North African experience, and has participated in several IDA activities in Tunisia, including the design of a potable water project in Central Tunisia, funded by USAID/Tunis under the Institute's Rural Development IoC.

10. Dr. Michael Horowitz, Professor of Anthropology at State University of New York at Binghamton and Director, Institute for Development Anthropology. Co-Project Director with Thayer Scudder. Specialties: natural resource management, pastoral systems and their interface with farming systems in river basins, arid and semiarid production systems. West Africa experience: annual since 1963, with research and development work in Chad, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, and in other Sahelian and West African countries. Horowitz was the first regional anthropologist for REDSO/WA, and was a UNDP social analyst on the Kagera River Basin development project. He currently directs the SARSA research program on the Manantali Resettlement Project.

11. Dr. Charles Howe, Professor of Economics, University of Colorado. Specialties: water resources economics and river basin development. Howe has experience on the Gambia and Senegal River Basins and on the Tana River Basin in Kenya.

12. Dr. Delores Koenig, Associate Professor, American University. Specialties: river basin development, settlement and resettlement, farming systems analysis, renewable energy, women in development. Extensive research and development work in Mali and in Cameroons, Dr. Koenig is the senior consultant on the IDA/SARSA Manantali Resettlement Project.

13. Dr. Riall Nolan, Assistant Professor, Georgia State University. Specialties: rural-urban linkages, urban functions, labor migration. West African experience: 4.5 years in the Faleme River Basin (Senegal) as a Peace Corps Volunteer and as an anthropological researcher. Fluent in Wolof, Nolan also speaks FulfulDe. He spent several years in Tunisia for RHUDO/Tunis and in Sri Lanka for USAID/Colombo.

14. Dr. Thomas Painter, Research Associate, IDA. Specialty: rural production systems, local organizations, labor migration. West African experience: eight years in Niger as a PCV, anthropological researcher, and development specialist. Painter preceeded the IDA team to Senegal in March 1986, and

19 established with USAID all the initial contacts. He will be a member of the core IDA staff on the project.

15. Dr. Lucie Colvin Philips, social historian and development consultant. Specialties: labor migration, land tenure, river basin development. Extensive Senegambian experience as an independent researcher, as a member of the CRED Gambia Basin socioeconomic studies team, and as a member of a Land Tenure Center team dealing with land tenural systems -n African river basins. Dr. Philips is currently a member of the IDA reforestation project design team in Senegal, funded by USAID/Dakar under the Institute's Rural Development Design and Evaluation IQC.

16. Thomas Price. Field Research Associate on the IDA study of fisheries on the Niger River, Niger, supported by FAO/Rome. Specialties: social analysis, health delivery systems, agricultural extension, fisheries.

17. Dr. Stephen P. Reyna, Associate Professor, University of New Hampshire. Specialties: natural resource management, irrigation systems, parastatals, pastoral systems, fisheries. West African experience: extensive research and development work in the Sahel for almost two decades, including two years as regional anthropologist at REDSO/WA. Was sociologist on Selibabi project, Mauritania.

18. Dr. Peter Rugers, Professor of Engineering, Harvard University. A specialist cn water resources management, Dr. Rogers is a member of the IDA team on the Tunisian Water Resource and Population mapping study, funded by USAID/Tunis through the SARSA Cooperative Agreement.

19. Dr. Thayer Scudder, Professor, California Institute of Technology and Director, Institute for Development Anthropology. Co-Project Director with Michael Horowitz. Specialties: impacts of large-scale river basin development projects on local populations, irrigation systems, recessional and rainfed agriculture, mixed farming, fishing, utilization of bush products. West African experience: UN, AID, and other consulting assignments dealing with the Volta, Niger, Bandama, Senegal, and Gambia river systems and the Lake Chad Basin. Thirty years of research on the arid and semi-arid river basins of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East with special emphasis on the Nile, Zambezi, and Mahaweli systems.

20. D-. John Waterbury, Professor, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University. Specialties: river basin develojment, Vnstitutional analysis, political economy. Author: "Hydropolitics of the Nile Basin." Work in Senegal, North Africa (especially Morocco), and throughout the Nile Basin. 21. Thomas R. Whitney, Agricultural Economist and Information Specialist. Three years as technical adviser to SOMIVAC, responsible for creating and supervising monitoring and evalua­

20 thon unit. 2.5 years research and development in Mali.

21 BUDGET

22 CORE GROUP FY 87 $ 100,722 FY 88 110,350 FY 89 FY 90 120,395 130,251 FY 91 140.Z56 602,474 FIELD MISSIONS

FY 87 FY 88 71,280 78, 153 FY 89 85,176 FY 90 92,340 FY 91 - _ _ x 4 426, 943 TRAVEL AND PER DIEM FY 87 70,590 FY 88 FY 89 -7, 610 FY 90 85,842 94,296 FY 91___ 13 &Z§4 432, 102 WORKSHOPS IN OMVS REGION FY? 87 FY 88 1,0 FY 88 10,000 11900 FY 89 FY 90 12,100 13,310 FY 91 A4 a_4 61,051 OTHER DIRECT COSTS

FY 87 FY 88 12,408 14,387 FY 89 15,837 FY 90 17, 103 F'? 91 78,930 iLT

TOTAL PROPOSED BUDGET $1,601,50e FY 87 Level of C9099_QE Rat!e ffor Amount

Project Co-Director Michael M Horowitz 280/day 52 days 14,560 Project Co-Director Thayer Scudder 280/day 52 days 149560 Research Associate Thomas M. Painter 126/day 52 days Research Assistant-Binghamton 6,552 74/day 208 Research Assistant-Pasadena days 15,392 74/day 130 days 9LR_ 60,684 Overhead at 52% Fringe at 21% 31,556 4,608 Fringe at 10% 4,608 CORE 6ROUP TOTAL 100,722

Field Staff 5 ,500/person 8 person month Overhead at 52% months 44,000 22,880 Fringe at 10% 22,880 FIELD MISSIONS TOTAL 71,28

International: 12 trips @ 3,000 In-country: 36,000 12 @ 650 (includes plane rental) Per Diem: 5 person months Dakar 7,800 @ 117/day 17,550 7 person months field @ 44/day 9._4_

TRAVEL AND PER DIEM TOTAL 78,590 S B QeP_QB~Igg 6, 0e

DBA Insurance at 3% SOS 2"230 AID Assist Medical Evacuation Insurance Visas, medicals 1,040 Report preparation, 1,300 translation, materials, maps Communicat ions/duplication 3,000 Miscel laneous/cont ingency 1808 _, 838 TOTAL OTHER DIRECT COSTS 12,48 TOTAL FY 87 BUDGET $sm5 0n FY88

GQNg1 Level of Rate Effort Amount,

Project Co-Director Michael N Horowitz 300/day 52 days 15,600 Project Co-Director Thayer Scudder 300/day 52 days 15,600 Research Associate Thomas M. Painter 135/day Research 52 days Assistant-Binghamton 79/day 7,020 Research 208 days 16,432 Assistant-Pasadena 79/day 130 days 1 L@Z_ 64,922 Overhead at 54% Fringe at 23% 359058 Fringe at 12% 5,394 34AZ CORE GROUP TOTAL 110,350

Field Staff 8 8 5, 5/person 8 person month Overhead at 54% months 47,080 Fringe at 12% 25,423 25,265@ FIELD MISSIONS TOTAL 78, 153 -Ia8Y_8 _2gBDIjB

International: 12 trips @ 3,330 In-country: 39,600 12 @ 715 (includes plane rental) Per 8,580 Diem: 5 person months Dakar @ 129/day 19, 350 7 person months field @ 48/day 10A.80. TRAVEL AND PER DIEM TOTAL 77,610 W :--0 11A,000

DBA Insurance at 3.25% SOS 2, 585 AID Assist Medical Evacuation Insurance Visas, medicals 1,300 Report 1,500 preparation, translation, materials, maps 3,500 Comrnunicat ions/dupl icat ion 1,200 Miscel 1 aneous/cort ingency _200 TOTAL OTHER DIRECT COSTS 14,387 TOTAL FY 88 BUDGET $291,5 FY 89 Level of Q989_98M Rate Effort n

Project Co-Director Michael M Horowitz 321/day 52 days 16,692 Project Co-Director Thayer Scudder 321/day 52 days 16,692 Research Associate Thomas M. Painter 144/day Research Assistant-Binghamton 52 days 7,488 85/day 208 days Research Assistant-Pasadena 17,680 85/day 130 days 69,602 Overhead at 55% Fringe at 25% 38,281 6,292 Fringe at 14% 6,9 2 CORE GROUP TOTAL 12,395

Field Staff 6 3 , 00/person 8 person Overhead at 55% month months 50,400 27,720 Fringe at 14% _L 0 FIELD MISSIONS TOTAL P59176

International: 12 trips @ 3,630 43,560 In-country: 12 0 786 (includes plane rental) 9,432 Per Diem: 5 person months Dakar @ 142/day 21,300 7 person months field @ 55/day 11LM TRAVEL AND PER DIEM TOTAL 85,842 w~a8Q~ B~I~12,1iee

DBA Insurance at 3.5% SOS 2,982 AID Assist Medical Evacuation Insurance Visas, medicals 1,950 Report 1,750 preparation, translation, materials, maps 3,750 Comrnunicat ions/dupl ication 1,506 Miscel lareous/ccnt ingency 1,50

