Division 44 Environment and Infrastructure Sector project: “Transport Policy Advice”
Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH OVERVIEW OF THE SOURCEBOOK Modules and contributors Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Sourcebook Overview, and Cross-cutting Issues of Policy-Makers in Developing Cities Urban Transport (GTZ) What is the Sourcebook? Institutional and policy orientation This Sourcebook on Sustainable Urban Transport 1a. The Role of Transport in Urban Development addresses the key areas of a sustainable transport Policy (Enrique Peñalosa) policy framework for a developing city. The 1b. Urban Transport Institutions (Richard Meakin) Sourcebook consists of 20 modules. 1c. Private Sector Participation in Transport Infra- structure Provision (Christopher Zegras, MIT) Who is it for? 1d. Economic Instruments (Manfred Breithaupt, The Sourcebook is intended for policy-makers GTZ) in developing cities, and their advisors. This 1e. Raising Public Awareness about Sustainable target audience is reflected in the content, which Urban Transport (Karl Fjellstrom, GTZ) provides policy tools appropriate for application in a range of developing cities. Land use planning and demand management 2a. Land Use Planning and Urban Transport How is it supposed to be used? (Rudolf Petersen, Wuppertal Institute) The Sourcebook can be used in a number of 2b. Mobility Management (Todd Litman, VTPI) ways. It should be kept in one location, and the different modules provided to officials involved Transit, walking and cycling in urban transport. The Sourcebook can be easily 3a. Mass Transit Options (Lloyd Wright, ITDP; adapted to fit a formal short course training GTZ) event, or can serve as a guide for developing a 3b. Bus Rapid Transit (Lloyd Wright, ITDP) curriculum or other training program in the area 3c. Bus Regulation & Planning (Richard Meakin) of urban transport; avenues GTZ is pursuing. 3d. Preserving and Expanding the Role of Non- motorised Transport (Walter Hook, ITDP) What are some of the key features? The key features of the Sourcebook include: Vehicles and fuels < A practical orientation, focusing on best 4a. Cleaner Fuels and Vehicle Technologies practices in planning and regulation and, (Michael Walsh; Reinhard Kolke, where possible, successful experience in Umweltbundesamt – UBA) developing cities. 4b. Inspection & Maintenance and < Contributors are leading experts in their fields. Roadworthiness (Reinhard Kolke, UBA) < An attractive and easy-to-read, colour layout. 4c. Two- and Three-Wheelers (Jitendra Shah, < Non-technical language (to the extent World Bank; N.V. Iyer, Bajaj Auto) possible), with technical terms explained. 4d. Natural Gas Vehicles (MVV InnoTec) < Updates via the Internet. Environmental and health impacts How do I get a copy? 5a. Air Quality Management (Dietrich Schwela, Please visit www.sutp-asia.org or www.gtz.de/ World Health Organisation) transport for details on how to order a copy. The 5b. Urban Road Safety (Jacqueline Lacroix, DVR; Sourcebook is not sold for profit. Any charges David Silcock, GRSP) imposed are only to cover the cost of printing 5c. Noise and its Abatement (Civic Exchange and distribution. Hong Kong; GTZ; UBA) Comments or feedback? Resources We would welcome any of your comments or 6. Resources for Policy-makers (GTZ) suggestions, on any aspect of the Sourcebook, by Further modules and resources email to [email protected], or by surface mail to: Further modules are anticipated in the areas Manfred Breithaupt of Driver Training; Financing Urban Transport; GTZ, Division 44 Benchmarking; and Participatory Planning. Postfach 5180 Additional resources are being developed, and 65726 Eschborn an Urban Transport Photo CD (GTZ 2002) is Germany now available.
i Module 2b: About the author
Mobility Management Todd Litman is founder and executive director of the Victoria Transport Policy Institute, an By Todd Litman independent research organization dedicated to (Victoria Transport Policy Institute) developing innovative solutions to transportation problems. He developed the Online TDM Editor: Karl Fjellstrom Encyclopedia and many other resources . His Manager: Manfred Breithaupt research is used worldwide in transportation planning and policy analysis. Todd lives with GTZ Transport and Mobility Group, 2003 his family in Victoria, British Columbia, a city that demonstrates the value of a balanced Findings, interpretations and conclusions transportation system: tourists come from all over expressed in this document are based on the world to walk around the city’s harbour, ride in information gathered by GTZ and its consultants, a horse-drawn wagon, and travel by double-decker partners, and contributors from reliable sources. bus. GTZ does not, however, guarantee the accuracy or completeness of information in this document, and cannot be held responsible for any errors, omissions or losses which emerge from its use.
Cover photo: Suzhou, China, Jan. 2002. Photo by Karl Fjellstrom
i Module 2b: Mobility Management
1. Introduction 1 5.4 Public transport improvements 21 5.5 Commute trip 2. Basic concepts 3 reduction programs 21 2.1 Rationale for mobility How it is implemented 21 management 6 Travel impacts 21 3. Mobility management Best practices 22 planning and evaluation 7 Commute trip reduction program resources 23 3.1 Introduction 7 5.6 Freight transport management 24 3.2 Best practices 8 Freight transport management resources 24 4. Mobility management policy 5.7 Tourist transport management 26 and institutional reforms 10 How it is implemented 26 Introduction 10 Travel Impacts 27 Best practices 11 Best practices 27 Institutional reform information resources 12 Tourist transport management resources 27 5. Examples of mobility 5.8 Parking management 27 management strategies 12 Parking management strategies 27 5.1 Smart growth – land use How it is implemented 30 management strategies 12 Travel impacts 32 Smart growth practices 12 Best practices 32 How it is implemented 14 Information resources for Smart growth resources 14 parking management 33 5.2 non-motorised 5.9 Vehicle fees, restrictions transport planning 15 and car-free planning 33 How it is implemented 15 Cordon / area pricing 33 Travel impacts 16 Odd / even schemes and their variations 35 Non-motorised transport resources 16 Mobility management resources 36 5.3 Transportation market and pricing reforms 17 Vehicle tariffs and industrial development 17 Commuter financial incentives 17 Road pricing 18 Revenue-neutral tax shifts 18 Improved transportation pricing methods 18 Neutral planning and investment policies 18 How it is implemented 19 Travel impacts 19 Best practices 19 Transportation market reform resources 20 ii 1 Module 2b: Mobility Management
1. Introduction travel and giving little support to other modes such as walking, cycling and public transit, Mobility management (also called the quality of these other modes declines. As Transportation Demand Management or a result, automobile travel tends to be faster, TDM) is a general term for strategies that result more convenient, more comfortable and safer in more efficient use of transportation resources, than other modes, so more people will try to as opposed to increasing transportation system own a car or travel by taxi whenever possible. supply by expanding roads, parking facilities, air- The resulting traffic congestion, parking conges- ports and other motor vehicle facilities. Mobility tion, pollution, crash risk and sprawl make all management emphasises the movement of travellers worse off. Improving the quality of people and goods, not just motor vehicles, and alternative modes can benefit everybody, and so gives priority to public transit, ridesharing placing constraints on the total amount of and non-motorised modes, particularly under driving that occurs in a community can benefit congested urban conditions. everybody, including people who must drive. For example, if mobility management strategies There are many potential mobility management improve transit service quality so wealthy com- strategies with a variety of impacts. Some im- muters shift from driving every day to riding prove transportation diversity (the travel options transit most days and only driving when necessary, available to users). Others provide incentives they will experience less traffic congestion and for users to change the frequency, mode, des- fewer parking problems on the days they drive. tination, route or timing of their travel. Some reduce the need for physical travel through Automobile dependency imposes large eco- mobility substitutes or more efficient land use. nomic, social and environmental costs, although Some involve policy reforms to correct current many of these costs are indirect and so not distortions in transportation planning practices. perceived by individual motorists. Mobility management is an increasingly com- mon response to transport problems. Mobility “Mobility management is management is particularly appropriate in de- particularly appropriate in veloping country cities, because of its low costs developing country cities, because of and multiple benefits. Table 1 lists some of the its low costs and multiple benefits” reasons to implement Mobility Management in developing countries. Developing countries have Highway investments sometimes appear more limited resources to devote to transportation cost effective than alternatives such as public infrastructure. Developing country cities often transit investments, but this is false economy, have narrow and crowded streets, limited space since roads are just a small part of the total costs. for parking and a diverse mix of road users, lead- An automobile-oriented transportation system ing to conflicts over space and risk of crashes. also requires each user to own and operate a Few developing countries can afford to build vehicle, it requires space for parking at each the highways and parking facilities that would destination, and it increases danger and pollu- be needed if automobile ownership becomes tion. The total costs of increased automobile common. A major portion of the population dependency are far higher than the total costs of cannot afford to own private motor vehicles, so providing good public transit service.. investments and policies that favour automobiles over other travel modes may be inequitable and Most households are better off if their com- unsatisfactory for solving most residents’ travel munity has an efficient, balanced transportation needs. When all factors are considered, mobility system with good quality walking, cycling and management is often the best solution to trans- public transit service, even if they must pay portation problems. more in vehicle user fees, than if their com- munity is automobile dependent, requiring each Current planning practices tend to create a household to bear the costs of owning a car, self-fulfilling prophecy: by favouring automobile funding roads and parking facilities, enduring ii 1 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Table 1: Factors that justify mobility management in developing countries. Infrastructure is often in poor repair. Urban roads, parking, sidewalks and paths are often congested and crowded. Infrastructure supply Streets and sidewalks serve many functions and users (walking, talking, retail businesses, sleeping, begging, etc.) Streets not well designed for heavy motor vehicle traffic. Low automobile ownership among general population. Medium to high automobile ownership among middle-income households. Vehicle supply High automobile ownership growth rate among wealthy households. High bicycle ownership in some regions. Medium to high supply of public transit and taxi vehicles. Large variation in mobility between different income groups: low mobility among Personal mobility the general population and high mobility among wealthier groups. High mobility growth rate among medium-income households. Considerable diversity (walking, cycling, animal carts, public transit, private Transportation automobile). diversity Conditions of alternative modes, such as walking, cycling, public transit, are often inferior (slow, uncomfortable, unsafe, unconnected, etc.). Some developing countries have poor civil institutions to plan, implement and enforce traffic improvements. Institutional capacity Sometimes poor cooperation between different levels of government. Most decision-makers are relatively wealthy and so tend to personally favour automobile-oriented improvements. Government costs Limited funding for transportation infrastructure and services. Consumer costs Many households spend a large portion of income on transport. High traffic casualties per motor vehicle. Traffic safety High risk to vulnerable road users (pedestrians, cyclists, animals, etc.) Low comfort levels for non-motorised travel (walking, cycling, animal carts, etc.) Comfort Low comfort levels for most public transit. Medium to high comfort for private automobile and taxi travel. High pollution concentration in urban areas. Pavement of greenspace (farmlands Environment and wildlife habitat) a problem in some areas. Medium to high accessibility in urban areas (many destinations can be reached by walking, cycling and public transit). Land Use Poor and declining accessibility in most suburbs and new communities. In some regions, limited land available for new transportation infrastructure. Economic High dependence on imported transportation goods (vehicles, parts and fuel). development Economic development harmed by dependency on imported goods.
traffic congestion, and suffering high rates of vehicle assembly plants will find that the major- traffic crashes. Put another way, mobility man- ity of manufacturing inputs are imported (raw agement provides opportunities to governments, materials, components, technical expertise, etc.). businesses and individual consumers to save Vehicles and fuel are the largest category of money and avoid indirect costs. Investments in imported goods in many developing countries. transportation alternatives and mobility manage- Shifting expenditures from vehicles and fuel to ment programs are often far more cost effective more locally-produced goods tends to increase than continual public investments in road and regional employment and business activity, sup- parking facility expansion to accommodate porting economic development. Even countries increased private automobile travel. that produce their own petroleum are better off conserving fuel so there is more available to Automobile dependency also tends to be harm- export. ful to the national economy. Most developing countries import vehicles and parts, and many import fuel. Even countries with domestic
2 3 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
2. Basic concepts Traffic, mobility and accessibility Mobility management increases travel options and How transportation is defined and measured can encourages travellers to choose the most efficient affect which policies or projects are adopted. A mode for each trip. It does not eliminate auto- particular policy or project may appear worthwhile mobile travel, since cars are the best mode for when transport system performance is measured certain types of trips, but it tends to significantly in one way, but undesirable when it is measured reduce the amount of personal vehicle travel that another way. would otherwise occur, particularly in urban areas. Conventional approaches often assume Mobility management is sometimes criticized that transportation means motor vehicle for placing unfair restrictions on automobile traffic, measured in terms of per capita vehicle travel, but this is not necessarily true. Without ownership and vehicle-kilometres, average traffic careful management automobile traffic will speed, roadway level of service, etc. From this regulate itself in an inefficient way, through perspective, anything that increases motor congestion, parking problems and crash risk. vehicle traffic speed and volume is considered A well-planned mobility management plan ra- desirable, and anything that reduces motor tions road and parking space more efficiently, vehicle traffic speed and volume is considered and improves travel options, ultimately making everybody better off overall, including people harmful. who shift to alternative modes and those who A more comprehensive approach assumes continue to drive. that transportation means personal mobility, measured in terms of person-trips and person- There is tremendous potential for applying mo- kilometres. From this perspective, strategies such bility management to helping address transport problems in developing countries. In many as better transit services and rideshare programs cases, effective mobility management during may improve transportation without increasing early stages of development can avoid problems total vehicle-kilometres. However, this approach that would result if communities become too still assumes that movement is an end in itself, automobile dependent. This can help support rather than a means to an end, and increased a developing country’s economic, social and personal movement is desirable. environmental objectives. The most comprehensive approach evaluates Which set of mobility management strategies transportation is in terms of accessibility, the you should implement will vary depending on ability to reach desired goods, services and your community’s demographic, geographic activities. This is the ultimate goal of most and political conditions. It is usually best to transportation, and so is the best definition implement a variety of strategies. Most indi- to use in transportation planning. It recognises vidual mobility management strategies have the value of more accessible land use patterns modest impacts, affecting just a few percent of and mobility substitutes as ways to improve total vehicle travel. As a result, they are seldom transportation while reducing total physical considered the most effective solution to a trans- travel. portation problem. But mobility management Many transport projects improve accessibility strategies can have cumulative and synergetic impacts (their total impacts are greater than by some modes, but degrade it for others. For the sum of their individual impacts), so it is example, increasing roadway capacity and important to evaluate a mobility management traffic speeds tends to improve access by program as a package, rather than as individual automobile but reduces it by other modes, such strategies. Effective programs usually include as walking, cycling and transit. Only by defining a combination of positive incentives to use transportation in terms of accessibility can alternative modes (“carrots” or “sweeteners”) these trade-offs be considered in the planning process.
