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11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 451

INDEX

A Ake, Commandant, 45 Abadan refinery,133, 170, 173 Akkadians, 21 Abbas, Abdul, 36 Aleppo, 73, 74, 75, 77 Abbas I, Shah, 65 pasha of, 84, 85, 86 East India Company alliance with, Ali, 33–36 72–73 rebellion against, 34 Abbasid dynasty,36–38 Ali, Rashid, 311, 312, 314, 341 Abdulhamid II, Sultan (Abdul the elimination of, 316, 318–319 Damned), 103–104, 109–110, 111, relationship with Third Reich, 117, 119, 121, 124–125, 127, 129, 315–316 130, 230–231, 280 Ali Mosque, 3, 4, 6–7, 79, 374–375. See dethroning of, 131 also Najaf Abdullah, King, 178, 240, 252, 254 Al Istiqlal editorials, 315 Abraham (Abram), 23, 26–27 Allah, 29, 30 “Absolute neutrality,” 315 All-India Moslem League, 311 Accounting systems, ancient, 17–20 “Almost facts,” xix–xx Ades, Shafiq, 346 Al Qaeda network, 373 Admiralty’s Oil Fuel Committee, 119 Alwand oil refinery,326 Affan, Caliph Uthman ibn, 32–33 Al Zawra newspaper, 108 Afghanistan, 76 Am al-Nakba, 246 Africa. See also South Africa America, 70. See also United States in, 56 oil consumption by,264 sea-lanes around,COPYRIGHTED 54 oil exported MATERIAL from, 98 African and Eastern Concessions, 139 oil for England from, 173 Age of Enlightenment, 70, 88 petroleum business in, 104–105 Age of Exploration, 52–53 Seven Years’ War and, 74 Ahab, King, 27–28 American oil company syndicate, 269 al-Ahd, 175, 176, 180 American oil interests, 262–263 Ahmet I, Sultan, 66–67 American oil policy,265–266, 267–271 Air operations, British, 257–258 American Petroleum Institute, 263, Aisha, 33 268 in Battle of the Camel, 34 Amorites, 22

451 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 452

Index 452

Anatolia, 52, 53–54, 56. See also Antitrust legislation, against oil barons, Halaf culture in, 14–15 105 Anatolia Railway agreements, 129, Anti-Zionists, 337. See also Zionism; 132–133, 139 Zionist entries Anatolia Railway Company,118, 119 Apcheron Peninsula, petroleum produc- concession to, 120–124, 143, 145, 159, tion in, 102–103 280 Apostasy,30 negotiations with, 139 Arab Association, in Cairo, 175 Anglo-French Declaration, 235–236 Arab Conquest, 30–32 Anglo-French oil negotiations, 225–226, Arabia 227, 228, 242 Islamic conquest of, 29, 30–32 Anglo-Iranian Oil Company,294 unity of, 196–197 contribution to Third Reich, 305 Arabian American Oil Company Iranian takeover of, 356–358 (Aramco), 354 Olex as a subsidiary of, 304 , 27–28, 180, 236 Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913, “Arab-Jews,” 335 369–370 Arab lands, Turkification campaign of, Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), 175 126, 129, 134–136, 142–143, 170, Arab Legion, 327 213, 218, 243, 260, 264, 283, 283, Arab militancy,244 288. See also Anglo-Iranian Oil Arab nationalism, 174–175, 176–185, 236, Company 240, 293. See also al-Husseini, Haj British investment in, 146–147, 148, Mohamemed Amin 152, 154, 159–160, 160–163 anti-Semitism of, 294 British support for, 139–140, 141 German view of, 314 expanding jurisdiction of, 197–198 Hitler on, 342, 318 fusion with , Arab national parties, 175 204–205 Arab National Party,311 Mesopotamian oil rights and, Arab Nazis, 319 206–207 Arab Petroleum Conferences, 364–365 purchase of British Petroleum Com- Arab provinces, 236–237 pany,205–206 , 180, 337, 340. See also Arab real-world monopoly of, 224–225 uprisings transfer of holdings to American con- Arabs sortium, 271 British Indianization of, 204 and, 171–173 early history of, 27–36 “Anglo-Persian Oil Company—Acquisi- proclamation to Baghdad and, 192–193 tion of Capital” bill, 162–163 status in Western eyes, 315 Anglo-Persian Oil Company agreement, unity of, 246–247 130–133 Arabshah, Ahmad ibn, 54 Anglo-Persian–Turkish Petroleum fusion Arab sovereignty, man- agreement, 200. See also Fusion dates and, 243–244 agreement Arab state, creation of, 180 Anglo-Saxon Petroleum, 222–223, 283, Arab tribal warriors, strength of, 288 256–257 Ankara, 53, 118 Arab Union, 360, 361 Anti-Semitism, 234, 343. See also Jewish Arab uprisings, 185–186, 244. See also entries; Jews Arab Revolt 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 453

Index 453

Armenia East India Company in, 75–76 Gulbenkian family from, 101–102 founding and development of, 37 mandate for, 242 Janissary rebellion in, 64–65 Armenian mandate, 233 Jews in, 335 Armenians, 52 Mamluk rule of, 69 extermination of, 231–233 modernization of, 108–109, 203 “Arrangements for Fusion of the Interests Mongol siege of, 44–47 in Turkish Petroleum Concessions of Ottoman recapture of, 65 the D’Arcy Group and the Turkish under Daoud Pasha, 81–82 Petroleum Company,” 155. See also reunification with the Ottoman Fusion agreement Empire, 83–86 Asian trade routes, 72. See also Trade routes starvation siege of, 68 Asquith, Herbert, 186, 208 Sykes-Picot Agreement and, 196 Assassins, 43–44 Timur’s campaigns against, 51, 52 Mongol destruction of, 44–45 Bagdadbahn (Rohrbach), 118 rebellions and strikes by,51 Baghdad mail route, 77 Assur, 21 Baghdad National Scientific Club, 176 Assyrian Christians, insurrection by,339 Baghdad oil field, 124, 126 Assyrians, 24–25, 28 Baghdad Pact, 360, 361 Australia, oil industry in, 106 Baghdad province, 57, 67, 111, 182, 209, Austro-Hungarian Empire, invasion of 214 Serbia by,164–165 concession for, 145, 163 Automobile industry,106 Baghdad railroad concession, 118, 119, 267 Awadh, 76–77. See also Najaf Baghdad Railway Company,196 Axis, Arab link to, 315–320. See also Nazi World War I and, 171 entries Baghdad Railway Convention of 1903, Aziz, Tariq, 368 119, 129, 143 Baha’i, 88 Bahktiari tribesmen, 116–117 B al-Bakr, Ahmad Hassan, 365–367 Ba’athist instigators, 4, 7, 9, 11 Baku, petroleum industry in, 115 Ba’ath Party,362, 365 Baku oil fields, 99–100, 100–101, headquarters of, 7 102–104, 107 purge of, 367–368 kerosene markets of, 102 Baba Gurgur Well #1 strike, 287 , 234–235, 238, 338 Babington-Smith, Henry,128, 145, 146, Balkans Wars, 141, 154 148, 152–153, 156 Banks, precursors of, 17 Babylon, 9–10, 20 Baquba outrages, 255, 257 history of, 23–26 Basra, 31, 32, 34–35, 47, 53, 54, 55, 64, 65, laws and commerce in, 17–20 67, 77, 78, 118, 186, 187, 190, 213, Babylonian Talmud, 334 214 Baghdad, 173–174, 208, 214 British acquisition of, 173–174, 183 banking on, 376 East India Company in, 72, 73, 74, 75, British drive for, 186–190 76 British governance over, 183 Indian Revenue Department in, 201 British prisoners in, 190 modernization of, 202–203 British proclamation to, 191–193 occupation of, 170, 173 as a center of knowledge, 37, 38, 39 Sykes-Picot Agreement and, 196 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 454