TOTAL OTHER DIRECT C08TS 15,837 TOTAL FY 89 BUDGET $3199350 FY 90 Level of Rate Effort _mmr_

Project Co-Director Michael M Horowitz 343/day 52 days 17,836 Project Co-Director Thayer Scudder 343/day 52 days 17,836 Research Associate Thomas M. Painter 154/day 52 days Research Assistant-Binghamton 8,08 91/day 208 days Research Assistant-Pasadena 18,928 91/day 130 days 11.L3_ 74,438 Overhead at 56% 41,685 Fringe at 26% Fringe at 15% 7,803 7,003 CORE GROUP TOTAL 130,251

Field Staff 6 7 , 50/person 8 person month months Overhead at 56% 54,000 38,240 Fringe at 15% ALA N FIELD MISSIONS TOTAL 92,340

International: 12 trips @ 3,993 47,916 In-country: 12 @ 865 (includes plane rental) 10,380 Per Diem: 5 person months Dakar @ 156/day 23,400 7 person months field 0 60/day 1260@

TRAVEL AND PER DIEM TOTAL 94,296

1 u 01-Qu13,318m alg -lb m -B 2I___BE TCISOSTS DBA Insurance at 3.75% 3,421 SOS AID Assist Medical Evacuation Insurance Visas, rnedicals 1,750 2,000 Report preparation, translation, materials, maps 4,00 Comrrur,icat ions/dupl icat ion 1,750 Miscel larnecus/contingency 4L-§

TOTAL OTHER DIRECT COSTS 17,103 TOTAL FY 90 BUDGET $3479 3"

V FY 91

Level of O Bf]Je Bai.lt liff 2r.t eQunt.

Project Co-Director Michael 9 Horowitz 367/day 52 days 1984 Project Co-Director Thayer Scudder 367/day 5Z days 19,084 Research Associate Thomas M. Painter 165/day Research Assistant-Binghamton 52 days 8,580 97/day 208 Research Assistant-Pasadena days n9,176 97/day 130 days IA 799534 Overhead at 57% Fringe at 27% 45,334 7,734 Fringe at 16% 7, Tb0 CORE GROUP TOTAL 140, 756

Field Staff 7 2 2 5 , /person 8 person month Overhead at 57% months 57,800 329946 Fringe at 16% 32941 FIELD MISSIONS TOTAL 99j994 IBSYCL--_IL0_D1M

Internationals 12 trips * 4,392 In-country: 52,784 12 @ 950 (includes plane rental) Per Diem: 11,400 5 person months Dakar @ 172/day 25,800 7 person months field @ 66/day laidfie TRAVEL AND PER DIEM TOTAL 193 764

14, 641

DBA Insurance at 4% SOS AID 3,983 Assist Medical Evacuation Insurance Visas, medicals 2,9ee Report preparation, 2,500 translation, materials, maps Communicat ions/dupl icat ion 4,250 Miscellaneous/contingency 2,00 ,0l0

TOTAL OTHER DIRECT COSTS 199 195

TOTAL FY 91 BUDGET $378, 350

.t) 1. Salaries and daily rates Mission for both Core Group and Field Staff assume a 7% annual increment from FY 86 figures. no case, however, will salarios/daily In rates exceed that without of FS-i prior government authorization. 2. The Field Mission portion of the budget is exclusive of the Core Group.

3. Travel and per diem rates are increased at the rate 10% annually. In no event, of however, will per diem rates the exceed then existing federal rate. 4. The Institute will be accorded normal line-item flexibility. APPENDIX I APPENDIX I1 j tiO ......

DATE: April 5, 1986

TO: Sarah Jane~i~ l..efel.d ~I ~

FROM: Papa Fall Andre Ginard, Michael Horowitz, and Thayer Scu~dder

SUBJECT: TOR for the Upper Valley Master Plan K" t0 ev n 1:/ r t e, Ia n g-"::'. : "%:

In the Horowit---SCUdder memo to youI on Senegal River Basin, Development dated April 7 we recommnd that the scope ofl'worl' fr the Upper Valley Master Plan be reconsidered in various respects...... -- : Specifically, we note that while the Upper Valley effort 'is supposed to generate an integrated approach., it appearsnto be; concerned madinly with irrigated erimeters. The more recent, draft TOR... of December 5 extends this perspective with costly soil Surveys and mappings -- especially with scales of 1:.20 900 and even 1:5,000 --. for the planning of irri gated perimeters. We ituacest that this perspective be reconsidered. rWe recommend that the Upper Valley Study be Much more specifically focused on "what is" -- in particular on the. existing production and marketing systems within the Upper Valley Zone at household community, and regional levels. In other' words, it should deal in more detail with what households are* ktga11y doing -- on how they combine and vary through time a range of activities (rainfed, flood recession, and irrigated. cropping; livestock management; fishing; village industries, and trading activities; wage labor; and so' on);in order toC meet their basic needs and to raise living standards.' Combined withi a greater knowledge of the natural resource base (including,&f or example, knowledge of the hectarage available for .~flood recession. agriculture at different river flows), such knowledge will enable planners to consider a wider range of alternatives for JLncr'asi ng productivity and raising livingstandards during the years of controlled down river flooding.

The Upper Valley study Could be limited to outlining, general obJectives and methods for the agricultural and nonagricultUral, sectors. Preparing detailed 6ctionl programs and 'oilot scnlem~es,' 4 as proposed in the TOR, do not appear to be Justified ifor.'th greasons: First, much uncertainty Surrounds the ?vpe of, development'.. 2 that Will evenltually be caerried out in the.Uoet Valltmy. and 1eSPCially in tile MAlan portion of the Valley. The allocation o water rights among coN:pettitVe tSest (Cor.:rolied floodifno..... 'naviatongirrigation, and power) Will be wrider-discussion. probably. for years to come. Potential investors andL inters 4n

A-"'-" 4r.°* i th . IC-iL!S de f'e 1 n.-ni.5k -)- I i tleE: -are un.riown. Tfiererre, the Upper Valley Master Plen should be flexible and not tfor detailed, further adjustment beinq made when basic ,ption_= are orogressively settled.

Second. experierce has -hown that detail ed planning does not aar well. Lerqe-scele m&opina (1:5.0( with .56 n and_ .25 m coto.rs becoesn u bcuie-.e riti er rapidly in flood D1.Ans bec e s of seoimentatilon and erosion. Major redrafting of detailed feasibility studies (done before the specific investor requirements are known) CaLse delays and wastage of funds. SAED, for example, has a portfolio of prcliminnrv studies costing one billion CFAF and does not want to expand that portfolio without clearly expressed investor interest.

2 INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ANTHROPOLOGY 99 Collier Street Binghamton, New York 13902

DATE: 7 April 1986

TO: Ms. Sarah Jane Littlefield, Director, USAID/Dakar

FROM: Thayer Scudder and Michael Horowitz, Directors

SUBJECT: Senegal River Basin Development

Introducti on

River Basin Development is a dynamic process. There is a recurrent danger that planning and development efforts by governments, donor organizations, parastata] corporations. PVOs, private sector groups, and even local village organizations themselves lack the flexibility to see in this dynamism a resource for development, and they often fail thereby to take account of and adapt to new situations, opportunities, and constraints. The Senegal Valley situation is now in full shift from the early stage of financing and constructing major infrastru.tures (the Diama and Manantali Dams) to the stage in which many of the development alternatives provided by these infrastructures may be implemented. The purpose of this memorandum is to share our thinking with USAID and to contribute to a reassessment and possible modest reformulation of its programmatic strategies to take better advantage of the dynamic conditions in the Basin.

Di scussi on

The Institute for Development Anthropology (IDA) team' recommends that USAID reconsider several aspects of its Senegal River Basin Development (SRBD) strategy:

- the relationship of the Upper Valley Master Plan in the overall approach to development of Senegal Basin human. land, water, and animal resources:

'The IDA team consists of Dr. Papa Fall. economist, Mr. Andre Guinard, agronomist, Professor Gilbert White, physical geographer, Professors Thaver Scudder and Michael Horowitz, anthropologi sts/soci oeconomi sts.

I - the draft terms ,of reference for the Upper Valley planning exercise; and

- the ways in which LISAID can contribute to the development of the Basin.

Overall Approach

For the past decade at least planners in the OMVS and the governments of the members states, as well as among the potential donors, have been swept up in the grand task of designing two large dams and in obtaining funds for their construction. The justification for this construction is predicated on ambitious conceptions, hopes and dreams about vast increases in the size and productivity of irrigated perimeters (particularly for Senegal and Mauritania), large quantities of low cost hydropower directed to ma.ior urban centers (particularly for Senegal). and easy -iverine transport ,particularly for Mali).

The funding effort was successful and dam construction is close to completion: Diama will be completed this year and the reservoir upstream from Manantali will start to fill no later than July 1987 (and possibly with enough filling this year to require resettlement of many of the basin villages). How can these dams optimally contribute to local, regional, national,and international development goals?

