Wildland Planning Glossary. USDA Forest Serv

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Wildland Planning Glossary

Charles F. Schwarz Edward C. Thor Gary H. Elsner

PACIFIC SOUTHWEST

Forest and Range FOREST SERVICE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Experiment Station P.O. BOX 245, BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA 94701

USDA FOREST SERVICE GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PSW-13 /1976 Schwarz, Charles F., Edward C. Thor, and Gary H. Elsner. 1976. Wildland planning glossary. USDA Forest Serv. Gen Tech. Rep. PSW-13, 252 p. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif.

More than 1400 terms useful in wildland and related resource planning are defined. The purpose of the work is to facilitate communication between professionals, not to provide them with exhaustive vocabularies of each other's specialties. Definitions are drawn from many sources, including public laws and government manuals, but are not intended to establish legally binding definitions. A list of terms and list of sources are included.

Oxford: 911(038)–(73) Retrieval Terms: wildland planning; land utilization; range management; forest management; terminology.

The Authors

CHARLES SCHWARZ is a landscape architect in the Station's research unit on forest recreation and landscape planning, at Berkeley. Before joining the Station staff in 1975, he was a research assistant at the University of California's Institute of Urban and Regional Development, Berkeley. EDWARD C. THOR is an economist with the research unit. He was formerly a post-graduate research economist at the University of California, Berkeley, on assignment to the Station under a cooperative agreement. GARY H. ELSNER is in charge of the unit.

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402–Price $2.45 Stock Number 001-001-00413-8 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE

Washington, D. C. 20250

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To: The Readers

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A primary goal of the Land Use Planning Unit is to establish a communications network among all planners and those interconnected with planning. There is a basic need for quick transfer of methodology and techniques to support an effective job of planning with a minimum of duplication and effort.

Good communications demand common agreement on the meanings of words. This is particularly true in scientific and professional disciplines, and especially critical where quantified techniques must be used. Agreement comes from understanding and acceptance over time.

This "Wildland Planning Glossary," prepared by the Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, is a good beginning towards obtaining common understanding and acceptance of the meanings of words. This glossary is the first edition in a series which will become even more comprehensive as new wildland planning terms and concepts are added. Many words, if not most, will be immediately understood and accepted by all who read it. Other words may cause controversy and not be accepted by some. Suggestions for improvement of meaning and additional terms should be addressed to:

Unit Leader Systems Application Unit for Land Use Planning 3825 East Mulberry Fort Collins, Colorado 50371

All readers are invited to participate by commenting on these meanings when they do not agree or understand. Comments or suggestions for improvement should provide references or justification for change. New editions incorporating suggested changes and additional terms and definitions will be prepared by the Systems Application Unit.

THOMAS C. NELSON Deputy Chief

i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Individual acknowledgment for the help received in shaping this glossary is not possible because so many people participated. For example, more than 50 people reviewed the first and second drafts, and a number of others made valuable contributions. Employees of the following agencies and organizations participated in the review of this glossary. University of California: Cooperative Agricultural Extension Service, Natural Land and Water Reserve System. California State Cooperative Soil-Vegetation Survey. Lake Tahoe Area Research Coordination Board. Soil Conservation Society of America: Land Use Planning Subcommittee, Natural Vegetation Subcommittee, California Chapter Conservation Research Committee. U.S. Department of Agriculture: Agricultural Research Service, Western Re- gional Office; Soil Conservation Service, California State Office. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: Resource Planning Act Team (WO); National Forest System—Land Use Planning Unit, Watershed and Minerals Management Staff (WO), Regional Office Land Use and Multiple Use Planning Units; State and Private Forestry—Area Planning and Development Staff (WO) (Comprehensive Land Use Planning Group and Cooperative Planning and Rural Development Group); Research—Forest Economics and Marketing Research Staff (WO), Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station Surface Envi- ronment and Mining Team (SEAM), Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experi- ment Station. Work on the Wildland Planning Glossary was supported in part under Cooper- ative Agreement 21-314 with the Department of Agricultural and Resource Eco- nomics, University of California, Berkeley.

ii PREFACE

National recognition of the importance of land use planning in the management of the Nation's wildlands is growing steadily. Many local and State governments have already passed land use planning laws. The Federal Government, in stages marked by the passage of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 and the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, has been gradually moving toward comprehensive land use planning, and a national land use planning act will probably be passed before long. The U.S. Forest Service has already adopted land use planning procedures for management of all National Forests. Such growth, as might be expected, has been attended by problems of communication—coordination, definition, and exchange of information. Wildland planning has brought together the wildland manager (usually trained in forestry or range management), the professional planner (usually trained in city or regional planning), and specialists in any of a dozen or more natural, physical, or social sciences. Most of these people have only limited knowledge of the concerns, methods, and terminology of special fields other than their own. In the absence of a standard reference work, the terminology of wildland planning has become a haphazard accumulation of technical terms–many duplicating others in meaning, many used differently by different people, and some having no precise meaning at all. Obviously, such terminology can only aggravate the difficulties of communication. This book is an attempt to alleviate the problem by providing definitions of the terms currently used in wildland planning. The purpose here is to facilitate communication between professionals, not to supply them with exhaustive vocabularies of each other's specialties. Accordingly, only those terms of each discipline that are most important to wildland planning are listed. Less frequently used terms may be found in glossaries of special fields. Many such works are listed here under Sources. We do not present this book as a final product. Just as the rapid growth of wildland planning has made the glossary necessary, so continued growth will make it obsolete; new terms will be developed and some of those given here will drop out of use. A glossary, though giving temporary stability and unity to terminology, should not cause stagnation. Our hope is that this first effort will be followed by expanded and revised editions, keeping pace with the evolution of wildland planning, and thus contributing to it.

