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Analytical Chemistry in the 21St Century: Challenges, Solutions, and Future Perspectives of Complex Matrices Quantitative Analyses in Biological/Clinical Field

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Analytical Chemistry in the 21St Century: Challenges, Solutions, and Future Perspectives of Complex Matrices Quantitative Analyses in Biological/Clinical Field Review Analytical Chemistry in the 21st Century: Challenges, Solutions, and Future Perspectives of Complex Matrices Quantitative Analyses in Biological/Clinical Field 1, 2, 2, 3 Giuseppe Maria Merone y, Angela Tartaglia y, Marcello Locatelli * , Cristian D’Ovidio , Enrica Rosato 3, Ugo de Grazia 4 , Francesco Santavenere 5, Sandra Rossi 5 and Fabio Savini 5 1 Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University of Chieti–Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”, Via dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti, Italy; [email protected] 2 Department of Pharmacy, University of Chieti-Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”, Via Dei Vestini 31, 66100 Chieti (CH), Italy; [email protected] 3 Section of Legal Medicine, Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, University of Chieti–Pescara “G. d’Annunzio”, 66100 Chieti, Italy; [email protected] (C.D.); [email protected] (E.R.) 4 Laboratory of Neurological Biochemistry and Neuropharmacology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Via Celoria 11, 20133 Milano, Italy; [email protected] 5 Pharmatoxicology Laboratory—Hospital “Santo Spirito”, Via Fonte Romana 8, 65124 Pescara, Italy; [email protected] (F.S.); [email protected] (S.R.); [email protected] (F.S.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0871-3554590; Fax: +39-0871-3554911 These authors contributed equally to the work. y Received: 16 September 2020; Accepted: 16 October 2020; Published: 30 October 2020 Abstract: Nowadays, the challenges in analytical chemistry, and mostly in quantitative analysis, include the development and validation of new materials, strategies and procedures to meet the growing need for rapid, sensitive, selective and green methods. In this context, considering the constantly updated International Guidelines, constant innovation is mandatory both in the pre-treatment procedures and in the instrumental configurations to obtain reliable, true, and reproducible information. In this context, additionally to the classic plasma (or serum) matrices, biopsies, whole blood, and urine have seen an increase in the works that also consider non-conventional matrices. Obviously, all these studies have shown that there is a correlation between the blood levels and those found in the new matrix, in order to be able to correlate and compare the results in a robust way and reduce any bias problems. This review provides an update of the most recent developments currently in use in the sample pre-treatment and instrument configurations in the biological/clinical fields. Furthermore, the review concludes with a series of considerations regarding the role and future developments of Analytical Chemistry in light of the forthcoming challenges and new goals to be achieved. Keywords: method validation; hyphenated instrument configurations; extraction procedures; complex matrices; non-conventional matrices; clinical and biological applications 1. Introduction Nowadays, the possibility of having both sampling and sample clean-up procedures available, but also rugged and reproducible instrumental configurations in order to obtain clinical/biological data that can be compared, is increasingly important. In the field of Analytical Chemistry, both of these Analytica 2020, 1, 44–59; doi:10.3390/analytica1010006 www.mdpi.com/journal/analytica Analytica 2020, 1 45 points are essential. In particular, the first is the step that requires the greatest amount of time, while the second is the step that mainly can (or could) limit the sensitivity of the entire procedure [1,2]. With regard to sampling and extraction procedures, enormous advantages can be obtained by applying some general rules such as: reduction of sample handling in order to reduce the sources of analyteAnalytica loss, 2020, applying1, FOR PEERprocedures REVIEW that allow obtaining high enrichment factors values, and2 using preparative methods as selective as possible with respect to the analyte/s of interest. With regard to sampling and extraction procedures, enormous advantages can be obtained by Asapplying far as some the instrumental general rules such configurations as: reduction are of sample concerned, handling we in have order witnessed to reduce anthe increasesources of in the complexityanalyte of loss, the applying instrumental procedures configurations that allow gradually obtaining to high more enrichment and more factors hyphenated, values, andand anusing increase in thepreparative analytical methods performances as selective of the as instrumentspossible with themselvesrespect to the (up analyte/s to an