2 3 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
and negative incentives to discourage driving Mobility management involves prioritising travel (“sticks” or “levelers”). based on the value and cost of each trip. It gives higher value trips and lower cost modes priority For example, just improving transit service over lower value, higher cost trips. For example, (perhaps by building a metro system or creating transit and freight vehicles usually have relatively busways) may by itself reduce urban-peak au- high value, and so can be given priority over tomobile travel by only 5%. Just implementing private automobile travel. Transit, rideshare parking management may reduce automobile vehicles, bicycling and walking generally cost travel by only 5%. But if implemented together, society less per trip than single occupant auto- they may produce a 15% reduction in urban- mobile travel (in terms of road space, parking peak automobile travel, because they provide costs, crash risk imposed on other road users a combination of positive and negative incen- and pollution emissions), and so should receive tives for middle-class commuters (those who priority over private automobile travel. This is have the option of driving) to use alternative the opposite of conventional transport plan- modes. A package of complementary mobility ning practices (see text box “Traffic, mobility management strategies is often more effective at and accessibility”), which often give priority reducing traffic congestion than far more costly to automobile travel, for example, by widen- roadway capacity expansion projects. Table 2 ing roadways to increase motor vehicle traffic provides a broad overview of mobility manage- speeds, and increasing the amount of urban land ment options. Several are discussed in detail devoted to automobile parking, at the expense later in this module. of walking facilities and transit.
Table 2: Examples of mobility management strategies. Mobility management includes more than three dozen strategies that improve transportation options, encourage use of efficient modes, crate more accessible land use patterns, and reform biased planning practices.
Incentives to Reduce Parking and Land Use Programs and Policy Improve Transport Options Driving Management Reforms Alternative Work Walking And Cycling Bicycle Parking Access Management Schedules Encouragement Car-Free Districts and Carfree Planning Bicycle Improvements Commuter Financial Pedestrianised Streets Commute Trip Reduction Bike/Transit Integration Incentives Clustered Land Use Programs Carsharing Congestion Pricing Location Efficient Market Reforms Flextime Distance-Based Development Context Sensitive Design Pricing Guaranteed Ride Home New Urbanism Freight Transport Fuel Taxes Individual Actions for Parking Management Management Efficient Transport HOV (High Occupant Parking Solutions Institutional Reforms Vehicle) Priority Park & Ride Parking Evaluation Least Cost Planning Parking Pricing Pedestrian Shared Parking Regulatory Reform Improvements Pay-As-You-Drive Vehicle Insurance Smart Growth School Transport Ridesharing Management Road Pricing Smart Growth Shuttle Services Planning and Policy Special Event Speed Reductions Small Wheeled Reforms Management Transport Street Reclaiming Transit Oriented TDM Marketing Taxi Service Vehicle Use Development (TOD) Tourist Transport Improvements Restrictions Management Telework Transport Management Traffic Calming Associations Transit Improvements Universal Design
4 5 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Prioritising transportation Transportation prioritisation changes the way public resources are used, including how public Transport planning involves countless decisions roads and parking facilities are designed and concerning the allocation of public resources and managed, traffic speed regulation, pricing, and the management of public facilities. For example: investments. Transportation prioritisation is not a < The allocation of public road space involves single strategy; it is a planning approach that can trade-offs between general traffic lanes and affect various policy and planning decisions, and parking lanes (which favour automobile travel), involves specific mobility management strategies. bus lanes, bicycle lanes and sidewalk space. Transportation prioritisation involves two steps: < Roadway design and management that 1. Determine the basis of prioritisation. This increases motor vehicle traffic volumes and involves ranking trips, modes or users to speeds tends to create environments that determine which should have priority under are less suitable for pedestrian travel. Traffic various circumstances. calming programs tend to benefit non-motorised transport but reduce traffic speeds. 2. Developing methods for prioritisation. This involves allocating funding, road space, public < Devoting public land to parking facilities, generous parking requirements in new land, traffic management or other resources to developments, and land use management favour higher ranking trips, modes or users. practices that encourage dispersed Conventional planning practices allow development patterns tend to benefit motorists automobile traffic to dominate urban road space. and encourage automobile dependency. Parking Although in theory motorists and non-motorists management and smart growth land use policies may have equal right to use public roads, motor that encourage more clustered development vehicle traffic squeezes out other uses due to tend to support non-motorised and public its greater size, speed and danger. Cars use ten transit accessibility. to fifty times as much space per passenger as < Pricing of vehicles, fuel, roads, parking and other modes, and they endanger pedestrians and public transit can favour certain types of travel cyclists. More efficient management gives priority (this is discussed in Module 1d: Economic to modes that require less space per passenger- Instruments). kilometre, and to particularly high-value trips, such Such decisions effectively prioritise as emergency and freight transport. transportation activities and modes. They In general, mobility management should reflect determine the convenience, speed and safety of the following priorities: different modes, and public resources that are 1. Emergency vehicles/trips allocated for transport activities. Transportation 2. Walking prioritisation decisions are often made without 3. Cycling explicit consideration of their impacts on travel 4. Public transit behaviour or overall transport system efficiency. 5. Service/freight vehicles Prioritising transportation involves explicit 6. Taxi consideration of these impacts, with the goal 7. Single occupant cars of giving higher value trips and lower cost 8. Automobile parking modes priority over lower value, higher cost The greater the degree of conflict the more trips. For example, emergency vehicles, transit explicitly prioritisation must be applied. For and freight vehicles tend to have relatively high example, in suburban areas it may be sufficient to value per vehicle-kilometre, and so can be given perform road shoulder maintenance and enforce priority over private automobile travel. Transit, traffic laws to insure that cyclists may safely use rideshare vehicles, bicycling and walking generally public roads. In crowded urban areas it may be cost society less per passenger-trip than single necessary to dedicate a special lane to bicycles, occupant car travel (in terms of road space, or to apply traffic calming and close some streets parking costs, crash risk imposed on other road to through automobile traffic to create a network users and pollution emissions), and so should of "bicycle boulevards" where non-motorised receive priority. travel has priority over motor vehicle traffic.
4 5 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Influencing the demand Table 3: Examples of mobility management travel impacts. Different types of mobility to travel: a wide range of management strategies cause different types of travel changes. possible measures “TDM Planning”, www.vtpi.org/tdm/ Strategy Mechanism Travel Changes tdm50.htm Traffic calming Roadway redesign. Reduces traffic speeds Not all mobility management strategies affect travel Flextime Improved transport choice Shifts travel time (when trips occur) Road/congestion Shifts travel time, and route, reduces peak- directly. Some provide a Pricing foundation for other strategies. pricing period vehicle traffic Mobility management Distance-based charges Pricing Reduces overall vehicle travel strategies use a variety of Transit improvements Improved transport choice Shifts mode, increases transit use mechanisms to change travel Rideshare promotion Improved transport choice Increases vehicle occupancy, reduces trips patterns, including facility Pedestrian and bicycle Improved transport choice, design, improved transport Shifts mode, increases walking and cycling improvements facility improvements options, pricing, and land use Carsharing Improved transport choice Reduces vehicle ownership and trips changes. These affect travel behaviour in various ways, Smart Growth, New More efficient land use, Shifts mode, reduces vehicle ownership and including changes in trip Urbanism improved travel choices trip distances scheduling, route, destination, and frequency, plus traffic 2.1 RATIONALE FOR MOBILITY ment can greatly expand the range of solutions speed, mode choice and land MANAGEMENT for addressing transport problems, and allows use patterns. Table 3 sum- solutions to be tailored to a particular situation. marises travel changes that Mobility management can provide multiple ben- It can often be implemented quickly, and target result from various mobility efits including congestion reduction, road and a particular location, time period or user group. management strategies. parking facility cost savings, consumer savings, improved consumer choice, road safety, environ- Fig. 16 mental quality, community liveability, efficient “It is usually best to implement a Traditional transport land use, and equity. Mobility management can variety of strategies” planning in developing provide significant savings to consumers and cities prioritises car travel society by reducing and deferring roadway ca- To understand why such large benefits are pos- (and hence drivers) over pacity expansion costs. As a result, total benefits sible it is useful to consider some basic market all other transport modes are often much greater than solutions that only principles. Efficient markets have certain (and people). address one or two problems. Mobility manage- requirements, including consumer choice, Karl Fjellstrom, 2000 (Surabaya) competition, cost-based pricing, and economic neutrality in public policies. Most markets generally reflect these principles: consumers pay directly for housing, food and clothing. But transportation markets tend to violate these principles: consumers often have few viable options, many costs are external or fixed, and government policies often favour one mode over others. Mobility management strategies can help correct these market distortions, creating a more efficient and equitable transportation system, as described in Table 4.
6 7 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Table 4: Mobility management helps correct market distortions that encourage excessive automobile use, resulting in a more efficient and equitable transport system. Market Requirements Current Market Distortions Management Solutions Choice. Consumers need viable Consumers sometimes have few viable Mobility management strategies can transport and location options to alternatives to owning and driving an increase transport options, for example choose from automobile, and living in automobile by improving transit, cycling and walking dependent communities conditions, and pricing options Competition. Producers must face Most roads and transit services are public Mobility management strategies competition to encourage innovation monopolies. There is often little competition can remove barriers, and encourage and efficient pricing or incentive for innovation competition and innovation Cost-based pricing. Prices should Transportation in general, and driving in Many mobility management strategies reflect costs as much as possible, particular, is significantly underpriced: most involve more efficient pricing. Some unless a subsidy is specifically costs are either fixed or external. This results require subsidies, but these are often justified. in economically excessive levels of driving less than current subsidies for driving, or and automobile dependency justified on equity grounds Economic neutrality. Public policies Tax policies, and many transportation Many mobility management strategies (laws, taxes, subsidies, and investment planning and funding practices favour help correct existing biases in policies) should apply equally to automobile traffic over demand management transportation planning and investment comparable goods and users alternatives practices Land Use. Land use policies should Zoning laws, development practices and Mobility management strategies not favour automobile oriented utility pricing tend to encourage lower- help create more efficient land use development density, automobile-dependent land use patterns and discourage car-dependent patterns development
3. Mobility management planning and evaluation
3.1 INTRODUCTION Transport planners often focus on improving car traffic flow and parking opportunities, and sometimes they recommend major new transit services such as subways and commuter rail systems. However, they often overlook cost-ef- fective opportunities to improve more basic transportation options, such as non-motorised travel conditions and bus services, even though these represent a major portion of travel activity. Conventional transport planning practices tend to undervalue mobility management strategies (see text box “Traffic, mobility and accessibility, page 3). For example, conventional transport planning considers highway widening beneficial, because it increases motor vehicle traffic speeds and volumes, but ignores the delays that this may cause to non-motorised travel, and the ten- Fig. 25 dency to promote urban sprawl. Vehicle flow is Singapore has recently implemented a range of mobility management measures relatively easy to measure and so tends to receive in the Chinatown area, including pedestrianised streets, evening road the most attention, while non-motorised travel closures, widened and attrative newly-paved walkways, tree-planting for and land use accessibility are more difficult to shade, more parking restrictions, transit improvements (including bus measure, so they tend to be ignored. This skews and MRT expansion in the area), and an innovative ‘smart bike’ program planning decisions toward capacity expansion providing free bicycle use. and away from mobility management. Karl Fjellstrom, July 2002
6 7 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Mobility management in Table 5 summarizes differences between con- costs, environmental impacts, impacts on The Netherlands ventional and comprehensive transportation travel choice and strategic land use objectives. In The Netherlands, many evaluation, showing various ways in which < Present results in units that are easy to businesses participate conventional planning undervalues mobility understand and compare. For example, in mobility management management solutions. present costs and benefits in annualised programs. Experience has dollars per capita, per vehicle, per vehicle-km, Different travel changes provide different types shown that companies per passenger-km, or per additional trip. of impacts. For example, a strategy that shifts can reduce car use by < Indicate any impacts that are not quantified travel from peak to off-peak periods has differ- 5–10% simply through basic in the analysis because they are difficult ent benefits and costs than a strategy that shifts measures such as company to measure, and describe their impacts bicycles and car-pooling. An travel modes or encourages more efficient land qualitatively. For example, describe how each average trip reduction of 15– use. Table 6 shows how well different travel option impacts equity objectives, economic 20% is possible with stronger changes achieve various transport objectives. measures and disincentives, development, and strategic land use goals. such as parking restrictions. < Do not focus only on motor vehicle traffic OECD 2001, Influencing Travel Demand, 3.2 BEST PRACTICES conditions as an indicator of transportation Unpublished Best practices for comprehensive transport system quality. Also consider factors such as planning and evaluation include (Comprehensive transportation system diversity, affordability, Transport Planning, VTPI, 2002): transit service quality, and the quality of < Use accessibility-based planning, which walking and cycling conditions (Figure 3). considers mobility as a means to an end, < Indicate the distribution of benefits and rather than an end in itself. This allows costs, and evaluate impacts in terms of equity consideration of the widest possible range objectives. of solutions to transportation problems, < Use statistical techniques to incorporate including mobility substitutes and land uncertainty and variability in economic analysis. use management that reduces the need for < Describe how different perspectives and physical travel. assumptions could effect analysis conclusions. < Use comprehensive estimates of costs and < Produce reports that are understandable to benefits, including all road and parking a general audience and include all relevant expenses, downstream congestion, impacts on technical information. non-motorised transport, vehicle ownership
Fig. 34 Diversity, affordability, and the quality of walking and cycling conditions are sometimes neglected as indicators of transport system quality. Gerhard Metschies (Guangzhou); GTZ Urban Transport Photo CD
8 9 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