In various technical offices of both the OMVS and host country ministries -- and clearly among potential donors -- the initial enthusiasm for grandiose undertakings in irrigation, electrification, and navigation, is now tempered with skepticism. Neither the requisite funding nor organizational capacity appears at hand rapidly to bring on line thousands of hectares of new perimeters, dredging the river for transport and building port facilities in Kayes, or installing generators and transmission lines to carry hydropower from Manantali to identified consumption centers. There appears -- not universally, it must be admitted -- a receptivity to consider both a wider range of options and the phasing in of these options over a stated ten to fifteen or more year period. Thus, even at ministerial levels. and despite rhetorical commitments Lc The original irrigation-energy-navigation troia, there is a willingness tc explore also the potential develooment contributions of the dams to recession cultivation, fisheries, reforestation agro-forestrv, and livestock management (both pastoral and integrated with farminq. and environmental manaqement (includinq recharge of the shallow basin Equifers).

This expanded repertory of options -- perhaps unique in tropical river basin development -- is made possible by the expectation that during the first ten "apres barrage" years at least there will be an artificially controlled flood. We believe that this multi-pronged and in many ways low cost set of options presents a rare opportunity for donors and host governments. And we suggest that USAID can play a major role in facilitating sustainable development by taking all these options into account in its SRBD actions.

A comment on the proposed Upper Valley Master Plan (UVMP). The Upper Basin falls largely in the First Region of Mali. Obtaining more than enough hydropower from the Selingue Dam on a Niger tributary to meet its foreseeable needs, placing the bulk of its efforts in irrigation along the Niger flood plain, and increasingly realistic about the likelihood of obtaining financing for transportation infrastructure on the Senegal, the Government of the Republic of Mali is showing relatively restrained interest in First Region development. What emphasis does exist at this time appears to relate more to rainfed cropping systems than to irrigation. This restrained GRM interest in the region both up- and downstream from the dam site will have to be taken into account in elaborating an UVMP as well as for overall plannirg for the Senegal Basin.

The UVMP exercise, as currently conceived, refers not to the entire Upper Basin in Mali and Guinea, but only to those portions downstream from Manantali (the upper boundary of the zone is not well defined in the documents we have seen). Though it may well be just coincidental, the portions of the Upper Basin to be considered in the UVMP are those which have the greatest potential for the establishment of irrigated perimeters. This may explain why the draft terms of reference for the UVMP seem to place great emphasis on irrigation. Yet, as we have noted above. there is little indication of that emphasis being shared by Malian authorities. 2

According to the February 1985 draft TOR for the UVMP, the only comprehensive plans for the Lower and Middle Valleys call for irrigation. While the Upper Valley effort is supposed to generate an integrated approach, it appears to be concerned mainly with irrigated perimeters. The more recent draft TOR of December 1985 extends this perspective with costly soil surveys and mappings -- especially with scales of 1:20,000 and even 1:5,000 -- for the planning of irrigated perimeters. It may well, for several reasons. be helpful to Query this perspective.

First, the potential for irrigated perimeters in the Upper Valley is relatively low as compared with the rest of the down­

'It appears that in Mauritania also, more official emphasisis now being placed upon recession cultivation =knd livestock management in connection with the anticipated artificial flood along the right bank in the Delta and Middle Valley.

-7 stream basin.- Far more important are rainfed cropping system sand livestock management. Yet although these latter are frequently mentioned in the draft TOR, little of the requested contractor's research appears to concentrate on them.

Second, although the goal of the UVMP is to provide detailed information for policy and planning across a wide range of options, there appears to be little attempt to balance the Lower and Middle Valley emphases on pump irrigation.

Third, the TOR do not consider Mali's involvement in rainfed agriculture along the Senegal rather than in irrigation.

Fourth, little attention is paid in the TOR to the development implications of a minimum of ten years of controlled flood to be released from the Manantali Dam. And although there is a mention of other Senegal tributaries, like the Faleme, the draft TOR effectively iginores them.

Implications for USAID

The evolving planning and development situation in the Senegal Valley has at least three major implications for USAID.

First, USAID might consider increasing its contribution to the development of the Bakel area where it is already supporting village ir-rigated perimeters. By expanding its present activities. USAID could aim at a more integrated form of development including farming training and organization, optimum use of land and water resources (rainfed, flood recession, and irrigated cropping; livestock: fisheries; forestry; etc.); technical and financial support through extension, farm credit, input supply, and marketing; facilitating small private entrepreneurship: and rural infrastructure. The project area should be large enough to confront organizational and managerial problems in their true dimension (which is hardly possible on a pilot scheme limited to a single technical objective). USAID would therefore be provided w'ith an opportunity to support development methods based on its field experience and of relevance to the Upper Basin, the Middle Valley, and parts of the Delta. 4

-SCET corporation has identified a total of 45,000 hectares of irrigable land in the three OMVS countries sharing the Upper Vall

4 We are recommending that USAID/Nouakchott explore a similar approach for the Middle Valley Dirol zone.

4 Second, while focusing USAID attention on the Bakel zone,the UVMP effort should continue. Irrigated perimeters should be deemphasized, however, relative to other, less costly (both of funds and of organization), more familiar forms of land and wateruse, reducing the bias in the present draft TOR and rendering the planning effort more effectively congruent with interests of concerned governments. Such plinning would also involve more consideration of the impacts of the Manantali Dam during the period of controlled flooding, and to the changed demographics of the area due to resettlement of those currently living within the future reservoir basin. More emphasis would also be placed on alternative ways of encouraging viable market and service centers.

Thirc', USAID might consider providing increased institution building assistance to the various planning, monitoring, and evaluation units of the relevant government, multi-government, and private sector groups (including local participatory organizations and FVOs/NGOs), to increase their capabilities to utilize the results of planning and development efforts in the Balel zone and planning efforts in the Upper Basin.

IDA Rol,

A proposed continuing activity for the Institute for Development Anthropology will be spelled out in a separate document. At this point, we suggest a minor revision of Section 9.3 of the "Plan Directeur d'Amenagement de la Haute Vallee du Fleuve Senegal" to read as follows:

Le projet d'etude du plan directeur beneficiera des conseils d'une equipe de specialistes du developpement des bassins fluviaux de 1 'Institute for Development Anthropology sous la co-direction des Professeurs Thayer Scudder and Michael Horowitz. Le financement des prestations de ces experts sera pris en charge par un budget special de 1 USAID, autre que celui dLt PFD.

5 APPENDIX II APPENDIX II

PROPOSAL TO CREATE AN OVERSIGHT TEAM TO IMPROVE PLANNING, TRAINING, MONITORING AND EVALUATION FOR UPPER SENEGAL RIVER BASIN DEVELOPMENT

Institute for Development Anthiopology (IDA) for the Clark University/IDA Cooperative Agreement on Human Settlement and Natural Resource Systems Analysis (SARSA) April 27, 1985 I INTRODUCTION

Planning for the Upper Basin of the Senegal River has consistently lagged behind planning for the Middle and Lower Basins. The development of the Upper Basin will require rigorous analysis of a rural world - with comparativ.ly small marketing networks, service centers, and rural towns - w1iich egro-ecologically, sociologically and developmentally is substantially different than the rest of the basin. Investment options are less clear cut, for while the irrigation potential for the basin as a whole exceeds 260,000 hectares, less than five percent of that potential is in the Upper Basin. There local populations practice more diversified production systems which combine rainfed agriculture, recessional (decrue) cultivation along rivers and in depressions, livestock management, fishing, use of forest and range produce, trade, and wage labor and other forms of off-farm employment. The interrelationships between these modes of production are complex, with the proportional importance of the different components varying not just between ethnic groups but from kingroup to kingroup, from season to season, and ­ often in response to variations in rainfall and river flows - from year to year.

Because of the complexity of local production systems at the household and the community levels, investment choices for member states and donors are less clear cut. Even where there is potential for perimeter irrigation in the Upper Basin, the development of this potential need be carefully integrated into existing production systems since throughout the tropics farmers unfamiliar with irrigation, at least initially, tend to pay more attention during the rainy season to their rainfed crops. This is not an illogical emphasis in semi-arid habitats IF rainfall is adequate since rainfed harvests per unit of labor (as opposed to unit of land) tend to be higher.

Granted the complexity of local production systems in the Upper Basin and the greater importance of rainfed cultivation over perimeter cultivation, development plans need pay careful attention to the relationship of irrigated perimeters to rainfed and recessional cultivation, and to other forms of employment. Assessment of development options need be more inclus've than is usually the case in regard to river basin planning. In addition to emphasis on water availability (rainfall, river flows and groundwater) and management, development costs per hectare, and productivity, close attention need be paid to such topics as:

a. Farmer incentives to invest time and funds in recommended production systems and natural resource management projects. b. Labor availablity. c. Capacity of development options to integrate livestock and other production activities. d. Appropriate participatory action organizations for production and marketing purposes at community and Upper Basin levels. e. Net incomes at the household level and distribution of income among household members (with cash earning opportunities for both spouses and for older children). f. Non-farm employment generation. g. Appropriate marketing networks, services and service centers, and rural towns.

