THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME TWO, BOOK ONE THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY 1 Cartography in Prehistoric, Ancient, and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean 2.1 Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies 2.2 Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies 3 Cartography in the Age of Renaissance and Discovery 4 Cartography in the Age of Science, Enlightenment, and Expansion 5 Cartography in the Nineteenth Century 6 Cartography in the Twentieth Century THE HISTORY OF CARTOGRAPHY

VOLUME TWO, BOOK ONE

Cartography in the Traditional Islamic and South Asian Societies

Edited by J. B. HARLEY and DAVID WOODWARD

Associate Editors JOSEPH E. SCHWARTZBERG GERALD R. TIBBETTS Assistant Editor AHMET T. KARAMUSTAFA

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS • CHICAGO & LONDON J. B. Harley was professor of geography at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. David Woodward is professor of geography at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637 The University of Chicago Press, Ltd., London © 1992 by The University of Chicago All rights reserved. Published 1992 Printed in the United States of America 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 5 4 3 2 @> The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992.

This work is supported in part by grants from the Division of Research Programs of the National Endowment for the Humanities and the Geography and Regional Science Program of the National Science Foundation, independent federal agencies

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in the History of Cartography are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of agencies that provided financial support.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (Revised for vol. 2)

The History of cartography.

Bibliography: p. Includes index. Contents: v.I. Cartography in prehistoric, ancient, and medieval Europe and the Mediterranean v. 2, bk. 1. Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian societies. 1. Cartography-History. I. Harley, J. B. Oohn Brian), 1932-1991. II. Woodward, David, 1942- GA201.H53 1987 526'.09 86-6995 ISBN 0-226-31633-5 (v. 1) ISBN 0-226-31635-1 (v. 2, bk. 1) To Brian ~ We shall notceasc from exploration And the end ojall ourexploring Will be ro arrive where we 51arted And know the place for thefir51 time.

T·s·rllOT Financial Support

Federal Agencies Division of Research Programs of the National Endowment for the Humanities Geography and Regional Science Program of the National Science Foundation

Foundations and Institutions Gaylord and Dorothy Donnelley Foundation Rand McNally The Johnson Foundation The Luther I. Replogle Foundation The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation The Hermon Dunlap Smith Center for the The National Geographic Society History of Cartography, The Newberry Library

Map Societies Map Society of British Columbia The New York Map Society California Map Society The Rocky Mountain Map Society The Chicago Map Society Washington Map Society

Benefactors Richard B. Arkway Arthur Holzheimer Mr. and Mrs. Kenneth Nebenzahl Roger S. and Julie Baskes Arthur L. Kelly George Parker Clive A. Burden Bernard Lisker David M. Rumsey Gerald F. Fitzgerald Glen McLaughlin Mr. and Mrs. Roderick Webster

Patrons JoAnn and Richard Casten Martayan Lan, Inc. William Sherman Reese Clifton F. Ferguson Barbara Backus McCorkle Jack L. Ringer Joseph H. Fitzgerald Donald L. McGuirk, Jr. Richard H. Sigel John S. Josey Braham Norwick Eric W. Wolf Harold L. Osher

Additional support from Daniel M. Amato Robert A. Highbarger Charles D. Reynolds Stanley K. Arnett, II Bangbo Hu Steve Ritchie Stanley Balzekas Alice C. Hudson Arthur H. Robinson Gwendolyn R. Barckley Murray Hudson Pierre L. Sales Michael Burack Kit S. Kapp Joseph E. Schwartzberg Rand Burnette Josef W. Konvitz Cherie Semans Charles A. Burroughs Steven Kosakowski Robert B. Shilkret Fred A. Cazel, Jr. G. Malcolm Lewis Lawrence Slaughter Barbara Mae Christy Janice and Chingliang Liang Thomas R. Smith Sherry K. Coatney Michael McGuire Margaret Sowers Tim Coss Allen H. Meyer Bruce N. Spring Cray Research Foundation Jack M. Miller Mr. and Mrs. Martin Steinmann Gerald Danzer Paul J. Mode, Jr. Thomas and Ahngsana Suarez Michael J. Dubin John T. Monckton Richard J. A. Talbert Oliver C. Dunn Mark Monmonier G. Thomas Tanselle C. Eide Gene Moser Norman and Elizabeth Thrower Edward B. Espenshade, Jr. Mr. and Mrs. Jerome J. Nerenberg Richard Umansky Lucy A. Fellowes David H. Niemi Carol Urness Bruce Fetter Judy Olson Leonard Vis Richard and Dorothy Fitch Theodore W. Palmer Rainer Vollmar John Fondersmith Richard P. Palmieri Daniel Gilbert Watters Theodore N. Foss Douglas T. Peck Ann H. Wells Robert Graebner Mary Pedley Scott D. Westrem Eugene M. Grossman Edward F. Penico Joan Winearls Peter J. Guthom Robert Power John Wolter Susanne A. Haffner Carla Rahn and W. D. Phillips, Jr. Alberta and Clifford Wood Warren Heckrotte Jean M. Ray Jeanne and Stephen Young John B. Henderson Dennis Reinhartz Rick Ray Zellmer and Erica Schmidt Contents