Index 454

Basra province, 57, 182, 209, 214 Buchanan, George, 197, 259–260 Basra Reform Society,175–176 “Bulgarian Atrocities,” 230–231 “Bastogne Bulldogs,” 5 Burmah Oil, 116, 120, 126 Battle of the Bulge, 5 Bush, George Herbert Walker, 371 Battle of the Camel, 34 Bush, George W., 372–373, 375 Bedford, A. C., 268 Byzantine Empire, 38, 56 Bedouins, 28, 29, 64, 67, 185 Belgium, World War I and, 165 Belief systems, Mesopotamian, 23 C Bell, Gertrude, 258 Cadman, John, 242, 266, 267–268, 284 Bérenger, Henri, 217, 220, 221. See also Calendar, Sumerian, 22 Long-Bérenger Agreement Caliphs, 30, 175, 182 Berthelot, Philippe, 242 of Baghdad, 36–37 Berthelot-Cadman agreement, 242–243 guerrilla war against Mongols, 43 Bitumen. See also Oil as “the shadow of God on earth,” 38 Mesopotamian deposits of, 95–101 Calligraphy,82 prehistoric uses of, 95 Camp Pennsylvania, Kuwait, 5 uses for, 96 Canada, oil industry in, 106 “Black City,” 100 Canaris, Wilhelm, 310 Black Death, 50. See also Plague Cape of Good Hope, 52–53 “Black Hell,” 83 Capitalism, state-controlled, 161 Blomberg, Axel von, 324 “Capitulation communities,” 122–123 Blue Mosque, 66–67, 79 Carpathian oil, 105–106 Bolshevik Revolution, 241 Carter administration, 369 Bombay,72–73, 77 Cassel, Sir Ernest, 128, 139, 141 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 75, 76 Cave art groups, 13, 14 Bosnia, World War I and, 163–164 “Census,” Mongol, 42, 45, 46 Boycott-breaking barter, 303 Chaldea, 25 Bravo Company,4, 9, 375 Chemical Warfare Service, 247 Brewsher, J. B., 15 Cheney,Richard, 373 Britain. See England Cholera, 85 British civilian administration, 200–204 Christianity,30. See also Christians British imperialist policy,72 Age of Exploration and, 53 British Indianization, 204. See also Indian- rise of, 26, 27 ization Christians, 239, 253. See also Christianity British industrial power, 73–74 in Anatolia, 52 British-Kuwaiti pact, 119 early Arabs and, 28 British mandate versus, 39 defiance against, 253–254 against, 256 ending of, 293 Maronite, 239 British Petrol (BP), 304 mass murder of, 230 British Petroleum Company Limited, Mongol alliances with, 44, 47, 49 205–206, 358 Ottoman Empire and, 56, 58, 229–234 and, xx Churchill, Winston, 133–134, 135–136, British prisoners, treatment of, 190, 256 141, 154, 257 Brooke-Popham, Brig. General Henry deal with Anglo-Persian, 159, 160–163 Robert, 249 on gas warfare, 248–249 Brown, Harold, 278, 279, 284 strategy of, 146–147 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 455

Index 455 CIA-MI6 coup, 358, 362 D City of Peace, 37–39 da Gama, Vasco, 53, 71 City-states, Mesopotamian, 21–22 Dair al-Zur, invasion of, 250–251 Civile Liste, 102, 103, 104, 111, 119, , 33, 52, 236, 251, 255 120–121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 129 French march on, 245 debate about, 159 Mongol destruction of, 48 Civilization. See also Cradle of civiliza- occupation of, 238 tion Damascus Protocol, 180, 181 in Iraq, xvii, 10 Daniel, Menahem S., 338 Mesopotamian, 38–39 Daoud Pasha, 81 Civil War, oil production and, 97 assault on, 83–86 Clay tokens, 16–17 D’Arcy,William, 116–117, 119–120, 124, Clayton, Lt. Colonel Gilbert, 185 125–126, 129, 130, 140, 143–144, Clemenceau, Georges, 217–218, 219, 220, 145, 148, 198 238, 239 D’Arcy Exploration Company,206, 288 Colby,Bainbridge, 265 D’Arcy group, 144, 153, 154, 155, 156, Cold war petropolitics, 364 171 “Collection, the,” 64–65 Davis, John, 265, 266–267 Columbus, Christopher, 52–53 Dayan, Moshe, 327–328 Commerce de Bunsen, Maurice, 172 ancient Mesopotamian, 15–20 report on Mosul, 197, 198 Istanbul, 59 Decentralized Party,175 Ottoman Empire, 58–59 Democracy,Middle Eastern, 109–111 Commercial accounting, 17–20 Denaturalization Act, 348 Committee of Free Jews, 341 Deterding, Henri, 129, 134, 139, 144, 151, Committee of Union and Progress, 153–154, 156, 157, 158, 160, 172, 126–127, 129, 174 222, 223, 225, 274, 282 “Committee on Asiatic Turkey,” 197 connection with Gulbenkian, 284–285 Communism, rise of, 360 Deustche Amerikanische Petroleum Compagnie Française des Pe’troles (CFP), Gesellschaft (DPAG), 304 262, 278, 288, 306 Deutsche Bank, 139, 141, 148, 152, 155, Concentration camps, Iraqi, 350, 351 156, 198, 201, 218–219, 225, 227, , 56, 128 228, 267, 280 Constitution, created by Midhat Pasha, railroad concession to, 118, 119 109–110, 111, 127 World War I and, 172 Consumer economy,286 Deutsche Bank–National Bank of Turkey Contracts, early codified, 19 alliance, 136 Cosmopolitan companies, 160–161 Deutsche Bank shares, sale of, 222 Coups, Iraqi, 353 Deutsche Benzin- und Petroleum (BP), Cox, Percy,186, 187, 259, 261–262 304 Cradle of civilization, xvii, 13–20 Dhari, Sheikh, 255–256 Crusaders, 39, 49–50 Dhimmis, 30, 58, 235, 334–335 Ctesiphon, 188 Dias, Bartolomeu, 52 Cuneiform script, 17 Dickson, H. R. P., 215 Cuneiform tablets, 23 Directive 21, 307 Curzon, Lord George, 221, 227, 240, 241, Disease, in British siege of Kut, 189. See 267, 270, 273 also Cholera; Plague Cyrus the Great, King, 25–26 Dobbs, Sir Henry,259 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 456