The forms of entry and definition used in this book vary somewhat from those of standard dictionaries and glossaries. Alphabetizing. All entries are listed in strict alphabetical order, regardless of word breaks. For example, Mine tailings follows Mineral soil and precedes Mining, area strip. However, clusters of multiple-word terms are entered under the main word: for example, Erosion, accelerated and Erosion, raindrop follow Erosion. Synonyms. Where several similar terms for one concept are in use, or where various terms are used interchangeably with a variety of meanings (sometimes con- tradictory), the main entry is the preferred or standard term. Preference is usually determined as the original or apparently most common usage. Less acceptable terms follow the main entry in parentheses. The terms in parentheses are not necessarily accurate synonyms for the main entry.

iii Boldface terms. A boldface term within a definition is being used precisely and is itself defined in the glossary. Sources. The definitions given come from many sources, including public laws or Government manuals. We have made no attempt, however, to establish legally binding definitions or official doctrine. Some officially stated definitions are not in agreement with common usage, but they are included because planners often need to be aware of them. Each definition is followed by an abbreviated source citation in parentheses; complete citations are listed at the end of the book. Definitions followed only by initials are those originated for this glossary by one of the authors or by a reviewer. List of terms. A simple listing of all terms included precedes the glossary. This list allows the user to determine quickly the form of the main entry for the particular term needed. It can also serve as a thesaurus of terms for the writer who is groping for the right word.

iv LIST OF TERMS Abiotic Alienated Land. See Land, alienated. Abiotic commodity All-aged stand. See Uneven-aged stand Abiotic productivity. See Allocation. See Resource allocation and Productivity, abiotic Land use allocation Absentee ownership Allotment. See Range allotment Absolute poverty. See Poverty, absolute Allowable cut Accelerated erosion. See Erosion, Allowable harvest. See Allowable cut accelerated Allowable use. See Use, allowable Acceptable material Alluvial Acceptable risk. See Alluvial land Risk, acceptable Alluvial valley floor Acceptability test Alluvium Accessibility Alternate grazing. See Grazing, rotation Accessory use. See Secondary use Alternative Acculturation Alternative futures. See Futures Acquisition of development rights. See Alternative life styles. See Life styles Development rights, acquisition of Ambient Acquisition of land Amenity Acre-foot Anadromous fish Action plan. See Activity planning Analysis Active fault. See Fault, active Angle of repose Activity planning Animal community. See Adaptive planning Biotic community Additive weighting Animal month Administration Animal unit conversion factor Administrative unit Animal unit month ADT. See Average daily traffic Annual cut. See Allowable cut (2) Adversary procedure Annual flood. See Flood, annual Adverse land use Annual pasture. See Pasture, annual Advocacy planning Annual range. See Range, annual Aerial logging. See Logging, aerial Annual yield. See Allowable cut (2) Aerial perspective. See Perspective, aerial Antagonism Aesthetic recreational carrying capacity. Antecedent moisture See Carrying capacity, Antiquities Act wildland recreation (5) Approximate original contour. See Aesthetics Contour, approximate original Aesthetic zoning. See Aquifer Zoning, aesthetic Archeological area Affirmative easement. See Archeological resource Easement, affirmative Area guide. See Planning area guide Afforestation Area of critical environmental concern Agricultural land Area planning. See Regional planning and Agricultural zoning. See Planning area Zoning, agricultural Area reconnaissance Agriculture Area strip mining. See Mining, Air Pollution area surface Air rights Area surface mining. See Mining, Air shed area surface Algal bloom Aspect