Granted the high rates of unemployment and underemployment throughout the region and high rates of labor migration from within the Senegal Valley, special attention need be paid to the development of production systems which generate not just sufficient income to make rural livin1 more attractive but also to generate enough dispossable income for purchasing a range of locally produced goods and services - the manufacture and provision of which can stimulate increased nonfarm employment. This is not an unreasonable goal granted the importance that nonfarm income (from local sources as well as more distant ones) has in the current Upper Basin economy. This current economy is not only diversified at the household and community level but it also incorporates a range of ethnic and occupational groups whose activities and mobility vary from season to season and year to year depending on agro-ecological and other conditions. The key to Upper Basin development is these local populations. They are the major risk-takers in regard to any development effort and they should be the major beneficiaries of what development occurs. Their complex production systems, along with the natural resource base, should be the starting point for Upper Basin development. Hence major attention need be paid to the nature of the resource base and local production systems including both strengths and weaknesses. As for efforts to conserve and rehabilitate the natural resource base we assume that households must have an economic stake in resource management for conservation and rehabilitation projects to succeed.

The United States Agency for International Development is embarking on a four year effort to develop a master plan for the Upper Basin using a Building Block Approach which will produce:

A. A Plan for the Bakel Zone In Senegal by Mid-1986. B. A Plan for the Kayes Zone of Mali by End-1986. C. A Plan for the Gouraye Zone of Mauritania by Mid-1987. 3

D. A Region Wide Plan which takes into account differential cross­ border policy and development issues by the end of 1987.

The Upper Basin Development Plan will be the only one available and it will be consequently used as a reference document by the consortium of donors involved in Upper Basin development. The Plan is intended to guide a first generation of investments in the Upper Basin - especially on Malian territory the inhabitants of which have so far received the least benefits from Senegal River Basin investments.

Just as such infrastructural projects as dams are placed under the supervision of consulting engineers, so does AID Senegal wish to supervise the implementation of the Upper Valley Plan through the use of "consulting human resources/local production systems experts" who have relevant area specific and topical knowledge.

What is being proposed is a collaborative agreement with the AID Science and Technology Bureau managed Human Settlement and Natural Resources Systems Analysis Cooperative Agreement (SARSA) with Clark University and the Institute for Development Anthropology. Within the Cooperative Agreement, the Institute for Development Anthropology would be the implementing agency responsible for conceptualizing, with AID, the project and for its implemention over a five year period. At the Institute for Development Anthropology, Directors Thayer Scudder and Michael M. Howowitz would be co-directors with overall responsibility for project implementation in the field, and for presentation of final results.

Expertise will be brought to bear on Upper Basin development to assist OMVS and its members states in:

1. Monitoring, evaluating, and, where necessary, suggesting modifications of, and augmentations to, the work of the firm responsible for constructing the Upper Basin Development Plan which will complete the Master Plan for the basin. Engineering firms and university consortia in the United States rarely have access to the necessary areal and comparative expertise to consider the dynamics of the full range of planning options in a specific river basin. The Institute for Development Anthropology will correct for this deficiency by recruiting a team of specialists whose areal, linguistic and topical expertise relates both to the Upper Senegal River Basin and to other African river basins flowing through arid and semi-arid habitats.

2. Strengthening the institutional capacity of the Planning and Evaluation Unit of the OMVS to develop the capability to handle the following tasks as they relate to Upper Basin (and to a lesser extent Lower and Middle Basin) development, with special emphasis on modes of production extending beyond perimeter irrigation, on marketing, on nonfarm employment and on service centers from local community to regional town. -data collection, analysis and dissemination -assessment and dissemination of the results of donor and other contracted studies -analysis and presentation of alternative investment possibilities to the membe- states and the donor community -coordination and interaction with member state planning and implementation actions as undertaken by parastatals and line ministries. -interaction with donors and the Consultative Committee through the institutionalization of an effective secretariat. -development of an effective monitoring and evaluation capacity

While the IDA team would be directly affiliated with the Planning and Evaluation Unit (with co-directors Horowitz and Scudder and the IDA team working closely with A. Diop and his staff of nationals and expatriates), it may be desirable for the team also to have an institutional linkage to the High Commissioner and Ministers. the Council of Such a linkage could prove especially effective in helping the OMVS and the Council of Ministers move through time from a emphasis primary on construction and perimeter creation to a broader type of region-based development.

In the initial stages of the project appropriate linkages to SAED, SONADER and OVSTM as well as to line ministeries with major rural development responsibilities should also be explored.

II PERSONNEL IDA/SARSA will be responsible for forming a team of 12 to 16 people whose topical, areal and linguistic expertise represents the best available as it relates to the natural resources, productions and marketing systems, peoples and settlements of the Upper Basin of the Senegal Valley. Stated differently the team will combine natural resource managers (with ecological/environmental training and experience), agronomists/agricultural economists, and development social scientists dealing with the socio-economics of production marketing and systems, and with rural-urban linkages and urban functions (with training in such fields as anthropology, micro-economics, geography, sociology and political science). Where appropriate, experts with training in such fields aq hydrology and agricultural engineering would also be utilized, although not on a regular basis since presumably the contracting firm will have particular strengths in those fields. From this team, groups of four will provide oversight and training in the field on the basis of regularly scheduled and carefully prepared semi-annual visits during which members will work closely with OMVS and member country planning, implementation, management, and monitoring evaluation and personnel, with AID's River Basin Development Office and the three AID missions in Dakar, Nouakchott and Bamako, with the Upper

Af 5

Basin Development Plan contractor and with representatives of local government, producer and marketing organizations.

Though only four team members would be working together in the Senegal basin and related capitals and urban centers (such as working with SAED in Saint-Louis) at any one time, our intention would be for the entire team tc: function as an intellectual group rather than as an aggregate of individuals. Though details would have to be worked out, we consider it most desirable for the entire team to meet periodically at work shops so that imputs from all team members can systematically be incorporated into team activities and reports.

As previously noted, institutionally the Leam would be attached to the Planning and Evaluation Unit (EPU) of the OMVS. Close coordination will be maintained with the EPU director, member country staff and expatriate advisers (especially with the AID-funded river basin planner and with the consultant to that planner - Profesor Gilbert F. White).

Because the IDA/SARSA team must include expertise relating to the full range of development options relevant to the Upper Basin, their field schedule must allow sufficient time for familiarization with pilot projects and programs in the Middle and Lower Basins which are potentially replicable in portions of the Upper Basin - a case in point being AID/RBDO's March, 1984 document on Amenagement de la plaine du Dirol in Mauritania, and farmers associations in the Lower and Midile Basins.

A list of the type of personnel that the team of experts might include follows. To date 14 people have been contacted as to their interest and availability. We think it is significant that all of those contacted wished to be associated with the project. Their nanes are followed by an asterisk. The list is illustrative only, however, since we have still to contact some of the most desirable personnel (an example being Andre Guinard who we have written and who may well suggest the names of other French nationals). Inclusion of such other experts as William Derman (Fulbe-speaking anthropologist currently in charge of CRED's Gambia River socio-economic studies, Derman's Guinean experience could well be relevant for dealing with the uppermost reaches of the Senegal tributary system); Claud Reynaut (specializing on the Niger, he is perhaps the leading French development anthropologist. Currently he is with OSTROM in Niamey); D. Stryker (agricultural economist with extensive consulting experience with irrigation systems in the arid and semi-arid lands of Africa); and Peter Weil (Mandinka-speaking anthropologist whose expertise on Gambia might well be important as it relates to the interfleuve between the Gambia and Senegal River systems.

Aside from Scudder and perhaps Fahim, all those mentioned use French as a working language, although Marks' French would need brushing up. As in other countries where IDA works it would be

l, desirable to associate each expert with senior and student colleagues, if available, from the membor countries.

I. Brown, Antoinette*. Adjunct Associate Professor, Georgia State University. Specialities: Nutrition; Health Delivery Systems; River Basin Development. West African Experience: Senegal 2. Cohen, Monique*. Independent Consultant stationed in Tunisia. Specialities: marketing networks and systems; rural-urban Lunctions; regional development. West African Experience: Mainly Ivory Coast but also Senegal. 3. Gilbert, Elon*. Agricultural Economist. Specialities: Farming and marketing systems. West African Experience: Extensive. Currently employed through CRED as Project Director for the AID-funded Gambia River Basin studies and on CRED's Gambia Agricultural Sector project. While these activities currently involve Gilbert on a full­ time basis, he would be available to the IDA/SARSA project after the middle of 1986. 4. Hopkins, Nick. Professor of Anthropology, American University in Cairo. Specialities: Rural-urban linkages; local level politics; urban functions. West African Experience: Hopkins did his PhD dissertation in the mid 1960s on Kita - one of the few rural towns in the Malian portion of the Upper Basin. Since then he has had extensive experience throughout North Africa. Probably speaks Malinke. 5. Horowitz, Michael M?. Director, Institute for Development Anthropology and Professor, State University of New York, Binghamton. Co-Director of the Project with Thayer Scudder. Specialities include natural resource management, pastoral systems and their interface in river basins with farming systems, and local production systems in arid and semi-arid lands. West African experience: extensive Sahelian experience (fieldwork in Niger, former REDSO West Africa sociologist, and more recent Sahelian consulting for USAID and World Bank). 6. Fahim, Hussein. Adjunct Professor, University of Utah. Speciality: riverine communities in arid habitats; river basin development; settlement/resettlemrnt. Author: "Egyptian Nubians: Resettlement and Years of Coping". West African experience: World Bank Consultant to small-scale perimeters in the Mauritanian portion of the Senegal Valley; World Bank river basin development consultant in Ghana. French language capacity may only be fair. 7. Fernea, Robert*. Professcr, University of Texas. Specialities include riverive communities, small scale irrigation systems and marketing systems in arid habitats of North Africa and the Middle East. No Sahelian experience, but extensive fieldwork in Morocco, Egypt and Iraq. 8. Guinard, Andre. Former Director of the Centre National d'Etudes d'Agronomie Tropicale (of the French Ministry of Agriculture), former 4orld Bank liason in agronomy to FAO and former Director of Agriculture, BDPA. Recently retired, Guinard is one of France's most distinquished agriculturalists. As he has consulted for the Institute for Development Anthropology in the past, we hope he would play a major role as agronomist on the team. Speciality: tropical agriculture 7