List of Illustrations XI Cosmology in Islam General Characteristics of Cosmographical Maps and Preface, ]. B. Harley and David Woodward XIX Diagrams Exoteric Realism: Philosophical and Scientific Diagrams Celestial Diagrams Geographical Diagrams Esoteric Speculation: Gnostic and Mystical Diagrams pART ONE Islamic Cartography 1 Gnostic Diagrams Mystical Diagrams 1 Introduction to Islamic Maps, Religious Cosmography Ahmet T. Karamustafa 3 Greek Heritage Map and Text Early Geographical Mapping Conditions of Map Production Theory and Practice 4 The Beginnings of a Cartographic Tradition, Terms Gerald R. Tibbetts 90 Historiography Introduction Early Geographical Literature 2 Celestial Mapping, Emilie Savage-Smith 12 Foreign Geographical Influence Early Syrian Origins The Map of the Caliph al-Ma)miin Planispheric Astrolabes as Celestial Maps Geographical Tables Early History of the Astrolabe Longitude and Latitude Tables: AI-KhwarazmI, Variants of Planispheric Astrolabes al-BattanI, and Ptolemy Extended Use of Astrolabic Mapping AI-KhwarazmI's Methods and Purpose AI-BlrilnI on Celestial Mapping The Length of the Mediterranean Additional Planar Mapping The Seven Climates and Their Boundaries Three-Dimensional Celestial Mapping Prime Meridians Spherical Astrolabes Suhrab's Construction of a Map Celestial Globes The Maps from the al-KhwarazmI Manuscript The Manufacture of Celestial Globes Conclusion Armillary Spheres Mapping of Individual Constellations and Asterisms 5 The BalkhI School of Geographers, The Pre-Islamic Astronomic System Gerald R. Tibbetts 108 Lunar Mansions Works of the BalkhI School Islamic Constellation Iconography The Maps of the BalkhI School Islamic Asterism Mapping and Its Influence in Europe Description of the Maps Personifying and Allegorical Interpretations of Celestial Selection of Material Bodies The Treatment of the Persian Provinces The Introduction of Early Modern European Celestial The Arabic-Speaking Provinces Mapping The World Map AI-MuqaddasI's Maps 3 Cosmographical Diagrams, Miscellaneous Manuscripts Belonging to the BalkhI Ahmet T. Karamustafa 71 School Scope Conclusion

Vll Vlll Contents

6 Later Cartographic Developments, Architectural Plans and Waterway Maps Gerald R. Tibbetts 137 Cartography as Private Enterprise Later Recensions of Ibn I:Iawqal's Maps World Maps The Ifudad al-calam Regional Maps Later Tables and al-BIriinI Later Geographical Writers 12 Itineraries and Town Views in Ottoman Histories, Thirteenth-Century and Later World Maps J. M. Rogers 228 Climatic Maps and Their Variants The Compilation of Illustrated Histories First Use of a Graticule Early Examples of Topographical Illustration in Other Maps Ottoman Texts Conclusion Topographical Illustration in the Mecmaca-i menazil Topographical Illustration in Later Ottoman Histories 7 Cartography of ai-SharIf al-IdrIsI, S. Maqbul Ahmad 156 Marine Charting AI-SharIf al-IdrIsI as a Mapmaker The N uzhat al-mushtaq Ii'khtiraq al-afaq 13 The Role of Charts in Islamic Navigation in the Publications and Translations Indian Ocean, Gerald R. Tibbetts 256 AI-IdrlsI's Instructions for Making a World Map Writing the Nuzhat al-mushtaq 14 Islamic Charting in the Mediterranean, Maps in the N uzhat al-mushtaq Svat Soucek 263 The RawQ, al-faraj wa-nuzhat al-muhaj Introduction The Sources for al-IdrlsI's Nuzhat al-mushtaq Arab Portolan Charts The Influence of al-IdrIsI's Work on Later Authors PIrI Re)Is Charts of the New World 8 Geodesy, Raymond P. Mercier 175 Kitab-i bal}rfye Introduction Ottoman Portolan Charts and Atlases Arabic Metrology The al-SharafI al-SifaqsI Family Measurements of the Length of a Degree AI-BlnlnI's Measurement of the Radius of the Earth Determining the Longitude of Ghazna

PART Two South Asian Cartography 293 9 Qibla Charts, Qibla Maps, and Related Instruments, 15 Introduction to South Asian Cartography, David A. King and Richard P. Lorch Joseph E. Schwartzberg 295 189 The State of Our Knowledge Introduction Published Writings Qibla Charts Centered on the Kacba Repositories for Indian Cartography Qibla Maps Based on Coordinates The Nature of the Indian Corpus as Revealed by Methods of Qibla Determination with Spheres and Textual Sources and the Archaeological Record Astrolabes Types of Materials Produced Prehistoric and Tribal Maps Premodern Ottoman Geographical Mapping Achievements of the Harappan Culture Vedic Altars 10 Introduction to Ottoman Cartography, Ancient Knowledge of Geography Ahmet T. Karamustafa 206 Evidence of Ancient Cosmographies Scope and Organization Indian Astronomy Terminology Surveying in the Mauryan Empire Problems in the Study of Ottoman Cartography Architectural Plans from Ancient and Medieval India Maps Noted in Secular Texts 11 Military, Administrative, and Scholarly Maps and Pata-chitras Plans, Ahmet T. Karamustafa 209 Fruits of Hindu-Muslim Interaction Cartography in the Service of the State European Accounts of Indian Mapping Origins Reasons for the Relative Paucity of South Asian Military Maps Maps Contents IX