1 Association. See Biotic community Biome-type Assumption Biophysical Attitude Biophysical determinism Auger mining Biosphere Autotrophic organism Biota Average daily traffic Biotic Avoidable risk. See Risk, avoidable Biotic association. See Biotic community Azonal soil. See Soil horizon (2) Biotic carrying capacity. See Carrying Backcountry capacity, ecological (4) Background Biotic climax. See Climax community (3) Background level Biotic community Back lighting Biotic diversity. See Biologic diversity Balanced objectivism Biotic potential Balance of nature Biotic productivity. See Bank erosion. See Erosion, bank Productivity, biotic Basal area Black box Base flow BLM Base map Blob diagram. See Diagrammatic Base property. See Commensurate representation property Block diagram Basic assumption. See Assumption (2) Bloom Basic productivity. See Productivity, Blow down. See Windthrow primary Board foot Beach erosion. See Erosion, beach BOD. See Biological oxygen demand Bedload Botanical area Bedrock Boundary species. See Species, peripheral Belief Browse Benchmark Brush Benefit Brush control Benefit-cost analysis Brush management Benefit-cost ratio Buffer Benthos Buffer strip. See Buffer Bequest motive. See Existence value Buffer zone. See Buffer Biochemical oxygen demand. See Bulk density Biological oxygen demand Bundle of rights. See Property rights Biodegradables Cable logging. See Logging, cable Biogeochemical Calefaction. See Thermal pollution Biogeochemical cycle Canopied landscape. See Bio(geo)c(o)enose, See Ecosystem Landscape, canopied Bio(geo)c(o)enosis. See Ecosystem Capability Biogeophysical Capability, inherent. See Capability Biological management unit Capability, intrinsic. See Capability Biological oxygen demand Capability, natural. See Capability Biological potential. See Biotic potential Capacity, highway Biological primacy. See Capital Biophysical determinism Capital good Biologic diversity Carbon cycle Biologic stability. See Ecologic stability Cardinal unit. See Cardinal value Biomass Cardinal value Biome Carnivore

2 Carrying capacity Cluster zoning. See Zoning, cluster Carrying capacity, aesthetic recreational. Coastal state See Carrying capacity, Coastal waters. wildland recreation, (5) Coastal zone Carrying capacity, ecological Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 Carrying capacity, economic recreation COD. See Chemical oxygen demand Carrying capacity, facility Cold-water fishery Carrying capacity, natural. See Colluvium Carrying capacity, ecological Commensurability Carrying capacity, optimal. See Commensurable values Carrying capacity, wildland Commensurate property recreation (4) Commercial/industrial land Carrying capacity, physical. See Commodity Carrying capacity, ecological Common law. See Law, common Carrying capacity, psychological Common variety mineral. See Carrying capacity, range Mineral, common variety Carrying capacity, social. See Community. See Biotic community Carrying capacity, psychological or Human community Carrying capacity, visitor. See Community biomass. See Biomass (2) Carrying capacity, economic recreation Community development Carrying capacity, wildland recreation Community services land Carrying capacity, wildlife Compartment. See Timber Catchment area. See Watershed management compartment Catchment basin. See Watershed Compatible uses Census tract Compensable regulation Central city. See Urbanized area Competition CEQ Complement Channel storage Complementary uses Characteristic landscape. For U.S. Forest Complete clearcutting. See Clearcutting (2) Serv. usage see Visual landscape Completeness test character Complete protection Character subtype. For U.S. Forest Serv. usage Comprehensive development plan. See see Visual character subtype Comprehensive plan Chemical oxygen demand Comprehensive plan Choropleth map Computer graphics City planning Computer information system Claim. See Mining claim Computer program Classification Concentrated recreation. See Class, social. See Social class Recreation, concentrated Clay Concentration time Cleaning Concern Clearcutting Condemnation Clearcutting system Condemnation, inverse. See Climate Condemnation, reverse Climax community Condemnation, reverse Climax species Conflicting uses Climax vegetation Conservation Closed area Conservation District. See Closed range. See Range, closed Soil Conservation District Cluster development Conservation easement. See

3 Easement, conservation Cubic feet per second Conservation plan Cultural adaptation Conservation treatment unit Cultural change Conservation zoning. See Cultural eutrophication Zoning, conservation Cultural history resource Constitutional determinism Cultural resource. See Cultural history Consumer organism resource (2) Consumer surplus Culture Consumptive use Cumulative use Contingency planning. See Cunit Adaptive planning Cut Continuing easement. See Cut and fill Easement, continuous Cut-over forest Continuous grazing. See Cutting Grazing, continuous Cutting cycle Contour CZMA. See Coastal Zone Management Contour, approximate original Act of 1972 Contour interval Data Contour line. See Contour DBH. See Diameter at breast height Contour map Decision theory Contour strip mining. See Decomposer organism mining, contour surface Decreaser. See Decreaser plant species Controlled burn Decreaser plant species Coordinating criteria Deferred grazing. See Coordinating requirements Grazing, deferred rotation Cord Deferred rotation grazing. See Cost Grazing, deferred rotation Cost-benefit analysis. See Degree of use. See Use, degree of Benefit-cost analysis Delphi method Cost-benefit ratio. See Benefit-cost ratio Demand. See Demand schedule Cost effective analysis Demand schedule Cost-revenue analysis. See Depletion Revenue-cost analysis Derived demand Cost-utility analysis. See DES. See Environmental impact Benefit-cost analysis statement, draft Cover Design Cover type Design solution Cow month Desirable plant species CPM. See Critical path method Desires. See Needs Creep. See Soil creep Detailed landscape. See Crisis Landscape, detailed Criteria Detailed reconnaissance soil map. See Critical area. See Area of critical Soil map, detailed reconnaissance environmental concern Detailed soil map. See Soil map, detailed Critical distance and Soil survey Critical path method Detailed soil survey. See Soil map, Cropland detailed and Soil survey Cross section Detention storage Crown Deterministic model. See CTU. See Conservation treatment unit Model, deterministic