including Francophone Africa 9. Healey, Marcus J. Natural Resource Management Consultant (formerly part of the Gannett Flemming team on the Senegal River). Specialities: environmental analysis; rural water supplies; river basin development. West African experience: Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania, Mali. Speaks Wolof. 10. Hochet, Anne-Mari.e. French-based (Roissy-en-Brie) social science consultant. Specialities: irrigated agriculture, women in development; river basin development. West African Experience: extensive including Mali. Speaks Fulbe. 11. Koenig, Dolores*. Assistant Professor, American University. Specialities: river basin development; settlement/resettlement, farming systems analysis; renewable energy; women in development. West African expertise: extensive research in western Mali (also IDA consultant on the Manantali Project). 12. Marks, Stuart A*. Fellow, National Humanities Center. Specialities: ecology; natural resource management; environmental analysis; regional planning; social forestry. West African experience: none but extensive research in the semi-arid Middle Zambezi Valley. Though educated in Zaire partially through secondary school, French language capacity probably only fair at moment. 13. Nolan, Riall*. Assistant Professor, Georgia State University. Specialities: rural-urban linkages; urban functions; labor migration. West African experience: spent 4 1/2 years in the Faleme River Basin, first as a Peace Corp Volunteer and then doing research for his PhD dissertation between Kidira and Kedougou. Fluent in Wolof. Would be able to work in Fulbe after a month's brushup. Further international experience in North Africa and Sri Lanka. 14. Lucie Colvin Phillips*. Social history/social science consultant working out of Casablanca. Specialities: Labor migration; land tenure and river basin development. West African experience: extensive studies of labor migration in Senegambia; member of CRED Gambia socio-economic studies team and Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, team dealing with land tenural systems in African river basins. 15. Price, Thomas*. Graduate Student on Institute for Development Anthropology assignment in the Niger Basin. Specialities: social analysis; health delivery systems; agricultural extension; fisheries. West African experience: extensive Sahelian research in Mali and Niger. 16. Reyna, Stephen p'. Associate Professor, University of New Hampshire. Specialities: natural resource management; irrigation systems and parastatals; pastoral systems; fisheries. West African Experience: former REDSO, West Africa, sociologist plus some research in Selibabyi, Guidimaka region, Mauritania (across the Senegal from Bakel); also involved in the design of Mali Livestock I. 17. Scudder, Thayer*. Director, Institute for Development Anthropology and Professor, California Institute of Technology. Team co-director with 11o'owitz. Specialities: impacts of large scale river basin development projects on local populations; irrigations systems; recessional and rainfed agriculture; mixed farming; fishing; and utilization of bush products. West African experience: UN, AID and other consulting assignments dealing with the Volta, Niger, Bandama, Senegal and Gambia river systems and the Lake Chad Basin. 30 years of research on the arid and semi-arid riverbasins of Anglophone Africa, Asia and the Middle East with special emphasis on the Nile, Zambezi and Mahaweli systems. 18. Waldstein, Abe*. Consultant in development social science. Specialities: riverine coiunities. West African expertise: Two years experience in the Senegal Basin i,.cluding PhD dissertation research in the delta region and consultancy work with Gannett Flening. Believes Wolof fluency would return after a month's brushup. 19. John Waterbury*. Professor, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University. Specialities: river basin development; institutional analysis; political economy. Author: "The HydroPolitics of the Nile". West African Experience: Senegal plus extensive work in North Africa and throughtout the Nile Basin.

III PROCEEDURES

The first field trip should occur this fall for at least six to eight weeks, allowing team members to fully familiarize OMVS with possible modes of collaboration and training, to visit Bamako and Nouakchott, and to travel through the Upper Basin. Fall, 1985 makes sense because that will be just after the rainy season so that the nature of the harvest and its marketing can be assessed, and so that a bench mark assessment can be made before the Upper Basin contractor commences work.

The ideal team would include Guinard (agronomy); Scudder (development social science); Waterbury (political economy and institutional analysis) and a team member dealing with rural-urban functions and marketing systems. Availability of Scudder and Waterbury has been confirmed. Guinard we hope to hear from shortly. Gilbert White has indicated to Scudder that he would probably be able to work with the team between November 6 and November 22 so that November may be the best month to initiate activities. Thereafter semi-annual trips by four people for a month apiece would be made, with the final visit during the fifth year lasting for six to eight weeks.

IV TOTAL PERSON MONTHS

Over a five year period a maximum of 48 person months.

V BUDGET

Because of low overhead rates, IDA can field a single senior investigator, with all costs covered, including international travel, for $15,000 per month. A maximum indicative budget for a five year period (to start during the fall of 1985) is attached. Costing out at 9

approximately $1.2 million, ways in which this total might be reduced are discussed in a covering memo.

Team costs would therefore range between $200,000 and $300,000 per year, with higher costs during year one and year five when more field time would be necessary.

VI GRADUATE STUDENTS

Ideally the IDA/SARSA team should participate in the training in the field of graduate students from the member countries who would subsequently join the Planning and Evaluation Unit of OMVS or other relevant ministries or parastatals of the member countries. Perhaps relevant dissertation work of OMVS, SAED etc. trainees undergoing degree work overseas should also be supervised in the Senegal Basin by members of the IDA/SARSA team.

In-service training through workshops, seminars, fieldtrips, and fieldwork of OMVS, SAED etc officials should also figure prominently in the IDA/SARSA scope of work, with emphasis on officials working within the EPU and the respective planning units of parastatal and ministerial units. However, since the emphasis of the Master Plan is to be on Upper Basin beneficiaries for the majority of whom irrigation will not be the major mode of production, training of SAED, SONADER and other field personnel should be included to sensitize them to other development options and to working more closely with farmer associations at the community and federated levels. Particulars would have to be worked out during the first .isit during the fall of 1985. At the same time the relevant emphasis on the F'anning and Evaluation Unit of OMVS versus such units within the RDAs and the Ministries of Rural Development would have to be worked out.

,4) TECHNICAL SERVICES

Year I - FY 1986

Daily Person Over- Rate Months Total head Fringe Total

FIELD MISSIONS: Trip 1: October 1985 4 persons for 2 months each 279 8 55,800 29,016 5,580 90,396

Trip 2: April/May 1986 4 persons for I month each 279 4 29,106 15,088 2,902 47,006

SUPPORT PERSONNEL:

Research Assistants: I in Binghamton 50 2 2,000 1,040 420 3,460 1 in California 50 2 2,000 1,040 200 3,240

Administrative 88 1 1,760 915 370 3,045

Secretarial 80 1 1,600 832 336 2,768 92,176 47,931 9,808 149,915

Overhead Rate: 52% Fringe Rate: Full-Time 21% Intermittent 10% Year II - FY 1987

Daily Person Over­ Rate Months Total head Fringe Total

FIELD MISSIONS: Trip It Sept/Oct 1986 53,000 4 persons at 1 month each 307 4 31,928 17,241 3,831 Trip 21 April/May 1987 4 persons for 1 month each 307 4 31,928 17,241 3,831 53,000 2,070 15,930 Field Research Assistant 750/month 12 9,000 4,860

SUPPORT PERSONNEL:

Research Assistants: 506 3,894 I in Binghamton 55 2 2,200 1,188 264 3,652 1 in California 55 2 2,200 1,188 446 3,434 Administrative 97 1 1,940 1,048 2,832 Secretarial 8 1 1,600 864 368 8O,796 43,630 11,316 135,742

Overhead Rate: 54%

Fringe Rate: Full-Time 23% Intermittent 12% Year III - FY 1988

Daily Person Over­ Rate Months Total head Fringe Total

FIELD MISSIONS:

Trip 1: Sept/Oct 1987 4 persons for 1 month each 338 4 35,152 19,334 4,921 59,407

Trip 21 April/May 1988 4 persons for 1 month each 338 4 35,152 19,334 4,921 59,407

SUPPORT PERSONNEL: I Research Assistants: 1 in Binghamton 61 2 2,440 1,342 610 4,392 1 in California 61 2 2,440 1,342 342 4,124

Administrative 107 1 2,140 1,177 535 3,852

Secretarial 97 1 1,940 1,067 485 3,492 79,264 43,596 11,814 134,674

Overhead Rate: 55%

Fringe Rate Full-Time 25% Part Time 14% Year IV - FY 1989

Daily Person Over­ Rate Months Total head Fringe Total

FIELD MISSIONS:

Trip It Sept/Oct 1988 4 persons for I month each 372 4 38,688 21,665 5,803 66,156