Index 456

Dome of the Rock, 300 Mesopotamian oil and, 114–116, Drake, Eric, 357 118–136, 138–156, 157–165 Dreadnoughts, 115 military presence in Iraq, 360 Drohobycz oil district, 106 National Bank of Turkey and, 127–128 Dutch oil, 302–303. See also Royal Dutch naval modernization of, 115 Shell oil baronies in, 262 oil needs of, 133–134, 207 Ottoman recapture of Baghdad and, E 84–85 Eastern Bank of India, 200–201 predominance in the , “Eastern Question,” 88–89, 90, 114, 141, 187 164, 229–230, 230–231 proclamation to Baghdad, 191–193 East India Company,71–75 Sykes-Picot Agreement and, 196, 197 Bombay concession of, 72–73 Syrian independence and, 240–241 Economic tokens, 16–17 trade with India, 71–72, 73–74 Edison, Thomas, 106 Turkish jihad against, 184–185 Edmonds, C. J., 312 World War I and, 165, 169–171 Effendi, Sadiq, 83–84 Zionism and, 234 Effendi, Selim, 103 English commercial interests, 71–72. See Egypt, 28, 60, 118, 178 also British entries; East India Com- as British protectorate, 173 pany peace treaty with Hittites, 24 Enver Pasha, 184, 188 Egyptian National Bank, 128 Eridu, 21, 23 Elamites, 22, 25 Eshnunna, 17 Electric lightbulb, 106 Ethnic conflicts, exploitation of, 72 Elizabeth I, Queen, 71 Eugenics, 310 Elkis, Abram, 230 Eunuchs, 61 Empire, first, 21 Euphrates River, 15, 17, 21, 30–31, 37, England. See also Anglo entries; British 198, 206. See also Fertile Crescent entries; English commercial interests; Euphrates-Tigris delta, repopulation of, French-British oil negotiations 203–204 agreements concerning Mesopotamia, Eurasia, Ottoman Empire in, 56 196, 197, 200–204 Europaische Petroleum Union (EPU), alliance with Faisal, 261–262 205 in American oil negotiations, 268–271, Europe, 71 273 Age of Exploration and, 52–53 Arab jihad against, 229–260 commercial and military alliances in, as Arab nation defense partner, 127 179–180, 181–185 industrialization of, 59 control of Iraq oil by,211–228 Mesopotamian oil and, 113, 114–136, Damascus Protocol and, 180, 181 153, 154 governance over Mesopotamia, 183 oil consumption of, 207 invasion of Mesopotamia by, oil industry in, 105–106 171–190 Ottoman Empire and, 56, 66–67, Iraqi hostility toward, 315–316 88–91, 229–234 League of Nations mandates for, Ottoman harems and, 62 241–243, 246–247 Ottoman reforms and, 82 meeting with Gulbenkian, 151 plague in, 50 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 457

Index 457

Renaissance and Age of Enlightenment San Remo petroleum agreement and, in, 69–70 262 Seven Years’ War and, 74 Sykes-Picot Agreement and, 196, 197, World War I and, 165, 169–171 200 European powers, Islam versus, 39 trade with Istanbul, 75 Fratricide, as an Ottoman tradition, 63 French-British oil negotiations, 217–227 F Fusion agreement, 155, 200, 204–205, Faisal, King, 178, 180, 184, 236–237, 218, 220, 228, 265 237–241, 243–244, 269 action against, 244–245 alliance with England, 261–262 G death of, 308–309 Galicia, oil industry in, 106 as king of Iraq, 259 , 169, 183 75-year oil concession by,280–281, Gambroon, 74 282 Gas, poison, 247–250 Faisal II, King, 309, 339, 361 Genghis Khan, 40, 51 Farhud, 332, 340, 341 Genocide Faruki, Mohammed, 183 by Nazis, 294 al-Fatat, 175, 176, 177, 180 by Turks, 230 Fatwa,7,8,9,11 “Gentleman’s Agreement” of oil minis- Shirazi, 253 ters, 364 Fedayeen, 7 “German Lawrence,” 314 Ferdinand, Archduke Francis, assassination German oil industry,302 of, 164 . See also Axis; Deutsche entries; Fertile Crescent, 22 Nazi entries Feudalism, end of, 69 Arab collaboration with, 294–295 Fiefs, Ottoman, 58 arms sales with Baghdad, 310 Fifty-fifty agreement, 356 Mesopotamian oil and, 117–118, 119 in Iraq, 359 oil baronies in, 262 with shah of , 358 oil concessions of, 119, 121, 123, 124, Fisher, Admiral John, 114–115, 119–120, 125, 127, 130, 132–133, 141–142, 134, 186 143, 144, 148, 154, 155, 158 Five pillars of Islam, 29 oil distribution concerns of, 205 Foreign oil exploitation issue, 359–360 oil field claims by,198–199 , 212, 263 in oil negotiations, 218–219 France, 280. See also French-British oil petroleum consumption by,301–302 negotiations poison gas use by,247 in American oil negotiations, 268–271 post-World War I treatment of, anti-Arab hostility of, 236 233–234 British defeat of, 76 World War I and, 165, 169, 170, 171, control of Iraq oil by,211 172, 208, 210 domination of Syria by,238–239 Ghazi, King, 309, 340, 370 Gulbenkian alliance with, 199–200 Ghazis,56 League of Nations mandates for, Ghazu,28 241–243, 246–247 Ghrostopnine, Paul, 117 oil refining and, 199, 227 “Gindibu the Arab,” 28 poison gas use by,247 Gladstone, William, 230–231 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 458

Index 458

Glubb, John, 343 Gulf Oil, 355 “Golden Square,” 309, 310, 311, 319, Gulf petropolitics, treachery of, 372 322, 332 Gulf War I, 371–372 power shift toward, 312 Gulf War II, 373–374 Gouraud, General Henri, 239, 244–245 “Gulf War III,” 375–376 Governors-general, Ottoman, 57–58 Gulf wars, xvii Grand Green Mosque, 37 Guti mountain people, 21–22 Grand Mufti’s Bureau, 341 Great Arab Revolt, 298–299 Great War. See World War I H Greece, 28 Habbaniya base anti-Ottoman movement in, 126–127 German attack on, 324 “Greek Fire,” 96 military action against, 322–324, Greene, Sir Wilfrid, 157–158 326–327 Green Flag organization, 175 Hagar, 27 Greenfly incident, 255 Hagop Pasha, 103 Greenway,Charles, 134–135, 150, 155, Hague Conventions of 1899/1907, 200 156, 162–163, 171, 172, 197–198, Haifa, 298 205, 206–207, 224, 267–268, 282 Haifa pipeline, 356 Gregson, E. G., 202 Hakki Pasha, 149, 150–151, 154 Grey,Sir Edward, 127, 128, 135, 150, 153, Halaf culture, 14–15 178–179, 198, 200 Haldane, General Aylmer, 256–257 Grobba, Fritz, 310, 314, 339 Halliburton company,373 Groves, R. M., 248–249 Hammurabi’s laws, 17–19 Gulbenkian, Calouste Sarkis, 100–104, Handschar Division, 342 106, 125, 171, 172. See also Mr. Five Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 25 Percent; Red Line entries Hardinge, Viceroy Charles, 173, 187, 188, as a British enemy,306 196–197 commercial alliance with the French, Harems 199–200 Gulbenkian’s, 138 disenfranchisement of, 157–158 Ottoman, 61–63, 64, 65–66 Heads of Agreement and, 281, 285 Harris, Arthur (“Bomber Harris”), 258 National Bank of Turkey and, 128–129 “Hashashin,” 43–44 negotiations with, 150–156, 274–276 , 177 oil monopoly effort by,137–142 execution of, 360–361 Paris negotiations and, 221–222 Hattusilis, King, 24 payment to, 286 Heads of Agreement, 281, 285 personal characteristics of, 137–138 “Heads of Agreement of the Royal settlement with, 285–290 Dutch Shell and British Govern- shares in Turkish Petroleum Company, ment,” 222, 223, 227 148–149, 150, 271–273 Health reforms, Mesopotamian, 109 stalemate with, 276–280 Hebrews, displacement of, 25–26. See also stock transfer agreement and, 283–284 Jews unresolved claims of, 228 Herat, Mongol ravaging of, 42 Gulbenkian, Nubar Sarkis, 137, 277, 288 Herzl, Theodor, 234, 366 Gulbenkian, Rita, 137 Hijaz, 184, 185 Gulbenkian crisis, 278–290 Himmler, Heinrich, 342 Gulbenkian family,101–102, 137, 288 Hindiyyah Canal, 69, 76 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 459