4 Detritivore. See Detrivore Easement, affirmative Detrivore Easement, conservation Developed recreation area. See Easement, continuing recreation area, developed Easement, discontinuous Developer Easement, negative Development Easement, recreational Development planning Easement, scenic Development rights Ecoclass Development rights, acquisition of Ecological determinism Development rights, transfer of Ecological land unit Development type Ecological water unit Development zoning. See Ecologic community. See Zoning, development Biotic community Diagrammatic representation Ecologic competition. See Competition Diameter at breast height Ecologic diversity. See Biologic diversity Direct effect and Species diversity Disadvantaged groups Ecologic indicator. See Discharge Indicator, biologic Discontinuous easement. See Ecologic niche. See Niche (2) Easement, discontinuous Ecologic pyramids Discounting Ecologic stability Discount rate Ecologic succession. See Succession Disjointed incrementalism. See Ecology Incrementalism Econometrics Dispersed recreation. See Economic analysis recreation, dispersed Economic base analysis. See Dissolved oxygen Export base analysis Dissolved oxygen concentration Economic depletion. See Depletion Dissolved oxygen level. See Economic determinism Dissolved oxygen concentration Economic enterprise Dissolved solids Economic externalities Diversity index. See Economic growth Species diversity index Economic life DO. See Dissolved oxygen Economic scarcity DOL. See Dissolved Economic subregion oxygen concentration Economic unit. See Economic enterprise Dominant Ecosystem Dominant use Ecotone Dominant use management Ecotype Draft environmental impact statement. Edaphic See Environmental impact Edaphic climax. See statement, draft Climax community (3) Draft environmental statement Edaphic factor Drainage basin. See Watershed Edge Durability Edge species. See Species, edge Duration curve. See Flow duration curve Effectiveness-cost analysis. See Dynamic programming Cost-effectiveness analysis EAR. See Environmental Effectiveness index analysis report Effectiveness test Easement Efficiency test

5 Effluent Environmental setting. For U.S. Forest Egalitarianism Serv. usage see Management situation EIS. See Environmental impact statement Environmental statement. See Elasticity Environmental impact statement Element. See Plan element Environmental system or Program element Environment, human Elites Ephemeral stream Elitism. See Pluralism Erosion ELU. See Ecological land unit Erosion, accelerated Eltonian pyramid. See Pyramid Erosion, bank of numbers Erosion, beach Eminent domain Erosion, geologic Enclosing landscape. See Erosion, gully Landscape, enclosing Erosion, natural Endangered species. See Erosion, normal Species, endangered Erosion, raindrop. See Erosion, splash Endangered Species Act of 1973 Erosion, rill Endangered Species Conservation Act Erosion, sheet of 1969. See Endangered Species Act Erosion, soil of 1973 Erosion, splash Endemic organism Erosion, surface Endemic species: See Endemic organism ES. See Environmental impact statement Energy resource planning Esthetics. See Aesthetics Engineering solution Estuarine area Environment Estuarine sanctuary Environmental analysis. See Estuary Environmental impact analysis Euclidean zoning. See Zoning, Euclidean Environmental analysis report Eury– organism Environmental assessment. See Eutrophication Environmental impact analysis Evaluation Environmental corridor Even-aged management Environmental durability. See Durability Even-aged stand Environmental fragility. See Fragility EWU. See Ecological water unit Environmental hazard. See Excepted mineral. See Mineral, excepted Natural hazard Exception. See Special exception Environmental impact analysis Exclusive use zoning. See Environmental impact assessment. See Zoning, exclusive use Environmental impact analysis Exclusive zoning. See Environmental impact statement Zoning, exclusive use Environmental impact statement, draft Exempt stock Environmental impact statement, final Exhaustible resource. See Environmental index. See Index Nonrenewable resource Environmental modification Existence value Environmental planning Exotic organism Environmental psychology Exotic species. See Exotic organism and Environmental quality Species, exotic Environmental Quality Improvement Expectations Act of 1970 Export base analysis Environmental quality index. See Exposure Environmental quality and Index Extensive recreation. See

6 Recreation, extensive Flow duration curve Externalities. See Economic externalities Flow resource. See Renewable resource Extinct or possibly extinct species. See Fluvial Species, extinct or possibly extinct Focal landscape. See Landscape, focal Extractive economics Folkway Extraordinary planning Food chain Extrinsic resource Food-web Farmstead Forage Fault Forage acre Fault, active Forage acre requirement Fauna Forage, green Feasibility Forage production Feasibility evaluation. See Feasibility Forage, unavailable Feature dominated landscape. See Forage yield. See Forage production Landscape, feature-dominated Forb Federal lands Forecast Feed Foreground Feedback loop Forest Fee simple ownership. See Forest and Rangeland Renewable Ownership, fee simple Resources Planning Act of 1974 Felling Felling cycle. See Cutting cycle Forest coordinating requirements. See Coordinating requirements Felling rotation. See Rotation Feral species. See Species, feral Forest cover type. See Cover type Fertility. See Soil fertility Forest land FES. See Environmental impact Forest land use plan statement, final Forest plan. See Forest land use plan Filter strip. See Buffer (2) Forest type Final cutting Forest use zoning. See Zoning, forest Final environmental impact statement. Forest zoning. See Zoning, forest See Environmental impact Fragile lands statement, final Fragile or historic lands Final environmental statement. See Fragility Environmental impact Framework studies and assessments statement, final Free range Fire break Frost heave Fire planning Fuel break Fire, prescribed. See Prescribed burn Full use Fish Functional plan. See Functional planning Fishery Functional planning Flood Futures Flood, annual Game. See Species, game Flood basin Game species. See species, game Flood frequency Game theory Flood peak General assumption. See Assumption Flood plain Generalized soil map. See Soil Flood plain zoning. See map, general Zoning, flood plain General plan. See Comprehensive plan (1) Flood stage General purpose local government Flora General soil map. See Soil map, general