Table 5: Comparing conventional and comprehensive planning. VTPI, http://www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm76.htm Description Conventional Comprehensive Selection of Options Range of solutions considered. Often ignores TDM Includes TDM options How funding is allocated, and the flexibility with which Favours large Applies least-cost Investment Practices it can be used for the best overall option. investments planning Degree to which vehicle use is underpriced, resulting Underpricing Ignored Considered in excessive travel demand. Whether transport modeling uses current best Limited analysis Modeling Practices More comprehensive practices to predict travel and economic impacts. capability Methods and perspectives used to measure travel Measuring Transportation Measures vehicle traffic Measures accessibility (vehicle traffic, mobility or accessibility) Whether transport and land use decisions are Not considered a Uncoordinated Decisions Considered a problem coordinated to support strategic regional objectives. problem Whether planning takes into account the full impacts Ignores many Includes all Generated Traffic of generated traffic and induced travel. components components Additional congestion on surface streets that results Ignores for individual Downstream Congestion Includes from increased highway capacity. projects Techniques used to evaluate the consumer impacts of Consumer surplus Consumer Impacts Travel time changes changes in the transport system. analysis Whether all vehicle costs and savings are considered, Only short-term All affected vehicle Vehicle Costs including long-term costs. operating costs costs Parking costs, including costs borne by motorists, Parking Costs Only if paid by motorist Includes businesses and governments. Whether increased congestion delays during Construction Impacts Ignores Includes construction periods are considered in evaluation. Non-motorised Travel Accessibility, convenience, safety, comfort and cost off Ignores Includes Impacts walking and cycling. Quantity and quality of travel options (particularly Comprehensive Transportation Diversity Limited analysis those used by non-drivers) are considered. analysis Impacts on air, noise and water pollution; greenspace Comprehensive Environmental Impacts Limited analysis preservation and community livability. analysis The degree to which each option supports or Impacts on Land Use Ignores Includes contradicts strategic land use objectives. The degree to which each option supports or Comprehensive Equity Impacts Limited analysis contradicts community equity objectives. analysis Safety and Health Impacts How safety and health risks are measured. Per veh.-mile crash risks Per-capita health risks
Table 6: Benefits of different travel impacts.√ indicates a beneficial impact. Blank means no impact, or mixed positive and negative impacts. Reduced Shift Trip Shorter Shift Reduced Reduced Veh. Objectives Traffic Speeds Time Trips Mode Veh. Trips Ownership Congestion Reduction √ √ √ √ √ Road Savings √ √ √ √ Parking Savings √ √ √ Consumer Savings √ √ √ Transport Choice √ √ √ Road Safety √ √ √ √ √ Environment Protection √ √ √ Efficient Land Use √ √ √ Livability √ √ √
8 9 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
4. Mobility management policy and actions to be implemented at each point in time. institutional reforms Least-cost planning considers demand manage- ment solutions equally with strategies to increase Introduction capacity, considers all significant impacts (costs and benefits), and involves the public in devel- Mobility management requires carefully plan- oping and evaluating alternatives. For example, ning, management and enforcement. Policy and it means that transit improvements, rideshare institutional reforms are often needed to correct programs, or road pricing can be implemented existing distortions that undervalue alternative instead of roadway capacity expansion, if they modes and management solutions to transporta- can improve mobility at a lower total cost, tion problems. including costs to governments, businesses, Mobility management requires that public of- consumers and the environment. If a particular ficials and the general public gain more respect demand management strategy can reduce traffic for alternative modes, such as transit, mini-buses or parking demand by 10%, it is considered to and non-motorised modes, and shift away from be worth at least as much as a 10% increase in an automobile-dominated vision of their trans- road or parking facility capacity, and often more portation future. Many people assume that since when indirect impacts, such as environmental automobile ownership and use tend to increase and safety impacts, are considered. Least-cost with income, policies that favour automobile planning may require reforming current plan- travel support economic development, but this ning and funding practices that favour highway is not true. Mobility management can increase capacity expansion over management strategies. economic productivity and development by im- This approach involves the following steps: proving mobility in the most cost effective way. 1. Identify objectives (general things that you Although highway improvements that support want to achieve) and targets (specific things productive industries, such as manufacturing, that you want to achieve). mining, agriculture and tourism, contribute to 2. Identify various strategies that can help economic development, motor vehicles used as achieve the objectives and targets. These can consumer goods tend to be economically harm- include both projects that increase capacity ful, particularly in regions that import vehicles and demand management strategies. and fuel (Litman and Laube, 1999). 3. Evaluate the costs and benefits of each Many developing countries lack adequate traffic strategy (including indirect impacts, if any), education and enforcement institutions. There is and rank them according to cost-effectiveness often little connection between the traffic rules or benefit/cost ratios. that are taught and what people actually observe: 4. Implement the most cost-effective strategies transportation regulations may be flaunted and as needed to achieve the stated targets. violations seldom punished. Public sidewalks 5. After they are implemented, evaluate the may be taken over by vendors, homeless people programs and strategies with regard to various and vehicle parking. Vehicle and fuel taxes may performance measures, to insure that they are be unpaid. Such problems must be corrected effective. as part of effective mobility management. This 6. Evaluate overall results with regard to targets requires developing institutional capacity, pro- to determine if and when additional strategies fessional skills and training, adequate pay, and should be implemented. modern equipment. This approach allows contingency-based plan- There is usually no single strategy that will ning, that is, planning that addresses uncertainty address transportation problems, and it is not by deploying solutions on an as-needed basis. always possible to predict the effectiveness of For example, a transport plan may identify 5 a particular parking management strategy or strategies to implement immediately, another anticipate all future conditions. The best ap- 4 to implement in two years if stated targets proach is to use flexible,least-cost planning are not achieved, and another 3 can be imple- to determine the optimal set of strategies and mented in the future if needed. This tends to be
10 11 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
cost effective and flexible, because strategies are < Educate decision-makers and staff about only deployed if they are needed, and additional mobility management objectives, techniques strategies can be ready for quick implementation and resources. if unexpected changes create additional needs. < Transport decision-making should be based This type of planning is ideal for medium and on least-cost planning principles, allowing long-range transport and land use planning. management strategies equal consideration in planning and funding as capacity expansion “Transport planning goals and projects. objectives should emphasise < Identify and correct policies and planning practices that tend to undervalue alternative accessibility and mobility (moving modes or result in car-dependent transport people and goods), not just the and land use patterns. movement of vehicles” < Establish a "Fix-it-First" policy (see text box), which means that roadway capacity expansion projects are only implemented if operations Best practices and maintenance programs for existing < Establish cooperation and common goals facilities are adequately funded. among all agencies involved in transport and < Develop an effective evaluation program that land use decisions, including those involved tracks progress toward goals and objectives. in funding, transport planning, land use, < Reward successful transportation programs. public safety and law enforcement. They For example, higher levels of government should be accountable for safety, security, can provide additional funding to local environmental and basic mobility objectives. governments that are successful at achieving < Transport planning goals and objectives traffic management, road safety and emission should emphasize accessibility and mobility reduction objectives. (moving people and goods), rather than the movement of vehicles. < Planning should consider the transport- ation needs of people who are physically, economically and socially disadvantaged. < One agency should coordinate transportation management throughout an urban region. < As much as possible, traffic management and traffic law enforcement agencies should be independent, to avoid political favouritism and erratic policy changes when new mayors or political parties take office. This provides stability and helps agencies recruit and retain professional staff. < Traffic management agencies may have independent revenue sources (parking fees, traffic fines, congestion charges, a portion of fuel taxes, etc.) to ensure long-range funding. < Traffic police have a vital role to play in the success of traffic management (Figure 4). Fig. 45 This may require special efforts to establish Traffic police have a vital role to play in implementing mobility modern traffic enforcement techniques, management measures in developing cities. In many developing cities, adequately train and pay officers to maintain including for example Bangkok, the police retain a ‘veto’ over many a professional force, minimise corruption mobility management measures, and they therefore must be involved and and favouritism, and maintain good consulted in policy development. communications with the public. Hong Kong (unknown)
10 11 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
“Fix It First” spending priority 5. Examples of mobility “Fix It First” means that transportation planning management strategies and funding give top priority to maintenance, This section describes some examples of mobil- operations and incremental improvements to ity management strategies. This is just a small existing transportation facilities, and major capital sample of the full range of potential strategies projects are only implemented if there is adequate available. For more specific information see additional funds. resources listed below, particularly the Victoria Current transportation planning and funding Transport Policy Institute’s Online TDM practices often favour capital expenditures over Encyclopedia (www.vtpi.org). maintenance and operations. Capital projects are considered prestigious (public officials can 5.1 SMART GROWTH – LAND USE participate in ribbon-cutting ceremonies and have MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES their names on plaques attached to new roads, bridges and rail facilities) and some transportation Smart growth is a general term for land use funds may only be used for major capital practices that create more accessible land use pat- improvements. This encourages jurisdictions terns which reduce the amount of travel needed to expand transportation system capacity and to reach goods and services. Smart growth is an implement major new projects even when they alternative to urban sprawl; the two land use have inadequate resources to maintain and patterns are contrasted in Table 7. operate existing facilities, or when incremental Smart growth includes a number of individual improvements to existing facilities and demand policies and practices, such as those listed below. management strategies would provide greater Objectives and strategies differ depending on economic benefits. whether an area is urban, suburban or exurban. Land use planning and Smart growth concepts Institutional reform information are discussed in more detail in Module 2a: Land resources Use Planning and Urban Transport. < International Institute for Energy Conservation (www.cerf.org/iiec/offices/transport.htm). Smart growth practices < Booz-Allen & Hamilton, Organising for Regional < Strategic planning. Establish a community Transportation Operations: An Executive Guide, “vision” which individual land use and Federation Highway Administration and Institute transportation decisions should support. of Transportation Engineers (www.ite.org/library/ < ROOExecutiveGuide.pdf), 2001. Create more self-contained communities. Reduce average trip distances, and encourage < John Cracknell, Experience in Urban Traffic Management and Demand Management in walking, cycling and transit travel, by locating Developing Countries, World Bank, Urban schools, shops and recreation facilities in or Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018. adjacent to residential areas. worldbank.org/transport/utsr.nsf), 2000. < Foster distinctive, attractive communities with < Patrick DeCorla-Souza et al., A Least Total Cost a strong sense of place. Encourage physical Approach to Compare Infrastructure Alternatives, environments that crate a sense of civic pride Transportation Modeling Improvement Program, FHWA (tmip.fhwa.dot.gov), 1999. and community cohesion, including attractive < Ralph Gakenheimer, “Urban Mobility in the public spaces, high-quality architectural and Developing World,” Transportation Research A, Vol. natural elements that reflect unique features 33, No. 7/8, Sept./Nov. 1999, pp. 671-689. of the community, preservation of special < WSDOT, What Is Least Cost Planning? cultural and environmental resources, and (www.wsdot.wa.gov/regions/northwest/MtBaker/ high standards of maintenance and repair. Planning/least_cost_planning.htm), 1999. < Encourage quality, compact development. Allow and encourage higher density development, particularly around transit and commercial centres. Demand high quality design to address problems associated with higher density.
12 13 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management
< . Locate new Encourage infill development Travel blending or ‘social Traffic management development within or adjacent to existing agencies urban areas. Encourage redevelopment of marketing’ Cracknell, 2000 older facilities and brownfields. Partly adapted from: Walter Hook & Lloyd Wright, Reducing Greenhouse Gas Some cities have created Emissions by Shifting Passenger Trips to Less Polluting Modes, Nairobi, 2002. < Reform tax and utility rates. Structure property competent professional Transportation agencies in cities in various parts taxes, development fees and utility rates traffic management agencies of the world, including Santiago, Chile, have to reflect the lower public service costs of outside the city structure implemented a low-cost marketing technique clustered, infill development, and encourage to help isolate technical functions from the political businesses to locate in accessible locations. called “travel blending” that can result in significant mode shifts. It uses direct marketing cycle. Overall policies < Concentrate activities. Encourage walking and and personal contacts with residents to provide must still be approved by transit by creating “nodes” of high-density, city political leaders, but if them with better information about their travel mixed development linked by convenient the professional agency is options. transit service. Concentrate commercial successful and respected the The program involves contacting households activities in these areas. Retain strong likelihood of erratic change is downtowns and central business districts. Use in a particular area (usually one well served by reduced. For example: access management to discourage arterial strip transit) in order to identify people who are most < Several cities in Mexico commercial development. receptive to changing their travel behaviour, and have created independent transport institutes. These < Encourage transit-oriented development. supplying them with information such as public have secure funding (e.g., Encourage dense development within walking transit guides, cycling maps and information on the institute in Ciudad other mobility management services. Residents distance (0.4 to 0.8 km) of transit stops, and Juarez receives 1.75% of are even offered a household visit by a travel provide high quality pedestrian and cycling city revenues), contract facilities in those areas. planning expert. Feedback from these interviews terms for senior staff that < Manage parking for efficiency. Encourage is used to identify ways to improve local do not coincide with the shared parking, and other parking transportation services. political cycle, and do not management strategies. Reserve the most Impressive results depend on the may to se- convenient parking for rideshare vehicles. The results to date have been remarkable. In lect the institute’s president. 12 13 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Table 7: Comparing Smart Growth and sprawl. Smart Growth Sprawl Density Higher density. Lower density Growth pattern Infill (brownfield) development Urban periphery (greenfield) development Land use mix Mixed land use Homogeneous land uses Human scale. Smaller buildings, Large scale. Larger buildings, blocks, wide blocks and roads. Careful detail, since Scale roads. Less detail, since people experience people experience the landscape up the landscape at a distance, as motorists close, as pedestrians Multi-modal transportation and land Automobile-oriented transportation and Transportation use patterns that support walking, land use patterns, poorly suited for walking, cycling and public transit cycling and transit Streets designed to accommodate a Streets designed to maximise motor vehicle Street design variety of activities. Traffic calming traffic volume and speed Planned and coordinated between Unplanned, with little coordination between Planning process jurisdictions and stakeholders jurisdictions and stakeholders Emphasis on the public realm Emphasis on the private realm (yards, Public space (streetscapes, pedestrian environment, shopping malls, gated communities, private public parks, public facilities) clubs) connections for non-motorised travel, such as Table 8: Smart Growth implementation. trails that link dead-end streets. Smart Growth < Implementation Mechanism Preserve green space. Preserve open space, Measure particularly areas with high ecological and State growth controls Increased recreational value. Channel development into State development incentives Density and Infill areas that are already disturbed. Local growth controls Development < Encourage a mix of housing types and prices. Local incentives Develop affordable housing near employment, State development incentives Transit Oriented Local growth controls commercial and transit centres. Develop second Development suites, apartments over shops, lofts, location- Local incentives efficient mortgages and other innovations to State growth controls help create more affordable housing. Jobs/Housing State development incentives Balance Local growth controls How it is implemented Local incentives Local growth controls Land Use Smart Growth is usually implemented as a set Local design controls Mixing of policies and programs by state/provincial, Local incentives regional or local governments. Implementation Tax, State tax policy often requires policy and institutional reforms, Development Local development and tax Fees and Utility policy and multi-jurisdictional coordination. Table 8 Pricing Reforms Utility rate structure indicates the level of government action that can Local growth controls Neotraditional implement specific Smart Growth measures. Local design controls Design Local incentives Smart growth resources Site Design Local zoning codes < Danielle Arigoni, Affordable Housing and Smart and Parking Local design controls Growth: Making the Connections, National Management Neighborhood Coalition (www.neighborhoodcoaliti on.org), 2001. < Congress for New Urbanism (www.cnu.org) is a < Centre for Liveable Communities (www.lgc.org/clc) movement centered on human scale communities. helps local government and community leaders in < Reid Ewing, Best Development Practices, Planners land use and transport planning. Press (www.planning.org), 1996. < Centre for Watershed Protection (www.cwp.org) < Joel S. Hirschhorn, New Community Design to provides analysis and resources for minimising the Rescue, National Governor’s Association hydrologic impacts and pollution. (www.nga.org), 2001. 