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The Work Ethic a Critical Analysis The Work Ethic­ A Critical Analysis OFFICERS OF IRRA FOR 1983 PRESIDENT: Jack Stieber, Michigan State University PRESIDENT-ELECT: Wayne L. Horvitz, Horvitz and Schmertz SECRETARY-TREASURER: David L. Zimmerman, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc. EDITOR: Barbara D. Dennis, University of Wisconsin-Madison EXECUTIVE BOARD MEMBERS: Mario F. Bognanno, University of Minnesota Wilbur Daniels, International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union Milton Derber, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Martin Ellenberg, S&S Corrugated Paper Machinery Co. Lydia H. Fischer, United Automobile Workers. John H. Gentry, Mediator, AFL-CIO Internal Disputes Plan James H. Jordan, Imperial Chemical Industries, ICI, Americas Karen S. Koziara, Temple University Edward B. Krinsky, Institute for Environmental Mediation Solomon B. Levine, University of Wisconsin-Madison Daniel J. B. Mitchell, University of California, Los Angeles Kenneth E. Moffett, Major League Baseball Players Association Michael H. Moskow, International Jensen, Inc. Richard A. Prosten, Industrial Union Department, AFL-CIO Mark E. Thompson, University of British Columbia LEGAL COUNSEL: George H. Cohen and Michael E. Gottesman, Bredhoff, Gottesman, Cohen & Weinberg Past Presidents of IRRA 1948 Edwin E. Witte 1965 Edwin Young 1949 Sumner H. Slichter 1966 Arthur M. Ross 1950 George W. Taylor 1967 Neil W. Chamberlain 1951 William M. Leiserson 1968 George P. Shultz 1952 J. Douglas Brown 1969 Frederick H. Harbison 1953 Ewan Clague 1970 Douglass V. Brown 1954 Clark Kerr 1971 George H. Hildebrand 1955 Lloyd Reynolds 1972 Benjamin Aaron 1956 Richard A. Lester 1973 Douglas H. Soutar 1957 Dale Yoder 1974 Nat Goldfinger 1958 E. Wight Bakke 1975 Gerald G. Somers 1959 William Haber 1976 Irving Bernstein 1960 John T. Dunlop 1977 Ray Marshall 1961 Philip Taft 1978 Charles C. Killingsworth 1962 Charles A. Myers 1979 Jerome M. Rosow 1963 William F. Whyte 1980 Jack Barbash 1964 Solomon Barkin 1981 Rudolph A. Oswald 1982 Milton Derber INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION SERIES The Work Ethic­ A Critica I Ana lysis AUTHORS PAUL J. ANDRISANI SAR A. LEVITAN JACK BARBASH MICHAEL MACCOBY OLIVER CLARKE HERBERT s. PARNES LOUIS A. FERMAN JosEPH F. QuiNN JANICE NEIPERT HEDGES IRVING H. SIEGEL CLIFFORD M. JoHNSON Gus TYLER RoBERT J. LAMPMAN SHOSHANA ZuBOFF EDITORIAL BOARD JACK BARBASH RoBERT J. LAMPMAN SAR A. LEVITAN Gus TYLER THE WORK ETHIC-A CRITICAL ANALYSIS. © 1983 by Industrial Relations Research Association. Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without the written permission of the authors and the Association, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. First Edition Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 83--081915 ISBN 0-913447-24--2 Price $15.00 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION SERIES PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING (Spring Publication) PROCEEDINGS OF THE SPRING MEETING (Fall Publication) ANNUAL RESEARCH VOLUME (Fall Publication) (MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY every sixth year in lieu of research volume) IRRA NEWSLETTER (Quarterly) INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION 7226 Social Science Building, University of Wisconsin Madison, WI 53706 U.S.A Telephone 608/262-2762 Pantagraph Printing, 217 W. Jefferson, Bloomington, IL 61701 ii CONTENTS PREFACE................................................. v PART I. The Work Ethic in the Labor Market CHAPTER 1-The Survival of Work......................... 1 Sar A. Levitan and Clifford M. Johnson CHAPTER 2-Work Ethic and Productivity . .. .. .. .. .. 27 Irving H. Siegel CHAPTER 3-Job Commitment 43 Janice Neipert Hedges CHAPTER 4-How Has Labor Supply Changed in Response to Recent Increases in Social Welfare Expenditures and the Taxes to Pay for Them? . 61 Robert J. Lampman CHAPTER 5-The Work Ethic and Retirement .. .. .. .. .. 87 Joseph F. Quinn CHAPTER 6-Commitment to the Work Ethic and Success in the Labor Market: A Review of Research Findings . 101 Paul J. Andrisani and Herbert S. Parnes CHAPTER 7-The Work Ethic: An International Perspective . 121 Oliver Clarke PART II. Changes in Work and Work Ethics CHAPTER 8-The Work Ethic and Work Organization ........ 153 Shoshana Zuboff CHAPTER 9-The Managerial Work Ethic in America ......... 183 Michael Maccoby iii CHAPTER 10-The Work Ethic: A Union View . .. .. .. 197 Gus Tyler CHAPTER 11-The Work Ethic in the World of Informal Work .............................. 211 Louis A. Ferman CHAPTER 12-Which Work Ethic? .......................... 