7 General soil survey. See Soil map, general Gross residential density. See and Soil survey Residential density General systems theory Ground-lead logging. See Logging, General welfare ground-lead Geographic specific Groundwater Geological area Groundwater recharge area. See Geologic erosion. See Erosion, geologic Groundwater and Recharge Geologic materials Groundwater table. See Water table Geomorphic processes Group. See Social group Geomorphic province. See Region, Group culture. See Subculture physiographic Group cutting Geomorphology Guide. See Planning area guide Goal Guideline Goal programming Gully Graphic scale Gully erosion. See Erosion, gully Grazing Habitat Grazing, alternate. See grazing, rotation Hardpan Grazing capacity Hard pesticides. See Persistent pesticides Grazing capacity, maximum Harvesting Grazing, continuous Hayland Grazing, continuous use. See Hazard Grazing, continuous Heat island Grazing, deferred Heavy grazing. See Grazing, heavy Grazing, deferred rotation Heavy metals Grazing district Hedging Grazing, heavy Herb Grazing, intermittent Herbage Grazing land, native Herbicide Grazing, light Herbivore Grazing management plan Heterogeneous Grazing, moderate Heterotrophic organism Grazing permit Hierarchical Grazing preference Highwall Grazing, premature High-lead logging. See Logging, high-lead Grazing pressure Historical area Grazing privilege Historic and cultural sites Grazing, proper. See Use, proper Historic preservation Grazing rate. See Stocking rate Historic Sites Act Grazing, rest-rotation Holding capacity. See Carrying capacity Grazing right Holistic Grazing, rotation Homeostasis Grazing season Homogeneous Grazing, selective Homogeneous response unit Grazing, spot Hot spoils. For mining usage see Mining Grazing system debris, hot Grazing trespass Human and Community Development Grazing unit System Great soil group. See Soil great group Human community Green belt Human environment. See Environment, Green forage. See Forage, green human

8 Humphrey-Rarick Act. See Forest and Input-output analysis Rangeland Renewable Resource Inputs Planning Act of 1974 Institutional land uses Hydraulic mining. See Mining, placer Institutions Hydric. See Hygric Institutions, legal Hydrograph Institutions, social Hydrologic cycle Intangible value Hydrology Intensive recreation. See Recreation, Hydrosere. See Succession (1) intensive Hygric Interaction matrix Ice cream species Interdisciplinary approach Igneous rock. See Rock, igneous Interdisciplinary team Implementation plan Interest group. See Special interest group Implementation studies and Pressure Group Imponderable value. See Intangible value Interflow Improvement cutting Intermediate cutting Income distribution effects Intermittent grazing Incommensurable values Intermittent stream Incompatible uses Interspecific competition. See Increaser. See Increaser plant species Competition (2) Increaser plant species Intraspecific competition. See Incrementalism Competition (2) Incremental planning. See Incrementalism Intrazonal soil. See Soil horizon (2) Index Intrinsic capability. See Capability Index, economic Intrinsic resource Index number. See Index Intrinsic suitability. See Suitability, Index species. See Indicator species intrinsic and Capability Indicative planning Introduced species. See Species, exotic Indicator, biologic Invader. See Invader plant species Indicator organism. See Indicator species Invader plant species Indicator plant. See Indicator species Inventory Indicator species Inverse condemnation. See Indices. See Index condemnation, Reverse Indifference curve Irreplaceable asset. See Unique resource Indifference map Irreversible effect Indigenous, species. See Species, Isochrons indigenous Isohyetal line Indirect effect Isolated land. See Alienated land Individual distance Issue Induced output. See Output, induced Jackson turbidity unit. See Turbidity Inexhaustible resource. See renewable JTU. See Turbidity resource Just compensation Infiltration Key area. See Key grazing area Infiltration capacity. See infiltration rate Key facility Infiltration rate Key grazing area Information system Key management species Infrastructure Key site Inherent carrying capacity. See Carrying Keystone species. See Species, keystone capacity, ecological and Capability Key utilization species Inherent suitability. See Capability Key winter range. See Range, key winter

