The Pattern of Reproductive Life in a Berber Population of

aEmile Crognier, bCristina Bernis, aSilvia Elizondo, and bCarlos Varea

aCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Equipe de Recherche 221 "Dynamique biocul- turelle," 13100 Aix-en-Provence, France; and bUnidad de Antropología, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciéncias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid 34, Spain

ABSTRACT: Reproductive patterns were studied from data collected in 1,450 Berber households in the province of , Morocco in 1984. Women aged 45-49 years had a mean of 8.9 pregnancies to achieve 5.7 living children. Social influences on fertility rates show the importance of tradition, particularly through time-dependent variables such as age at marriage, waiting time to first birth, interbirth intervals, and duration of breastfeeding. Birth control does not appear to affect the tempo of fertility; rather, its main use is to bring the reproductive period to a close. The comparison of two subsamples of women separated by a 25-year interval indicates an actual acceleration of the tempo of fertility by the reduction of waiting time to first birth and of interbirth intervals. The supposed ongoing process of demographic transition is not clearly observed in this population.

Nagi (1983), analyzing the numer- thousand, respectively), and Tunisia ous studies performed in Muslim coun- (46 and 28.2 per thousand). In spite of tries on fertility trends and their effects a drop of some 28 per cent in 23 years, upon demography and social struc- Moroccan fertility remains high. The tures, questioned whether there was mean data available for urban and any evidence of a demographic transi- rural areas in the province of Marra- tion in these societies, since fertility kesh still average 6.5 and 8.3 full-term rates remain high despite economic births per woman, respectively, at the development and a drop in mortality end of reproductive life (Crognier and rates. Therefore, Nagi proposed a sep- Zarouf, 1987; Crognier, 1989). arate concept of family—its place and The present work analyzes data of significance in social life as well as its reproductive life collected in the south- size—for Muslim countries in compar- ern part of the province of Marrakesh

Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 ison with Western societies. from a Berber population ranging from Morocco, like other Muslim nations the piedmont of the of North Africa, has undergone eco- to an altitude of about 2,500 feet. nomic and social changes since mid- Though predominantly rural, this sam- century, which began in the main cities ple also includes the population of a and their surroundings and gradually small town at a primary level of urban- involved more remote areas. Parallel- ization. ing this evolution, the crude birth rate dropped from 49 per thousand in 1965 to 35.3 per thousand in 1987 (U.N., MATERIALS AND METHODS 1990), an intermediary position com- General information about socio- pared with Algeria (50 and 47.2 per economic conditions, cultural behav-

191 192 Crognier et al. Social Biology

ior, and medical assistance was col- suitable for sophisticated analysis, in lected in 1,450 households of the particular for model fitting. "circle" of Amizmiz, an administrative subdivision of the province of Mar- rakesh. At the same time the reproduc- RESULTS tive history of each woman in the household was traced, including age at MAIN REPRODUCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS menarche, age at first marriage, age at Table 1 shows the cumulated means menopause, waiting time to first birth, of total births, of spontaneous abor- successive pregnancies with their out- tions, of stillbirths, of live births, and comes, sex of the children, conditions of children dead and alive at the time of parturition, durations of lactation, of investigation in each female age and the children's vaccinations, pres- class. ent ages or age at death and the cause The discrepancy between fertility of death, and contraceptive practice scores of women aged 45-49 years and during interbirth intervals. those of the last age class may illustrate The investigations were conducted differential reproductive success re- during two successive field trips. The lated to the improvement of living con- first, in October 1984, was part of a ditions. However, it is probably a re- general fertility survey in Marrakesh. flection of memory lapses resulting One household out of ten in areas ac- from the extensive number of repro- cessible to district nurses was sampled, ductive events. resulting in 843 records (618 in villages The high level of fertility is com- and 225 in the town of Amizmiz). This bined with a high rate of infant and ju- sampling covered the lowlands of the venile mortality. Women aged 45-49 area up to an altitude of 1,500 feet. The years have a mean of 8.9 pregnancies second field trip aimed at gathering in- to achieve a mean of 5.7 living chil- formation about communities settled dren. This profile seems close to "nat- in mountain valleys far more difficult ural fertility" (Henry, 1961), i.e., with to access. It included nine villages scat- no contraception or induced abortion, tered in the valley of (at an al- in spite of the intense governmental titude of from 2,200 to 2,500 feet) policy of family planning developed which were exhaustively investigated from 1968-72 onward. Although 40

Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 during July of 1986 and of 1987 (Naber, per cent of women in the sample de- 1989), resulting in 607 records. The clare that they are using or have used overall sampling should provide a good contraception, this record is a poor one record of living conditions and repro- if we consider that since the 70's con- ductive behaviors in this homogenous traceptives (the pill) have been freely Berber-speaking area. distributed. The proportion of contra- Since people in this area do not ceptors also varies with age, ranging record reproductive events and birth from 34 per cent in the women's age registers are imprecise, the data are an class 15-19 years up to 60 per cent in approximation of ages or spans of time the age range 25-45, when women (in years or months). The resulting in- have already experienced 3 to 9 preg- formation, though well checked, is not nancies. In its present use, contracep- Vol. 40, No. 3-4 Berber Population 193

TABLE 1 MAIN CUMULATED CHARACTERISTICS OF REPRODUCTIVE LIFE: MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS BY AGE OF WOMEN

Total No. Live No. Still- No. Spont. No. Child. No. Child. Age No. Binhs Births births Abort. Alive Dead 15-19 0.91 0.85 0.06 0.11 0.71 0.23 (0.80) (0.75) (0.25) (0.32) (0.62) (0.48) 20-24 1.95 1.79 0.14 0.10 1.41 0.55 (1.22) (1.16) (0.42) (0.47) (1.03) (0.81) 25-29 3.46 3.26 0.20 0.19 2.52 0.98 (1.91) (1.81) (0.56) (0.59) (1.48) (1.20) 30-34 5.11 4.88 0.22 0.27 3.63 1.51 (2.11) (2.06) (0.61) (0.62) (1.55) (1.52) 35-39 6.54 6.20 0.31 0.36 4.59 2.0 (2.63) (2.62) (0.79) (0.79) (2.09) (1.71) 40-44 7.54 7.15 0.36 0.39 5.13 2.45 (2.88) (2.82) (1.02) (0.81) (2.22) (2.27) 45-49 8.40 8.13 0.27 0.38 5.67 2.73 (2.64) (2.66) (0.84) (0.76) (2.35) (2.10) >50 7.30 6.82 0.46 0.52 4.55 2.87 (3.55) (3.50) (0.97) (1.03) (2.62) (2.13)

tion therefore mainly regulates the late In particular, polygyny affects repro- reproductive period. duction for a variety of reasons, in- cluding a different social selection of BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL mates, a higher frequency of sterility, a DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY higher lability of union, etc. (White, In most societies, the effective onset 1982; Ahmed, 1986; Bean and Mineau, of reproductive life is subsequent to a 1986; Pison, 1986; Pison, 1986; Ade- social event—marriage. Age at mar- wuyi, 1988; Johnson and Elmi, 1989). riage is therefore a major determinant Most observations indicate a negative of fertility. When identified with the association of polygyny with female cu- Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 function of procreation, it entails that mulative fertility, at the group level. the waiting time to first birth only ex- Polygyny is practiced in Morocco, presses the latency resulting from the and polygynous matings are 11.5 per addition of the time to fecundation and cent of the present material. They will the duration of pregnancy. In many be considered separately in the follow- traditional societies, moreover, the age ing analysis. at marriage is closely related to physi- The mean recollected age at men- cal development, so that age at men- arche (14.5 years) is still late in this arche and age at marriage are highly population (Table 2) although coher- correlated.. ent with a previous estimate by the Besides the age at marriage, the status-quo method for the city of Mar- type of union affects reproductive life. rakesh (14.10 years, Loukid, 1989). 194 Crognier et al. Social Biology

TABLE 2 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF WOMEN'S AGE, AGE AT MENARCHE, AGE AT MARRIAGE, WAITING TIME TO FIRST BIRTH, AGE AT FIRST BIRTH, AND REPRODUCTIVE SPAN

Wait. Time Age at Length of Age at Age at 1st Birth 1st Birth Repr. Span Married Women Age Menarche Marriage (Months) (Years) (Years) Total 37.3 14.5 17.8 18.7 19.3 19.3 (n = 1,450) (13.1) (1.3) (2.9) (16.5) (3.1) (6.8) Monogamous 36.7 14.5 17.1 18.4 19.2 19.5 (n = 1,273) (12.8) (1.3) (2.7) (16.1) (2.9) (6.2) Polygynous 42.5 14.7 18.8 21.0 20.5 17.6 (n = 146) (13.8) (1.4) (4.3) (19.0) (4.5) (7.4) "Reproductive span = interval between age at marriage and age at last birth computed from a subsample of women aged more than 45 years. Total sample H = 398; monogamous n = 330; polygynous /i = 58).

The differences in age groups, in meth- oping countries, though greater than ods of evaluation, and the frequent observed in a comparable country such discrepancies between rural and urban as rural Egypt by Home (1989) (x = 15 environments would account for the to 18 years). However, Home esti- variation observed. mates the span as the interval between Still, considering the total sample, the first and the last birth and limits the there is a significant (r = 0.23, P < sample to women aged 45-49 years 0.0001) but loose correlation between having borne at least two children. The age at menarche and age at marriage, application of her estimate of the re- inconsistent with the hypothesis that productive span to our sample gives marriage could be directed by physical similar results (x = 17.6 years in the maturation as found elsewhere (e.g., total sample; 17.9 years in the monog- r = 0.97 in Kenya, Bogerhoff Mulder, amous group and 15.6 years in the 1989). The length of the waiting time to polygynous group. In the Moroccan first birth is independent of both age at sample as in the Egyptian one is ob- menarche (r = 0.02) and age at mar- served an association between age at riage (r = -0.05), thus discrediting the marriage and length of reproductive hypothesis of a catch-up of fertility, span (r= -0.22, P< 0.0001) and a when either menarche or marriage oc- high correlation between span and par-

Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 cur late (as observed in Malaysia by ity (r = 0.73, P< 0.0001). Hirschman and Rindfuss, 1980). There These results suggest that the date is consequently a high correlation be- of onset and the number of successive tween age at marriage and age at first pregnancies account principally for the birth (/• = 0.90, P< 0.0001). extent of the reproductive period, re- Observed from a subsample of elder gardless of interval lengths between women, supposed to have completed births. Such characteristics shape a pat- fertility (i.e., aged more than 45 tern of natural fertility (Henry, 1961), years), the mean reproductive span es- which could fit the present population timated as the interval of time between until the possible occurrence of birth marriage and last birth is important. It control over late natality. This latter is in the range of those found in devel- hypothesis is supported by the exist- Vol. 40, No. 3-4 Berber Population 195

ence of a significant correlation be- births (considered as deaths occurring tween ages at first and last birth during and later than the seventh (r = 0.24, P < 0.0001), thus indicating month of pregnancy) from 4 to 5 per that women who married early would cent. The first are obviously under- complete childbearing earlier than reported (early miscarriages before women who married late (Trussel, three months are never mentioned), 1979). According to Naber (1989) and and the second are probably overesti- Varea (1990), the end of childbearing mated. could be subsequent to the women be- Intrauterine mortality, considered coming grandmothers. as a whole, would range from 7 per Polygyny in Morocco, though it can cent of total pregnancies for the first express different social and economic parities to 16 per cent and more by the situations (Crognier and Zarouf, 1987; twelfth. This doubling of the average Crognier, 1990), shows the conserva- rate, associated with age through in- tive aspect of local culture. In this creasing parities, is commonly ob- study, it is more frequent among older served (Leridon, 1977). Its level also people, hence the discrepancy between agrees with general estimates, either in mean ages of monogamous and poly- developing or developed populations gynous samples (difference = 5.75 (from 12 to 15 per cent, according to years). It is associated with a mean Leridon, 1977, and Bongaarts and Pot- later age at marriage and a mean ter, 1983) and is similar to figures ob- greater waiting time to first birth, re- tained by age classes (9 to 14 per cent) sulting in a mean older age at first birth for the city of Marrakesh by Bley and (difference = 1.34 year) and a mean Baali (1987). shorter span of reproductive life (dif- The traditional home confinement, ference = 1.9 year). with the help of either a parent or a neighbor acting as midwife, remains the prevalent mode of delivery. Con- TIMING OF REPRODUCTION finements in public or private mater- The recollection of each woman's nity centers are rare and seem to be as- reproductive events, summed at sam- sociated with difficulties in pregnancy ple level, expresses the collective be- or parturition. They correlate with a haviors related to fertility. The out- higher percentage of failures at any Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 comes of pregnancies, the conditions degree of parity. of confinement, the duration of breast- Breastfeeding records were taken feeding, and the length of interbirth from a subsample of women selected intervals are successively considered for having undertaken lactation and according to the parity order. maintained it until the weaning of their The outcomes of successive preg- child. For a total of 5,681 records, the nancies until the eleventh degree of mean duration of breastfeeding was parity are characterized by a quasi sta- 17.58 months (SD 6.02) and breast- ble percentage of live births (above feeding ranged from 1 to 36 months. 90 per cent). The percentage of spon- The customary span of breastfeeding is taneous abortions varies from 2 to 5 therefore extensive in this population. per cent, and the frequency of still- Differences appear with respect to 196 Crognier et al. Social Biology

marital status ^monogamous or po- TABLE 3 lygynous), with respective means of MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF 17.71 and 16.45 months (i = 4.78, BREASTFEEDING DURATION IN MONTHS P< 0.001). A difference in the dura- FOR EACH PARITY LEVEL

tion of breastfeeding is also found be- PARITY NO. Min. Max. Mean tween contraceptors and noncontra- t 929 i 36 16.78 6.33 ceptors, with respective means of 2 881 1 36 17.13 6.15 17.12 and 17.98 months (r = 6.946, 3 808 1 60 17.54 6.06 P<0.001). . 4 in 1 60 17.43 6.19 The observations in relation to par- 5 ^ j 36 17.81 5.82 36 18.12 5.76 ity (Table 3) showed a moderate trend 7 39g j 36 18.09 5.62 toward the increase of lactation time 8 308 l 36 18.19 5.74 with parity. On the other hand, no sex 9 216 l 36 18.41 5.59 differences occurred in the length of 10 144 J 36 17.85 5.75 36 18.82 5.51 lactation whatever the parity, thus ne- j* 53 12 30 19.26 4.96 gating the hypothesis of possible dis- 13"""^ 33 4 24 18.27 5.68 crimination between boys and girls. 14 13 1 24 19.00 7.07 The mean interbirth interval com- puted from the whole data (6,019 mea- sures) is 30.06 (SD 19.9 months). Its TABLE 4 span is longer among women of po- MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS IN MONTHS lygynous marital Status than among OF SUCCESSIVE INTERBIRTH INTERVALS

monogamous (respectively x = 32.4, „7^; — Mean SD = 21.5, and x = 29.8, SD = 19.8 — 36.68 26.45 months, t = 2.91, P < 0.05), a result in * 1021 28.89 16.29 agreement with the general appraisal 3 90s 28.17 15.00 of the effects of polygyny. 4 757 27.62 15.95 On the other hand, contraceptive 5 607 28.76 17.56 practices do not appear to entail sig- 6 483 29.00 17.21 29.78 19.67 nificantly longer interbirth intervals as g 269 30.24 17.67 the respective means of contraceptors 9 !84 30.53 19.40 and noncontraceptors are 29.61 (SD 10 104 29.00 16.16 17.9) and 30.43 (SD 21.4 months) H 62 26.56 13.27 Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 (f = 1.61 ns). Insofar as birth control is effective, this result agrees with the hy- pothesis that contraception is imple- taneously considered, a weak, positive mented to end the reproductive period and significant correlation (0.08 < r < when family size is considered to be 0.26, 0.05

TABLE 5 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF AGE, AGE AT MENARCHE, AGE AT MARRIAGE, WAITING TIME TO FIRST BIRTH, AND AGE AT FIRST BIRTH

Wait. Time Age at Age at Age at 1st Birth 1st Birth Sample No. Age Menarche Marriage (Months) (Years) > 40 years 538 51.7 14.59 18.03 22.49 19.88 (8.1) (1.4) (3.2) (20.6) (3.6) < 30 years 504 23.9 14.42 17.66 14.92 18.89 (3.3) (1.3) (2.3) (11.3) (2.2)

THE EVOLUTION OF REPRODUCTIVE at marriage and the length of the wait- BEHAVIORS ing time to first birth, a possible indi- cation of a catch-up of fertility when Insofar as the sample of women in- marriage is late. vestigated includes persons ranging Among labile reproductive behav- from 15 to more than 50 years old, it is iors are the durations of interbirth in- possible to segregate from it two sub- tervals and of breastfeeding practices. samples representing two generations The comparison of lactation spans cu- separated by an interval of age averag- mulated for the first five degrees of par- ing approximately 25 years. Table 5 ity in the two subsamples shows an ef- expresses the main characteristics of fective shift in this 25-year interval, these two subsamples. from a mean value of 18.26 months The change in maturation rate dur- (>40 years) to 14.92 months (<30 ing the intergeneration interval is mod- years), i.e., a mean reduction of 3.34 erate and would indicate the stability months (i = 12.61, P< 0.0001). of living conditions within the area dur- Interbirth intervals show the same ing this period. Women's age at mar- evolution. Computed over the first five riage is traditionally early in Morocco intervals, their mean values are re- and rather stable, whatever the period spectively 31.87 months (>40 years) or the environment (Crognier, 1992). and 27.40 months (<30 years), a Conversely, a strong behavioral shift mean drop of 4.46 months (f = 6.05, toward the reduction of the waiting

Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 P < 0.0001). time to first birth is noticeable: a 7.6 months drop in an interval of 25 years. Considering the stability of age at mar- riage, this drop leads to an earlier age CONCLUSION at first birth. The observation of reproductive This evolution is also perceptible in patterns in this Berber population of the level of association between these Morocco seems to agree with other variables (Table 6). The younger gen- trends in this society (Crognier, 1992), eration appears to take a greater notice those in which individual behaviors, of age at puberty to set the age at mar- though molded by a still-strong tradi- riage. It also shows a weak, negative, tional model, reflect influences from but significant correlation between age developed societies. 198 Crognier et al. Social Biology

TABLE 6 INTERCORRELATIONS BETWEEN AGE AT MENARCHE, AGE AT MARRIAGE, WAITING TIME TO FIRST BIRTH, AND AGE AT FIRST BIRTH IN WOMEN OF THE TWO SUBSAMPLES

Wait. T. Subsamples Menarche Age Marr. to 1st Birth Women < 30 years Age at marriage 0.34" Wait. t. to 1st birth 0.04 -0.136 Age at 1st birth 0.34" 0.91° 0.29" Women > 40 years Age at marriage 0.16" Wait. t. to 1st birth 0.04 -0.03 Age at 1st birth 0.156 0.88" 0.45" •p < 0.0001. bp< 0.001.

This bipolarization appears in the Following Nagi's observations in reproductive life. The former influ- Muslim countries (1983), the Moroc- ence, summarized by the high level of can data as a whole are not demonstra- fertility, stems from traditional behav- tive of a clear demographic transition. iors regarding age at marriage, waiting Even in Moroccan cities, the mean time to first birth, lactation duration, number of live-born children per com- and above all the apparent absence of pleted family (women aged 45-49 birth limitation. It results in a fertility years), still averaged 6.36 in 1982 pattern seemingly close to a natural (Direction de la Statistique, 1984). It pattern of fertility, at least until the seems reasonable to assume the family is considered completed. mountain-dwelling will main- On the other hand, the changes ob- tain, for some time at least, their tra- served in the younger age groups ditional reproductive behaviors. would indicate an acceleration of fam- ily constitution by the shortening of behavior-dependent time intervals (ei- ther relevant to individual desires or Downloaded by [University of Sydney] at 20:40 31 December 2014 subsequent to the improvement of fer- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS tility by medical assistance. Insofar as This work was supported by the Direc- the reproductive period of this gener- ción General de Investigación Científica ation is not yet achieved, we cannot y Técnica (DGICYT) del Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia de España and by forecast whether this new pattern will the Direction de la Coopération Scienti- lead to a shorter reproductive span and fique et Technique du Ministère français a smaller family size or not. des Affaires Etrangères. Vol. 40, No. 3-4 Berber Population 199

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