16 Cosmographical Mapping, Late Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century Nepali joseph E. Schwartzberg 332 Maps Underlying Cosmological Conceptions Route Maps Cosmographies in the Hindu Tradition Large-Scale Maps, Plans, and Maplike Oblique Views of Paintings and Ink Drawings Not Primarily Small Localities Astronomical in Content Maps of Small, Primarily Rural Localities Cosmographic Globes Secular Plans of Cities and Towns Celestial Mapping Oblique Secular Representations of Cities and Towns Cosmographies: The Jain Tradition Maps of Sacred Places Indo-Islamic Cosmography Maps of Forts Microcosmic Analogues of the Cosmos Architectural Drawings Cosmography and Mental Maps 18 Nautical Maps, joseph E. Schwartzberg 494 17 Geographical Mapping, joseph E. Schwartzberg 388 19 Conclusion, joseph E. Schwartzberg 504 World Maps Topographic Maps 20 Concluding Remarks, Mughal Maps j. B. Harley and David Woodward 510 Late Premodern Maps from Various Regions Comparative Cartographies Kashmir Cartography and Society Rajasthan and Gujarat Future Agendas Braj Central India Editors, Authors, and Project Staff 519 Maharashtra and Other Areas of Maratha Activity Sri Lanka Bibliographical Index 521 Northeastern India Hybrid Maps and the Gentil Atlas General Index, Ellen D. Goldlust, Scholars Editorial Services 547

Illustrations with Tables and Appendixes

COLOR PLATES 27 Table of asterisms (nak~atras) (Following page 136) 28 Anthropomorphic representation of the Jain 1 The heavens as they were on 3 Rabt I 786/25 universe April 1384, the birthdate of Iskandar Sultan 29 Detail of an eclectic world map 2 Planispheric map showing northern 30 Geographic portion of Hindu cosmographic constellations globe 3 The religious cosmos from the Macrifetname 31 Braj yatra pichhvaf 4 AI-KhwarazmI's map of the river Nile 32 Sections from a Mughal scroll route map from 5 The Sea of Azov (Bata)ib Mayfit1s) by Delhi to Kandahar al-KhwarazmI 33 Map of Srinagar embroidered on wool 6 North Africa and Spain according to an 34 Map of Jodhpur painted on paper l~takhrI I manuscript 35 Shrinathji temple complex 7 The world according to al-l~takhrI 36 Jagannath temple and city of Puri, Orissa 8 The world map of Ibn al-WardI 37 Tirthas in Kashmir 9 AI-QazwlnI's world map 38 A siege at Bhiwai Fort, Sikar District, 10 World map dated 977/1570 Rajasthan 11 AI-IdrIsI's world map from the Oxford 39 Diwali celebrations at the royal palace at Pococke manuscript Kotah, Rajasthan 12 Northwest Africa from the Oxford Greaves 40 Detail of the Red Sea and Aden from a manuscript of al-IdrlsI nautical chart 13 Qibla diagram from a sea atlas by al-SharafI al-SifaqsI 14 Siege plan of Belgrade, early sixteenth century 15 Plan of the battle of the Prut, 1711 FIGURES 16 Detail of the Klrk~e§me and Halkah water- 2.1 The remains of the vault of the heavens 13 supply system 2.2 Planispheric map of the heavens from a 17 The proclamation of the conquest of Eger fifteenth-century Byzantine manuscript 14 18 View of Sultaniye from Matra~~i Na~fi1)'s 2.3 The Byzantine planispheric map analyzed as a Mecmaca-i menazi! stereographic projection from the south pole 19 The siege of the fortress of Esztergom of a celestial globe 15 20 View of Nice from Matra~~i Na~fib's Tarf/J-i 2.4 A planispheric map of the heavens in a Latin fetlJ-i ~a~liivan copy of the Aratea dated A.D. 818 17 21 Northwest fragment of the 935/1528-29 2.5 Planispheric astrolabe made in the late ninth world map by PIrI Re'Is century A.D. by KhafIf, the apprentice of CAli 22 Version 2 of the Kitiib-i bai?rfye: Island of ibn clsa 19 Euboea 2.6 An astrolabe made in 1060/1650 by J)iya' 23 Walters Deniz Atlast: Italy and the central aI-DIn Mubammad 20 Mediterranean 2.7 Polar stereographic projection of the basic 24 AI-SharafI al-Sifaqsi chart, 1579 features of an astrolabe rete 21 2.8 The stars on the astrolabe rete made in Lahore (Following page 424) by J)iya) aI-DIn Mubammad in the year 25 Vishvarupa, the universal form of Krishna 1060/1650 22 26 Container in the form of a cosmographic 2.9 Basic design of an astrolabe plate 24 globe 2.10 Astronomers at work 27