9 Land Land use Land, alienated Land use allocation Land and Water Conservation Fund Act Land use capability. See Capability Land and Water System Land use constraints Land capability Land use feasibility. See Feasibility Land capability class Land use plan Land capability classification Land use planning Land capability map Land Use Policy and Planning Land capability subclass Assistance Act Land capability unit Land use practice Land capability zoning. See Zoning, Land use suitability. See Suitability land capability Land use survey Land classification Land use type Land district Large-lot zoning. See Zoning, large-lot Land evaluation Large scale development Land feasibility. See Feasibility Law, common Land form Law, natural

Landform LD50. See Median lethal dose Land management Leasable mineral. See Mineral, leasable Land, marginal Legal institution Land region Leontief analysis. See Input-output Land resource area analysis Land resource region Lexicography Land resource unit Life cycle Land sales or development project. Life history See Project Life quality index. See Quality of life Landscape and Index Landscape, canopied Life style Landscape, cultural Life zone Landscape, detailed Light grazing. See Grazing, light Landscape, enclosing Limiting factor Landscape, feature-dominated Limits Landscape, focal Linear perspective. See Landscape, panoramic Perspective, linear Landscape planning Linear programming Landscape unit Litter Land sensitivity. See Sensitivity, land Littoral Landslide Lobbying Landslide hazard Local economic effects Landslip. See Landslide Local government Land stratification. See Stratification Local overgrazing Land subdivision. See Subdivision Local species. See Species, local Land, submarginal Locatable mineral. See Mineral, locatable Land suitability. See Suitability Locatable mineral deposits. See Land system Mineral, locatable Land systems inventory Location Land tenure Location theory Land type Lode mining. See Mining, lode Landtype Logged-over forest Land units Logging

10 Logging, aerial Mesoclimate Logging, cable Metamorphic rock. See Rock, Logging, ground-lead metamorphic Logging, high-lead Metropolitan state economic area. See Logging, low-lead. See Logging, State economic area (2) ground-lead Microclimate Logging, skyline Microeconomics Logging, tractor Microrelief Long-range planning Microtopography. See Microrelief Low-lead logging. See Logging, Middle distance. See Middleground ground-lead Middleground Macroclimate Middle term planning. See Macroeconomics Mid-range planning Majority determinism Mid-range planning Major land use Mineral Management area Mineral, common variety Management direction Mineral cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle Management goal. See Goal Mineral entry Management objective. See Objective Mineral entry, withdrawals Management policy. See Policy Mineral, excepted Management program Mineralization Management situation Mineral, leasable Management unit Mineral, locatable Management zone Mineral location. See Location Map, operational Mineral rights Map overlay Mineral soil Map plan. See Paper plan Mine tailings Map, planimetric Mining, area strip. See Mining, area surface Marginal land Mining, area surface Market place Mining, auger Market price. See Market value Mining claim Market value Mining claim, patented Mass diagram Mining claim, valid Mass instability Mining, contour surface Mass movement Mining debris, hot Mass-wasting Mining debris, sweet Mast Mining, hydraulic. See Mining, placer Master plan Mining, lode Material cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle Mining, open cast. See Mining, open-pit Matrix Mining, open-pit Maximax Mining, pit Maximin Mining, placer Maximum grazing capacity. See Grazing capacity, Mining, pre-law strip maximum Mining reclamation. See Reclamation MBF Mining refuse Meadow Mining spoils Median lethal dose Mining, strip Median tolerance limit Mining, surface Merit-weights Mining waste. See Mining spoils Mesic Minority groups

11 Miscellaneous land type Native organism Mission Native pasture. See Pasture, native Mobility, social. See Social mobility Native pasture land. See Pasture, native Model Native species. See Native organism Model, deterministic Natural Modeling. See Model Natural Area. See Natural Area Preserve Model, probabilistic and Natural Area, Research Model, stochastic. See Model, Natural Area Preserve probabilistic Natural Area, Research Modulation Natural capability. See Capability Mores, social. See Social mores Natural carrying capacity. See Carrying Morphogenetic region. See Region, capacity, ecological morphogenetic Natural erosion. See Erosion, natural Morphologic. See Physiographic. Natural hazard Morphological map Natural hazard lands Morphological region. See Region, Natural history resource morphological Naturalized species. See Species, Morphology naturalized Most probable number Natural law. See Law, natural MPN. See Most probable number Natural preserve. See Natural Area Muddling through. See Incrementalism Preserve and Natural Area, Research Multidisciplinary team Natural region. See Region, natural Multifunctional Natural Reserve. See Natural Area Multiple use Preserve and Natural Area, Research Multiple use management Natural resource Multiple use planning Natural resource district. See Soil Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act conservation district Multiplier Natural resource zoning. See Zoning, MU-SY. See Multiple Use-Sustained natural resource Yield Act Natural vegetation Myth Nature Preserve. See Natural Area National Ambient Air Quality Standards Preserve and Natural Area, Research National economic development Nature Reserve. See Natural Area National economic effects Preserve and Natural Area, Research National Environmental Policy Act Needs National Forest land use plan. See Forest Negative declaration. See Negative land use plan declaration statement National Forest System Negative declaration statement National Historic Landmark Negative easement. See Easement, National Historic Preservation Act negative of 1966 Negative feedback. See Feedback loop National Land Use Policy Act. See Land Nekton Use Policy and Planning Assistance Act Neoteric area National Natural Landmark, See National NEPA. See National Environmental Registry of Natural Landmarks Policy Act National Register of Historic Places Net residential density. See Residential National Registry of Natural Landmarks density National Trails System Act New study area. See Wilderness study area Native grazing land. See Grazing New wilderness study area. See Wilderness land, native study area

