Implementation of a marine protected area in Chile: consequences of neglecting local socio- cultural factors Daniela Serra Maggi A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy At the University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand April 2012 … To my family Abstract Through ethnographic enquiry and an anthropological approach this thesis provides insights into the socio-cultural dynamics surrounding local communities’ participation in a Multiple-Use Marine Protected Area (MUMPA). Using a broad range of sources, this research illustrates the different nuances of local relationships. The methodology included small-scale group settings facilitating an in-depth anthropological study that offers a privileged understanding of the social realm of MUMPAs. The assessment focuses on elements of Integrated Conservation Development Projects (ICDPs), employing Lafken Mapu Lahual (LML) MUMPA as a case study—in Chile—that shows the applicability of this type of project in a specific Latin American context. The research examines the reasons why inclusion of human aspects, including the implications of social and cultural characteristics, has not received much attention in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). In addition, the consequences and effects of this exclusion are discussed. The analysis shows that the local reality is more complex than portrayed by the LML MUMPA staff, including their failure to adequately learn about the social and cultural way of organising, interests and history of local communities. This oversight hindered the local people’s engagement in the LML MUMPA. This thesis specifically addresses the project’s exacerbation of conflict over resource access between the indigenous communities included in the LML MUMPA project and the historical artisanal fishers that were excluded from it. The LML MUMPA regulated resource rights to an area providing the former group free access while simultaneously denying such access to the latter group. The ICDP approach, which provided the framework for the LML MUMPA, established prescriptions of who would be the appropriate participants in a marine conservation area: the indigenous people. However, the approach uses only one idea to describe and define indigenous social and cultural characteristics. This thesis shows that v diverse culturally defined resource use practices—as an element on which project staff based their selection of main stakeholders and to allocate benefits of the LML MUMPA— challenge the simple application of ICDPs to marine and coastal areas. The conclusion drawn from the analysis of the research is that different situations obstructed the LML MUMPA deployment. These different situations are important in that they show the complexity of the concepts of ethnicity and local stakeholders. At a superficial level, several seemingly successful and representative organizations failed to fulfil the role of project stakeholders. Also, the official commitment of the regional authorities was not fulfilled, which hampered the viability of the LML MUMPA. This analysis outlines the importance of managing the local participants’ expectations of the benefits from their involvement in the project. This is paramount for long term engagement. These issues are important in that they help to develop arguments about the complexity of social and cultural concepts in marine conservation projects based on biological parameters. vi Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge my supervisor Chris Rosin who believed in me and my research. He encouraged and helped me with great exertion with all his intellectual guidance. He was always happy to answer any of my questions and always gave a significant amount of comments about my work which helped me a lot. I am his first PhD student and I’m sure I won’t be the last. To my supervisor Hugh Campbell for all his logistical support in taking important decisions and his time for writing support letters throughout the PhD. To my supervisor Jim Williams for his guidance and insights regarding indigenous communities. I owe many thanks to the people in the town of Bahía Mansa and all through Chile who shared their opinions and experience in their interviews. All the people in my fieldwork site who with humility and cheerfulness let me into their lives. To Alonso Hinostroza for all his help as a local in my fieldwork and for the contacts he provided me in the field and his friendship. For making me brave enough to go through the adventures to get to my interviewees during fieldwork. Thanks to all the people that helped with the proof-reading of my thesis; Bojun Chiswell, Michelle Willmott, Jenny Chamberlain, Jill Harland, Jennifer Angelo, Margaret Finney and especially Anne Ford, without whose help during the last months of my thesis writing, I just could not have made it. Many thanks as well to Cecilia Ramírez, the geographer who made the maps presented in this thesis. To my mentor, the archaeologist Andrea Seelenfreund, for her example in doing a PhD in Dunedin 25 years ago, for her contacts and guidance, and for always being supportive, very prompt, efficient and available at any time. To Mauricio Gálvez for letting me know about the place that ended up as my case study and his insights and information about the topic of marine protected areas. vii To my dear ex-officemates in the Anthropology Department - Marsa, Anne and Ron - and my friends in Dunedin - Sumana, and Mauricio Cubillos - who always have been supportive, understanding and have cheered me up in all the shortcomings and drawbacks I went through with this PhD. Also thanks for their advice from their own experience in their Master and PhD theses. Also my family for their support and for caring all through the process of my academic life in New Zealand. I want to thank my partner Mariano Rodríguez for his encouragement and being so caring and thoughtful during all my ups and downs in this process. Also he was my technical support in all the thesis formatting and structure. Especially for his emotional support and not letting me give up when he also was having difficulties with his own PhD. Undertaking this journey of doing a PhD in a foreign country has been a great challenge. To my dear meditation instructor and friend Simon Luna, who helped me with writing my thesis proposal to be able to apply for the scholarship that funded my PhD. He passed away in 2007 but he always will be in my heart. viii Contents Abstract v Acknowledgements vii Contents ix List of tables xv List of figures xvii List of abbreviations and acronyms xix Chapter 1.- Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1. History and political context of the GEF Marino project ............................................................. 2 1.2. Indigenous participation, indigeneity and consequent difficulties in GEF Marino project implementation .......................................................................................................................................... 10 1.3. Thesis objectives ................................................................................................................................. 15 1.4. Narratives in the thesis ...................................................................................................................... 16 1.5. Methodological approach - discourse representations ................................................................. 17 1.6. Chapter outline ................................................................................................................................... 20 Chapter 2 (Part I).- Literature review and conceptual framework: The theoretical background and elaboration of integrated approaches to conservation and development .. 23 2.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 23 2.2. Anthropological perspectives ........................................................................................................... 24 2.2.1. Environmental anthropology and conservation ..................................................................24 2.2.2. Applying anthropology to the conservation of marine resources .....................................31 ix Contents 2.2.3. Anthropology and Traditional Ecological Knowledge/Local Ecological Knowledge (TEK/LEK) in conservation projects ............................................................................................. 34 2.3. The emergence of environmental protection ................................................................................ 37 2.3.1. Establishment of Protected Areas (PAs) and local residents ............................................. 40 2.3.2. The emerging integration of development with a conservation ideology ........................ 44 2.4. Constraints of integrated conservation development projects (ICDPs) ................................... 46 2.4.1. Policy capture of management and conservation projects ................................................. 49 Chapter 2 (Part II).- Literature review and conceptual framework: Marine conservation and the development of marine protected areas (MPAs) ............................................................ 53 2.5. Emergence of marine conservation ................................................................................................ 53 2.5.1. Marine and coastal management approaches that emphasise social elements