14 15 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Todd Litman, Land Use Impact Costs of Transportation, VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 1999. < NEMO Project (www.canr.uconn.edu/ces/nemo) provides resources for communities to reduce their amount of impervious surfaces. < Planners Web (www.plannersweb.com), includes a sprawl resources guide, a primer for citizen planners, and other resources. < PolicyLink (www.policylink.org) provides information on Smart Growth policies to benefit disadvantaged populations. < Smart Growth Network (www.smartgrowth.org) provides information and support for Smart Growth planning and program implementation. < US EPA, Improving Air Quality Through Land Use Activities, EPA420-R-01-001, Transportation and Air Quality Centre, (www.epa.gov/otaq/traq), 2001. < US EPA Smart Growth Website (www.epa.gov/ smartgrowth). < US EPA Smart Growth Index (SGI) Model, (www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/sgipilot.htm), 2001. < VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. Fig. 55 < World Health Organisation Healthy Cities Project < Maintain path surfaces. Establish a system to An unsupportive (www.who.dk/london99) provides information on quickly identify and correct problems. international efforts to create healthy cities. pedestrian environment < Create bike lanes and bicycle boulevards acts as a disincentive (streets where bicycles have priority and for people to use public 5.2 NON-MOTORISED TRANSPORT motorists must drive at low speeds) where transport. PLANNING appropriate. Karl Fjellstrom, Mar. 2002 (Cairo, Egypt) Non-motorised transport (also known as active < Correct roadway hazards to non-motorised transport and human powered transport) includes transport. walking, cycling, hand carts and animal carts. < Improve non-motorised transport facility Non-motorised travel is critical for a diverse management and maintenance. transport system. Non-motorised modes are im- < Accommodate people with disabilities and portant in their own right, and most transit trips other special needs. include walking links - non-motorised transport < Develop pedestrian-oriented land use and improvements are often one of the most effec- building design. tive ways of encouraging transit use (Figure 5). < Use street furniture (e.g. benches) and design The quality of the pedestrian environment is features (e.g. human-scale street lights). important for community livability and social < Apply traffic calming, speed reductions and cohesion. Making streets pleasant and safe for vehicle restrictions. walking allows residents to interact and children < Provide bicycle safety education, law to play. enforcement and encouragement. < Integrate cycling with transit. There are many specific ways to improve non- < Provide bicycle parking. motorised transportation, as discussed in the < Address security concerns of pedestrians and Module 3d: Preserving and Expanding the Role of cyclists. Non-motorised Transport. Some key strategies are: < Establish connected walking networks. How it is implemented < Provide adequate walkway widths. Prevent Pedestrian and cycling improvements are usually vendors, pavement dwellers, vehicle parking implemented by city governments. It usually and other uses from blocking walkways. begins with a pedestrian and bicycle plan to identify problems and prioritise projects. 14 15 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Travel impacts Kunming public transport priority www.movingtheeconomy.ca/cs_kunming.html Non-motorised improvements can substitute di- The Kunming Public Transport Masterplan was rectly for automobile trips. Walking and cycling begun in 1993 by the city of Kunming, China and improvements also support transit and are criti- its sister city, Zurich. Supported by the Swiss cal to reducing per-capita motor vehicle trips. Agency for Development and Cooperation, the Nearly all trips involve non-motorised links, project defined clear priorities for the use of city often on public rights-of-way, to access an streets with the aim to transport people, not automobile or transit vehicle. Travel surveys and cars, giving priority to public transport, bicycles traffic counts usually under-record non-motor- and pedestrians. Affordability as well was an ised trips, because they ignore or undercount important aim. Two principal components of the short trips, non-work travel, travel by children, transportation policy were to run the existing recreational travel, and non-motorised links. buses, and to re-introduce trams on reserved For example, trips that are classified as “car” or lanes that were taken away from use by private "transit" trips are often actually “walk-car-walk”, car. or “walk-bus-walk” trips, yet the walking com- A first “Demonstration Bus Line”, running on ponent is not usually counted, even if it takes reserved lanes began operation in April 1999. place on a roadway. Following its success, a second line was built (this one without support from Zurich), beginning In recent years several evaluation tools have been operation in June 2002, with plans for two more developed to predict demand for non-motorised lines. The bus lanes will be changed into Modern travel, evaluate walking and cycling conditions Tram lanes once bus capacity is no longer and predict the effects of pedestrian and cycling sufficient. improvements (see the “Evaluating Non-mo- Other components of the project include: torised Transport” chapter of the Online TDM < More than 20 newly designed intersections with Encyclopedia). separate lanes for left turning bicycles. Non-motorised transport resources < Safe pedestrian crossings at street level. < ADONIS, Best Practice to Promote Cycling < Pedestrian-only streets in shopping zones in the and Walking and How to Substitute Short Car city centre. Trips by Cycling and Walking, European Union < Pedestrian islands in the middle of city streets to (www.cordis.lu/transport/src/adonisrep.htm), 1999. improve safety of street crossing. < The Bicycle Information Centre < Studies on minimizing urban sprawl by building (www.bicyclinginfo.org) provides information on densely designed towns along existing railway non-motorised transport planning and programs. lines. < Centre for Alternative and Sustainable Transport No other city in China is following so (www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/sciences/geography/ cast/casthome.html) performs research on non- comprehensive an urban development and motorised, sustainable transport. transportation policy. It was a courageous step by < Robert Cervero and Carolyn Radisch, Travel the municipal government of the city of Kunming, Choices in Pedestrian Versus Automobile Oriented to take away one lane from non public transport Neighbourhoods, UC Transportation Centre, UCTC and dedicate it exclusively to buses. No other city 281 (www.uctc.net), 1995. in China has a concept for developing the greater < DETR, Cycling Bibliography and Walking city region like Kunming with densely built new Bibliography, Department of Environment, Transport and Regions, (www.roads.detr.gov.uk/ towns along the railway, as a precondition for roadnetwork/ditm/tal), 2000. using public transport in a high degree. < DRD, Collection of Cycle Concepts, Danish Road Kunming planning officials are monitoring Directorate (www.vd.dk/wimpdoc.asp?page=docu the public's response to these projects through ment&objno=17291), 2000. public surveys. The first, in 1999, found the total < I-ce, The Significance of Non-Motorised Transport satisfaction rate of citizens toward the project to for Developing Countries: Strategies for Policy be 79% and by 2001 the total satisfaction was Development, World Bank, Urban Transport over 96%. Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ transport/utsr.nsf), 2000. 16 17 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < International Bicycle Fund (www.ibike.org) provides save money by driving less. For example, if park- information and resources to support cycling. ing facility costs are subsidised through taxes or < Less Traffic( www.lesstraffic.com) provides rents, motorists who reduce parking demand information on traffic reduction strategies. by shifting to another mode do not receive any < Todd Litman, et al., Pedestrian and Bicycle Planning; savings. Charging motorists directly for parking A Guide to Best Practices, VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 2000. Guide with extensive references. lets motorists save when the parking costs they < Local Government Commission (www.lgc.org) impose are reduced. has resources for neighbourhood planning and Many people assume that low transportation pedestrian/bicycle improvements, including prices help stimulate economic development, "Designing Safe Streets and Neighbourhoods", "The Economic Benefits of Walkable Communities" but they actually tend to have the opposite and "Why People Don’t Walk and What City effect. Underpricing transportation through Planners Can Do About It" fact sheets. low taxes and subsidies encourages inefficient < Roger Mackett, How to Reduce the Number of transportation patterns, including use of fuel- Short Trips by Car, European Transport Conference, inefficient vehicles and increased motor vehicle University College London (www.ucl.ac.uk/ travel, which reduces overall economic produc- transport-studies/shtrp.htm), 2000. tivity and increases consumption of imported < Oregon DOT Bicycle and Pedestrian Planning (www.odot.state.or.us/techserv/bikewalk/ goods. Reforms that reflect basic market princi- obpplan.htm) shows good non-motorised planning. ples such as marginal-cost pricing, cost recovery, < Pedestrian Information Centre (www.walkinginfo. economic neutrality and improved consumer org) is a planning information clearinghouse. options tend to increase overall productivity and < John Pucher and Lewis Dijkstra, Making Walking economic development. Specific market reforms and Cycling Safer: Lessons from Europe, are described following. Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 3, Summer 2000, available at VTPI (www.vtpi.org). Vehicle tariffs and industrial development < Push Play, Movement=Health - Guidelines for the Promotion of Physical Activity, Hillary Commission Countries can establish import and industrial and Push Play (www.pushplay.org.nz), 2001. policies to favour efficient travel modes. Non- < VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport motorised vehicles and buses can have relatively Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. low import tariffs and taxes, while private auto- < Walking Steering Group, Developing a Walking mobiles and fuels can have relatively high tariffs Strategy, UK Department of the Environment and taxes to discourage their purchase. Transport and the Regions (www.local- transport.detr.gov.uk/walk/walk.htm), 1996. Commuter financial incentives < WTPP, World Transport Policy and Practice – Special Pedestrian Planning Issue, Volume 7, Commuter financial incentivesinclude several Number 4 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), types of incentives that give employees financial 2001. Articles on ways to improve walkability. rewards for using alternative commute modes: < Charles Zeeger, et al, Pedestrian Facilities < Parking cash out means that commuters who User Guide: Providing Safety and Mobility, are offered subsidised parking are also offered (www.walkinginfo.org), Highway Safety Research Centre, Federal Highway Administration, the cash equivalent if they use alternative modes. Publication FHWA-RD-01-102, 2002. < Travel allowances are a payment to employees instead of parking subsidies. 5.3 TRANSPORTATION MARKET AND Commuters can use this money to pay for PRICING REFORMS parking or for another travel mode. < Transit and rideshare benefits are free or Motor vehicle travel tends to be underpriced: discounted transit fares provided to employees. many of the costs of driving are indirect, borne < Reduced employee parking subsidies means by society in general rather than individual that commuters who drive must pay some or motorists. Many market reforms charge motor- all of their parking costs. ists directly for the costs they impose. This gives < Company travel reimbursement policies motorists an incentive to use vehicles more that reimburse bicycle or transit travel as well efficiently, and provides a new opportunity to as automobile mileage for business trips. 16 17 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management The full costs of motor Road pricing Some developing country governments undertax or subsidise vehicle fuel as a way to minimise vehicle transportation Road pricing means that motorists pay directly transportation costs, but this is poor public Motor vehicle transportation for using a particular roadway or driving in a policy. It is unfair, because most of the benefits involves a variety of costs, particular area. It has two general objectives: rev- many of which are indirect or accrue to wealthier consumers (because they enue generation and congestion management. external (Litman, 2002). drive more than average), and it encourages < Vehicle ownership (pur- Congestion pricing (also called value pricing) inefficient transportation habits, including larger chase, registration fees, refers to road pricing used as a demand man- vehicles and increased driving. Higher taxes on insurance). agement strategy to reduce traffic congestion. fuel and lower taxes on goods such as basic food < Vehicle operation (fuel, Congestion pricing requires time-variable tolls, products and tools tend to provide greater over- maintenance, repair, tolls). with higher during peak periods and lower all equity and economic development benefits. < Parking or non-existent when roads are uncongested. < Traffic congestion Time-variable tolls can be based on a fixed < Traffic crashes “Travel impacts are greatest schedule daily and weekly schedule, or they can < Roadway facilities (includ- if reforms are predictable and ing the land devoted to be dynamic, meaning that rates change depend- roads). ing on the level of congestion that exists at a gradual, and if they are supported < Traffic services particular time. It can be implemented on exist- by other transport and land use < Negative land use impacts ing roadways to avoid the need to add capacity. reforms that improve accessibility (sprawl, damage to cul- Some highways have a combination of unpriced tural and environmental lanes and value priced lanes, allowing motorists and transportation options” resources, increased imper- to choose between driving in congestion and vious surface and resulting Neutral tax policies paying a toll for an uncongested trip. stormwater management An efficient tax structure is economically costs, more dispersed land Economists have long advocated road pricing as neutral. It would not favour automobile expen- use patterns and resulting an efficient and equitable way to pay roadway ditures over other transport modes, transport reductions in accessibility). costs and encourage more efficient transporta- over other consumer expenditures, or transport < Negative social impacts tion. However, consumers tend to oppose any (reduced opportunity for facilities over other investments. Some current new fee, and motorists can be a strong political non-drivers, reduce com- tax policies unintentionally favour car use. munity cohesion) lobby against road pricing, even in developing < Barrier effect (reduced countries where they represent a small portion Employee parking subsidies are often exempt mobility and safety to pe- of citizens. Road pricing must therefore be from income taxes, and land devoted to parking destrians and cyclists) presented as a package that provides a variety is often taxed at a lower rate than if the land < Energy consumption exter- of benefits, and as a substitute for other equally was used for a building. This creates an incen- nalities unattractive taxes or fees. tive for employers to provide free parking as an < Air pollution employee benefit, but without parking cash out Road pricing should be implemented in con- < Noise policies, employees using other modes receive no junction with improved transportation options, < Water pollution comparable benefit. < Waste disposal (junk ve- so consumers have viable alternatives. hicles, used tires, battery Improved transportation pricing methods waste, etc.) Revenue-neutral tax shifts Current transportation pricing methods have Since governments must tax something to raise several problems. Fuel taxes and vehicle regis- revenue, many economists recommend shifting tration fees do not accurately reflect many of taxes from socially desirable activities to activi- the costs imposed by a particular vehicle. Fuel ties that impose external costs. For example, tax revenue is likely to decline in the future as revenue from increased road use charges and fuel vehicles become more fuel efficient and shift to taxes could be used to reduce employment and alternative fuels. general sales taxes, resulting in less vehicle travel and more employment and business activity. Neutral planning and investment policies This can provide multiple benefits, including economic development, environmental