Trip 2: April/May 1989 4 persons at 1 month each 372 4 38,688 21,665 5,803 66,156

Field Research Assistant 1,000/month 12 12,000 6,720 3,120 21,840

SUPPORT PERSONNEL

Research Assistants: I in Binghamton 67 2 2,680 1,501 697 4,878 1 in California 67 2 2,680 1,501 402 4,583

Administrative 112 1 2,240 1,254 582 4,076

Secretarial 97 1 1,940 1,086 504 3,530 98,916 55,392 16,911 171,219

Overhead Rate? 56%

Fringe Rate? Full-Time 26% Intermittent 15% Year V - FY 1990 Daily Person Over­ Rate Months Total head Fringe Total

FIELD MISSIONS:

Trip 1: Sept/Oct 1989 4 persons for I month each 409 4 42,536 24,246 6,806 73,588 Trip 2: April/May 1990 4 persons for 2 months each 409 8 81,800 46,626 13,088 141,514

SUPPORT PERSONNEL:

Research Assistants: I in Binghamton 74 2 2,960 1,687 799 5,446 I in California 74 2 2,960 1,687 474 5,121

Administrative 123 1 2,460 1,402 665 4,527

Secretarial 112 1 2,240 1,277 605 4,122

Social Science Editor 350 2 14,000 7,980 2,240 24,220 148,956 84,905 24,677 258,538

Overhead Rate, 572

Fringe Rate: Full-Time 27% Intermittent 16% TRAVE1,/PER DIEM

FY 86 FY 87 FY 88 FY 89 FY 90 Total

IN7ERNATIONAL AIRFARE: At $3,000/RT each 4- 10% annual inflation rate 8 Trips FY 86 24,000 9 Trips FY 87 29,700 8 Trips FY 88 29,040 9 Trips FY 89 35,937 8 Trips FY 90 35,136 153,813

IN-COUNTRY TRAVEL ($500/per 4,00() 4,950 4,840 5,994 5,864 person/per trip) 25,648

PER DIEM (Based on FY 85 Dakar/ Field Rates + 10% annual inflation rate)

FY 86 - 8 person months at 78/ day; 4 person months at 33/day 23,436 FY 87 - 4 person months at 86/ day; 4 person months at 36/day 15,128 Living Allowance-Field Res. Asst. at 700/month 8,400 FY 88 - 4 person months at 95/ day; 4 person months at 40/day 16,740 FY 89 - 4 person months at 105/day day; 4 person months at 44/day 18,476 Living Allowance-Field Res. Asst. at 850/month 10,200 FY 90 - 8 person months at 116/ day; 4 person months at 48/day 34,720 127,100

CONTINGENCY 2,500 2,750 3,025 3,328 3,660 15,263 53,936 60,928 53,645 73,935 79,380 321,824 OTHER DIRECT COSTS

FY 86 FY 87 FY 88 FY 89 FY 90 Total

DBA Insurance at 2.25% (on field mission salaries only) 1,t)io 1,639 1,582 2,011 2,798 9,938

SOS AID-Assist Medical Evacuation Insurance 640 720 640 720 640 3,360

Annual Workshop in Binghamton 10,000 11,000 12,100 13,310 14,641 61,051

Visas/passports/medicals/ communications, misc. 3,000 3,300 3,630 3,993 4,392 18,315

Report preparation/field supplies 3,000 3,300 3,630 3,993 4,392 18,315 18,548 19,959 21,582 24,027 26,863 110,979 IIUI)GET RECAP

FY 86 FY 87 FY 88 FY 89 FY 90 Total Technical Services 149,915 135,742 134,674 171,219 258,538 850,088 Travel/Per Diem 53,936 0,928 53,645 73,935 79,380 321,824 Other Direct Costs 18,548 19,959 21,582 24,027 26,863 110,979 222,399 216,629 209,901 269,181 364,781 1,282,891 INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ANTHROPOLOGY

INDEFINITE QUANTITY CONTRACT PDC-1096-I-00-4160-00

Illustrative Budget:

I person for 26 days at 235/day $ 6110 Overhead/fringe/fee at 61% 3727

International travel 3000

Per Diem - 7 days Paris at 82/day 574 18 days Dakar at 71/day 1278 5 days Senegal (other than Dakar) at 30/day 150

Other Direct Costs: DBA Insurance/Medical Evacuation Insurance 217 Communications/duplication 100 Visa, misc. 150 $15806 COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT DAN-1135-A-O0-4068-00

Human Settlements and Natural Resource Systems Analysis (SARSA)

Budget Notes

1. The figures used in calculating this budget are based on the current highest daily allowable federal rates and are increased by 10% annually. In no case will salaries exceed the allowable maximum for US govern-. ment employees at any given time. The figures used are illustrative and we assume that in many instances annual salaries/daily rates will, in fact, be lower than those projected.

2. Travel and per diem rates are also calculated using high figures and are increased by 10% annually. Again, in no case will per diem t / exceed the allowable maximuArate, and we believe that in several instances interna ional travel costs may be significantly lower.

3. A minimal amount ($500/person/trip) has been budgeted for in-country and inter-country travel. Our preference is for the Project to provide vehicles/travel as and when required.

4. This budget is based on fiscal years running concurrently with the federal fiscal year. Accordingly, FY 86 represents the period from October 1, 1985 through September 30, 1986.

5. Normal line item flexibility of 15% is requested.

6. Projected overhead and fringe benefit rates are indicated on each annual budget sheet. The actual rates applied will be based upon audited figures. APPENDIX III Institute for Development Anthropology 99 Collier Street, P. 0. Box 2207, Binghamton, NY 13902

AGRICULTURAL ISSUES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENEGAL RIVER BASIN Report on the IDA Mission to Senegal and Mauritania 3/22-4/5/86

by

Andre Guinard 1. This note is based on meetings held with departments of the Governments of Senegal (GOS) and of Mauritania (RIM), as well as with USAID missions in both countries, the Organisation de Mise en Valeur de la Vallee du Senegal (OMVS), and on documents made available to the IDA team during its visit. The mission schedule did not allow for any field trip. Consequently, many points have not been checked through discussions with farmers and comments detailed hereunder s-hould be considered as preliminary.

Present Situation.

2. The development of traditional agriculture in the Senegal River Basin (SRE) started more than a century ago and has a checkered record. It took a new turn in the 1970s when the construction of two major dams was financed by foreign donors: the first one is at Diama (to be completed in 1986) to prevent salt water intrusion during the low water season; the second is at Manantali in Mali (to be completed in 1987) to store flood water regulating up to 45 percent of the Senegal river flow. The stated objectives are to irrigated 375,000 ha, of which 240,000 are in Senegal, 126,000 in Mauritania, and 9,000 in Mali; to supply fresh water to the Lake of Guiers, the Ferlo Valley, and the City of Dakar; to produce up to 800 GWh of hydropower; and to allow permanent river navigation from the mouth to Kayes for 2,600 tons barges. The construction cost of the two dams was estimated at CFAF 280 billions (US S 800 millions), to which CFAF 180 billions (US $ 500 millions) should be added for dyking, hydropower, river dredging, and ports.

.3. Investment in irrigation was estimated at CFAF 3 to 4 millions per hectare (US $ 10,000), i.e., a total of CFAF 1.3 trillions (US $ 3.75 billions), about ten times the total aid flow received by Senegal in 1983 from all donors. In a first phase, water would be released for traditional flood recession cultivation. During this period, to last 10 years from the completion of the Manantali Dam according to the original documents, SRB farmers are to be "weaned away" from traditional practices and transformed into irrigators. 4. Such ambitioLjs objectives might have been necessary to justify the cost of the dams. It is now commonly admitted that the original objectives and time frame are to be modified because investment sources have not yet been found and because organizational and technical problems ask for a more realistic assessment of development problems. The SRB, however, has a unique opportunity in the history of such developments. The major risks, which are excessive or insufficient floodings, are to a large extent under control.

5. Agricultural development in the SRB is the responsibility of the Societe Nationale d'Amenagement et d'Exploitation des Terres du Delta du Fleuve Senegal et des Vallees du Fleuve Senegal et de la Faleme (SAED) in Senegal and of the Societe Nationale pour le Developpement Rural (SONADER) in Mauritania.

6. SAED is a state company under the Ministry of Rural Development, established in 1965 to build and operate large irrigation schemes in the Senegal delta. Its responsibilities were later enlarged to encompass all agricultural development in the SRB from preliminary studies and land development to farm support services and marketing for irrigation as well as flood recession crops. Headquartered in St. Louis, it has a staff of 1,036 in five departments (planning, development, equipment, finance, and administration), two technical units (field operations and rice processing), and four regional delegations. Over the last 20 years, SAED has build 25,000 ha of irrigation schemes in both large units (11,500 ha) and village perimeters (13,50 ha). The large units (1,000 ha + each) are built and operated by SAED with tenant farmers, with 1 hectare for each worker. Cultivation on these large units is largely mechanized. Investment cost is estimated at CFAF 3,500,000 per ha exclusive of SAED's overhead. Village perimeters, ranging from 15 to 60 ha each, are built and operated by groups of farmers, with 0.25 ha per farmer. SAED participation in the village perimeters limited is to major construction and some mechanical cultivation. Investment cost is estimated at CFAF 1,500,000 per ha, again exclusive of SAED overhead. There are currently 6,000 improperly maintained hectares that require rehabilitation.