Index 459

Hirtzel, Arthur, 213–214 Ice Age, 13 Hit, oil drilling at, 206 al-Ilah, Prince Abdul, 309, 361 Hitler, Adolf, 296–297, 301 repatriation of, 331 Husseini appeal to, 316–318 Il-khanate, 49 Husseini audience with, 341–342 Imams, 36 Order 30 by,326 Imperial Bank of Persia, 128 rise of, 305 Inaljuk, 40, 41 Hittites, 22 India peace treaty with Egypt, 24 control of Iraq oil by,211 Hogg, Sir Douglas, 157–158 English commercial interests in, 71–72, Holland, in American oil negotiations, 73–74 268–271. See also Dutch oil; Royal Mesopotamia as territory of, 200–204 Dutch entries Shiites in, 69 Holy war, 30. See also Crusaders subcolonization of by,198 Holy Wars, 56 World War I and, 170 Homelight Oil Company,205 India Act of 1784, 75 Hormuz, 54 Indian code, 215 Hughes, Charles, 270, 279 Indian Frontier Crimes Regulations, Hughes, Lt. Colonel Chris, 3–11, 374 201–202 Hulagu Khan, 44–48, 49, 191 Indianization Human rights, establishment of, 25–26 of Arabs, 204 Hurrians, 22 of Mesopotamia, 200–204, 214 Hussein, 35 Indian laborers, in Mesopotamia, 203 Hussein, Saddam, 7, 362–363, 366 Indian Police Service, 202 cruelty of, 368, 373 Indians, jihad against, 256 presidency of, 367–369 Indonesia, oil operations in, 105 United States support of, 369 Industrialization, oil demand and, 286 al-Husseini, Haj Muhammad Amin, 294, Industrial oil operations, modern, 105 295, 299–301 Industrial Revolution, 88 background of, 295–296 Infidels, 56, 57, 176 British plot to eliminate, 316 denigration of, 39 fatwa against England, 343 in Ottoman Empire, 58 Iraqi power base of, 311 Turkish hatred toward, 231 as leader of the Arab world, 295, Inland Water Transport, 224 314–315, 325 International law,development of, 24 as the Mufti of Jerusalem, 296 IPC concessions, revocation of, 365. See relationship with Third Reich, also (IPC) 312–313, 341 Iran. See also Anglo-Iranian Oil Com- return to Baghdad, 308, 310 pany; Anglo-Persian entries; Persia Husseini, Kamil, 295 Islamic revolution in, 369 Hussein ibn Ali, 177–185 Khomeini revolution in, 367 “Hussein-McMahon correspondence,” purge of foreign oil domination, 179, 181–185, 196, 246 356–358 as a source for Olex company,303 Iranian barter deals, 303–304 I Iraq. See also Iraqi oil; Mesopotamia Ibn Saud, King, 354 American invasion of, 373–374 Ibrahim the Debauched, Sultan, 61–62 American oil policy and, 265–266 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 460

Index 460

Iraq (Continued) Iraqi oil anti-Jewish actions in, 339–340 focus on, 353–354 Arab rebellion in, 313 German need for, 308 Ba’athist regime in, 365 German threat to, 327 British control of oil in, 211–228 legal gateway to, 220 British mandate for, 227 Open Door policy to, 262–264, British military presence in, 360 268–269, 270, 276, 279 civilization in, xvii, 10 tug-of-war for, 217 coup in, 360–361 Iraq-Iran War, 368–369 as cradle of commerce, 20 Iraq-Kuwait border treaty,370 creation of, 182, 201, 209–210, 214, 259 Iraq Occupied Territories Code, 201 creeping nationalization in, 362 Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), 276, 284, custodial government in, 237 293 declining economy of, 347–348, 368 disarray in, 355 enrichment of, 293 expansion of, 354–356 future state of, 210 tension with Iraq, 358–359 gas bombs in, 247–250 Iraq revolt, cost of, 259 government of, 211–212 Iraq Tours, 349 independence of, 251–253 Irgun, 325 as an Indian appendage, 201, 202 Isfahan, Timur’s campaign against, 52 industrial revolution in, 203 Ishmael, 27 inspections of, 372 Islam. See also Arab Conquest; Moslem insurrection in, 255 entries mandate for, 241, 251, 266 Apostasy phase of, 30 membership in the League of Nations, early surrenders to, 31 338–339 first civil war of, 32–36 national authority in, 220 Iraq and, xvii–xviii, xx Nazi influence on, 339–341 Mongols versus, 44–48 neutrality of, 315 rise of, 27, 29–30 obsession with Jewish Palestine, 344 Islamic Empire, 30. See also Moslem plan to destroy refineries in, 325, Empire 326–327 Islamic extremism, war with, 373 researching history of, xvii–xxi Islamic hierarchy,Mongol extirpation of, sham democracy in, 343–344 47–48 state harassment of Jews in, 366 Islamic world, impact of Crusades on, 50 tension with IPC, 358–359 Islamization, war for, 30–32 turning point for, 331–334 Ismail I, Shah, 55 weapons of mass destruction in, 373 Israel. See also Jews; Zionism; Zionist Iraq Army,312 entries Iraqi Airways, 350 airlift to, 349–350, 352 Iraqi Jews independence of, 345 persecution of, 337 invasion of, 345–346 as refugees, 347–349, 351–352 Israelites, 27 violence against, 345, 346–347 Istanbul, 56, 58–59, 67, 69, 72–73, 82, war against, 331–334 147, 154–155, 160. See also Ottoman Iraqi National Oil Company (INOC), Empire; Turkey 364 British trade with, 74–75 reorganization of, 365 insurrection in, 131–132 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 461

