Long-Term Effects of Childhood Work on Human Capital Formation, Migration Decisions, and Earnings in Rural Ethiopia

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Long-Term Effects of Childhood Work on Human Capital Formation, Migration Decisions, and Earnings in Rural Ethiopia Zentrum für Entwicklungsforschung Long-term effects of childhood work on human capital formation, migration decisions, and earnings in rural Ethiopia Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades Doktor der Agrarwissenschaften (Dr.agr.) der Landwirtschaftlichen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn von Essa Chanie Mussa aus Awi, Äthiopien Bonn 2018 Angefertigt mit Genehmigung der Landwirtschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Bonn Referent: Prof. Dr. Joachim von Braun Korreferent: Prof. Dr. Thomas Heckelei Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 10.10. 2018 Long-term effects of childhood work on human capital formation, migration decisions, and earnings in rural Ethiopia Abstract In Ethiopia, a quarter of children are child laborers, of which one in every three works full-time. Currently, more children than ever before also combine schooling with work. In addition, although net primary school enrollment increased three-fold—to almost 90 percent over the last decade, more than half of these children drop out of school to join the labor market before completing their primary education. As a result, lower educational attainment, high illiteracy rates, and low technical skills continue to characterize the Ethiopian labor force. Lower human capital has also hampered the development in the rural and agricultural sector, which employs about three-quarters of the labor force. Therefore, this study examines the consequences of childhood work participation on children’s long-term human capital formation (schooling progression), their migration decisions, and adulthood earnings in rural Ethiopia. In so doing, it contributes to a very limited literature on the long-term penalties of childhood work on outcomes later in life from a developing country perspective. This study uses a long-term panel dataset from five rural districts, collected in two survey waves: A baseline survey in 1999/2000 and a follow-up survey, 16 years later in 2015/2016. The random-effects Poisson model is used to analyze the effects of childhood work on children’s long- term schooling progression, measured by the completed years of education. The findings show that full-time childhood work impedes long-term human capital formation, while in contrast, multitasking children (those who combined childhood work and school attendance) have attained more than twice as many years of schooling as their peers who worked full-time. The results also suggest that childhood work—excepting excessive, exclusive, and the worst forms of child labor—could be combined complementarily with child schooling to foster the long-term progression in human capital formation. However, these effects are heterogeneous according to child gender and childhood work type. Furthermore, using a doubly robust estimation method, the study also finds that full-time childhood work may limit the likelihoods of children’s long-term village out-migration prospect compared to childhood educated peers. The results indicate that while those who worked exclusively during childhood are likely to be subsistence farmers when adults, schoolchildren tend to out-migrate in order to seek employment in non-farm jobs. In this regard, it was found that about 42, 34, and 24 percent of multitasking, school-only, and full-time childhood working children, respectively, currently work in non-farm jobs. Finally, using three- stage least squares approach, the estimates show that an extra one hour of childhood work per week could boost adulthood earnings by as much as 13.8 percent. The effects, however, exhibit diminishing returns when childhood work is more than five hours per day. Moreover, compared to schoolchildren, full-time childhood laborers earn, on average, 54.4 percent lower income in the adult labor markets. In indentifying the causal mechanisms, the study shows that childhood work may affect earnings through its effects on the probabilities of completing primary education and mobility to non-farming jobs later in life. The findings suggest that eliminating full-time childhood work should be at the core of the country’s human capital development policy. In order to cut dropouts before completing primary education, compulsory school enrollment for all school-aged children should be combined with continued support to children and parents. Conditional incentives such as education subsidies and school feeding programs could be tied with child’s school enrollment and continued attendance. ii Langzeiteffekte von Kinderarbeit auf die Humankapitalentwicklung, Migrationsentscheidungen und Zukünftige Einkommen im Ländlichen Äthiopien Zusammenfassung Eines von vier äthiopischen Kindern ist