12 Niche Opinion Nitrogen cycle Opportunity cost Noise Optimum land use Noise pollution Option value Nonapparent easement. See Easement, Ordinal value discontinuous Ordinance Nonconforming use. See Use, Ordinary planning nonconforming Organic soil Nonconsumptive quality Orphan banks. See Orphan lands Nonconsumptive use Orphan lands Noncontinuous easement. See Outdoor recreation. See Recreation (3) Easement, discontinuous Outdoor Recreation and Non-Federal lands Wilderness System Non-market good valuation Output Non-metric scaling Nonpersistent pesticide Output, induced Output, primary Non-point pollution source. See Overburden Non-point source pollution Non-point source pollution Overgrazing, local Overland flow Nonrenewable resources Overlay map. See map, overlay Nonselected inventoried roadless area. See Nonselected roadless area Overstocking Overstory Nonselected roadless area Overuse. See Use, over- Non-use. See Use, non- Non-utilization. See Use, non- Ownership Ownership, fee simple Norm Ownership rights. See Property rights Normal erosion. See Erosion, normal Normative Palatability Noxious species Paleontological area NPS Panoramic landscape. See Nutrient cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle landscape, panoramic Nutritive value Paper plan OBERS projections Paradigm Objective Parent material Observer inferior Parent plan Observer normal Parent rock Observer superior Pareto optimum OMB requirements Part per million Omnivore Pasture Open cast mining. See Mining, open-pit Pasture, annual Open-cut mining. See Mining, open-pit Pastureland Open-pit mining. See Mining, open-pit Pasture land, native. See Pasture, native Open range Pasture management Open space Pasture, native Open-space zoning. See Zoning, Pasture, permanent open-space Pasture, rotation Operational map. See Map, operational Patch cutting Operational planning. See Ordinary Patented mining claim. See Mining planning and Project planning claim, patented Operations research Peak discharge

13 Perched groundwater table. See Water Physiographic site phase table, perched Physiographic site type Perched water table. See Water Phytoplankton. See plankton table, perched Pit mining. See Mining, pit Percolation Pitting Perennial stream Placer claim Performance standard zoning. See Placer mining. See Mining, placer Zoning, performance Plan Performance zoning. See Zoning, Plan controls performance Plan element Periodic allowable cut. See Plan goals. See Goal Allowable cut (2) Planimetric map. See Map, planimetric Periodic allowable yield. See Plankton Allowable cut (2) Planned grazing system Periodic cut. See Allowable cut (2) Planned unit development. See Cluster Periodic yield. See Allowable cut (2) development Peripheral species. See Species, peripheral Planned unit development zoning. See Permanent pasture Zoning, cluster Permanent water Planner Permeability Planning Permissible cut. See Allowable cut (2) Planning agent Permissible soil loss. See Soil-loss Planning, anticipatory tolerance Planning area Permissible yield. See Allowable cut (2) Planning area guide Persistent pesticides Planning horizon Personal distance. See Individual distance Planning level Personal space Planning process. See Planning (1) Persons at one time Planning-Programming-Budgeting System Perspective Planning unit Perspective, aerial Plan objective. See Objective Perspective, linear Plan selection PERT Plant association. See Plant community Pesticide Plant community pH Plant cover type. See Cover type Photomontage Plant retrogression Phreatophyte Plant succession. See Succession Physical carrying capacity. See Ecologic Plat carrying capacity (5) Pluralism Physical life Pluralistic society Physical planning Plutonic rock. See Rock, igneous (1) Physiographic Point pollution source. See Point source Physiographic climax. See Climax pollution community (3) Point source pollution Physiographic determinism Police power Physiographic production Policy Physiographic province. See Region, Policy plan physiographic Political boundary Physiographic region. See Region, Political determinism physiographic Political institutions Physiographic site class Pollution