Index 461

Janissaries in, 65 Jihadist prisoners, 256 World War I and, 165 Jizya, 30, 31 Istanbul industrial park, 89–90 Jones, Harford, 75–79 Izmir, 65 Joseph, 28 Izzet Pasha, 208 Judah, 26 Judaism. See also Jewish entries; Jews; Zionism; Zionist entries J in Iraq, 334–338 Jaffa, 299 rise of, 27 Jalili family,68 Janissaries, 64–65, 66, 76 obliteration of, 82–83 K Japan, World War I and, 165 Kabul, 76 Jask, 73 Kafes, 64, 65, 66 Jericho, 14 Kafirs,39 Jerusalem, 44, 295 Kaimakamjazir, 251 Jews and, 234–235 Karbala, 67–68, 258 rebuilding of, 26 gangs in, 80–81, 86 riots in, 299 reunification with Ottoman Empire, sacking of, 25 86–88 Jewish assets, seizure of, 350–352 Wahhabi sack of, 80 Jewish homeland, 234–235, 237–238, Karluqs, 55 241–242 Kassem, Abdel Karim, 361, 370 Jewish National Fund, 245–246 coup attempts against, 362–363, 364 Jewish Palestine, 294. See also Palestine Kassites, 22 denunciation of, 338 Kellogg, Frank, 283 expansion of, 311 Kerosene, 96 “Jewish problem,” resolution of, 313 Khaldun, Ibn, 50 Jewish refugees, 297 Khomeini, Ayatollah, 367 Jews, 253, 293. See also Hebrews; Israel; Khurramshahr, takeover of, 357 Jewish entries; Judaism; Palestine; Khwarazm Empire, 40–41 Zionism; Zionist entries Kibbutzim, 298 blood libel against, 335 Kipchaks, 55 cosmopolitan companies and, 160–161 Kirkuk, 68 early Arabs and, 28 oil fields in, 118, 308 East India Company and, 75 Kirkuk-Haifa pipeline, 294, 345 emigration to Palestine, 294 Kish, 21 extermination campaign for, 342 Kitchener, Lord, 178, 179 as Iraqi scapegoats, 343 Koran, 29, 33 Kurdish, 336 transcription of, 32 in Ottoman Empire, 58 Kufa, 31, 32, 33, 35, 37, 217 persecution of, 242 Kurdish Jews, 336 role in Iraqi economy,347–348 Kurds, 68, 176, 189 self-determination of, 234–235, in extermination of Armenians, 231, 237–238 232 Jihad,6,30, 31 Hussein’s crushing of, 372 against England, 229–260 insurrection of, 362 initiation of, 246–247 repression of, 363 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 462

Index 462

Kut Long-Bérenger Agreement, 225–226, British siege of, 187–189, 190 227, 228 Turkish reoccupation of, 188–189 Louis IX, King, 47 Kuwait, 155 Lowther, Gerald, 143, 144, 145 as British protectorate, 119, 261, Lukasiewicz, Ignacy,105–106 369–370 Luther, Martin, 69 concessions in, 354–355 Luti gangs, 81, 87 Hussein’s invasion of, 369–371 oil field inferno in, 371–372 petroleum output of, 359 M Macdonough, Brig. General George, 211 Magna Carta, 69 L Mahmud II, Sultan (Mahmud the Lagash, 21 Reformer), 82–84, 86, 89 La Jeune Turquie, 127 Majlis adjudication, 201 Land reforms, Mesopotamian, 108–109, Mallet, Louis, 135, 141, 147, 150, 111 178–179, 221 Language, emergence of written, 17 Mamluks, 69, 78, 80 Lansing, Robert, 263 “Mandate” concept, 225, 226 Lascaux people, 14 Manesty,Samuel, 75–76, 77, 78–79 Lausanne Conference, 269–271, 273 al-Mansur, Caliph, 36–37 Law,international, 24 Marling, Charles, 139–140 Law 12, 350–351 Maronite Christians, 239 Law 80, 363 Marshall, Captain W.M., 216 Law 97, 365 Marshall, General William, 209, 210 Law 123, 365 Masjid-i-Suleiman oil site, 126 Lawrence, T.E. (“Lawrence of Arabia”), Maude, General Stanley,191 185, 239 McMahon, Sir Henry,179, 181 Leachman, Colonel G. E., assassination of, “McMahon-Hussein correspondence,” 255–256 179, 181–185, 196, 246 League of Nations, 240, 241, 242, 264, , 29, 30, 32, 33, 34, 177, 182, 236 273 Medicinal oil, 96–97 Council in Geneva, 285 , 34, 236 covenant, 226–227 Mehmed, Sultan, 63 mandates by,243, 264 Mehmed III, Sultan, 63–64 Lebanon, 236, 239 “Menace of Foreign State Monopolies to civil war in, 361 the American Petroleum Industry, mandate for, 241 The,” 263 Levant Company,73 - Railway,180 Lighting, oil for, 96 Merv, Mongol ravaging of, 42 Literary Club, South Lebanon, 175 Mesopotamia. See also Babylon; Iraq Lloyd, George, 162, 163 advances in, 22–23 Lloyd George, David, 217–218, 219, 220, aerial bombardment of, 247–250, 227, 243 250–251, 257–258, 261 Loan system, development of, 19–20 age of desolation of, 49–53 Locke, John, 70 bitumen deposits in, 95–101 Lodge, Henry Cabot, 265 British administration of, 183, 214–217 Long, Lord Walter, 217, 220, 221 British invasion of, 170 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 463

Index 463

British securing of, 208–209 coveting of, 114–116 as cradle of civilization, xvii, 13–20 democracy in, 109–111 during Common Era, 26 development of, 49 control of, 211 India’s commercial subcolonization of, development of, 21–23 198 early commerce in, 15–20 Mesopotamian oil ownership and, as an East/West nexus, 75 113 effect of Exploration on, 52–53 oil business in, 106–111 Indianization of, 200–204, 214 plague in, 50 inhumanities in, 37–38 World War I and, 165 Islamic crusade against, 30–31 Midhat Pasha, 108–111, 126, 127, 191, as an Islamic nation, 31–321 231 as a marginalized region, 175 execution of, 110–111 McMahon-Hussein correspondence Midianite Bedouins, 28 and, 181–185 Military oil needs, 224 modernization effort in, 108–111 Millerand, Alexandre, 243, 244, 245 Mongol destruction of, 48 Moghul, 72 as a nexus for world knowledge, 38–39 Mohammed, 28–29, 32 oil prospects survey for, 103 family of, 33–36 Ottoman rule of, 55 Mohammed, Kamil reconstruction and development plans execution of, 47–48 for, 202–203 Mongke Khan, 44 recurring Mongol campaigns against, Mongol Empire, decline of, 50–51, 51 53–54 refeudalizing, 215–216 Mongols, 40–48. See also Turkics repopulation of, 213, 214 destruction by,41–43 Seven Years’ War and, 74 imperative of, 43 sovereignty over, 212–213, 214–215 Iraq and, xviii Timur’s campaign against, 51–52 siege of Baghdad by,44–47 war for resources in, 171 Monopolistic concessions, 158, 160 World War I and, 170–171 Monotheism, development of, 26–27 Mesopotamian border issue, 147–148 “Morale Bombing,” 257–258 Mesopotamian people, 15 Morgenthau, Henry,230, 231, 232, 233 Mesopotamian petroleum Moses, 27 British control of, 224 Moslem Empire, 32. See also Islamic ownership of, 113 Empire rights over, 104 Moslems, 29. See also Islam value of, 124–125 Ottomans versus, 57 Mesopotamian provinces war against Mongols, 43 demographics in, 176 Mossad, 349 economic pressures on, 77–78 Mossadegh, Muhammad, 357, 358 under Ottoman rule, 60 Mostassim, Caliph, 45, 46 reconquering of, 82–86 execution of, 47 Mexico, American oil imports from, 266 Mosul, 55, 68 Middle Ages, end of, 69 British commercial rights in, 200 Middle East, 55 ceding to France, 196 Allied wartime policy in, 195–204 oil rights to, 211 British policy in, 163 pro-Nazi activists in, 341 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 464