Xl Xll Illustrations

2.11 Schematic interpretation of al-Zarqello's design 2.36 The constellation Auriga as seen on a globe for a universal astrolabe to be used at any 55 geographic latitude 30 2.37 Globe made in 684/1285-86 by Mu1)ammad 2.12 A universal astrolabe of the type designed by ibn Ma1)miid ibn CAli al-Tabari 56 al-Zarqello 31 2.38 The constellation Pegasus as seen in the sky 2.13 A type of universal astrolabe called 57 shakkaziyah 31 2.39 The constellation Hercules as seen in the sky 2.14 The universal astrolabe designed by Ibn 58 al-Sarraj in the early fourteenth century 32 2.40 The constellations Perseus and Auriga 58

2.15 A wooden astrolabic quadrant for latitude 41 0 2.41 The zodiacal constellations of Sagittarius and 32 Capricorn 59 2.16 A unique astrolabe/mechanical, geared 2.42 The zodiacal figure of Taurus 59 calendar 33 2.43 The constellations of the Northern 2.17 Reverse side of the astrolabe shown in figure Hemisphere 61 2.16 33 2.44 Planispheric map giving a selection of northern 2.18 Reconstruction of al-Biriini's "cylindrical" and zodiacal constellations 62 projection 35 2.45 Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere on 2.19 Reconstruction of al-Biriini's projection for a an astrolabe plate made in 1065/1654-55 by "flattened" astrolabe 36 Mubammad Mahdi of Yazd 66 2.20 Reconstruction of al-Biriini's preferred method 2.46 Constellations of the Southern Hemisphere on for producing a star map 37 an astrolabe plate made in 1065/1654-55 by 2.21 Waxing and waning of the moon as illustrated Mubammad MahdI of Yazd 66 in the Kitab al-tafhim li-awa)il ~inaCat 2.47 Constellations of the Northern Hemisphere on al-tanjim by al-Biriini 38 a planispheric star map printed in Paris about 2.22 Diagram from an autograph copy of Kitab 1650 by Melchior Tavernier 67 al-durar wa-al-yawaqit fi sun and the 1650 by Melchior Tavernier 67 personification of the planet Venus as a 2.49 Hemispheric map of Ptolemaic constellations lutenist 40 with the autumnal equinox at the center 69 2.24 Design for a clockface from Kitab fi macrifat 2.50 Hemispheric map of Ptolemaic constellations ai-Ifiyal al-handasiyah 40 with the vernal equinox at the center 69 2.25 Spherical astrolabe made by Miisa in 2.51 Planispheric map showing southern 885/1480-81 41 constellations 70 2.26 Basic design of extant Islamic celestial globes, 3.1 The celestial spheres from Rasa)i! ikhwan with attached rotatable meridian ring 44 al-~afa) 75 2.27 The earliest preserved Islamic celestial globe 3.2 The celestial spheres from the Macrifetname 45 76 2.28 Islamic celestial globe made in 834/1430-31 3.3 The lunar sphere and the spheres of the four by Mu1)ammad ibn jaCfar 46 elements 77 2.29 Islamic celestial globe, unsigned and undated 3.4 Correspondence between the signs of the 47 zodiac, the four directions, and the four 2.30 Unsigned, undated celestial globe 48 elements 77 2.31 Islamic celestial globe, unsigned and undated, 3.5 Correspondence between the signs of the engraved in Sanskrit, Devanagari script 49 zodiac, the planets, and the four elements 78 2.32 Demonstrational armillary sphere 50 3.6 The seven climata with interspersed place­ 2.33 Unique variant of a demonstrational armillary names 78 sphere/ celestial globe 51 3.7 The seven climata from Rasa)il ikhwan al­ 2.34 The constellation Cassiopeia as seen on a ~afa) 79 globe, with an Arab Bedouin asterism of a 3.8 The seven climata from al-Qazwini's Kitab camel drawn over her 52 Caja)ib al-makhluqat 79 2.35 The constellation Auriga as seen in the sky 3.9 The seven climata from Kitab al-bad) 55 wa-al-ta)rikh 79 Illustrations Xln