7. Its charter not withstanding, SAED activities are limited to irrigation, and mainly to irrigated rice production. In 1984, rice occupied 80 percent of the irrigated area, with corn and sorghum taking up 15 percent, and the remainder planted in tomato for processing. Paddy production was 77,000 tons (4.4 tons/ha), of which 3C percent was milled and marketed by SAED. The rest was either consumed on the farms or sold through unauthorized channels. All SAED operations are subsidized. According to SAED's estimates, farmers are charged 50 percent of true costs for irrigation water, and 25--0 percent of true costs for mecha­ nical cultivation, resulting in a 1984 deficit of CFAF 3 billions (US t 8 millions), exclusive of amortization of the irrigation investment. To reduce public expenditure, SAED has been instructed by the GOS to divest itself of most of its operational activities which are to be assumed by cooperatives or private firms. The transition period will be difficult, after which SAED is supposed to concentrate on land development and agricultural extension. In order to reduce investment costs per hectare, plans call for an involvement of the army engineeririg corps.

i This may reduce the need for foreign financial assistance, not of itself but reduce costs to the GOS. 8. SONADER was organized in 1975 along lines similar to SAED. but its responsibilities those of are country-wide. It ':as of 45C. During a staff the ten years of its existence, developed in SONADER has the SRB 1,500 ha of large perimeters village p-rimeters. and 2,600 ha of Total area cultivated in ha because 1985 was only 2,650 several villages had not paid Rice,the their irrigation fees. main crops, covers 70 percent of the area, followed by corn and sorghum. Farm operation subsidies totalled UM 15,000 per ha (US $200), yielding an outstanding debt of UM 188 (US $ 2.5 millions), millions exlusive of irrigation investment amorti zat ion.

9. The Directorate of Agriculture (DOA) in the Ministry of Rural Development of RIM is also active in the SRB. The distribution of responsibilities between ESONADER and DOA is somewhat though the former hazy, is more concerned with irrigation latter and the with flood recession cultivation. 10. Agricultural research is the responsibility organizations: of several OMVS, the Centre National Agronomiques de Recherches et de Developpement (CNRADA) in Mauritania, and the Institut de Reherches Agronomiques (ISRA) in Senegal. Research concentrates on irrigated crops, mainly on supported rice which is by the West Africa Rice Development (WARDA). Association Research on recession agriculture since has been discontinued the early 1970s, although it had produced some useful if not definitive results dealing with improved varieties and cultivation techniques. Shortages of qualified staff and funds, along with insufficient long-term planning, are the major caps to improved agricultural handi­ research in the SRB. USAID financing a study to iiprove is research organization and implement­ ation.

Organizational Issues.

11. The main organizational issue in the SRB approach is a one-sided to development with its emphasis Traditional on irrigated rice. production systems in the SRB integrated that are highly and coherent, as such systems usually are, have not been taken into consideration. A typical SRB family grows rainfed crops on the upper land (dieri) outside the valley, recession crops on the flood valley floor (oualo), and some fruit trees on garden with the river levees. It has livestock in the grazing dieri rainy season and oualo in the dry season. It may also be engaged in some fishing and charcoal making. Family resources are allocated among various activities according to their productivity, and the household pursues an optimization strategy of maximizing output while minimizing risks. Labor inputs least 200 person/days -- at per hectare on irrigated lands with the -- compete only 30 to 50 person/days per rainfed hectare required for crops. Modernizing traditional activities would thus increase their productivity and free labor for irrigation.

3 Irrigation normally excludes livestock from their normal grazing since animals trample bunds and channels. Raising pasture productivity and using by-products from irrigated crops for livestock would reduce competition for feedstuff. Cattle could be associated with irrigated farming to supplement hand labor. Traditional land tenure would be modified by irrigation which largely increased the value of the developed areas. A new land law has been prepared, but existing land rights of the communities living in the SRB should be assessed. Claims should be cleared among all concerned parties to limit disputes. This point is particularly crucial as governments plan to open some irrigated schemes to settlers and private entrepreneurs.

12. Farmer organizations, now limited to irrigation management, should be in charge of integrated development of their villages. "Integrated rural development" should not be construed as some loosely organized program without clear-cut objectives, a formula for failure. Irrigation is indeed primordial where drought endangers the very subsistence of the population. Integrated development in the SRB should offer feasible solutions to the problems faced by communities living in the valley and enable farmers to becoirie efficient irrigators.

13. Another major problem that stems from the irrigation bias is the lack o; progressivity in development programs. A more gradual traiisition from traditional to modern farming would have helped in alleviating farmer foreboding of a crop as alien as irrigated rice. Experience has shown that the success of development activities is related to the type of relationship they have with farmers. Farmers trust programs that solve their immediate problems rather than those offering long-term hopes. Present problems are those raised by traditional activities. Their solution would clearly establish the credibility of development agencies and entice farmer cooperation. Farmer participation, individuall and collectively through village structures, would reduce much investment cost since they would shoulder a larger share of development operations. Participation would also improve maintenance of investment since formers would no longer consider irrigation works are mere gifts. To make up for the slack in farmer contribution, development agencies have to resort to subsidies and large-scale mechanization. The result has been an increase in development costs and, therefore, less progress since investment funds were limited.

14. A good case of what progressive develooment could be is shown in the Dirol Plan Project studied by the River Basin Development Office (RBDO) of USAID and reviewed by the Water Management Synthesis II (WMS) team. The Dirol plain, located on the right bank in Mauritania close to Kaedi, has an area of about 7,000 ha. It is used by 24 villaQes with a population of some 24,006 in 3,900 familIes. In 1984, because of the low flow arid of the lack of workers who had emicrated during the drought, only 1,000 ha were cultivated, yielding about 400 tons of sorghum. The revised RBSO proposal is to build a submersible dike with flood gates retaining water during 45 days over 5,000 ha. Flood recession

4 cultivation of sorghum and cow peas would be improved by early seeding of better varieties, fertilizing, and plant protection. Unit yields per hectare are expected to increase three-fold at full development from the present 400 kg of sorghum and 200 kg of beans to 1,2c0) kg and 600 kg respectively. Investment per hectare is estimated at US S 480. In a second phase, the height of the dike would be raised by two meters protecting 6,000 ha from the 100-year-return flood, thus allowing irrigation. The additional cost of diking would be US $ 500 per hectare. The economic analysis made by the WMS team shows an attractive inter­ nal rate of return of 20 percent for phase one and 18 percent for both phases. The WMS team noted the urgent need for a socio­ economic survey and for the registration of present land rights. It outlined terms of reference for feasibility studies to cover all the relevant points. If the project were to include other activitiEs as well as flood recession it would be an excellent demonstration of what SRE development should be.

15. Farmer training, which is (almost) never mentioned in development programs, has been underplayed. Extension staff posted to irrigation schemes by SAED and SONADER are more likely to tell farmers what to do than to work with the farmers in finding solutions to urgent problems. SAED now plans to turn its field staff into advic.ers, a role implying greater emphas's on staff and farmer training.

16. The three riverine countries have set up OMVS to coordinate their development policies in the SRB. Coordination is indeed an absolute necessity. The same farmers may have fields on both the Senegalese and Mauritanian banifs, and are apt to exploit discrepancies in public policies inducing waste and inefficiency. SAED in 1983, for instance, noted serious problems fecause fertilizer was CFAF 45 per kg in Senegal compared to the equivalent of CFAF 84 in Mauritania, while the official price for paddy was CFAF 60/kg in Senegal and the equivalent of CFAF 87.5/kg in Mauritania. Under these conditions, farmers reasonably purchased their fertilizer in Senegal and sold their paddy in Mauritania.

Technical Issues.

17. Irrigation is misunderstood in the SRB. Surveys made over the years have shown two main types of irrigable soils: clay soils (vertisols) in the lower locations suitable for rice; loamy-clay soils at higher elevation suitable for other crops, such as corn, sorghum, beans, and tomato. While the distinction is quite clear in the surveys and in the field, many irrigations schemes build on loamy-clay soils closer to the river, and therefore more easily irrigable, are cultivated with rice. The first consequence on these too permeable soils is an excessive consumption of costly irrigation water lifted with diesel pumps. Another is an increase in land development costs since rice irrigation, unlile that for other crops, requires full levelling and bunding to impound a uniform layer of standing water over the whole field (basin irrigation). On the other hand, corn or beans

5 are best irrigated by furrows between ridges on which the plants are sown. There is much less earth-moving required in the latter case. because water flows freely with out standing anywhere; that is, the irrigated f ield need not be horizontal and can have a regular slope. In some countries, rice is rotated with other crops in basin irrigation. This is not advisable where, as in the SRB, farmers have little experience with land levelling. Thus on counts both of soil suitability and o practicability a clear distinction should have been made between perimeters for rice and perimeters for other crops.

