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History of Great Basin Anthropological Research, 1776-1979

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History of Great Basin Anthropological Research, 1776-1979 Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 8-36(1980). History of Great Basin Anthropological Research, 1776-1979 DON D. FOWLER OLLECTION of information on indige­ ing various Numic groups encountered by the C nous Great Basin peoples and cultures party. Ute bands were met in western Colorado began in 1776 (Bolton 1950). However, it was and the Uintah Basin, Timpanoaguts Utes near not until the I860's that any sort of systematic Utah Lake, Pahvant Utes south of Utah Lake, research program was initiated in ethnography and various groups of Southern Paiute near and linguistics. Physical anthropological present-day Cedar City, Utah, and along the studies were not undertaken until the 1880's, Virgin River. These brief descriptions provide and systematic archaeological work did not an ethnohistoric baseline for the several begin until after 1900. This article reviews the groups. principal programs of research in Great Basin Lewis and Clark's descriptions of the anthropology carried on since the 1860's, with Northern Shoshoni in 1804-06 (Coues 1893) a brief examination of earlier developments. provide initial information on those people. The Journals of the expedition (first published ETHNOGRAPHY AND LINGUISTICS in 1814) contain detailed accounts of subsis­ Early Descriptions tence, dress, and territorial and political organ­ ization, but little on social organization or Between 1776 and 1868, information on religion (Ray and Lurie 1954). one or more Great Basin Indian groups was The Wilkes naval expedition of 1838-42 to collected by members of various exploration the Pacific (Tyler 1968) stopped along the parties. These data were part of a range of coast of what is now Oregon. Horatio Hale and topographic and "natural history" information other expedition members collected vocabu­ collected, and there was no concentration on laries and miscellaneous ethnographic data. anthropological data per se. Some of these data relate to various Northern The journal kept by Fray Escalante during Paiute bands of central Oregon and were the Dominguez-Escalante expedition from included in Gallatin's (1848) linguistic New Mexico into present-day Utah and Ari­ compilation. zona in 1776 contains several passages describ- The numerous early trappers' and emi­ grants' diaries provide scattered and uneven Don D. Fowler, Historic Preservation Program, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557. information on various Great Basin Indians [8] HISTORY OF GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH from the 1810's through the 1850's (See Malouf Indian demography and political organization 1966 and Liljeblad 1959 for evaluation of these (Powell and Ingalls 1874; reprinted in Fowler sources, and C. Fowler 1969 for bibliography). and Fowler 1971:97-119). The report remains a Many of the diaries are superficial and heavily baseline document for Great Basin aboriginal ethnocentric and must be used with caution as demography. ethnohistoric sources. Between 1866 and 1877, Edward Palmer The several federally sponsored exploring collected miscellaneous ethnographic data on expeditions, and later, wagon road and rail­ the Northern Ute and Southern Paiute in the road surveys, between the 1830's and 1860's course of his archaeological and botanical which passed through the Great Basin pro­ collecting expeditions in southern and central duced varying amounts of data on indigenous Utah (Palmer 1876, 1878; Heizer 1954, 1962; peoples. For example, Stansbury's (1852) Fowler and Matley 1978). In 1875, Stephen report contains only scattered ethnographic Powers collected ethnographic data on the data, but the Gunnison-Beckwith report Washo and Northern Paiute in western (Beckwith 1855) and the Macomb Survey in Nevada in the course of an expedition to gather 1859 (Macomb 1876) all contain substantial Indian materials for the 1876 Philadelphia amounts of ethnographic data on Great Basin Exposition (Powers 1877; Fowler and Fowler peoples. Some information on the Cheme­ 1970). huevi Paiute along the Lower Colorado River Also in the 1870's, members of the Hayden is also found in the reports of Whipple (1856) Survey, e.g.. Barber (1876, 1877), Hoffman and Ives (1861). Additional ethnographic (1876, 1878), and Loew (1876), made various materials are reported in the annual reports ethnographic observations on Great Basin and unpublished correspondence of the Com­ peoples. The historian Hubert Howe Bancroft missioner of Indian Affairs and the various (1875, 1876) compiled a variety of miscellan­ Indian agents stationed at Great Basin reserva­ eous ethnographic and linguistic data, much of tions and colonies between the 1850's and 1900 it inaccurate, on Great Basin Indians. (see C. Fowler 1969:293-359 for relevant A further, albeit somewhat romanticized, bibliography). contribution to Northern Paiute ethnography was made by Sarah Winnemucca Hopkins Beginnings of Systematic Work, 1870's (1883), the daughter of "Chief Winnemucca. The first person to devote extended periods There was a general lack of systematic of time to the study of Great Basin ethnography ethnographic work in the Great Basin between and linguistics was John Wesley Powell. 