3.10 The seven kishvars 80 5.11 Arabia according to the BalkhI school, Ibn 3.11 Jabirian cosmology: The first four I:Iawqal III 119 "Hypostases" 81 5.12 The development of the Mediterranean in 3.12 Jabirian cosmology: One possible combination maps of the BalkhI school 120 of the four categories of quality, quantity, 5.13 The development of North Africa and Spain in time, and space 82 maps of the BalkhI school 121 3.13 The four cosmic orders according to 5.14 Egypt according to the BalkhI school 121 al-KirmanI 84 5.15 The world, I~takhrI II 121 3.14 An alternative conception of the four cosmic 5.16 The world, Ibn I:Iawqal I 123 orders according to al-KirmanI 85 5.17 Arabia according to al-MuqaddasI 124 3.15 The universal intellect, the creator, and the 5.18 The Arabian Desert according to al-MuqaddasI construction of the universe according to 124 Na~ir Khusraw 86 5.19 AI-Maghrib following I~takhrI I 125 3.16 A partial illustration of the relations between 5.20 The Indian Ocean in the manuscript of Abmad the "divine presence" and "permanent (or Mubammad) al-TusI 125 archetypes" according to Ibn al-cArabI 86 5.21 Map of Kirman from a manuscript attributed 3.17 Diagram of the different levels of being from to Na~Ir ai-DIn al-TusI 126 the Macrifetname 87 5.22 Map of Arabia from a manuscript attributed 3.18 The "topography" of the day of judgment to Na~Ir aI-DIn al-TusI 126 from the MaCrifetname 88 5.23 Map of the Indian Ocean from the British 4.1 Reference map of the Middle East 91 Library manuscript 127 4.2 The Persian kishvar system 94 5.24 World map from the British Library 4.3 Folio from the Strasbourg manuscript of manuscript 127 al-KhwarazmI's $urat ai-cart! 97 5.25 BalkhI world map with climate boundaries 4.4 Folio from a manuscript of al-BattanI's Zij 128 al-~abi C 98 6.1 Stemma of later Islamic maps (A.D. 1000 4.5 A comparison of some of the coordinates of onward) 138 al-KhwarazmI, al-BattanI, and the Kitab 6.2 The Nile from the Ibn I:Iawqal III set of maps al-mallJamah (Yaqut) with those of Ptolemy 139 99 6.3 The world from the Ibn J:Iawqal III set of 4.6 The seven-climate system according to three maps 140 Arab writers, showing a comparison with the 6.4 AI-BIrunI's sketch map of the distribution of Greek system 102 land and sea 142 4.7 Suhrab's diagram for a world map 104 6.5 World map from al-I:IarranI's ]amz< al-funun 4.8 The island of the jewel, JazIrat al-Jawhar, by 144 al-KhwarazmI 105 6.6 AI-QazwlnI's distribution of land and sea 4.9 The world ocean, al-Babr al-Mu~lim, by 145 al-KhwarazmI 106 6.7 The climate map 146 5.1 Reference map of the Islamic world at the 6.8 A more elaborate climate diagram 147 time of the BalkhI school 109 6.9 Syriac map based on the Arab climate diagram 5.2 Stemma of the texts of the BalkhI school 148 111 6.10 Semicircular map of the world 149 5.3 Possible stemma for the maps of the BalkhI 6.11 World map of J:Iamd Allah MustawfI 150 school 113 6.12 World map of J:Iafi~-i Abril 151 5.4 Kirrnan according to I~takhrI I 116 6.13 Map of the Middle East by J:Iamd Allah 5.5 Kirrnan according to I~takhrI II 116 Mustawfi 152 5.6 Modern Kirman and surrounding area 117 6.14 World map of Ibn Fa~n Allah al-cUmarI 153 5.7 The Arabian Desert pilgrimage routes 117 6.15 Maps from the N ukhbat al-dahr of 5.8 Arabia according to the BalkhI school, al-DimashqI 154 I~!akhrI I 118 6.16 Plan of the city of Kazvin 154 5.9 Arabia according to the BalkhI school, 6.17 World map of al-KashgharI 155 I~!akhrI II 118 7.1 AI-Idrisi's world map from the Paris 5.10 Arabia according to the BalkhI school, Ibn manuscript 161 tIawqal I 119 XIV Illustrations

7.2 AI-IdrlsI's world map from the Cairo 9.1 Rendition of a scheme of sacred geography manuscript 161 190 7.3 AI-Idrlsl's world map from the Istanbul 9.2 Four-qibla scheme 191 manuscript 161 9.3 Illustration from a treatise on the sacred 7.4 AI-Idrlsl's world map from the Sofia direction by al-Dimyap 192 manuscript 161 9.4 Extract from the shorter treatise on the qibla 7.5 AI-Idrlsl's world map from the Oxford byal-Dimyati 193 Greaves manuscript 162 9.5 Eight divisions of the world about the Kacba 7.6 Index of the sectional maps in the Nuzhat 193 al-mustaq 162 9.6 Two pages from a treatise on folk astronomy 7.7 The Aegean from the Leningrad manuscript 194 164 9.7 Simplified twelve-sector scheme of sacred 7.8 Part of the Indian Ocean and Taprobane from geography 195 the Oxford Pococke manuscript 164 9.8 Instructions on an eleven-sector diagram of 7.9 Part of the Indian Ocean and Taprobane from sacred geography 195 the Oxford Greaves manuscript 164 9.9 Seventy-two-sector scheme of sacred 7.10 Source of the Nile from the Istanbul Ayasofya geography 196 manuscript 165 9.10 Various schemes of sacred geography 197 7.11 Course of the Nile from the Istanbul Ayasofya 9.11 Simple twenty-sector scheme of sacred manuscript 165 geography 198 7.12 Nile Delta from the Istanbul Ayasofya 9.12 Qibla map contained in a treatise on folk manuscript 165 astronomy 199 7.13 Course of the Nile from the Cairo manuscript 9.13 Qibla map based on coordinates 200 165 9.14 Qibla map inscribed on a seventeenth-century 7.14 India from the Sofia manuscript 165 Indo-Persian astrolabe 201 7.15 Region northeast of the Bay of Bengal from 9.15 Map inscribed on a late Persian qibla indicator the Paris manuscript 166 201 7.16 Climate diagram from the Rawq, al-faraj 166 9.16 Rect-azimuthal qibla map 202 7.17 The Nile delta from the Rawq, al-faraj 167 9.17 Direct mathematical method for finding the 7.18 The course of the Nile from the Rawq, qibla 202 al-faraj 167 9.18 Detail of a qibla map inscribed on the back of 7.19 Climate 6, section 9, from the Raw4 al-faraj an astrolabe 203 168 9.19 Explanatory diagram for figure 9.18 203 7.20 Climate 6, section 9, from the Nuzhat 9.20 Approximate method for finding the qibla al-mushtaq 169 described by al-Battani and al-Jaghmlni 205 7.21 World map from Ibn Khaldiin's Kitab al-cibar 9.21 Analemma method for finding the qibla 171 described by ljabash al-ljasib 205 7.22 AI-Zayyanl's sketch map based on al-IdrisI's 11.1 Plan of Kiev and surroundings, ca. 1495-1506 sectional maps 172 211 8.1 Reference map of the region of Palmyra and 11.2 Plan of the Ottoman attack on Malta, Sinjar 180 972/1565 212 8.2 Dip of the horizon measured from the 11.3 Siege plan of Szigetvar, ca. 974/1566 213 mountain 182 11.4 Siege plan of Vienna, ca. 1094/1683 213 8.3 AI-Biriini's observation at Nandana 182 11.5 Plan of the fortress of Van 214 8.4 Measurement of the height of a mountain 11.6 Detail from the siege plan of the fortress of using two altitudes 184 Adakale, 1151/1738 214 8.5 Use of a quadrant to measure the height of 11.7 Plan of the fortress of Buda, ca. the mountain 184 1095-96/1684 215 8.6 Sixteenth-century quadrant with alidade 185 11.8 Plan of the battle of the Prut, 1123/1711 8.7 "Triangulation" between Baghdad and Ghazna 216 186 11.9 Map of Russian army maneuvers along 8.8 Trigonometric construction to determine the Ottoman borders with Poland, Moldavia, and difference of longitude 187 Hungary, 1768-69 217 Illustrations xv