protec- Some current planning and investment tion, and more efficient transportation. practices favour car-oriented transportation improvements over other modes, and favour 18 19 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management transportation over other types of public ex- Recommended road pricing penditures. (For more information refer to the “Comprehensive Transport Planning” chapter of characteristics the VTPI Online TDM Encyclopedia.) Cracknell, 2000 An effective and fair road pricing system should How it is implemented reflect the following characteristics. Most comprehensive market reforms require User perspective: federal or state/provincial legislation. Some tax < Easy for users to understand. reforms (such as tighter controls over personal < Convenient – does not require vehicles to stop use of business vehicles) can be implemented by at toll booths. government agency administrative action. Road < Transport options – consumers have viable and parking pricing can be implemented at the travel options available (i.e., alternative modes, local or regional level. Parking pricing, parking travel times, routes, destinations). cash out and distance-based insurance can be < Payment options – easy to use with multiple implemented by businesses. payment options (cash, prepaid card, credit card.) < Transparent – charges evident before trip is “Travel impacts are greatest if undertaken. < Anonymous – privacy of users is assured. reforms are predictable and gradual, Traffic authority perspective: and if they are supported by other < Traffic impacts – does not require all vehicles transport and land use reforms” to stop at toll booths or in other ways delay traffic. Travel impacts < Efficient and equitable – charges reflect true user costs. Travel impacts are greatest if reforms are pre- < Effective – charges reduce congestion by dictable and gradual, and if they are supported changing travel behaviour. by other transport and land use reforms that < Flexible – easily accommodates occasional improve accessibility and transportation options. users and different vehicle types. The “Transportation Elasticities” chapter of the < Reliable – minimal incorrect charges. Online TDM Encyclopedia (www.vtpi.org/tdm/ < Secure and enforceable – minimal fraud or non- tdm11.htm), and PETS (2000) describe ways compliance. to predict the travel impacts of more optimal < Cost effective – positive return on investments. pricing. Potential travel reductions are large. < Implementation – minimum disruption during Charging motorists directly for the costs of development. Can be expanded as needed. driving, and eliminating distortive tax and in- vestment policies, can reduce automobile use by Society’s perspective: 20 – 50% (ICF, 1997; Litman, 2000). < Benefit/cost – positive net benefits (when all impacts are considered). Best practices < Political acceptability – public perception of fairness and value. < Price reforms should be predictable and gradual. < Environment – positive environmental impacts. < Various price reforms should be considered, including higher fuel prices, road tolls and < Integrated – same charging system can be used parking fees. to pay other public service fees (parking, public < Price reforms should be selected to provide transit, etc.). multiple benefits, including economic development, transport improvements, < Increases in automobile user fees should be environmental protection and increased equity. implemented with improved travel options, < Price reforms should explicitly address equity so travelers can choose alternative modes to issues, if necessary, by using revenues in ways avoid price increases. that benefit disadvantaged populations. 18 19 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Transportation market reform resources Bicycle encouragement in Africa < The Center for a Sustainable Economy (www.sust www.ITDP.org ainableeconomy.org) publishes Tax News Update, In light of rising petrol prices, advocacy groups a free weekly electronic newsletter that reports on in Kenya and Tanzania are changing the public environment-related tax news. perception of the bicycle as vital tool for < Alan Durning and Yoram Bauman, Tax Shift, development, and convincing their governments Northwest Environment Watch (www.northwestwat to make bicycles less costly. Kenya recently ch.org), 1998. eliminated the import tariff on bicycles, and < EEA, Environmental Taxes: Recent Developments in Tanzania reduced the duty on bicycle tires. When Tools for Integration, Environmental Issues Series Ghana eliminated its tariff on the importation of No. 18, European Environment Agency (http:// bikes, bike imports skyrocketed 1,000%. org.eea.eu.int), Nov. 2000. On June 13th, 2002, the Kenyan government < European Transport Pricing Initiatives announced the elimination of bicycle import (www.transport-pricing.net). duties. The decision comes on the heels of a < Oscar Faber, Fair and Efficient Pricing in Transport rise in petrol prices, and should give a significant - The Role of Charges and Taxes, European Commission DG TREN in association with EC boost to bike sales and use. The International DG TAXUD and EC DG ENV. Available through Technology Development Group (ITDG) in Kenya the European Program for Mobility Management was a key force behind the decision. (www.epommweb.org), 2000. The lower bike prices will enable more < J. Hoerner and J. Mutl, Good Business: A Market widespread bike ownership among commuters Analysis of Energy Efficiency Policy, Center for a and bike taxi operators, many of whom are Sustainable Economy (www.sustainableeconomy. currently renting bicycles. Some existing bike taxi org), 2000. operators complain that the low price of bikes will < ICF, Opportunities to Improve Air Quality Through lead to an influx of taxi operators, creating too Transportation Pricing, Office of Mobile Sources, much competition to maintain previous incomes. EPA (www.epa.gov/otaq/market/pricing.pdf), 1997. Others say that this fear is unfounded, due to the < Doug Koplow and John Dernbach, Federal Fossil rising petrol prices that will create more demand Fuel Subsidies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A for bike taxis. Case Study of Increasing Transparency for Fiscal By contrast, the Tanzanian government has Policy, Annual Review of Energy and Environment, Vol. 26 (www.annualreviews.org), 2001, pp. 361-89. yet to remove bicycle import duties, although they have recently reduced the duty on bicycle < Todd Litman, Charles Komanoff and Douglas Howell, Road Relief; Tax and Pricing Shifts for a tires by 10%. While tires comprise only 1/6 of the Fairer, Cleaner, and Less Congested Transportation price of a new bike, they are the most expensive System in Washington State, Climate Solutions part that needs routine replacement, so it will be (www.climatesolutions.org), 1998. more affordable for people to keep their bikes on < Todd Litman, Socially Optimal Transport Pricing the road. In a country where the average price of and Markets, VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 2000. a bike is Tanzania Shs 60,000 and the per capita < Todd Litman, Transportation Cost and Benefit income is Tanzania Shs 270,000 per annum Analysis: Techniques, Estimates and Implications, (a bicycle costs about 22% of average annual VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 2002. income), this is an important first step. < Gerhard Metschies, Fuel Prices and Taxation, The Association for the Advancement of Low- with Comparative Tables for 160 Countries, Cost Mobility, the organization that lobbied for the German Agency for Technical Cooperation reduction, is taking their campaign further, hoping (www.zietlow.com/gtz/fuel.pdf), May 1999. to convince the government to follow Kenya’s < NEPP 3, National Environment Policy Plan 3, lead and reduce the duty on the entire bike. (English Language version 264 pages), Ministry of The benefits of reducing or eliminating the Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment, The Netherlands (www.netherlands-embassy.org/ tax are numerous. With access to this low- c_envnmp.html) 1998. cost transportation, villagers can take grain to < OECD, Database on Environmentally Related Taxes, the market in larger quantity and more quickly; (www1.oecd.org/env/policies/taxes), 2001. children in rural areas can reduce their travel time • Stephen Potter and Tom Rye, The Potential for to school by hours; traditionally disadvantaged Further Changes to the Personal Taxation Regime groups, such as women, can increase their to Encourage Modal Shift, DTLR (www.dtlr.gov.uk/ access to self-employment opportunities. itwp/modalshift), 2000. 20 21 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Redefining Progress (www.rprogress.org) promotes CTR programs must be able to meet employees’ market reforms that incorporate environmental and diverse and changing needs. Many employees social values into economic decisions. can use transport alternatives part-time, if given < T&E, Counting the Kilometres - And Paying for suitable support and incentives. For example, Them; How to Introduce an EU Wide Kilometre Charging System, European Federation for many employees can car pool, telecommute Transport and Environment (www.t-e.nu), 2000. or flextime two or three days a week. Some < US EPA, Directory of Air Quality Economic employees may be able to bicycle commute part Incentive Programs, (http://yosemite.epa.gov/aa/ of the year. programs.nsf), 2001. < William Vickrey, Principles of Efficient Congestion How it is implemented Pricing, Columbia Univ., 1992, available at www.vtpi.org/vickrey.htm. To establish a commute trip reduction program, a business usually develops corporate goals and < VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. objectives, policies and procedures, and services and benefits. Travel surveys help plan and evaluate programs. CTR programs may be managed by 5.4 PUBLIC TRANSPORT an in-house Employee Transport Coordinator, a IMPROVEMENTS specialised transport services company, or a local Public transport in developing cities is the sub- transport management association. ject of Modules 3a, 3b and 3c of this Sourcebook. Travel impacts 5.5 COMMUTE TRIP REDUCTION Most peak period travel in developing cities is PROGRAMS for commuting. Though there is limited experi- Commute trip reduction (CTR) (also called em- ence with CTR programs in developing cities, ployee trip reduction) programs give commuters such programs may have positive impacts by resources and incentives to reduce their automo- reducing peak period congestion in any city where bile trips. CTR programs typically include some automobile commuting contributes significantly to of the following strategies: urban traffic congestion and pollution problems. Even in low-income cities there may be oppor- < Commuter financial incentives (parking cash out and transit allowances). tunities to avoid traffic problems by encouraging employees who own an automobile to use alterna- < Rideshare matching. tive commute options at least part-time. < Parking management and parking pricing. < Alternative scheduling (flextime and CTR travel impacts can be measured in the fol- compressed work weeks). lowing ways: < Telework; substituting telecommunications < Mode split: The portion of trips currently for physical travel. made by single occupant vehicle (SOV), < TDM marketing and promotion. transit, ridesharing, cycling and walking. < Guaranteed ride home. < Average vehicle occupancy (AVO): Number of < Walking and cycling encouragement. people traveling in private vehicles divided < Walking and cycling improvements. by the number of private vehicle trips. This < Bicycle parking and changing facilities. excludes transit vehicle users and walkers. < Worksite amenities to reduce the need to < Average vehicle ridership: All person trips drive for errands. divided by the number of private vehicle trips. < Company travel reimbursement policies This includes transit vehicle users and walkers. that reimburse bicycle or transit mileage < Vehicle trips or peak period vehicle trips: The for business trips when these modes are total number of private vehicles arriving at comparable in speed to driving, rather than a worksite (often called “trip generation” by only reimbursing automobile mileage. engineers). < Company vehicles, to eliminate the need for In developed countries, comprehensive CTR employees to drive to work in order to have programs typically reduce peak-period automo- their cars for business travel. bile trips by 10 – 30% at a worksite, and even 20 21 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management more if supported by regional mobility manage- Africa Safe Routes to School ment strategies such as transit improvements. www.movingtheeconomy.ca/cs_tanzania.html The majority of Tanzania's urban dwellers A British study of CTR programs found that: face chronic mobility problems including: high These organisations managed to reduce the num- proportions of family income needed for daily bers of cars arriving at their sites by more than 14 travel; long travel distances due to fast city per 100 staff – more than an 18% reduction in the number of cars. Sixteen of the travel plans cut car growth; a poor route infrastructure network, use by more than 10%, five by more than a fifth especially for walking and cycling; and a high and two by more than 50%. (DTLR, 2002). number of traffic accidents involving non- motorised transport users. Table 9 shows the predicted trip reduction These problems are even worse for school impacts of various strategies in a Sacramento children, who are sometimes denied access on (USA) CTR program. private buses. Female students are sometimes forced to engage in relationships with male Best practices drivers or conductors to facilitate easy entry in < Make CTR programs diverse and flexible the private buses and many children suffer from to meet employees’ varying needs. Design poor attendance and late arrival at school. The programs to support a variety of choices and cost of transport also limits access to schools and incentives. The more incentives a program disrupts education, especially of female pupils. includes, the more effective it is likely to be. The Association for Advancing Low Cost < The most effective programs include both Mobility (AALOCOM) was formed to address travel choice improvements (improved transit, the mobility needs of Tanzania's urban dwellers, ridesharing, cycling, walking, telework) and starting with school children. The Safe Routes incentives to reduce driving. to School Demonstration Project is in the < Worksites that lack public transit can still planning stages at the time of writing, but it is a have effective programs based on ridesharing spectacular example of a community responding and cycling encouragement. to a community problem in a manner that is < Executive commitment can affect program participatory, broad-based and open. AALOCOM effectiveness. If employees perceive support recognises that the success of the project from top company officials they are more depends on the participation of the different likely to participate in trip reduction efforts. parties responsible. Using a broad base of stakeholders (parents, teachers, police, NGOs, Table 9: Sacramento trip reduction credits transportation officials and decision makers), from specific strategies.Values indicate how AALOCOM's participatory approach creates a much commute travel is predicted to decline sense of ownership and responsibility around in response to these strategies. child, pedestrian and cycling safety issues. Within The project will be piloted in a medium sized 660 ft of Else- TDM Strategy CBD city with significant traffic problems, using schools Transit where with a high percentage of children residing 2-3 Station kilometres away. It will focus on: Rideshare Vehicle 10% 5% 5% Preferential Parking < Identifying walking and cycling routes to school where traffic safety is a major concern. 100% Transit/ 35% 25% 10% Rideshare Subsidy < Educating parents about child pedestrian safety issues and solutions; 50% Transit/ 20% 15% 10% Rideshare Subsidy < Developing traffic calming and infrastructure plans. < Working with parents, community leaders and Vanpool Program 10% 10% 10% decision makers to reach agreement on what Worksite Showers and 5% 2% 2% changes to make. Lockers < Facilitating availability of affordable bicycles to Guaranteed Ride Home 2% 2% 2% teachers and pupils. Onsite Childcare 5% 5% 5% 22 23 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Involve employees and labour organisations Clean Commute in South Africa in CTR program planning and marketing. www.cerf.org/iiec/offices/as-project.htm Support or resistance from labour On 12 May 1997, IIEC-Africa and the Department organisations can affect program effectiveness. of Minerals and Energy jointly launched a transport < Encourage the concentration of employment reduction program known as the Clean Commute into large commercial centres with good (the SeSotho name is “Leeto le Phepa”). The quality public transit service, and appropriate Clean Commute initiative features innovative amenities such as shops and services within mechanisms such as car-pooling and van-pooling convenient walking distance. schemes as well as flexible work hours and < Form transportation management tele-commuting options to reduce the impact associations so employers in an area can of single-occupancy vehicles on South Africa’s coordinate their CTR programs. increasingly grid-locked roads. Additionally, the < Guaranteed ride home and marketing initiative will be working closely with the Midrand programs can significantly increase the Transport Association and the mini-bus taxi effectiveness of other strategies, although they industry. The Clean Commute is initially being have little effect by themselves. pilot tested in Kyalami Business Park in Midrand. < Some types of work require employees to have Funding for the Clean Commute is shared jointly an automobile, although this can be address between the Dept. of Minerals and Energy and the if employers have a vehicle pool or carshare US Environmental Protection Agency. services available for business trips. In April 1998, IIEC-Africa co-hosted a one- week Sustainable Transport Study Tour to the Commute trip reduction program Netherlands for South Africa’s Parliamentary resources Transport Study Group and other key transport < Association for Commuter Transportation officials. The study tour was developed to (www.actweb.org) provides CTR resources. investigate the policy, planning, and project work < BC Transit, Travel Options Manual, BC Transit of Dutch transport officials, and determine the (www.bctransit.com/traveloptions/introduction/ applicability of these interventions in the South introduction.htm), 2000. African context. The study tour covered key < CARAVAN, Commuter Programs at the Worksite, Commuter