Index 464

Mosul oil field, 124, 126 potency of, 146 Mosul province, 57, 104, 111, 208, World War I and, 171, 172 209–210, 214, 227, 269, 270–271 National Iranian Oil Company,357 concession for, 145, 163 “Nationality clauses,” 355 foreign oil rights in, 269, 270–271, 273, National Socialism, 304. See also Nazi 276 entries “Mosul question,” ruling on, 284–285 Nazi boycott, 303 Motor Machine Gun Unit, 339 Nazi Islamic fighting units, 342–343 Mr. Five Percent, 101, 113, 156, 271. See Nazi oil, purveyors of, 304 also Gulbenkian, Calouste Sarkis Nazis, 293 Mudros, 208, 209 Arab collaboration with, 294–295 Mufti. See Grand Mufti’s Bureau; al-Hus- oil needs of, 306–308 seini, Haj Muhammad Amin racism of, 310–311 Murad, Sultan, 63 Nazi-style pauperization, 345, 347 Murad IV,Sultan, 66 Near East Air Transport (NEAT), 349–350 Mustafa, Hasan Pasha, 67 Near East Development Company,269, Mustafa, Kara, 66 288 Mustafa, Sultan, 66 Nebuchadnezzar II, King, 25 Mustanseriya College, 39 Nessa, Mongol ravaging of, 42 Mustard gas, 249–250 New World, 70 Nicholas I, Czar, 90 Nichols, Herbert, 120–121, 124, 125, 272, N 274, 276, 277, 278, 280, 281–282, Nablus, 298–299 285 Nadir Shah, 67, 68, 73 Nimrud, 21 Naft Khana/Naft i Shah oil fields, 305 Nineveh, 21, 24, 25 Naft Khana region, 224 Nippur, 21, 23 Najaf, 3, 36, 47, 54, 67–68, 202, Nishapur, Mongol ravaging of, 42–43 258–259. See also Ali Mosque; Nixon, Sir John, 187 Awadh Nobel brothers, 100, 103 attacks against, 6 Nonannexation principle, 212 building of, 35 Non-Zionists, 337 Grand Ayatollah Sistani in, 7–9 “Note on Iraq as a Possible Source of Oil mutiny in, 216–217 Supply to the Enemy,” 308 securing of, 374 Numerus clausus purges, 337, 339–340 Shiite power base in, 367 Nuri. See al-Said, Nuri Wahhabis versus, 79 Nuri Pasha, Mohammed, 110 water system in, 69 Najib Pasha, 86–87 Naphtha, 96 O Nasiriyah, 16 Occupying military powers, administra- Nasser, Gamal Abdel, anti-Western stance tion under, 200–204 of, 360–362 Oil, 95–111. See also Bitumen; Oil indus- National Bank of Turkey,127–128, 136, try; Petroleum entries 139–141, 148, 149–150, 151, 156. American discovery of, 91 See also Deutsche Bank–National ownership of Mesopotamian, 113 Bank of Turkey alliance worldwide consumption of, 207 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/25/04 1:31 PM Page 465

Index 465

Oil baronies, 262 Operation Ajax, 358 Oil barons, 99. See also Gulbenkian Operation Ali Baba, 349 entries; Rockefeller, John D. Operation Barbarossa, 307, 310, 329 Oil blockade, OPEC, 365 Operation Desert Shield, 371–372 Oil-burning vessels, need for, 114–115 Operation Exporter, 327–329 “Oil City,” 97 Operation Ezra and Nehemiah, 349 Oil concessions, competition for, 139 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, drilling at, 96–97 Countries (OPEC), 364–365 Oil fields, plans to destroy,320–321 Osman, 56 Oil Fuel Committee, 119 Osmanlis,56 Oil industry Othman the Lame, Pasha, 68 American, 91, 96–99, 104–105 Otrar, 40 Australian, 106 siege against, 41 birth of, 97–98 Ottoman armies, 65, 176 Canadian, 106 Ottoman Empire, 53–70, 86, 269. See also Dutch-Indonesian, 105 “Sick Man of Europe”; Turkey; European, 105–106 Turkish entries; Turks;“Young modern, 105 Turks” origin of Middle East, 106–111 administration of, 57–58 Russian, 99–100, 100–101, 102–104, alliances with, 114 107 Arab nationalism and, 174–175 Soviet, 364 attempted industrialization of, 89–90 Oil monopoly. See also Monopolistic con- bankruptcy of, 107–108 cessions borders of, 287, 289–290 American stand against, 266 British trade with, 74–79 by Anglo-Persian Oil Company, democracy in, 109–111 224–225 disintegration of, 64, 65–66, 88–91, Churchill on, 161, 163 207–209, 229, 233–234 danger of foreign, 263–264 East India Company and, 73 England and, 126, 134–136, 155 extravagance of, 60–61, 62–63 for France and England, 242–243, fiscal policies of, 62–63 246–247 governors-general of, 57, 58 Gulbenkian and, 125, 137–142 Iraq and, xviii, xx prohibition of, 158–159 Mesopotamian oil ownership and, Red Line Agreement for, 289–290 113 Oil prices, raising of, 136 oil negotiations in, 122–123 Oil production, supply and demand in, reforms in, 82 97–98 reviling of, 229–234 Oil supplies, domination of, 263–264 social hierarchy of, 60 “Oil Supply Problem in Germany,The,” sovereignty over, 212 302 World War I and, 170, 183–184 Oil tankers, first, 105 Ottoman Mining Laws of 1882/1886, Olex Oil Company,302–306 118 distribution network of, 305 Ottoman Provinces, 55, 57, 163 Omar, Caliph, 31, 32 in Iraq, 182 “Open Door” policy,262–264, 268–269, Ottoman reformers, 126–127 270, 276, 279 Ottoman rule, Jews under, 335 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 466