11.10 Plan of a double bath, fifteenth century 217 13.1 The Indian Ocean from the Cantina map 11.11 Plan of a Turkish bath 217 260 11.12 Detail from the map of the Klrk\e~me and i3.2 Folios from an Arab navigational text 261 Halkah water-supply system (1161/1748) 14.1 The Maghreb chart 264 218 14.2 The al-KatibI chart 265 11.13 The map of the Klrk\e~me and Halkah water­ 14.3 The al-Murs! chart 266 supply system (1016/1607) 219 14.4 The I:Iajj Abu al-I:Iasan chart 267 11.14 An Ottoman version of the world map of Ibn 14.5 Atlantic fragment from the 1513 world map of ai-Ward! 220 PlrI Re)Is 268 11.15 World map from Lo~man's Zubdetu)t-teviiri!J, 14.6 Possible arrangement and extent of the 1513 ca. 1003/1595 221 world map 269 11.16 Map of the Tigris and the Euphrates, mid­ 14.7 Detail of the Caribbean from the 1513 world seventeenth century 222-23 map 271 11.17 Map of the Nile, ca. 1685 224 14.8 Reference map of the Mediterranean in the 11.18 Map of the Ottoman Empire, 1139/1726-27 age of Suleyman 273 225 14.9 Kitiib-i ba/triye: Island of Khios 274 11.19 Map of the regions north of the Black Sea on 14.10 Kitiib-i ba/triye: Port of Novigrad 274 silk by Ressam MU~fafa, 1768-69 226 14.11 Version 1 of the Kitiib-i ba/triye: Island of 12.1 View of Cairo from the Kitiib-i ba/triye 232 Euboea 276 12.2 View of Alanya (CAla'iye) from the Kitiib-i 14.12 Version 1 of the Kitiib-i ba/triye: City of ba/triye 233 Venice 277 12.3 The route of Siileyman's campaign against the 14.13 Version 2 of the Kitiib-i ba/triye: City of Safavids, 940-42/1534-35 234 Venice 278 12.4 View of Istanbul 238 14.14 Kitiib-i ba/triye: Attica 279 12.5 Reference map of Istanbul architectural 14.15 Kitiib-i ba/triye: Island of Djerba 280 monuments 239 14.16 Portolan atlas associated with CAli Macar Re)Is: 12.6 The obelisk on the road to Tav~anli 240 Italy and the central Mediterranean 281 12.7 Plan view of Erci~ (Arjish) 240 14.17 World map from the CAlI Macar Re)Is atlas 12.8 View of Baghdad 241 282 12.9 The course of the Bitlis Gorge 242 14.18 Atlas-i hiimayun: The Iberian Peninsula 283 12.10 View of Aleppo 243 14.19 The Mel).med Re)Is chart 284 12.11 View of the shrine of al-J:Iusayn at Karbala 14.20 Central Mediterranean from the 1551 244 al-Sharafl al-SifaqsI atlas 285 12.12 Topographical detail from a pilgrimage scroll 14.21 World \map from the 1551 al-SharafI al-SifaqsI 244 atlas 285 12.13 Strategic sites in the Ottoman-Habsburg rivalry 14.22 World diagram from the 1571-72 al-SharafI for Hungary 246 al-SifaqsI atlas 286 12.14 Stages and distances on the march to the 14.23 Central Mediterranean from the 1571-72 fortress of Esztergom from the Tiiri!J-i fet/t-i al-SharafI al-SifaqsI atlas 286 §a~liivun 247 14.24 Asia and the Middle East on the 1601-2 12.15 Stylized depiction of the fortress of Temesvar al-SharafI al-Sifaqsi chart 288 247 14.25 Europe and North Africa on the 1601-2 12.16 Siege of Szigetvar, based on a Venetian al-SharafI al-SifaqsI chart 289 prototype 248 15.1 NandIsvaradvlpa, the eighth continent of the 12.17 View of Szigetvar, probably based on firsthand Jain cosmos 296 sketches, from Lo~man's Suleymiinniime 15.2 General reference map for the study of 249 indigenous South Asian cartography 297 12.18 Stylized view of Szigetvar from Lo~man's 15.3 An early scholarly attempt to interpret Indian Hunerniime 249 cosmography 300 12.19 View of Kars from the ~iihan§iihniime 250 15.4 Rock paintings incorporating seemingly 12.20 Plan of Istanbul from the Hunerniime 251 cartographic elements 305 12.21 West side of the third court and adjoining 15.5 An Indian Mesolithic depiction of the cosmos? gardens in the Topkapl Sarayl from the 306 Hunerniime 252 XVI Illustrations