Information Centre transport topics such as developing effective (www.commute.com/wrksite.htm), 1999. public transportation systems, planning for < Centre for Urban Transportation Research, bicycle and pedestrian friendly communities, (www.cutr.eng.usf.edu) provides resources and understanding transport economics and training for CTR program development. externalities, and revitalising central business < The Commuter Challenge Program (www.Com districts. IIEC-Africa co-hosted this tour with the muterChallenge.org) provides businesses with Centre for Energy Conservation and Environmental expertise to reduce commute trips. Technology in Delft. The study tour produced a < Commuter Choice Program ten-point set of recommendations for sustainable (www.commuterchoice. com) provides information on CTR programs. transport activities in South Africa. < AVR Employer Trip Reduction Software, Clean commute information centre Centre for Urban Transportation Research, In conjunction with a major travel demand (www.cutr.eng.usf.edu/tdm/download.htm), 1998. management project in the Midrand area, IIEC Software that predicts the change in average and its Clean Commute partners are developing a vehicle ridership resulting from CTR measures. business plan for a Commuter Information Centre. < Dept. of Transportation, Lands and Regions, The Centre will offer information on park-and-ride Making Travel Plans Work: Lessons From UK Case Studies, (www.dtlr.gov.uk), 2002. opportunities, existing public transport routes, < FDOT, Commute Alternatives Systems Handbook, schedules and fees, and in general promote public Florida Department of Transportation (http:// transport and non-motorised transport options for plan2op.fhwa.dot.gov/pdfs/Pdf1/Comm_alt.pdf), residents, workers, shoppers, business travellers manual on CTR program development. and tourists. IIEC’s partner in this work is MidTran; < Go Green, Walk & Roll: A Guide to Active the work is jointly funded by the CSIR and US EPA. Transport To, From, and At the Workplace, 22 23 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Canadian Council for Health and Active Living relatively high congestion, road wear, accident at Work (www.goforgreen.ca/resources/ risk, air pollution and noise costs, so travel Resource.html). reductions (Figure 6) can provide significant < SAVE, Toolbox for Mobility Management in benefits in areas where they are concentrated. Companies, European Commission (www.mob ilitymanagement.be), 2001. Information to help companies develop a mobility plan. Freight transport management resources < US EPA, Commute Alternative Incentives, < Stefanie Boge, "The Well-Travelled Yogurt Pot: Transport and Air Quality TCM Technical Lessons for New Freight Transport Policies and Overviews, (www.epa.gov/ oms/transp/publicat/ Regional Production," World Transport Policy & pub_tech.htm), 1998. Practice (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), Vol. 1, No. 1, 1995, pp. 7-11. < VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. < J. Caceres and D. Richards, Greenhouse Gas Reduction Opportunities for the Freight < WSDOT, Employee Transportation Coordinator Transportation Sector, David Suzuki Foundation Handbook, Washington State CTR Program (www.davidsuzuki.org), 2000. (www.wsdot.wa.gov/partners/wsro/ resource.htm), 1999. < CST, "Freight Transport," Sustainable Transportation Monitor, No. 4, Centre for Sustainable Transportation (www.cstctd.org), 2001. 5.6 FREIGHT TRANSPORT < Holger Dalkmann, "Sustainable Mobility: MANAGEMENT How to Move More Goods from Road To Rail - A Comparison of Germany & Britain," World Freight transport management includes various Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 6, No. 4, strategies of increasing the efficiency of freight (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), 2000, pp. 31-36. and commercial transport. Below are examples: < DETR, Sustainable Distribution: A Strategy, < Encourage shippers to use modes with lower Department of the Environment, Transport and the social costs. Regions (www.dtlr.gov.uk/itwp/susdist), 1999. < Restricted delivery times in central business < Freight On Rail Website (www.freightonrail.org.uk) districts. promotes shifting freight transport from road to rail. < Hagler Bailly, Potential for Fuel Taxes to Reduce < Use of small and medium size vehicles with Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Transport, modern emission controls in the central city Transportation Table of the Canadian National areas. Climate Change Process (www.tc.gc.ca/ < Improve scheduling and routing to reduce Envaffairs/subgroups1/fuel_tax/study1/final_ freight vehicle mileage and increase load Report/Final_Report.htm), 1999. factors (e.g., avoiding empty backhauls), < Institute of Logistics and Transport through increased computerisation and (www.iolt.org.uk) is a professional organisation. coordination among distributors. < Per Kågeson and Jos Dings, Electronic Kilometre Charging for Heavy Goods Vehicles in < Organise delivery systems so fewer vehicle Europe, European Federation for Transport and trips are needed to distribute goods (e.g., Environment (www.t-e.nu), 1999. using common carriers that consolidate loads, < Todd Litman, Transportation Cost and Benefit rather than company fleets). Analysis: Techniques, Estimates and Implications, < Use smaller vehicles and human powered VTPI, (www.vtpi.org/tca), 2002. transport for local distribution. < Logistics World (www.logisticsworld.com) is an < Implement fleet management programs that Internet directory of logistics resources. reduce vehicle mileage, use optimal sized < A.C. McKinnon, J. Campbell and D. Leuchars, vehicles for each trip, and ensure that fleet Benchmarking Vehicle Utilisation: Measurement vehicles are properly maintained. of Key Performance Indicators, Energy Efficiency Best Practice Programme, Department of < Change delivery times to reduce congestion. the Environment, Transport and the Regions < Improve vehicle operator training to (www.roads.detr.gov.uk), 1999. encourage more efficient driving. < A.C. McKinnon, A Logistical Perspective on Heavy trucks represent a major share of total the Fuel Efficiency of Road Freight Transport, traffic on some highways, particularly around International Energy Agency (www.iea.org), February 1999. major ports, rail terminals and industrial areas. Because of their size, freight trucks impose 24 25 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Rickshaw trolley community solid waste collection www.movingtheeconomy.ca/cs_rickshaw_trolley.html Before the Rickshaw Trolley Community Solid Waste Collection system was introduced, solid waste in most of Mirzapur, India was collected from neighbourhood streets in handcarts and then dumped in heaps on bigger streets. From these heaps it was lifted onto bullock carts or tractor trolleys by shovel or a hydraulic loader. While being loaded, tractor trolleys blocked traffic on the narrow streets. This was inefficient, unsanitary and undependable since the city could not afford to keep the loader operating and the staff could not manage to lift more than a little bit of the city’s garbage. Eventually garbage actually blocked many streets and drains, and obstructed maintenance of the drainage and water supply systems. The public had lost confidence in the city services and there was little money available for new equipment. Solid waste needed to be lifted from the street to tractor trolleys without hydraulic equipment. To do this the municipality in 1995 designed and Fig. 65 introduced a loading platform with an access < Glen Miller, Daniela Kiguel and Sue Zielinski, Curitiba’s road traffic ramp for direct loading into parked tractor trolleys. Moving Goods in the New Economy: A Primer for Urban Decision Makers, produced by Moving the hierarchy restricts Now 10 collection depots manage the city’s daily Economy (www.city.toronto.on.ca/mte), Detour movement of heavy solid waste. They use available space along street Publications (www.detourpublications.com/ and long vehicles in the rights-of-way and do not interfere with traffic catalogue/transport.html#mg), 2001. central traffic zone. movement. To make operation of the depots < MTE, Moving the Economy; Economic Karl Fjellstrom, Jan. 2002 feasible, the service area had to be increased. Opportunities in Sustainable Transportation, This was achieved through the introduction of a (www.city.toronto.on.ca/mte), 1998. three-wheeled rickshaw trolley with a modified < OECD, EST! Environmentally Sustainable Transport; Futures, Strategies and Best Practices, frame for easier pedaling, and a tilting bin for easy (www.oecd.org/env/ccst/est), 2000. unloading, designed and built by local workshops. < Office of Intermodalism,Compendium of These easy to move rickshaw trolleys have twice Intermodal Freight Projects, Federal Highway the capacity of handcarts and double their service Administration (www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep10/freight/ area to 400 metres. comp.html). This low-cost system has eliminated the < Office of Freight Management & Operations, FHWA need for hydraulic lifting throughout the city and (www.ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freight) promotes more efficient freight transport. dramatically reduced staff physical contact with < Oxford Economic Research Associates, The solid waste. The improvement in city appearance Environmental and Social Costs of Heavy Goods has changed the public attitude toward the city. Vehicles and Options for Reforming the Fiscal In addition, the municipality has even donated Regime, English, Welsh, and Scottish Railway a rickshaw trolley for replication to the city (EWS Railway, 310 Goswell Rd, London EC1V 7LL; of Aligarh, provided technical assistance to www.ews-railway.co.uk), 1999. numerous municipalities from India and Nepal, and < Andreas Pastowski, Decoupling Economic Develop- ment and Freight for Reducing its Negative Impacts, is exploring opportunities for private processing of Wuppertal Institute (www.wupperinst.org) 1997. compost. 24 25 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < T&E, Towards More Sustainable Freight < Taxi service improvements Transport, European Federation for Transport and < Cycling and walking improvements Environment (www.t-e.nu), 2000. < Bicycle parking < Francis M. Vanek, "Sustainably Distributed? An < Parking management and parking pricing Environmental Critique of the UK’s Sustainable Distribution Policy," World Transport Policy and < Traffic calming Practice, Vol.6 No.2 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), < Car-free planning and vehicle restrictions 2001, pp. 5-12. < Marketing to encourage visitors to arrive < VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport without a car. Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. < Commute trip reduction programs for staff. < The Wuppertal Institute (www.wupperinst.org): < Freight management to minimise truck traffic research on strategies to increase freight efficiency and restrict freight movements to particular and reduce environmental and social impacts. parts of the day < Equipment rentals (bikes, scooters, etc.). “More effective transport Resort areas tend to have heavy traffic at particu- management is urgently needed lar seasons and times of the week. Visitors have in these cities in order to retain particular mobility needs (e.g., travel between attractiveness to tourists” transport terminals, accommodations, restau- rants and shops, tourists attractions, etc.) and baggage requirements (skis, surf boards, gifts 5.7 TOURIST TRANSPORT to carry home). Many resort visitors will use MANAGEMENT alternative modes if provided with convenient, enjoyable and affordable alternatives. Many developing cities rely heavily on tour- ism-related revenues, but are suffering from Tourist transport management programs can rapidly worsening traffic conditions which make involve developing car-free travel options and these places less desirable to tourists. Such cities packages. This requires coordination to insure – where it is often impossible for tourists even that visitors’ mobility needs are served, and to safely cross a road – include for example that travel options are well publicised. When Denpasar, Kuta, Legian, Sanur and Yogyakarta planning a trip, potential visitors must be able in Indonesia, and Chiang Mai and Bangkok in to find out that they can arrive at their accom- Thailand. More effective transport management modations, travel to attractions, and carry any is urgently needed in these cities in order to baggage they need, reliably and in comfort retain attractiveness to tourists. without a car. Tourist transport management improves trans- Some sites restrict automobile use in certain ar- port options for recreational travel and reduces eas or at certain times, and provide visitor access motor vehicle traffic in resort and historic areas. by shuttle services, bicycle rentals and pedestrian Tourist travel has predictable patterns and needs, facility improvements. and occurs in unique environments sensitive to degradation by motor vehicle traffic. Tourist How it is implemented transport management can preserve the environ- Tourist transportation management programs mental amenities that attract visitors to an area, are usually implemented by regional planning whether it is an historic city centre or a pristine agencies, a parks agency, a mobility management natural environment. program, tourist promotion agencies, tourist- Tourist transport management programs can related businesses (such as a large hotel), or by include a variety of specific strategies to improve organisers of a special event (such as a major transport options, integrate alternative transport festival). These programs are often initiated to into tourist activities, provide disincentives to deal with specific traffic congestion and parking driving, and promote alternative modes. These problems, but may expand over time to become can include: more comprehensive. Visitor organisations or < Shuttle services 26 27 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management private companies may organise and publicise important in developing cities where space for car-free tour options and packages. parking is limited, and without careful manage- ment vehicles tend to take over all available Travel Impacts public space, including areas intended for pedes- Travel impacts depend on the nature of the trians, markets, parks and green space. strategies that are implemented, the types of Parking management strategies trips, location, and demographics of visitors. Large travel impacts are possible. Some resorts Parking plan and destination parks have virtually eliminated Establish a municipal parking plan that identi- private vehicle traffic. fies where parking facilities will be provided, how it will be managed and regulated, how Best practices public-owned parking facilities will be priced, Tourist mobility management planning should: and how parking regulations will be enforced. < Make it affordable, convenient and enjoyable Perform parking supply and utilization surveys to visit a resort community without using a to identify and address problems. private motor vehicle. Limit parking supply < Coordinate stakeholders (tourist agencies, transportation providers, hotels, resorts) to Cites should minimise the amount of public provide and promote car-free travel packages. space devoted to car parking. For example, avoid converting public squares, streets, sidewalks < Provide detailed information on the travel choices that are available and how to use them. and unused public land into car parking areas. Instead, create municipal and private off-street < Take into account visitors’ transport needs and preferences, including baggage paid parking. On-street parking should only requirements and the need to accommodate be provided where roads have sufficient space, changing schedules. it should not block traffic lanes, it should not displace sidewalks, and it should be regulated < Provide benefits to visitors who arrive without a car, such as priority access for buses. and priced to give priority to higher-value users (described below). Tourist transport management resources Prioritise use < Rosaleen Duffy, A Trip Too Far: Ecotourism, Politics And Exploitation, Earthscan Publication The most convenient parking spaces should (www.earthscan.co.uk), 2002. generally be managed to favour priority uses, by < The Green Tourism Association (www.deto regulating the type of users (e.g., loading, deliv- urpublications.com/cgi-bin/linker.cgi?http: eries, visitors), regulating time limits (5-minute //www.greentourism.on.ca) is a nonprofit loading zones, 30-minutes adjacent to shop organisation promoting responsible tourism. entrances, one or two hour limits for on-street < Martin Lanzendorf, "Social Change & Leisure parking in commercial areas), or pricing (higher Mobility, World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 6, No. 3, (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp), 2000, pp. 21-25. prices and shorter payment periods at the most < Todd Litman, First Resort; Resort Community Tran- convenient spaces). sportation Management, VTPI (www.vtpi.org), 1999. Priority, short-term parkers can be favoured with < MOST, "Mobility Management for Temporary parking methods that include small increments Sites," MOST News, No. 1 (http://mo.st), No. 2000. (a few minutes) and allow users to pay for just < VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport the amount of time they are parked. Longer Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2002. minimum time periods (such as parking tickets that are only sold in units of two hours or more) 5.8 PARKING MANAGEMENT tend to overcharge short-term users. Parking management includes various strate- Regulate parking facilities for efficiency gies that result in more efficient use of parking resources. Parking management can help address Parking can be regulated to encourage efficient a wide range of transportation problems, and is use of existing capacity and achieve other objec- tives (Figure 8): 26 27 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Fig. 84 Expanded walkways, bicycle parking, and less space for car parking (often accompanied by concrete bollards, or, in this case a raised curb to prevent infringements) were all features of a successful parking management policy recently implemented in Bogotá, Colombia. Parking restrictions were imposed to encourage use of alternative transport modes and make the city more ‘democratic’ by improving the quality of public space. Other mobility management measures included Car Free Day events, Ciclovia on Sundays, a surcharge on fuel, an < Limit on-street parking duration (maximum which is more suitable for long-term use by odd-even scheme, and amount of time that a vehicle can be left commuters and residents. bicycle