Index 466

Ottoman rulers, succession among, 63–64 Persian Gulf, 54, 180 “Oudh,” 76 oil supply in, 115 “Persian Napoleon,” 67 Petroleum, 95. See also Bitumen; Oil P entries Palestine, 180, 294. See also Jewish Pales- in the Mesopotamian industrial dream, tine 204 Arab Revolt in, 337 “posted price” for, 359 blackmail over, 313 transport of, 105 boundaries and administration of, “Petroleum Executive,” 217. See also 238 Long entries establishment as Jewish homeland, Petroleum industry, American, 267 234–235, 237–238, 241–242 “Petroleum question,” 219 Germany’s relationship with, 296 Petroleum Steamship Company,205 immigration of Jews into, 245–246, Petrolia oil center, 106 297–298 Petroliferous Districts of Mesopotamia,The “Jewish question” in, 312–313 (Sykes), 122 mandate for, 241–242 Petropolitics partition of, 299, 344, 345 cold war, 364 transformation of, 298 treachery of, 372 Palestinian Arabs, leader of, 294 Phelan, J. D., 267 “Palestinian problem,” 317 Picot, Georges, 196 Palmach, 325, 327–328 Pipelines Pan-Arab divisions, 176–177 British, 220, 223, 226 Pan-Mongolian civilization, 49 for Iraqi and Persian oil, 293–294 Paris Peace Conference, 219–220, 229, negotiations concerning, 220 236, 264 plans to destroy,321 Parker, Alwyn, 151, 152, 153 “Pithole City,” 98–99 Participations and Investments Company Plague, 50 (Partex), 288 in Baghdad, 85 Pasha class, 59, 60 Ploies¸ti oil fields, 106 wastefulness of, 66–67 Pogroms, 234 Peace treaties, ancient, 24 Poison gas warfare, 247–250 , 299, 309, 310, 344 Poland, oil industry in, 105–106 Pennsylvania, oil production in, 91, Ponsonby, Arthur, 162 96–99 Poor Laws, 69–70 Persia, 25–26, 30–31, 162, 163. See also Portsmouth Treaty,355–356 Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC); Iran Age of Exploration and, 52–53 Janissaries and, 65 England versus, 71, 72, 73 Mongol invasion of, 44–47 Portuguese blockade, 65 oil concessions in, 116 Portuguese conquerors, 54 oil industry in, 107 Powell, Colin, 371 oil surveys of, 115–116 Princip, Gavrilo, 164 Seljuk dynasty and, 38 Printing, 82 Shiites of, 72, 73 “Privy Purse,” 101–102 Timur the Lame in, 51–52 Pro-Hitler Arab movement, 342 World War I and, 170 Prophets, 29 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 467

Index 467

Protection of Minorities Declaration, Royal Dutch Oil Company,105, 223 338–339 Royal Dutch Shell, 105, 115, 125, “Provisional agreements,” 281 134–136, 139, 141–142, 142, 149, 150, 153–154, 155, 156, 160, 161, 198, 206 Q as a British company,222–223 Quraysh chieftains, 177 fusion with Anglo-Persian, 204–205 Qurayzah tribe, slaughter of, 29 Mesopotamian oil concession and, 129 World War I and, 172 Rumaitha revolt, 254 R Russia. See also Bolshevik Revolution Rabin, Yitzhak, 327–328 Baku oil fields in, 99–100, 100–101, Ramses II, Pharaoh, 24 102–104 Rawlinson, Sir Henry,15 German invasion of, 307 Raziel, David, 325, 326 Jews in, 234 Receipts, tokens as, 17 oil industry in, 107, 115, 116, 118 Red Line Agreement, 289–290, 355 Sykes-Picot Agreement and, 196, 197 Red Line consortium/group, 294, 354 World War I and, 165, 169 agreement with al-Wattari, 363–364 Rutherford, Watson, 161 Refining industry,French, 199 Reformation, 69 Reich. See Germany; Nazi entries; Third S Reich S9 supply ship incident, 255 Religion, Mesopotamian, 23–24. See also Saddam forces, routing of, 7 Christianity; Islam; Islamic entries; al-Sadr, Ayatollah Mohammad Baqir, 367 Jews; Judaism; Moslem entries; Zion- execution of, 368 ism; Zionist entries Safavid regime, 54–55 Religious books, quoting from, xx. See al-Saffah, Caliph (“Shedder of Blood”), 36 also Koran al-Said, Nuri, 312, 316, 335–336, 340, Renaissance, 69 343, 350–351, 360 Requa, M. L, 266 death of, 361 Reuter, Baron Julius de, 107, 116 pro-British rule of, 309–310 Revolutionary governments, 254 Said, Sabah, 350 Riyadh, 79 Sakisian, Ohannès Effendi, 121–122 Roaring Twenties, 286 Salmond, General Geoffrey,248 Rockefeller, John D., 99, 104–105 Samarkand, 52 “Rock oil.” See also Petroleum Samuel, Sir Herbert, 246, 295, 296 drilling for, 96–97 Samuel, Marcus, 105, 129, 134, 144, 160, Roe, Thomas, 90 161 Rohrbach, Paul, 118 Sanjuks, 57–58, 60 Roman Empire, 30 , 241, 242, Romania, oil industry in, 106, 306–307 243–244, 245, 251, 254, 262, 265, “Round City,” 37,45. See also Baghdad 266, 270 Royal Air Force (RAF), 261 Sarajevo, World War I and, 163–164 expansion of, 251 Sargon, King, 21–22 Royal Commission on Fuel and Engines, Sargon II, King, 28 134, 135 Sassanid Empire, 30–31 Royal Commission on Oil Fuel, 144 Ibn Saud, King, 354 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 468

Index 468

Saudi Arabia. See also Arab entries; Shi’a-Sunni wars, 36–38 Arabia Shiites (Shi’a), 216, 246. See also Shi’a American concession in, 356 Moslems; Shi’a-Sunni entries fifty-fifty agreement with, 356 al-Bakr campaign against, 366–367 Socal concession in, 354 guerrilla war against Mongols, 43–44 Saud tribe, Wahhabi conversion of, 79 Hussein’s repression of, 368 Sazonov, Sergei, 196 India and, 69 Sciences, Sumerian, 23 Iraqi abuses of, 367 “Scientific control of the rivers,” 202 Mongols and, 44, 47 Sea Lion, 325, 326 Nadir Shah and, 67–68 Second Battalion (“No Slack”), 101st Najib Pasha versus, 87 Airborne, 3–4 origin of, 36 history of, 5 Persian, 72, 73, 76–77 in Iraq, 6, 8, 10–11 purge of, 38 trapping of, 9–10 Safavid regime of, 54–55, 60 Second General Syrian Congress, slaughter of, 65 240–241 Wahhabis versus, 79–80 Secret societies, 175 Shirazi, Imam, 253 Self-denying covenant, 277–278 Short, James, 77 Self-denying principle, 287 “Sick Man of Europe,” 90–91, 110, 114, Self-determination principle, 212–213, 127, 174. See also Ottoman Empire 221 death of, 208 economic, 226 Silk Road, 31–32 Selim, Sultan, 63 Simon, Sir John, 157–158 Seljuk dynasty,38, 55 Sippar, 21 Semites, 310 Sistan, Mongol campaign against, 51 September 11, 2001 attack, 373 Sistani, Grand Ayatollah Sayyed, 4, 7–9, Serbia, Austro-Hungarian invasion of, 374 164–165 Six Day War, 365 Settlements, first permanently inhabited, Skliros, J., 321 14 Slade, Rear Admiral Sir Edmond, 147, Seven Years’ War, 74 170, 207 Sexagesimal number system, 22 Slade Commission, 147 Seymour, Hamilton, 90 Smith, Sir Lancelot, 218, 219, 222, 228 Shah, Nadir, 67, 68, 73 Smith, Sir Llewellyn, 151 Shah of Iran, fifty-fifty arrangement with, Solomon, King, 27 358 Somme, Battle of, 169 Sharett, Moshe, 351 South Africa, cave dwellers in, 13 Shatt-al-Arab estuary,202, 370 Soviet oil industry,364 control of, 368 Special Forces commandos, 4 Sheikhs, 215–216 Standard Oil of California (Socal), 354 Shell Transport Company,142–143, 223. Standard Oil, 105, 115, 161, 262, 263, See also Royal Dutch Shell 268, 269, 271, 276, 289 Shell Transport and Trading, 105 Standard Oil of New Jersey,355 Shi’a Moslems, 3. See also Shiites (Shi’a) State-controlled capitalism, 161 Shi’a-Sunni reconciliation, 252 Stone Age, 14 Shi’a-Sunni rivalries, 176 Strait of Hormuz, 54, 72 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 469