231 Jack Barbash iv Preface This volume subjects the work ethic to the scrutiny of diverse social sciences and scientists. The papers which make up the volume fall into two broad categories: (l) the work ethic in the labor market-Levitan and Johnson, Siegel, Hedges, Lampman, Quinn, Andrisani and Parnes, Clarke, and (2) changes in work and work ethics-Zuboff, Maccoby, Tyler, Ferman, and Barbash. A grant from the Ford Foundation in support of the writing of this work is much appreciated. Jack Bar bash Robert J. Lampman Sar A. Levitan Gus Tyler v Part I. The Work Ethic in the Labor Market CHAPTER 1 The Survival of Work* SAR A. LEVITAN AND CLIFFORD M. JoHNSON Center for Social Policy Studies George Washington University If the demise of the work ethic is a threat to civilization, one would never suspect it from official reports of current labor market trends. Whatever their ambivalence, Americans are clinging to jobs more than ever. Productivity gains, growing affluence, and rising levels of educational attainment have not triggered a mass exodus from work and our society has not decayed from idleness and sloth. Instead, both greater numbers and larger proportions of the popula­ tion have entered the labor force in recent years, and the tenacious hold of work upon the daily activities of most Americans shows few signs of weakening. The Growing Labor Force Rather than abandoning work, Americans have sought it in unprecedented numbers. The U.S. labor force has more than tripled in size since the turn of the century, and the relative percentage of the population that works has crept steadily upwards since World War II (Figure 1). The slow growth in the ratio of workers to the working-age population is particularly significant when viewed in light of gains in productivity. Despite an enormous decrease during this century in the amount of human labor required to produce given quantities of goods, no corresponding decrease in the number or relative proportion of workers has taken place. Driven by rising expectations and an abiding interest in relative income gains, individ­ uals have continued their work effort and sought to maintain their share of society's increasing wealth. The improvements in standards of living made possible by rising productivity are astounding. At the turn of the century, electric • This chapter is based on the authors' recent book, Second Thoughts on Work (Kalamazoo, Mich.: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1982) . 1 2 THE WORK ETHIC-A CRITICAL ANALYSIS lighting and indoor plumbing in private homes were luxuries reserved for the affluent. Today, housing which lacks these "basics" 70 �---------------------------------- Current population survey 64.3 Percent of 61.3 8 TI: Population 60. 2 � 59 9 59 7 - "'"""" ···:·:·:· - · t : : : : : : : : = · ___ in labor 60 · · : · : : : : : : : :·:·:·::�- force 50 = = f 1� ��r ll!lr lr Ill[ ���Ill ..--- 1940 1950 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 62.0 60 �------------------------- Decennial census 54.1 Percent of 52.9 population � 50.2 50.3 49 5 · in labor 50 1-�'""'--�:-:..,......:«· ···»�·· h----�= force . ff� 1.:.l l.:�:l:l.� .1.1:. 1.: �� . .. f�{: 1900 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 FIGURE 1 Labor Force Participation Has Increased During the 20th Century Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1975), p. 127; and U.S. Bureau of the Census, "Provisional Estimate of Social, Economic, and Housing Characteristics," 1982. THE SURVIVAL OF WORK 3 is considered unfit for habitation. In 1900, food that was not locally in season could rarely be obtained, even by the wealthy. Now, all income groups routinely consume meats, fruits, and vegetables shipped across the continent or around the world. The affluence of American society has caused modern workers to expect much more than their predecessors-in 1981, the average net worth of each $14,000 r------------------ $12,000 1-------------------1- $10,000 t-----------------1-- REAL EARNINGS r--- PER EMPLOYEE // (1977 DOLLARS) ,/' $ 8,000 1----------_,.�------/--- / / , , "" _,., - - AVERAGE EARNINGS PER EMPLOYEE (CURRENT DOLLARS) $ 2,000 1------�------------ FIGURE 2 Average Annual Compensation per Full-Time-Equivalent Employee Rose Steadily Until the Mid-1970s Source: Bureau of Economic Analysis, U.S. Department of Commerce. 4 THE WORK ETHIC-A CRITICAL ANALYSIS American was nearly $40,000, representing a collection of cars, TV sets, bank accounts, and real estate undreamed of a few decades ago. Societal gains in wealth have been mirrored in a gradual rise of real earnings since the Great Depression. By impressive margins, American workers have more money than ever before, and until the mid-1970s average real wages moved upward in an unbroken record of annual gains. The disastrous setbacks of the 1930s arrested temporarily the growth of real personal income, but failed to alter the long-term pattern of improved economic status of employed
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