facilities. in one space), to discourage commuters For example, a strategy used successfully in Karl Fjellstrom, Feb. 2002 from bringing cars to workplaces in the city Bogotá, Columbia as part of the city’s program centre, and discourage owners from using on- to reduce private car use was to increase public street parking for long-term vehicle storage. parking fees and to remove limits on the fees Alternatively, as in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, for that private parking companies could charge. example, apply a scale of parking charges so The additional revenue from the higher municipal that the hourly rate becomes progressively parking fees is dedicated to road maintenance more expensive for each additional hour. and public transit service improvements. < Limit use of on-street parking to area residents. < Limit on-street parking of large vehicles. Parking pricing typically reduces parking < Prohibit on-street parking on certain routes demand 10 – 30% compared with unpriced at certain times (such as arterials during rush parking. Pricing of commuter parking, and hour), to increase the number of traffic lanes. time-variable rates (higher rates during peak periods) is particularly effective at reducing peak Impose parking prices use. Charging motorists directly for the parking As much as possible, motorists should pay di- is more economically efficient and fair (horizon- rectly for using parking spaces, with prices set to tal equity) than unpriced parking that results in make the most convenient parking spaces avail- cross-subsidies from consumers who drive less to able for short-term uses and to provide revenues those who drive more than average. for transportation programs. For example, on-street parking spaces, which tend to be the When parking is priced, it is often leased by the most convenient and so is most suitable for month, with significant discounts compared short-term uses such as deliveries and shopping, with short-term pricing. This encourages mo- should have higher prices than off-street parking, torists who pay the fee to drive in order to get their money’s worth. It is more efficient to rent 28 29 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management parking in smaller time blocks (hourly or daily Allow reduced parking requirements in rates), or to prorate monthly leases by days not exchange for mobility management programs driven. For example, if full-time parking costs Parking requirements can be reduced at sites $50 per month, commuters who only drive 3 that implement mobility management pro- days a week should only pay $30. This gives grams. For example, parking requirements can motorists more choices and a financial incentive usually be reduced at sites with commute trip to use alternative modes when possible. reduction programs or accessible locations with- out problem. Tax parking facilities or their use Some communities impose special taxes on Control use of complimentary parking passes parking. For example, the city of San Francisco In some cities, public officials provide compli- charges a 25% tax on commercial parking mentary parking passes giving motorists free use transactions. This can be an effective source of of public parking facilities. Although such passes revenue, and a mobility management strategy are justified for use by public service vehicles, provided that the tax is passed on to users rather such as police and engineering officials engaged than being absorbed by businesses. in official business, such passes are sometimes abused, and used for personal trips. Use of pub- Require vehicle owners to have off-street parking lic parking passes should be carefully controlled, Some cities with limited parking supply require with regular audits. residents to show that they have an off-street parking space before they are allowed to register Transportation Management Associations an automobile. Transportation Management Associations (TMAs) are private, non-profit, member-con- Shared parking trolled organizations that provide transportation Sharing parking spaces typically allows 20 – 40% services in a particular area, such as a commer- more users than if each motorist is assigned a cial district, mall, medical centre or industrial space. For example, 100 employees can usually park. TMAs coordinate mobility management share 60 – 80 parking spaces. Even greater re- activities such as rideshare matching and transit ductions are possible with mixed land uses, since promotion, and provide brokerages services to different activities have different peak demand help individual businesses share and trade use times. For example, a restaurant can share parking of parking facilities. TMAs allow small employ- with an office complex, since restaurant parking ers to provide commute trip reduction services demand peaks in the evening while office park- comparable to those offered by large companies. ing demand peaks during the middle of the day. They are usually more cost effective than More accurate parking requirements programs managed by individual businesses. Though currently common only in North Current parking standards published by inter- America, TMAs may provide a useful model for national organizations such as the Institute of developing countries. Transportation Engineers and other planning or- ganizations reflect parking demand in developed Cash out free parking countries where automobile ownership rates are Cashing out parking means that commuters high. Such standards tend to be excessive in de- who are offered subsidised parking are also of- veloping countries with lower vehicle ownership fered the cash equivalent if they use alternative rates, in urban areas with more diverse trans- travel modes as described earlier in the section portation systems, where parking is priced, and on commute trip reduction programs. his can at sites with mobility management programs. reduce automobile commuting by 15 – 25%, Parking requirements can typically be reduced and is fairer since it gives non-drivers benefits 10 – 30% at appropriate sites if standards more comparable to those offered motorists. accurately reflect parking demand. Dense devel- oping cities should consider setting maximum Unbundle parking rather than minimum parking standards in city Unpriced parking is often "bundled" with build- centres (see text box). ing costs, which means that a certain number of 28 29 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Allow "in lieu" fees as an alternative to on-site Integrated transport spaces are automatically included with building parking management in Bremen, purchases or leases. It is more efficient and fair Germany to sell or rent parking separately, so building In lieu fees means that developers are allowed to The city of Bremen has had occupants pay for just the number of spaces that pay into a fund for off-site municipal parking great success in reducing they require, and can adjust their parking supply facilities instead of providing their own on-site car-based traffic in its historic as their needs change. parking. For example, rather than building 20 centre. Half of all trips into the parking spaces at their site, a developer may Location efficient development city centre are now made by contribute toward the construction of a 50-space public transport and a further Location efficient development means develop- parking facility that is shared among several 22% are made by bicycle. ment that is designed and managed to take sites. This results in more efficient shared park- Public transport is used by advantage of more accessible, multi-modal ing facilities, and allows parking facilities to be 58% of the shoppers in the locations (good walking, cycling and transit). central district. located where they most optimal for the sake of Parking requirements can be reduced in such An integrated strategy of urban design. raising public awareness, areas due to reduced car ownership and use. This Bicycle parking providing better public trans- encourages infill, multi-modal development. Provide bicycle parking. Allow bicycle parking port and bicycling facilities, Address spillover problems and implementing parking to substitute for minimum automobile parking management has led to these Generous and free parking is often justified in zoning codes. impressive results. Key pric- in order to avoid “spillover” parking problems ing elements in the parking in nearby areas. Spillover problems can be ad- Parking facility design strategy include: dressed directly with management, pricing and Improved parking facility design can increase < No free or unregulated enforcement strategies. On-street parking can be safety, improve aesthetics, and reduce stormwater parking in urban centres limited to residents. Residential neighbourhoods management costs. < Parking pricing reflects de- can be designated "Parking Benefit Districts," Table 10 summarises these parking management mand, with higher prices at where on-street parking is priced, with revenues attractive locations strategies, and indicates the potential reduc- used for neighbourhood enhancement or to < Car use plus parking charges tion in parking supply that they can typically reduce property taxes. Residents’ vehicles can be should not cost less than provide. using public transport in the exempted from these charges. city. Develop overflow parking plans How it is implemented Adapted from OECD 2001, Influencing Travel Demand, unpublished Excessive parking is sometimes provided to Parking management is usually implemented by meet infrequent peak demand during special local governments or individual businesses in re- events. Parking requirements can be reduced sponse to specific parking and traffic problems. by developing an overflow parking plan, and Transportation engineers and planners, either other special event transportation management. within public agencies or hired as consultants, For example, this could include use of remote are usually responsible for performing parking parking facilities with shuttle bus service, and studies, evaluating parking solutions and devel- promotion of alternative transportation to the oping parking management plans. event, such as public transit and ridesharing. Below is the typical process for developing a Parking maximums parking management plan: Some urban areas limit the maximum amount 1. Define general problems to be addressed of parking capacity allowed for various types of (parking congestion, traffic congestion, buildings or within a particular area as part of excessive parking facility costs, poor their mobility management programs. For ex- pedestrian environments, etc.) and the ample, the City of Seattle allows a maximum of geographic areas to be considered. one parking space per 1,000 sq. ft. of downtown 2. Perform parking study that includes: office space, and the City of San Francisco limits < A parking supply inventory (how many spaces parking to 7% of a downtown building’s floor area. exist of each type of parking: public and private, on- and off-street, short- and long-term, free and paid, etc.) for each geographic area. 30 31 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management Table 10: A summary of various parking management strategies Method Advantages Disadvantages Pricing and Regulatory Strategies Regulate curb-side Low implementation costs Enforcement requirements parking (loading zones, Flexible – can be quickly changed or apply to Generates no revenue 1-hour limits, etc.) for specific times. Does little to reduce overall vehicle travel demand priority May shift traffic to other locations Impose parking prices Generates revenue Enforcement requirements Reduces travel demand Risk of fraud Allows higher priority uses more convenient spaces May shift traffic to other locations Moderate implementation cost Require vehicle owners Reduces on-street parking congestion Difficult to enforce (some residents may register to have an off-street My reduce vehicle ownership there vehicles elsewhere. parking space. Low implementation cost Tax parking Generates revenue May shift traffic to other locations May reduce vehicle travel demand Risk of fraud More Efficient Use of Parking Facilities Share parking facilities Cost effective Reduces parking convenience Can reduce parking requirements Requires new administrative arrangements Flexible Depends on circumstances More accurate parking Cost effective May create future parking congestion problems supply Can reduce parking requirements Reduce parking Cost savings Limited guidance available requirements for Can reduce parking requirements Requires ongoing management mobility management Creates incentives for employee trip reduction programs programs Transportation Can reduce parking requirements Requires new administrative arrangements Management Can provide many services to businesses, Associations employees and customers Control complimentary Reduce vehicle travel demand Requires review and enforcement parking passes Can increase revenue Cash out free parking Can reduce vehicle travel demand & parking needs Requires new administrative arrangements Gives employers a way to reduce parking demand Risk of fraud Unbundle parking Reduce vehicle travel demand Requires new administrative arrangements Can reduce parking requirements Risk of fraud Increases consumer choices Other Strategies Location Efficient Supports land use objectives Slow to achieve benefits Development Reduce vehicle travel demand Can reduce parking requirements Increases consumer choices Respond to spillover Avoids problems Requires new administrative arrangements problems Is equitable Overflow parking plans Reduce vehicle travel demand Requires new administrative arrangements Can reduce parking problems Is equitable Parking maximums Saves money May lead to future parking problems Supports land use objectives Reduce vehicle travel demand Can reduce parking requirements In lieu fees Saves money Requires new administrative arrangements Results in more efficient use of parking facilities May lead to future parking problems Reduce vehicle travel demand Bicycle parking Saves money (compared with automobile parking) Only effective where people want to bicycle. Supports bicycle travel May lead to future parking problems Is equitable Improve parking facility Addresses many problems May increase costs design Requires new design guidelines 30 31 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < A parking utilisation study (what portion of Mobility management in Parking (mis)management in Aalborg, Denmark each type of parking is used at various time, The city of Aalborg has particularly peak-periods) for each geographic Bangkok, Thailand implemented a project aimed area. In terms of road network density Bangkok is about at reducing traffic to the city < Projections of how parking supply and average for an Asian city, but this relatively low centre. This involves traffic demand are likely to change in the future, road provision only partly explains the congested calming and road closures taking into account expected changes in land traffic. Bangkok with 338 parking spaces per allowing only public transport use, population, commercial activity, travel 1,000 Central Business District (CBD) jobs far and bicycle access to the patterns, etc. exceeds the average Australian city and is only city centre, a citywide bicycle < Use this information to identify when and a little less than the average US city with 380. path system, an electronic where parking supply is or will be inadequate By contrast, Singapore, Tokyo and Hong Kong parking information system average a mere 67 spaces per 1,000 CBD jobs (below), and the use of or excessive. energy- and environmentally 3. Identify potential solutions. (Kenworthy, 1995). The result is an inner city friendly buses and city cars. 4. Work with all related stakeholders to Bangkok streetscape dominated by cars; either Real time parking prioritise options. parked, moving, or stationary in congestion. information 5. Develop an integrated parking plan that The Aalborg project incl- identifies changes in policies and practices, uded a parking guidance tasks, responsibilities, budgets, schedules, etc. system providing real-time information on available Travel impacts parking spaces in city centre Automobile travel tends to be relatively sensitive parking facilities. Parking availability is displayed on to parking supply and price. Abundant, free variable message signs parking encourages driving and helps create posted along main roads dispersed, automobile-dependent land use leading into the city centre, patterns. Parking management can help shift similar to the system used automobile travel to alternative modes, and in Sapporo, Japan (below). improves access by creating more clustered, Following introduction of the multi-modal land use patterns. As the number Bangkok also applies a policy stipulating scheme, 930 km per day have of parking spaces per employee in a commercial minimum parking facilities in new buildings. been saved due to drivers not centre declines, use of alternative modes tends having to circle for parking lots. This results in up to 10 or more floors of many Adapted from OECD 2001 to increase. Charging employees directly for buildings devoted to parking (picture below). parking often reduces automobile commuting by Predictable congestion results, for example, 10 – 30% compared with employees who receive when 200 residents of a medium apartment block unpriced parking, particularly if implemented – all provided with parking spaces – try to drive with improved travel choices and other mobility to work in the morning via the narrow access management strategies. roads. Despite the excessive devotion of space to parking, however, parking is often lacking where Best practices it would be most useful: close to outer stations of Parking management best practices include: the Bangkok Skytrain MRT line. < Establish parking policies that encourage more efficient use of parking facilities whenever possible, in order to reduce the need to increase parking supply. < The most convenient parking spaces should be managed and priced to favour priority users, such as people with disabilities, rideshare vehicles, delivery vehicles, business customers and clients. Karl Fjellstrom, Jan. 2002 Karl Fjellstrom, Dec. 2001 32 33 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Parking prices should be higher during peak- < NEMO Project (www.canr.uconn.edu/ces/nemo) periods. There should be little or no discounts addresses impervious surface impacts. for long-term leases. < Ryan Russo, Planning for Residential Parking: A Guide For Housing Developers and Planners, Non- < Parking should be considered a high-quality Profit Housing Association of Northern California service. Signs, maps and brochures should be (www.nonprofithousing.org) and the Berkeley used to provide information to users. Facilities Program on Housing and Urban Policy (http://urba should be attractive and safe. User needs and npolicy.berkeley.edu), 2001. potential problems should be anticipated. < Seattle, Parking: Your Guide to < Parking services should not be one-size-fits- Parking Management, City of Seattle all. A parking facility may provide a variety of (www.cityofseattle.net/planning/transportation/ pdf/Parkingguide.pdf), 2001. services tailored to different users, including < Donald Shoup, "The Trouble With Minimum Parking valet services for premium users, convenient Requirements," Transportation Research A, Vol. short-term parking for shoppers and delivery 33, No. 7/8, Sept./Nov. 1999b, pp. 549-574, also vehicles, longer-term parking for commuters available at VTPI (www.vtpi.org). and residents, and special arrangements when < US EPA, Parking Alternatives: Making Way appropriate for commercial users. for Urban Infill and Brownfield Development, Urban and Economic Development Division, US < Parking facilities should be integrated with Environmental Protection Agency, EPA 231-K-99- overall facility and district design and style. 