ein Kinderarbeiter, wobei ein Drittel in einem familiären Landwirtschaft und Hausarbeiten Vollzeit arbeitet. Derzeit kombinieren mehr Kinder denn je Schule mit ihrer Erwerbstätigkeit. Die Rate der Kinder die eine Grundschulausbildung beginnt liegt bei 90 Prozent, diese Zahl wurde in der letzten Dekade durch eine Verdreifachung der Anzahl der Kinder, die eine solche Ausbildung beginnt, erreicht. Etwas mehr als die Hälfte der Schüler bricht die Grundschulausbildung jedoch wieder ab, um eine Beschäftigung aufzunehmen und vorzeitig Teil der Erwerbsbevölkerung zu werden. Ein niedriger Bildungsgrad, eine hohe Analphabetenquote, sowie geringe technische Kompetenzen sind daher nach wie vor charakteristisch für die äthiopische Erwerbsbevölkerung. Drei Viertel dieser Erwerbsbevölkerung ist im landwirtschaftlichen Sektor, der niedrige Grad der Humankapitalentwicklung behindert die Entwicklung dieses Sektors, sowie die Entwicklung des ländlichen Raums im allgemeinen. Diese Studie untersucht die Auswirkungen von Kinderarbeit auf die langfristige Humankapitalentwicklung (Fortschreiten der Schulbildung) der Kinder, sowie den Einfluss der Erwerbstätigkeit auf Migrationsentscheidungen und die zu erwartende Einkommensentwicklung. Diese Studie ergänzt die im geringen Umfange vorhandne Fachliteratur in diesem Bereich mit einem Fokus auf den Preis der Kinderarbeit für das zu erwartende Leben von Kindern in Entwicklungsländern. Diese Studie arbeitet mit verwendet einen Langzeit-Panel-Datensatz aus fünf ländlichen Bezirken, der in zwei Erhebungswellen erfasst wurde: Eine Basiserhebung 1999/2000 und eine Folgebefragung 16 Jahre später 2015/2016. Das Random-Effects Poisson-Modell wird eingesetzt um die Auswirkungen von Kinderarbeit auf die Langzeit Fortschreiten der Schulbildung zu untersuchen. Die Anzahl der abgeschlossenen Schuljahre diente hier als Messgröße. Die Ergebnisse zeigen dass Vollzeitkinderarbeit die langfristige Humankapitalentwicklung generell behindert, während eine Kombination von Kinderarbeit und Schulausbildung führt im Gegensatz dazu zu einer Verdopplung der abgeschlossenen Jahre in der Schulbiographie der Kinder. Die Ergebnisse lassen darauf schließen, dass Kinderarbeit mit Ausnahme von exzessiver, exklusiver und schlimmsten Kinderarbeit mit einer Schulausbildung kombiniert werden kann, um eine langfristig Verbesserung der Humankapitalentwicklung zu bewirken. Diese Ergebnisse variieren jedoch stark mit Bezug auf das Geschlecht der Kinderarbeiter und die Art der ausgeführten Tätigkeit. Unter Verwendung einer robusten Schätzmethode kommt diese Studie weiter zu dem Ergebnis, dass Vollzeitkinderarbeit eine Migrationsbewegung der Kinder, und jungen Erwachsenen, aus den Dörfern heraus behindert. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie zeigen des Weiteren, dass Kinder, die Vollzeit arbeiten, im Vergleich zu ihren Altersgenossen, mit höherer Wahrscheinlichkeit im Erwachsenenalter als Subsitenzlandwirte arbeiten werden. Kinder welche die Schule besucht haben haben im Gegensatz dazu häufiger die Möglichkeit aus den Dörfern wegzuziehen um zukünftig Tätigkeiten außerhalb der Landwirtschaft nachzugehen. Diesbezüglich hat diese Studie ergeben dass 42 Prozent der Kinderarbeiter welche die Arbeit mit Schulbesuch kombinieren zukünftig eine Tätigkeit außerhalb der Landwirtschaft aufnehmen werden. Der Wert beträgt 34 Prozent bei Kindern die nur zur Schule gehen und 24 Prozent bei Kindern die ausschließlich arbeiten. Die Studie hat letztlich unter Verwendung eines Three-stage least squares approach ergeben, dass eine Stunde Kinderarbeit pro Woche die Einkommenserwartung im Erwachsenenalter um 13,8 Prozent erhöhen kann. Diese Effekt kommen jedoch nicht zum tragen iii wenn die Kinder mehr als fünf Stunden pro Tag arbeiten müssen. Negative Effekte stellen sich ein, wenn die Kinder sehr viel arbeiten müssen, gerade ausschließlich arbeitende Kinder werden im Erwachsenenalter im Durchschnitt 54,4 Prozent weniger Einkommen am Arbeitsmarkt generieren können. Diese Studie zeigt in diesem Zusammenhang weiter, dass Kinderarbeit zukünftige Einkommenserwartungen negativ beeinträchtigt, da diese die Wahrscheinlichkeit des erfolgreichen Grundschulabschlusses verringert, und sich negative auf den Erwerbsverlauf ausübt, da sie die Mobilität aus den Dörfern hinaus behindert, was es erschwert, Tätigkeiten jenseits der Landwirtschaft aufzunehmen. Die Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass die Beseitigung der Ganztagsarbeit in der Kindheit im Mittelpunkt der Humankapitalentwicklungspolitik des Landes stehen sollte. Der frühzeitige Abbruch von Grundschulkarrieren sollte durch ein Schulpflicht für Kinder und gezielte finanzielle Förderung von Familien und Kindern verhindert werden. Bildungszuschüsse und Teilnahme and Schulspeisungsprogrammen sollten an eine konsequente Einhaltung der Schulpflicht geknüpft werden. iv Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................
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