18. Land levelling is inadequate and unnecessarily expensive in village rice irrigation. Uneven levelling results in water waste to flood in the higher parts of a basin. Where water is too deep rice might be submerged; where there is not enough water weeds chole rice seedlings, particularly in the SRB where rhizometous wild rice (Oryza barthii) is a perennial problem. For both reasons rice growth is checked. In the SRB village scheme land is levelled in two stages. After a preliminary rough levelling with mechanical equipment, farmers are told to complete the job by hand on dry land. This_ is contrary to accepted practice in traditional rice growing countries where final levelling is done in mud resulting from puddling the soil under ten inches (24.5 cm) of water. Froper levelling by hand labor could substantially reduce investment in land development since this operation alone consumes about half the total costs of the perimeter. One often hears the stereotype of West African farmers that they cannot be trusted for hand levelling since they lack the "feeling" which, soiriehow, has been bestowed on their Southeast Asian counterparts. The fact is that SRB farmers and development staff simply have not been traiined in hand levelling during the more than 40 years of irrigation in the valley. The fact that African farmers are as receptive to new useful techniques is evidenced by the success of animal-traction in Senegal or of tea picking, that most delicate of agricultural operations, in Kenya.

19. Agricultural equipment used in rice fields is not suited to village conditions. SAED in its medium-term program for 1984­ 1989 proposes cooperative use of 60-65 hp tractors with plow, disk-harrow, and ridger for a 60 ha unit. Such tractors are large for peasant fields. They should at least be equipped with cage-wheels for puddling. Two-wheel tractors with cage wheels or rotary tillers are standard equipment in Southeast Asian rice cultivation. Their record in West Africa has been mediocre because sophisticated arid heavy models were imported from Japan and China. Simpler and hardier models as those initially designed by the International Rice Research Institute (not the more recent "improved" models) and manufactured in Thailand and Fh iilippines would be cheaper and easier to operate. They could be manufactured by Senegalese firms. Cooperative use of mechanical eciuipment has a nice sound, but usually, if not always, has been a costly failure in the developing world. Experience has shown that private entrepreneurs can turn out a profit in contract plowing with small two-wheel tractors at minimum cost to the state and farmers. Oxen should also be used

6 to supplement hand labor. It is an accepted practice in the Senegalese groundnut basin. India and Madagascar have demonstrated that oxen can work in irrigated rice. Water buffaloes are to be introduced in the SRB. The process should be carefully monitored. It will take many years before they have any impact on rice cultivation, and water buffaloes are both susceptible to many diseases and have low reproduction rates.

20. Cultivation techniques could be improved. Unit yields on the harvested areas are good for rice, average or mediocre for other crops. A non-negligible part of the planted area is not harvested due to inadequate levelling, water shortages, or pest attacks. Some problems that might be studied by agricultural research are as follows:

(1) Transplanting of rice to reduce water consumption and to make weed control easier.

(2) Transplanting of flood recession sorghum, a usual practice in other countries, to accommodate shorter flooding and for easier weed control.

(3) The labor costs of transplanting.

(3) Crop protection against birds and weeds. The methods are well known, but require efficient organization which should be strengthened in the SRB.

(4) Improved varieties of corn and sorghum which should be imported and locally bred.

(5) Crop rotations for optimum use of household resources within local physical constrainst (soil suitability, humidity and temperature stress during harmattan).

Conclusions and Proposals.

21. There is little need for further technical studies of irrigation projects in the SRB. SAED acknowledges having studies worth CFAF I billions (US $ 3 millions) awaiting foreign in­ vestment. SONADER is in a similar situation. Such studies tend rapidly to become obsolete: large-scale topographical mapping is affected by annual sedimentation and erosion; demography changes endlessly with migration. Moreover, each investment source has its specific requirements which must be met. A number of interesting geographical and socio-economic studies have been made in the SRB. These are stored in the OMVS documentation center in St. Louis which clearly needs overhauling. During our team visit on April 2, 1986 a large number of reports and books were seen dumped under a heap of debris from building rehabilitation. Better storage -- and therefore accessibility and use -- of these studies could be made.

22. USAID has decided to finance the preparation of a development plan for the Upper Senegal River Valley on 5-10,000 square

7 kilometers. Although rural development is mentioned as an objective of the plan, the terms of reference clearly emphasize irrigation. Detailed specifications are given for topographical and soil maps including, in irrigable areas, surveys at 1:5,000 scale with 0.50 and 0.25 meter contours and soil maps at 1:20,000. Socio-economic studies are briefly described. The product is to be a development master plan. While a multisectoral approach is advised, irrigation is defined as "the likely backbone of the Upper Valley development." In a second phase, prefeasibility studies would be prepared in selected locations with "a potential for irrigation development."

23. General documentation on the Upper Valley indicates that its irrigation potential is limited. Moreover, Mali, where most of the valley is located, is said not to be interested in irrigating this area, preferring to focus investment on the Niger flood plain. It might therefore be appropriate to reorient the study more specifically toward integrated rural development, as follows:

(1) By deleting most of the mapping studies which could be limited to the dovetailing of existing data without any detailed surveys.

(2) By specifying socio-economic studies more explicitly along the lines of the WMS II team proposals for the Dirol plain.

(3) By reducing the number of person-months of engineering specialists on the team while increasing socio-economic time.

(4) By limiting the objective to an outline of a general development master plan as no financing has yet been secured for field implementation.

24. SRB development should be viewed from the perspective of the farmers rather than from that of the Departments of Irrigation. Rice irrigation per se should not be the objective. The development goal should be to allow farmers -- both existing and those to be settled -- to improve their whole production system. Irrigation would probably be a part of that improvement, but it should certainly not be the only nor necessarily even the priori­ ty component. The Manantali Dam is supposed to store enough water for irrigation of 240,000 ha in Senegal. SAED has til now built 2-3,00C ha of irrigation schemes annually. Even were SAED to obtain both the funds and more qualified staff, it will still tale optimistically 50 to 100 years to utilize all the flow. Recession agriculture, therefore, will not disappear for many years, and will provide a cost-beneficial arena for improvement, along with the rainfed sector, livestock rearing, fisheries, and agro-forestry.

25. As a demonstration of the feasibility of integrated rural development in the SRB, it would be advisable to select an area where the usual methods of such operations would be applied a{ter adjustment to local conditions. The area should be large enough

8 to allow the project to address those organizational problems that are crucial in rural development. On a pilot project, the size of a village, improved agricultural techniques can be tested. To set up an economic development organization encompas­ sing agricultural and non-agricultural activities, a larger area is required. The Dirol plain would fit such criteria as well as the region where village irrigation projects have been funded by USAID in the Bakel district.

The area covered by water during river floods in the SRB is not known precisely. It would be useful to map it in relation to river discharge. These maps would help locate areas where flood recession cultivation could be developed, and need be neither costly nor difficult. Maps could be based on the interpretation of satellite imagery (either Landsat or SPOT). OMVS regularly calibrates river discharge.

26. Staff and farmer training should be an important component of any development project. In an integrated rural development p,-oject a number of activities would be new to staff at present specialized in irrigation techniques. Regular training of farmers would help them practice the proposed techniques and learn how effectively to manage their own development organiza­ tions. Particular attention should be paid to practical field training for staff and farmers in land levelling, water control and distribution, usage and maintenance of cultivation equipment and pumps. Cooperation between development and research agencies is essential in this regard.

27. Agricultural research should be resumed on flood recession crops and intensified on irrigated crops. Cooperation among research organizations the of the three SRB countries should increase. Some integration under OMVS would be advisable even for central laboratories and basic research that require teams of highly qualified specialists (who are rare in any one of the countries).

9 DOCUMENTARY SOURCES Etude hydro-agricole du bassin du fleuve Senegal, etude pedologique. SEDAGRI. FAO/Rome, 1973. Conseil interministeriel sur les perspectives et strategies de developoement de I 'apres barrages. Ministere du Plan et de la Cooperation. Dakar, 1984. Objectifs d'amenaqement a moyen term (1984-1990). SAED, 1985. Plan d'action de la SAED dans la perspective de I'apres barrage. SAED, 1984.

La s(ciete d'amenagement t-t d'exploitation des terres du delta, du flOu',C_ Senegal, et des vallees du Fleuve Senegal et de la Faleme, amenagementLs apres barrage. SAED, 1985.

Rapport anutiel. SONADER, 1985. A(rictiltural development of the Dirol plain, Senegal river valley, MauriLanja. Water Management Synthesis I, 1985. Amenagement de ]a plaine du Dirol. USAID (RBDO)/Dakar, 1986. Mission aupres du c:omite national de planification, de coordination et de suivi de la vallee du fleuve Senegal. Marcel Juton, 1986. The case of the Bake] small irrigated perimeters. AID Project Impact Evaluation No. 20. AID/Washington, 1985. Senegal River Basin Upper Valley Development Plan, draft terms of reference. USAID/Dakar, 1985. Plan directeur d'amenagement de la haute vallee du fleuve Senegal, termes de reference (document final). USAID/Dakar, 1-85.

Organisation pour la mise en valeur du fleuve Senegal, concltusions et recommandations du projet AG:DF'/RAF/78/030. FAO/Rome, 1985.

Politiquc's et proLrammes cerealiers (Senegal). 2 volumes. FAO/k(jmp, 1985.

Chi.iritry )'velupment Strategy Statement FY 1987. USAID/Dakar, 1985.

Aide Memoire for the Minister of Rural Development. In Agriciltural Assi stance Program in Senegal. USAID/Dakar, 1986. Status report on Agricultural Policy Reform. USAID, 1985.

10