1880 and 1900. An exception was James Between 1868 and 1876, Powell collected sub­ Mooney's brief visit with Wovoka or Jack stantial amounts of data on subsistence, Wilson, the "prophet" of the 1890 Ghost technology, social organization, mythology, Dance (Mooney 1896). religion, and linguistics, with the aim of One of the first to achieve the Doctor of producing an ethnography of the Numic- Philosophy in American anthropology, Alfred speaking peoples. He did not complete the Louis Kroeber, did some brief ethnographic project, and his extensive manuscript and work with the Northern Ute in 1900 (Kroeber material culture collections were not published 1901, 1908) and shortly thereafter with the until recently (Fowler and Fowler 1971; Washo (Kroeber 1907). In 1906, Robert H. Fowler and Matley 1979). Powell, in collab­ Lowie, on his first ethnographic field trip, oration with George W. Ingalls, did produce briefly studied the "Lemhi" Shoshoni of Idaho the first systematic survey of Great Basin (Lowie 1909). In later years, Lowie "paid 10 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY scouting visits to a good many Shoshonean The 1930's was a most active period of [Numic] groups in Idaho, Wyoming, Utah and Great Basin ethnographic research sponsored Nevada" (Lowie 1960:76; cf. Lowie 1924a, by the University of California, Berkeley, and 1924^), and in 1926 he worked for some weeks Yale University. Between 1934 and 1938, the with the Washo (Lowie 1939, 1963). University of California, Berkeley, conducted In 1910, Edward Sapir worked extensively a Culture Element Survey of Native Western with Tony Tillohash, a Kaibab Southern American groups. The immediate aim of the Paiute who was then a student at the Indian program was to develop lists of comparable School in Carlyle, Pennsylvania. Sapir also culture elements or traits from over 200 tribes worked briefly with the Uintah Ute of in western North America. The ultimate objec­ Northern Utah. The results of his work are tive was to develop sets of data which could be contained in various articles (Sapir 1910(3, statistically manipulated in hopes of eluci­ 1910^, 1913, 1916) and in an extensive dating aboriginal "internal history" (Kroeber language analysis, dictionary, and collection of I939:passim), that is, as a device to determine texts (Sapir 1930-31). A series of ethnographic cultural relationships between and among notes remains unpublished, although extended tribes. These "laundry lists," as they were some­ sections of them are quoted in Kelly (1964) and times called, were developed and elaborated Fowler and Matley 1979). during the course of the project. Those for Other ethnographic work conducted in the Great Basin groups each include several first decade of the twentieth century includes hundred "elements" or traits, with extensive that of Ralph V. Chamberlin (1908, 1909, annotation. Surveys of Great Basin groups 1911, 1913), who collected materials on Ute were conducted principally by Julian Steward and Gosiute Shoshoni ethnobiological nomen­ (1941, 1943) during a six-month field season in clature and toponyms. C. Hart Merriam con­ 1935, and four months in 1936, and by Omer ducted ethnographic and linguistic research Stewart (1941) during nine weeks in 1936 and among the Washo in 1903 and 1904 (Merriam twelve weeks in 1937-38. Both men collected 1903-35), and periodically among other Great additional materials leading to their various Basin peoples (e.g., Merriam I955:passim; studies of sociopolitical organization (Steward Heizer 1966). Samuel Barrett briefly worked 1938), peyotism (Stewart 1944, 1968), and with the Washo and Northern Paiute in 1915, band organization (Stewart 1966). later publishing the first major monograph on Also during the 1930's, Yale University the Washo (Barrett 1917). In the early 1920's, sponsored field research by five students. Grace Dangberg collected text materials on the Willard Z. Park (1938) conducted three Washo (Dangberg 1922, 1927). summers' fieldwork among the Paviotso In 1927 and 1928, Julian H. Steward, Northern Paiute in 1933-35. Beatrice Blyth sponsored by the University of California, (Whiting) studied the Northern Paiute in Berkeley, initiated a long-range study of Burns, Oregon, in the summers of 1936-38 various groups, beginning with the Numic (Whiting 1950). Maurice Zigmond (1938, Owens Valley Paiute (Steward 1933c). In 1930, 1941,
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