instrumentalof interest. sensitivity of the order of fmol)As far [ 3as]. the instrumental configurations are concerned, we have witnessed an increase in the Incomplexity addition, of both the factorsinstrumental taken configurations together contribute gradually to theto more selectivity and more of the hyphenated, method and, and above an all, to theincrease improvement in the analytical of the signal-to-noise performances ratio of the (S/ N,instruments related to themselves the whole procedure(up to an instrumental sensitivity). Anothersensitivity fundamental of the order of pointfmol) [3]. that sees Analytical Chemistry in the foreground are the type of In addition, both factors taken together contribute to the selectivity of the method and, above all, matrices on which quantitative analysis is necessary. In fact, recently, the analyses in the biological field to the improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N, related to the whole procedure sensitivity). have increasingly focused on unconventional matrices, the sampling of which appears to be as little Another fundamental point that sees Analytical Chemistry in the foreground are the type of invasivematrices as possible, on which in quantitative order to be analysis able to is reduce necessary. any In inconvenience fact, recently, inthe patients, analyses butin the also biological to optimize the proceduresfield have increasingly during clinical focused studies on unconventional [4,5]. matrices, the sampling of which appears to be as Inlittle this invasive abovementioned as possible, in context, order to in be addition able to toreduce the classicany inconvenience plasma (or serum)in patients, matrices, but also biopsies, to wholeoptimize blood, andthe procedures urine, we during have seen clinical an increasestudies [4,5]. in the works that also consider salivary, keratin and sweat matrices.In this abovementioned Obviously, all these context, studies in addition have shownto the classic that thereplasma is (or a correlation serum) matrices, between biopsies, the blood levelswhole and thoseblood, found and urine, in the we new have matrix, seen an in increase order to in be the able works to correlatethat also consider and compare salivary, the keratin results in a robustand way sweat and matrices. reducing Obviously, any bias all problems. these studies have shown that there is a correlation between the blood levels and those found in the new matrix, in order to be able to correlate and compare the Currently, there is also a growing trend in combining the “classic” conventional techniques with results in a robust way and reducing any bias problems. “micro” formatsCurrently, in there order is to also respond a growing to thetrend problem in combin ofing the the low “classic” quantity conventional of sample techniques that we often with find having“micro” to process, formats as in well order as to a growingrespond to combination the problem ofof micro-extractionthe low quantity of techniques. sample thatThis we often phenomenon find oftenhaving leads toto aprocess, synergistic as well effect as of a the growing advantages comb ofination the singleof micro-extraction procedures, obtaining techniques. a combinedThis techniquephenomenon that shows often leads greater to a analytical synergistic performances effect of the advantages [6], as also of the recently single procedures, reviewed obtaining [7], as clearly reporteda combined in Figure technique1. that shows greater analytical performances [6], as also recently reviewed [7], as clearly reported in Figure 1. FigureFigure 1. Connections 1. Connections between between the the various various elementselements that that,, through through their their strengthening/improvement, strengthening/improvement, will bewill able be able to face to face the the challenges challenges of of the the future future inin thethe bioanalytical field. field. This review aims to report the most recent advances reported in literature in the recent years, and related to the elements just described, paying particular attention to all those procedures and Analytica 2020, 1 46 This review aims to report the most recent advances reported in literature in the recent years, and related to the elements just described, paying particular attention to all those procedures and instrumental configurations applied in the field of Bioanalytical Chemistry trying to highlight advantages and disadvantages, as well as the possible scale-up at the clinical/industrial level. 2. Pre-Treatment Procedures When analyzing complex biological samples such as whole blood, plasma, urine, and biopsies, the sample preparation step is critical as it deals with complex matrices with moderate to high protein levels [8]. Another element in the case of biological matrices is represented not only by inter-personal variability, but also by intra-personal variability. Traditional procedures often require a lot of time and several steps in order to get a thorough cleaning
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