15.6 Presumed survey instruments of the Indus 16.19 Khagolam (the celestial dome) 359 civilization 307 16.20 Plan of Jaipur observatory 363 15.7 Measurement units, scalar relations, and 16.21 Jai Prakasa (light of victory) 364 prescribed layouts of the altar complex for the 16.22 Schematic diagram of the Jai Prakasa 365 vedic agnicayana 309 16.23 Jaipur observatory 366 15.8 Brahman yajamana's (ritual patron's) view of 16.24 Manu~yaloka (the world of man) according to the fire altar 310 Jain cosmographical texts 368 15.9 The Ganga and Yamuna rivers 312 16.25 Uttarakuru, the region north of Mount Meru 15.10 Potsherd with plan of ancient Buddhist 369 monastery 318 16.26 Profile view of Mount Meru Gain conception) 15.11 Ground plans of a never-completed temple 370 319 16.27 Overhead view of flat summit area of Mount 15.12 Leaf from a palm-leaf manuscript on Meru Gain conception) 370 architecture 320 16.28 Varying methods of depicting the Manu~ottara 15.13 Examples of ancient architectural mandalas mountain range midway across the third Jain and derivative plans 321 continent, Pu~karadvlpa 371 15.14 Plan of the eighteenth-century city of Jaipur 16.29 The length and dimensions of the cosmic man 321 (Lokapuru~a) 372 15.15 Architectural plan, Jaipur 322 16.30 NandIsvaradvlpa, the eighth Jain continent 15.16 Detail from architectural plan, Jaipur 323 374 16.1 Early Brahmanic Hindu and Buddhist 16.31 Suns and moons on the day of Capricorn conception of the catur-dvipa vasumati (four­ 375 continent earth) 336 16.32 Suns and moons revolving around 16.2 Hindu and Jain conception of the sapta-dvipa Manu~yaloka 375 vasumati (seven-continent earth) 337 16.33 The eight black fields in the third layer of the 16.3 Puranic conception of the divisions of Brahmaloka 376 Jambudvlpa, the innermost continent of the 16.34 Vastupuru~ama1J4ala (the mandala of the sapta-dvipa vasumati 337 cosmic man) 380 16.4 The world seen as a kurmavibhaga (divisions 17.1 Map of the "inhabited quarter" 391 of the globe), a Puranic conception of the 17.2 Facsimile of a portion of a world map 392 mid-first millennium A.D. 338 17.3 Wood-block print world map 394 16.5 Selected elements of a portion of Jambudvlpa 17.4 An eclectic world map 395 as conceived by the Jains 341 17.5 Partial transliteration of Hindu cosmographic 16.6 Alternative conceptions of the form of the globe 397 Jain universe 342 17.6 Marathi world map with accompanying 16.7 Primary divisions within the cosmic egg 344 traditional cosmographic world image 16.8 Vaishnavite Hindu cosmography 345 398-99 16.9 Brahmal).Qa (egg of Brahma) 346 17.7 Areas of coverage of selected South Asian 16.10 The path of the planets 347 topographic maps 401 16.11 Krishna and his consort descend to Pragjyoti~a 17.8 Analytic chart of attributes of selected South (Assam), situated on a tortoise-shaped earth Asian topographic maps 402 348 17.9 South Asia as portrayed on one folio of the 16.12 Square form of divination chart centered on Shahid-i Sadiq 403 Avanti (Ujjain) 349 17.10 The degree of distortion in the Shahid-i Sadiq 16.13 Circular form of divination chart centered on 404 Avanti (Ujjain) 350 17.11 Mughal map of northwestern South Asia 16.14 Cosmological globe 353 406-7 16.15 Cosmographic/geographic globe 354 17.12 Representation of a geographic globe in the 16.16 Projection for a cosmological globe 356 Mughal painting "Jahanglr embracing Shah 16.17 Southern Hemisphere of a cosmographic globe (Abbas," by Abu al-J:Iasan 408 357 17.13 Comparison of drainage patterns 410 16.18 Abstract of the Northern Hemisphere of a 17.14 Map of the Vale of Kashmir, attributed to cosmographic globe 358 Abdur Rahim of Bukhara 412 Illustrations XVll