001 (www.smartgrowth.org/pdf/PRKGDE04.pdf), < Parking management policies and programs Dec. 1999. should be coordinated through a district or < US EPA, Parking management, Transportation region, so prices and management practices and Air Quality TCM Technical Overviews, US are consistent in comparable areas. Environmental Protection Agency (www.epa.gov/ ), 1998. < Stakeholders should be involved in planning oms/transp/publicat/pub_tech.htm parking policies and programs. < "Parking Solutions," VTPI, Online TDM Encyclopedia, (www.vtpi.org), 2002. < New technologies should be used to improve user service and revenue control. 5.9 VEHICLE FEES, RESTRICTIONS AND Information resources for parking CAR-FREE PLANNING management < Dan Burden, Street Design Guidelines for Healthy Mobility management measures can include Neighborhoods, Center for Livable Communities restrictions on vehicle traffic, in congested areas (Sacramento; www.lgc.org/clc), 1998. and at peak times. Such schemes include car-free < CORDIS, Parking Policy Measures and the Effects streets, cordon controls on entering a particular on Mobility and the Economy, Cost-Transport, area (e.g. Singapore’s Area Licensing Scheme and CORDIS (www.cordis.lu), 1999-2002. Electronic Road Pricing; Trondheim’s toll ring; < CTR, Local Government Parking Policy and and proposals for central London), and odd/ Commute Trip Reduction; 1999 Review, even schemes and variations based on number Commute Trip Reduction Office, WSDOT (www.wsdot.wa.gov/pubtran/ctr), 1999. plates. < International Parking Institute (www.parking.org) provides resources for parking professionals. Cordon / area pricing < Kyle Maetani et al., Using Demand-Based Parking Singapore’s Area Licensing Scheme and Strategies to Meet Community Goals; Local Electronic Road Pricing Government Parking Management Handbook, Singapore introduced the Area License Scheme Mobile Source Air Pollution Reduction Committee (MSRC), (www.aqmd.gov), 1996. (ALS) in 1975, with the goal of reducing traf- < Todd Litman, Pavement Busters Guide, Victoria fic during peak periods in the central business Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 1998. district. The system was based on vignettes < Oregon Downtown Development Association, and proved highly successful. In 1998 the ALS Parking Management Made Easy: A Guide was ‘upgraded’ into an Electronic Road Pricing to Taming the Downtown Parking Beast, (ERP) system introduced to cover the CBD and Transportation and Growth Management Program, several large nearby expressways. Oregon DOT and Dept. of Environmental Quality (www.lcd.state.or.us/tgm/publications.htm), 2001. 32 33 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management ERP is simply an electronic system of road pric- shifts to avoid intolerable congestion in ing. It is designed to automate the road pricing coming years. system – no more paper coupons or enforce- < Recent technological improvements in the ment officers at the gantries, as used to be the area of electronic road pricing, smart cards case with the ALS. The main difference is the and intelligent transport systems (ITS) pay-when-you-use principle. This is a fair system may help application in developing cities. as the motorist is charged only if they pass the The Philippines, for example, has recently ERP gantry. implemented a ‘smart card’ driver’s license scheme. The license includes the driver’s With ERP, motorists are more aware of the true name and address, as well as digital copies cost of driving. of a fingerprint, photo image, previous < Charges are levied on a per-pass basis and driving offenses, and total points on their vary according to time and congestion levels. record. Chinese cities have similarly showed < With this system of charging, a motorist will strong interest in ITS applications and this be encouraged to choose whether to drive, technology could be applied to road pricing. when to drive and where to drive. < They may choose a different route, mode, Trondheim’s toll ring destination, time of travel, or not to travel. Although cordon pricing schemes have been < They may decide to car-pool or use public proposed in detailed studies in many large cit- transport. ies, including developing cities such as Jakarta, < Those who choose to pay and stay on the Surabaya, Bangkok and Manila, there remain road enjoy a smoother ride. very few examples of successful applications. The advantages of ERP as a form of mobility One such example is that of Trondheim, management are that it is: Norway, which implemented a toll ring sur- < Fair: Charges are based on usage so those who rounding the city. Elements of the strategy include: contribute more to congestion pay more, and < 17 electronic toll stations: those who use the roads less frequently or < register traffic on access roads who travel during non-ERP hours pay less or < electronic payment lanes to avoid queues receive larger rebates. < differentiated tolls < Convenient: No need to buy daily/monthly < cars equipped with electronic tag paper licences. < limited duration of the system (1991-2006) < Reliable: Does not need human enforcement, < contracting-out of toll stations thereby removing the potential for human < revenues earmarked for transport investment error (adapted from www.lta.gov.sg, 2002). < additional funding for road building, public Such applications are feasible for developing cit- transport, safety and environmental projects. ies. Indeed, the Singapore system remains one of Features of the rate structure include: the few examples worldwide of a policy instru- < pay only once per hour on entry ment which has achieved massive and sustained < basic toll level 1.5 modal shifts in favour of public transport. The < heavy vehicles (> 3.5 t) pay double potential relevance of such road pricing instru- < maximum fee per month: 60 payments ments as a way of influencing travel demand in < free entry after 6 pm on workdays developing cities arises because: < free entry at the weekends. < Developing cities often have a low road Results from Trondheim include: network density and relatively few roads < Greater road use efficiency: Changes in into the city, which means that relatively few transport mode (from car to bicycle and barriers or gantries would be required. In walking), traffic reduction during tolled Surabaya, Indonesia for example, a World period, traffic increase on evenings and Bank-funded study (Dorsch Consult, 1998) weekends. recommended an Area Licensing Scheme as < Less pollution. the only way of achieving the required modal 34 35 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Rise in “living conditions”: Fewer waiting 6. Manila uses a scheme which prohibits certain Mixed results from hours for public transport or in congestion, vehicles, again identified by number plates, license plate restrictions fewer delays in transport of goods. from operating on the main traffic arteries in Athens < Revenue creation. during peak periods. Instead of pricing signals, Lessons learned from Trondheim, which are Disadvantages of odd/even schemes some cities have tried to use outright traffic bans equally applicable to developing cities consider- An odd/even system may: ing area restriction schemes, include: to manage travel demand. < Encourage an increase in the number of Bans in the form of license < Importance of public support for success of vehicles owned, as a means for households to number restrictions were tried measure. In Trondheim this was achieved avoid restrictions. This may not be a problem in Athens, Greece; Bogotá, through public awareness campaigns. Social if such vehicle restrictions are implemented Colombia; and Mexico City. and business concerns were stressed (traffic just one or two days a year. Although these bans have reduction for "environmentalists", transport < Are vulnerable to fraudulent practices such as been somewhat effective, capacity improved for "motorists"). fake number plates. many households bought < a second car or switched Acceptance increased as residents gained < Generate increased taxi trips if taxis are license plates to meet their experience with the system and saw its benefits. excluded from the scheme. Taxi oversupply is < Contracting out/privatisation is helpful. mobility needs. In Athens, the a problem in Mexico City and Bogotá. number of households with < Only a policy mix will be successful, in < Does not provide a long term solution as two cars increased, and mo- this case a toll combined with improved it will be undermined by growth in vehicle torists who were not allowed public transit service and non-motorised ownership over time; and to enter the city centre drove transportation facilities. < May be undermined by concessions and around the city to get to their destination, thereby increasing Odd / even schemes and their variations exemptions for special vehicles. the length of their trips while Advantages of odd/even schemes Another strategy is to use licence numbers to also increasing emissions. control vehicle use at certain times and loca- On the postive side, odd/even schemes: Cars bought for off-days are tions. Cracknell (2000) surveys experience: < Are often accepted by the public as they often second-hand, which 1. Lagos, in the past, used the odd-even number show a commitment by government to act to tend to be more polluting. Adapted from World Resources Institute, plate applied to the centre of the city but the reduce congestion and related air pollution. World Resources 1996-97, www.wri.org scheme is no longer operational; 2. Mexico City uses a scheme which prohibits ��������������������� car use throughout the federal district with ������������ number plates ending in "1" and "5"on Mondays, "2" and "6" on Tuesday etc for the 5-day working week ("Hoy No Circula"); 3. Bogotá uses a scheme in which 40% of private vehicles cannot operate in the city from 7 – 9am and from 5.30 – 7.30pm in accordance with designated number plates (Figure 9); ���������������������������������������� ����� ������� 4. Santiago de Chile introduced a scheme which � ��� ��� ��� � ����� ������������ ��� ���������� ������������� ��� ����� operated only on days on which atmospheric � ��� ��� ��� �� ������ � ��� ��� ��� �� ��������� ��������������������������������������� pollution reaches emergency levels. In this � ��� ��� ��� �� ������ � �������������������� � ��� ��� ��� ��� �������� case, all vehicles except buses, taxis and � �������������������� emergency vehicles were prohibited from circulation in morning and evening peaks on the six principal road axes which connect the outer and centre of the city; ���������������������������������������������������� 5. Sao Paulo uses a scheme over a wide central Fig. 95 area (within the Inner Ring – about 15km Restrictions on car use in Bogotá included an odd/even system based on diameter) in which 20% of vehicles ("1" and the last digit of vehicle number plates, which restricts 38% of vehicles each "2" on Mondays etc) are prohibited from 07: work day. 00-08:00 and 17:00-20:00 for weekdays; Un nuevo Sistema de Transporte, Bogotá, 2000 34 35 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Are less difficult to enforce than anticipated. Mobility management resources < Can provide temporary relief in order to develop something better, such as public < Access; the Sustainable Transport Forum transport priority measures. (www.ecoplan.org/com_index.htm) is an information network exploring and promoting < Assist road based public transport, at least sustainable transport. in the short term, as average travel speeds < Rahman Paul Barter and Tamim Raad, Taking increase (Bogotá reported a 20% increase Steps: A Community Action Guide to People- in travel speeds after the odd/even scheme Centred, Equitable and Sustainable Urban inception). Transport, (www.geocities.com/sustrannet) 2000 [see Sustrannet below] < Can help generate public awareness in support of a motor vehicle ‘restraint climate’. < Centre For Science And Environment (CSE) (www.cseindia.org) is a network of professionals interested in environmental and sustainable development issues, located in New Delhi, India. < Center for Urban Transportation Research, USF (Tampa; http://cutr.eng.usf.edu) provides mobility management materials and classes and the TMA Clearinghouse Quarterly. < Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) (www.worldbank.org/wbi/cleanair/caiasia) promotes ways to improve air quality of Asian cities. < Commuter Choice Program (www.epa.gov/oms/ traq) provides resources for developing employee commute trip reduction programs. < John Cracknell, Experience in Urban Traffic Management and Demand Management in Developing Countries, World Bank, Urban Transport Strategy Review (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ transport/utsr.nsf), 2000. < Equity Watch (www.cseindia.org/html/cmp/ climate/ew) is a climate change newsletter from the Southern perspective. < European Program for Mobility Management (www.epommweb.org) provides resources for mobility management planning and programs. < Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (www.itdp.org) promotes equitable and sustainable transport policies and projects worldwide. < The International Forum for Rural Transport and Development (IFRTD) (www.gn.apc.org/ifrtd) is a network to improve rural accessibility and mobility. < The International Institute for Energy Conservation (www.iiec.org) has useful documents on transport issues in Asia, Latin America, and Europe. < The International Network for Urban Development (www.inta-aivn.org) encourages exchange of information on best practices of urban development and renewal. < J.H. Koster and M. de Langen (eds), Low-Cost Mobility In African Cities; Report on the Expert Group Meeting on Low-Cost Mobility in African Cities, International Institute for Infrastructure, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (www.ihe.nl), 2001. < Todd Litman, Guide to Calculating TDM Benefits, Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org), 2001 36 37 Sustainable Urban Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities Module 2b: Mobility Management < Hugh McClintock, Comprehensive Transportation Protection Agency (http://yosemite.epa.gov/aa/ Planning Bibliography, Institute of Urban Planning, programs.nsf), 2001. Univ. of Nottingham, U.K (www.nottingham.ac.uk/ < Eduardo Alcântara Vasconcellos, Urban Transport, sbe/planbiblios/bibs), 2001. Environment And Equity - The Case For Developing < MTE, Mobility in the Developing World and Countries, Earthscan (www.earthscan.co.uk), 2001. Sustainable Transportation Live (www.movingth < Vehicle Emission Reductions Website eeconomy.ca), by Moving the Economy and the (www.adb.org/vehicle-emissions) by the Asia Canadian International Development Agency, Development Bank provides a forum for developing provides information on how developing country countries to share experiences and strategies in cities are applying sustainable transportation reducing vehicle emissions. principles to help reduce traffic congestion, facility < costs, pollution and other transport problems. Victoria Transport Policy Institute (www.vtpi.org) provides resources for planning and evaluating < Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy, Sustainability mobility management, bicycling and walking and Cities; Overcoming Automobile Dependency, programs, and the Online TDM Encyclopedia (2002). Island Press (Covelo; www.islandpress.org), 1999. < VTPI, "TDM in Developing Regions", Online TDM < K.S. Nesamani and Kaushik Deb, "Private Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute Vehicle Restraint Measures - Lessons for India," (www.vtpi.org/tdm/tdm75.htm), 2002. World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 7, No. 1 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/wt_index.htm), 2001, pp. 27-31. < Tom Rickert, Mobility for All; Accessible Transportation Around the World, Access Exchange International (San Francisco; www.indepenednetliv ing.org), 1998. Information on mobility services for people with disabilities in developing countries. < Rural Transport Knowledge Base (www.transport- links.org/rtkb/English\Intro.htm) is a set of reference and training material of the latest thinking and practice in the field of rural transport. < Theo Rwebangira, "Cycling in African Cities: Status & Prospects," World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 7. No. 2 (www.ecoplan.org/wtpp/ wt_index.htm), 2001, pp. 7-11. < The SUSTRAN network (www.geocities.com/ sustrannet) promotes sustainable transport in Asia and the Pacific. < The Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) (www.teriin.org) in New Delhi, India. < TDM Resource Centre, Transportation Demand Management; A Guide to Including TDM Strategies in Major Investment Studies and in Planning for Other Transportation Projects, Office of Urban Mobility, WSDOT (www.wsdot.wa.gov), 1996. < TravelSmart (www.travelsmart.transport.wa.gov.a u) is a community-based program that encourages people to use alternatives to their private car. < United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (HABITAT) (www.unhabitat.org) provides information on sustainable urban development and transportation. < US EPA, Transportation Control Measures Program Information Directory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (http://yosemite.epa.gov/aa/ tcmsitei.nsf), 2002. An on-line searchable database on programs to reduce transport pollution emissions. < US EPA, Directory of Air Quality Economic Incentive Programs, U.S. Environmental 36 37 Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH Dag-Hammarskjold-Weg 1-5 Postfach 51 80 65726 Eschborn Telefon (0 61 96) 79-1357 Telefax (0 61 96) 79-7194 Internet: www.gtz.de Sourcebook enquiries: [email protected] [email protected] www.sutp-asia.org On behalf of: