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Copyright © and Moral Rights for This Phd Thesis Are Retained by the Author And/Or Other Copyright Owners. a Copy Can Be Downlo Shi, Longdu (2016) Buddhism and the state in medieval China : case studies of three persecutions of Buddhism, 444-846. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London. http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/id/eprint/23582 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this PhD Thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This PhD Thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this PhD Thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the PhD Thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full PhD Thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD PhD Thesis, pagination. Buddhism and the State in Medieval China: Case Studies of Three Persecutions of Buddhism, 444-846 Longdu SHI Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2016 Department of Religions and Philosophies SOAS, University of London I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the SOAS, University of London concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work which I present for examination. Signed:____________________________ Date: _________________ ii ABSTRACT In the history of Buddhism in China, three major persecutions took place between the fifth and the ninth centuries. In the present research, I propose to study them together and in their broader context as a means of understanding the relationship between Buddhism and the state in medieval China. Although a further episode of repression of the Buddhist community occurred in southern China in the tenth century, I will argue that the first three great persecutions marked a fundamental transition in the interaction between Buddhism and Chinese society. As an attempt to study the social and political history of Buddhism in medieval China, this thesis shall accord some space to the development of the monastic community and economy during the time under examination. It will furthermore lay emphasis on the long-term factors of Buddhist development, thus hoping to shed new light on the cultural, economic, social and political reasons for the religious persecutions. As these persecutions were carried out under the orders of the ruling secular authorities, and most of the assumed reasons are related to the imperial policies, the present research is a case study through which the interaction between Buddhism and the state in medieval China will be investigated. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation could not have been completed without the support and assistance of many people and institutions. First, my profound thanks go to the members of my supervisory committee: Dr. Cosimo Zene, Dr. Ulrich Pagel and Dr. Antonello Palumbo. I am grateful to Dr. Zene and Dr. Pagel whose valuable suggestions and expert supervision decisively solidified my dissertation. I would like to thank both Dr. Zene and Dr. Pagel for patiently answering my questions and for recommending relevant books/articles. I wish to thank Dr. Pagel for allowing me to audit one of his courses related to my research. I would like to thank my main supervisor Dr. Palumbo for supervising my dissertation for the last four years. I wish to sincerely thank him for his criticism and comments, as well as for correcting my English that enhanced the structure, contents and arguments of this dissertation. I am also grateful to him for lending me books and articles from his private collection. I would like to extend my gratitude to Professor Endo Toshiichi (Centre of Buddhist Studies, University of Hong Kong) for constantly helping me in my studies and for twice acting as my referee when I applied for MA and PhD studies at SOAS. I wish to thank many of the administrative staff of SOAS and those librarians who handled my requests and queries with efficiency and professionalism. I would like to thank my friend Ven. Dawu for collecting reading materials at my request. I am grateful to Dr. Michael Hoeckelmann for lending me his private copy of Li Deyu wenji jiaojian (Collected Works of Li Deyu with Annotations). I wish to express my profound thanks to my classmate Maitripushpa (now Mrs. Norman) of King’s College (PhD Candidate) for checking my English as well as for her suggestions and comments on my dissertation. I am indebted to my parents and kin in my lay family for their unfailing endorsement all these years, which has enabled me to be a professional student, free from family duties. I owe a special debt to my monastic mentor, the Most Venerable Master Changshu for endorsing my overseas studies, even if that meant a compromise to the standard monastic regulations. I am grateful to the Dharma/monastic colleagues in my residential temple, Thousand Buddha Grotto, Gangu County, China, for their kind hospitality. I am most grateful to my monastic mentor, the Most Venerable Master Guangsheng of the Kong Meng San Phor Kark See Monastery (KMSPKSM), Singapore, for financing my two trips to China (2011, 2012) when I collected source materials for my research. I wish to thank several senior alumni of the Buddhist Academy of China in Beijing for helping me to locate/borrow books I needed. I iv must thank my friend, Ven. Hong’an for arranging temporary lodging during my studies there. Several staff at the National Library (Beijing) were very helpful in handling my requests to whom I am grateful. I owe a special debt to my master, the Most Venerable Master Guangsheng, for inviting me to the KMSPKSM in the summer of 2012. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to the librarians of the Buddhist College of Singapore for their assistance. Along the path of my trips and studies over all these years, I was offered countless assistance by many people to whom I am most grateful. I am very much indebted to my monastic mentor, the Most Venerable Master Chuanyin of the Buddhist Academy of China, for his constant encouragement and support, without which I would not have been able to start my studies 16 years ago. He initiated the first step of my studies and then supported every step ever since. To the Most Venerable Master I am most grateful. I wish once again to express my most sincere and special gratitude to my monastic mentor, the Most Venerable Master Guangsheng whose generous financial sponsorship and very kind encouragement of the past ten years have made my overseas studies a reality. I would like to extend my thanks to the kind supporters of the KMSPKSM from whose generosity I have benefited for many years. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to my senior colleagues and the excellent staff of the relevant departments in the KMSPKSM for patiently helping me in my scholarship applications over all these years. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv-v INTRODUCTION CHAPTER ONE The Persecutions of Buddhism in Medieval China 1.1 Preliminary Considerations 1 1.2 Persecuting Buddhism, Persecuting Religion 2 1.3 Buddhism and the State 5 1.4 Scholarship on the Persecutions of Buddhism in Medieval China 11 1.5 Medieval China and Buddhist History 14 1.6 The Development of Buddhism in China until the Fifth Century 17 1.7 ‘Chinese Buddhism’ and the Regulatory State 22 1.8 Sources for This Thesis 26 1.9 An Outline of the Dissertation 31 PART ONE The Northern Wei 北魏 (386-534) Persecution (440-446) CHAPTER TWO The Background of the Persecution 2.1 A Brief History of the Tuoba/Northern Wei 34 2.2 The Cultural Context of the Tuoba/Northern Wei 36 2.3 The Relationship between the Tuoba and Chinese Elites 38 2.4 Religious Policy of the Tuoba/Northern Wei 39 2.5 Development of Buddhism before the Persecution 44 2.6 The Buddhist Monastic Community 45 CHAPTER THREE The Persecution of Buddhism under the Tuoba/Northern Wei 3.1 The First Edicts of Restriction on Religious Activities 50 3.2 The Persecution of Buddhism in 446 53 3.3 The Causes of the Persecution 58 3.4 Case Studies: Three Individuals 65 3.4.1 Cui Hao 崔浩 (381-450) 67 3.4.2 Kou Qianzhi 寇謙之 (365-448) 70 3.4.3 Emperor Taiwudi (太武帝 408-452; r. 423-452) 72 3.5 Concluding Remarks 75 PART TWO The Northern Zhou 北周 (557-581) Persecution (574-577) CHAPTER FOUR Primary Notes and a Brief History of the Time 78 4.1 Social and Historical Contexts 78 4.2 Religious Policy: Northern Wei and Northern Zhou 84 4.3 The Development of Buddhism: Northern Wei and Northern Zhou 88 4.4 Buddhism in the South: A Brief Excursion 96 CHAPTER FIVE The Persecution of Buddhism under the Northern Zhou 5.1 Religious Debates: Preparation for the Persecution? 101 5.2 The Persecution of Buddhism under the Northern Zhou in 574 103 5.3 Northern Qi: Expansion of the Persecution 107 5.4 Reasons for the Persecution 109 5.5 Case Studies: Three Individuals 116 5.5.1 Wei Yuanzong 衛元嵩 (d.u.) 117 5.5.2 Zhang Bin 張賓 (fl. 560-590) 119 5.5.3 Emperor Zhou Wudi 周武帝 (543-578; r.
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