17.15 Detail from map of Vale of Kashmir 413 17.49 Jain triptych 460 17.16 One of thirty-three pargana maps in an atlas 17.50 Vijfiaptipatra scroll, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan of Kashmir composing a part of the T arikh-i 461 qalCah-i Kashmir 414 17.51 Contemporary religious map of KashI 17.17 Details from topographic map of much of (Varanasi) 462 Rajasthan and a portion of Gujarat 415 17.52 Red Fort, Agra 463 17.18 Abstract of topographic map of much of 17.53 Map of Vijayadurg 464 Rajasthan and Gujarat 416 17.54 Gagraun Fort, Kotah District, Rajasthan 465 17.19 Detail from map of Gujarat and a part of 17.55 The battle of Panipat, Karnal District, Haryana Rajasthan 418 467 17.20 The region of Braj conceived as a lotus 419 17.56 Man Mandir (temple) and adjacent area in 17.21 Semiabstract map of Braj in the form of a KashI (Varanasi), Uttar Pradesh 469 lotus 419 17.57 Chandni Chowk, a main street of 17.22 Map of north-central India with emphasis on Shahjahanabad (Delhi) 470 Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand 420 17.58 Tomb of the emperor Akbar at Sikandra, Agra 17.23 Abstract of map of north-central India 421 District, Uttar Pradesh 471 17.24 Sinhalese map of a small area in central Sri 18.1 Folio of an Indian roz nama (nautical manual) Lanka 426 495 17.25 The $uba of Avad (Oudh) as portrayed in 18.2 Two folios depicting discontinuous coastline Gentil's atlas of the Mughal Empire 428 from an Indian roz nama 496 17.26 Map of central Nepal 431 18.3 Two folios depicting continuous coastline 17.27 Administrative/ cadastral map of a portion of from an Indian roz nama 497 western Nepal 432 18.4 Areas of India and Sri Lanka covered by 17.28 Excerpts from topographic map of surviving nautical charts 498 southeastern Nepal 433 18.5 Compass card from an Indian roz nama 498 17.29 Routes depicted on selected South Asian route 18.6 Transliteration of a compass card from an maps 434 Indian roz nama 499 17.30 A page from the Chahar Gulshan 435 18.7 Drawing of a short stretch of the southern 17.31 Details from a Pahari scroll painting 437 coast of India and the whole of Sri Lanka 17.32 Excerpt from map of the Nahr-i Bahisht 500 irrigation canal 438 18.8 Drawing of a short stretch of the Malabar 17.33 Details from map of proposed canal in Coast and the Laccadive Islands of India 500 Rajasthan 439 18.9 Nautical chart of the Red Sea and the Gulf of 17.34 Pilgrimage routes along the upper Ganga Aden 502-3 Valley 439 17.35 Map of a Jain pilgrimage 440 TABLES 17.36 Key to map of Jain pilgrimage, figure 17.35 2.1 Stars on the astrolabe made by I)iya) aI-DIn 441 MUQammad 23 17.37 Places depicted on large-scale maps, plans, and 4.1 Islamic time chart 92 maplike oblique views of small areas and 7.1 Measures used by al-IdrisI 160 locales of selected architectural drawings 443 8.1 AI-BlnlnI's latitude values 187 17.38 A village in Pune District, Maharashtra 445 8.2 Summary of al-BinlnI's angular and 17.39 Details from a large map of Amber, Rajasthan longitudinal differences between pairs of places 447 188 17.40 Bijapur, Karnataka 447 9.1 Labels for a schematic qibla diagram 200 17.41 Sanganer 448 9.2 Estimated coordinates of localities on the rect­ 17.42 Bust, Afghanistan 450 azimuthal qibla indicator 202 17.43 Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan 451 14.1 Map order in the Ottoman portolan atlases 17.44 Map of Sankhodar Bet, Dwarka, Gujarat 453 281 17.45 Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 454 17.46 Mandala map of Bhaktapur, Nepal 456-57 ApPENDIXES 17.47 Nathdwara temple complex 458 1.1 Works of Ptolemy in Arabic 10 17.48 Srirangam temple, Srirangam, Tamil Nadu 5.1 Select list of manuscripts of the BalkhI school 459 130 XVlll Illustrations

5.2 List of printed editions and translations of 17.1 Indigenous maps of Braj 472 works by authors of the BalkhI school 136 17.2 Indigenous maps in the Hodgson Collection, 7.1 Manuscripts of the works of al-Idrlsl 173 India Office Library and Records, London 9.1 Methods to calculate the qibla 204 474 11.1 Waterway maps 227 17.3 Large-scale maps of primarily rural localities 12.1 Selected manuscripts related to Ottoman 474 histories 252 17.4 Detailed, essentially planimetric secular maps 14.1 Islamic maritime charts 288 of cities and towns 476 14.2 Preliminary list of extant manuscripts of the 17.5 Detailed oblique, secular representations of Kitab-i ba~riye 290 cities and towns 480 16.1 A statistical summary of attributes of forty­ 17.6 Maps, plans, and maplike oblique views of four Jain cosmographies centered on sacred places or serving religious purposes Jambiidvlpa 384 482 16.2 A statistical summary of attributes of twenty­ 17.7 Detailed maps, plans, and maplike oblique four cosmographies depicting the three major views of forts 490 components of the Jain universe 386