Index 469

Straus, Oscar, 230 “Tax farming,” 67 Stuart, Captain B., 253 Teagle, Walter C., 263, 268, 271, 275, 277, Subashi, Bakr, 65 278, 279, 281, 288 Sublime Porte, 62, 65, 67, 75, 89–90, 117 Teheran, invasion of American embassy Suez Canal, 91, 118 in, 369 Suleiman I, Sultan, 63, 64 Tel Afar, 253 Suleiman II, Sultan, 65–66 Tel Aviv, 298 Sultans, Ottoman, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, Tell es–Sultan oasis, 14 64–65, 88, 104, 175 Third Reich, 304, 305. See also Germany; Sumawa revolt, 254 Nazi entries Sumeria, commerce in, 16 oil needs of, 306–308 Sumerians, 21–22 Thousand and One Arabian Nights, A,37 number system and calendar of, 22 Tigris River, 15, 17, 21, 37, 45–46, 198. Sunni revolt, 55 See also Euphrates-Tigris delta; Fer- Sunnis, 246. See also Shi’a-Sunni entries tile Crescent British trade and, 72, 73 flooding of, 85 Hashemites as, 177 Tikrit, 51, 190 Mongol extirpation of, 43–44, 47–48 Timur the Lame (Tamerlane), 51–52 origin of, 36 death of, 54 Ottoman Empire and, 60, 65 Ottoman conquest by,53–54 Persian campaign against, 67–68 Titusville oil strike, 91, 97 as ruling class in Iraq, 366 To kens, 16–17 Wahhabis versus, 79 Townshend, Charles, 188, 208 Suq tribes, 215 Trade, Ottoman Empire, 59 as-Suwaydi, Tawfig, 348, 349 Trade Disputes Act, 157 “Sword of Islam,” 30 Trade routes, 53. See also Asian trade Sykes, Mark, 122, 196 routes Sykes-Picot Agreement, 196, 197, 200, Trading with the Enemy office, 208, 211, 218, 227, 235 305–306 formalization of, 197 “Trading with the Enemy” proclama- Syria, 60, 180, 226, 236. See also Second tions, 171 General Syrian Congress Transferred Territories treaty,148, 155 Arab independence in, 237–239 , 273 Baghdad Railway in, 196 Treaty of Paris, 74 as epicenter of Arab nationalism, 177 Trenchard, Hugh, 257–258 mandate for, 241 Tr ibal hierarchies, rewriting of, 215 Mongol conquest of, 47–48 Tr ibalism, Arab, 28 Reich propaganda in, 319 Tr ipoli refineries, 325 uprising in, 180 Turco-Persian Frontier Protocol, 148 Vichy,311, 318, 319–320, 324, 327 Turkey,56. See also Anatolia; National Bank of Turkey; Ottoman entries; Turks; “Young Turks” T Arab uprisings against, 244 Taif province, 110 “carving” of, 241 Talaat Pasha, 233 declaration of war on, 170 Tapous, 104 jihad against England, 184–185 Taxation, Ottoman, 58 military action against, 185–189 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 470

Index 470

Turkey (Continued) United Nations (UN), 344–346 World War I surrender of, 207–209 United States. See also America; American Young Turk coup in,127 entries Turkics, 51, 53, 55–56 news reports in, Turkish bath, 61 232–233 Turkish Mining Law,158 foreign oil monopolies and, Turkish Ottomans, 55 263–265 Turkish Petroleum Company (TPC), Mesopotamian oil interests of, 124 140–141, 149, 151, 199–200, 218, oil consumption of, 207 243, 265, 267, 271, 272, 274, 275, poison gas use by,247 276, 288 Ur, 23, 26 American Group of, 279, 282–283 Urbanized centers, rise of, 20 American inclusion in, 268 Uruk, 16, 17, 21, 23 Deutsche Bank’s holding in, 227, USS Cole, bombing of, 6 228 USS Stark incident, 369 German ownership in, 219 Uzbekistan, 40 Mesopotamian concession application Uzbeks, 55 of, 158, 160, 163 proposed merger with Anglo-Persian Oil Company,145–146, 148, 153 V research permits of, 142 “Vart Badrik” family,101 restructuring of, 155–156 Verdun, 169 seizure and sale of shares of, 218–219, Ver sailles Peace Conference, 212 220, 221 Vilayets, 55, 163, 173 territory of, 290 in Iraq, 182 Working Agreement of, 277–278, 280, Violence, history of Iraq and, xxx 284, 287 von Ribbentrop, German Foreign Minis- World War I and, 171, 172 ter, 341 Turkish trade routes, 74–75 Turkmenistan, 51 Turks. See also Ottoman entries; Turkey; W “Young Turks” al-Waeli, Kadhim, 5–7, 8 extermination of Armenians by, al-Wahab, Mohammed ibn Abd, 79 231–233 Wahhabis, 79–80 Iraq and, xx, 191–192 al Walid, General Khalid ibn, 30–31 “Tutelage,” 226 Waqf religious trust, 300 British, 253 al-Wattari, Abdul Aziz, 363–364, Tyrrell, William, 280 364–365 Wealth, of Ottoman Empire, 59–61 Weir report, 307 U Weizmann, Chaim, 237, 238, 297 Ubaid culture, 15 Western civilization Ulema,63 forward movement of, 69–70 Umayyads, 32, 33, 34–35, 36 Iraq and, xviii, 10 , 354 Mesopotamia and, 21 United Arab movement, 178–179 origin of religion in, 23–24 United Arab Republic (UAR), 360–361 rage against, 353 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 471

Index 471 reviling of Ottoman Empire by, Y 229–234 Yazidis, 176 Weygand, Maxime, 301 “Young Turks,” 127, 128–129, 158–159, Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 117, 118–119, 165 230, 231 Willcocks, Sir William, 203 alliance with Germans, 154, 155 Wilson, Arnold, 208, 209–210, 224, 227, chauvinism of, 174–175 251–253, 256, 257, 259, 260 new groups of, 138–139, 140 decisions by,213–217 riots of, 131 Wilson, Woodrow,213, 219, 247, 262, Youth for Salvation, 341 263, 267 Fourteen Points of, 212 World War I, 169–171 Z Allied Mideast policy during, 195–197 Zakat, 29–30 Arab nationalism during, 176–185, Zebetra, 38 185–186 Ziggurats, 23 end of, 210, 217 Zionism, 234, 235, 241–242, 294 initiation of, 164–165 criminalization of, 346 magnitude of, 169 Jewish identification with, 337 World War II, 293–329, 331–344 threat of, 295 beginning of, 300 Zionist Conference, 245–246 political and economic relationships Zionist military organization, 325 during, 293 Zionist societies, 341 Worldwide oil consumption, 207 Zionist state, 237, 238 Writing systems, 22–23 Zoroaster oil tanker, 100 Written language, emergence of, 17 Zoroastrianism, 30 11701_Black_2p_bindex.a.qxd 8/23/04 10:12 AM Page 472