14 Pollution criteria. See Criteria Productivity, primary Pollution standard. See Standard Productivity, secondary Positive feedback. See Feedback loop Productivity, tertiary Possibly extinct species. See Species, Profile. See Profile view or Soil profile recently extinct or possibly extinct Profile view Potential. See Biotic potential Program Poverty, absolute Program element Poverty, relative Program evaluation and review technique Power. See Social power See Critical path method PPBS. See Planning-Programming- Programming Budgeting System Prohibition zoning. See Zoning, PPM. See Parts per million prohibition Prairie Project Pre-existing use. See Use, pre-existing Projection Preferable species Proper grazing. See Use, proper Preference. See Grazing preference Proper stocking. See Stocking, proper Pre-law strip mining. See Mining, Property pre-law strip Property rights Premature grazing. See Grazing, premature Proper use. See Use, proper Prescribed burn Proper utilization. See Use, proper Prescribed cut. See Allowable cut (2) Prospecting Prescribed yield. See Allowable cut (2) Proxemics Pressure group Proxy value Prestige. See Social prestige Psychological carrying capacity. See Primary conversion Carrying capacity, psychological Primary effect. See Direct effect Public domain Primary facility Public involvement Primary output. See Output, primary Public land Primary range. See Range, primary Public participation. See Public Primary sewage treatment. See Primary involvement wastewater treatment PUD. See Cluster development Primary succession. See Succession, Pyramid of biomass primary Pyramid of energy Primary treatment. See Primary Pyramid of food production rates. See wastewater treatment Pyramid of energy Primary wastewater treatment Pyramid of numbers Prime agricultural land Quality of life Primitive Area Questionnaire Primitive recreation. See Recreation, Raindrop erosion. See Erosion, splash primitive Rainfall intensity Principles and Standards Range Private property Range allotment Probabilistic model. See Model, Range, annual probabilistic Range, closed Process Range condition Producer organism Range condition class Producer surplus Range improvement Production function Range, key winter Productivity, abiotic Rangeland Productivity, biotic Rangeland Grazing System

15 Range management Refuse. See Mining refuse Range, open Regeneration Range, planning. See Range management Regeneration cutting Range, primary Region Ranger District multiple use plan Regional climate Range readiness Regional economic development Range, secondary Regional plan Range site Regional planning Range suitability Region, morphogenetic Range, suitable Region, morphological Range, transitory Region, natural Range, unsuitable Region, physiographic Range use. See Use, degree of Register of National Natural Landmarks. Rare and Endangered Species Act. See See National Registry of Natural Endangered Species Act of 1973 Landmarks Rare species. See Species, rare Regolith RAU. See Resource analysis unit Regulatory standard. See Standard Raw land Relative poverty. See Poverty, relative RCD. See Soil conservation district Release cutting RCU. See Resource capability unit Relic Recently extinct species. See Species, Relict recently extinct or possibly extinct Relief Recharge Remote sensing Reclamation Removal cutting Reclamation, effective Removal regeneration cutting Reconnaissance soil map. See Soil Renewable resource map, reconnaissance Renewable resource assessment. See Reconnaissance soil survey. See Soil map, Forest and Rangeland Renewable reconnaissance and Soil survey Resources Planning Act of 1974 Reconnaissance survey Renewable resource lands Recreation Renewable resource program. See Forest Recreational easement and Rangeland Renewable Resources Recreational experience levels Planning Act of 1974 Recreational experience quality Reproductive capacity. See Biotic Recreational quality potential Recreational river area Reproductive potential. See Biotic Recreation and park planning potential Recreation area, developed Research Natural Area. See Natural Recreation, concentrated Area, Research Recreation day Reservation and other tribal lands Recreation, dispersed Reservoir Salvage Act Recreation, extensive Residential density Recreation, intensive Residential land Recreation land Resident species. See Species, resident Recreation, primitive Resource Recreation resource Resource allocation Recursive Resource analysis unit Reducer organism. See Decomposer Resource area. See Land resource area organism Resource bearing capacity. See Carrying Reforestation capacity, ecological

16 Resource capability unit. See Ecological Rotational deferment land unit (2) Rotation grazing. See Grazing, rotation Resource conservation district. See Rotation pasture. See Pasture, rotation Soil conservation district RPA. See Forest and Rangeland Resource conservation planning Renewable Resources Planning Act Resource depletion. See Depletion Runoff Resource, extrinsic. See Extrinsic resource Sacrifice area Resource, intrinsic. See Intrinsic resource Sacrifice site Resource Management System Salvage cutting Resource plan Sand Resource region. See Land resource region Sanitary landfill Resource scarcity. See Economic scarcity Sanitation cutting Resources Planning Act. See Forest and Sapling Rangeland Renewable Resources Satisficing Planning Act Scale Resource Unit. See Land resource unit Scarcity. See Economic scarcity Response form SCD. See Soil conservation district Response unit. See Homogeneous Scenario response unit and resource Scenic area capability unit Scenic corridor Rest-rotation grazing. See Grazing, Scenic easement. See Easement, scenic rest-rotation Scenic river Retention Schematic diagram. See Diagrammatic Revegetation representation Revenue-cost analysis. See Cost-revenue SCS analysis Secondary effect. See Indirect effect Reverse condemnation. See Secondary facility Condemnation, reverse Secondary range Right-of-way Secondary sewage treatment. See Rights, mineral. See Mineral rights Secondary wastewater treatment Rights, subsurface. See Mineral rights Secondary succession. See Succession, Rights surface. See Surface rights secondary Rill erosion. See Erosion, rill Secondary treatment. See Secondary Riparian wastewater treatment Riparian rights Secondary use Risk Secondary wastewater treatment Risk, acceptable Second growth Risk, avoidable Sediment Risk cutting Sedimentary rock. See Rock, Risk, unacceptable sedimentary River basin. See Watershed Sediment discharge River basin plan Sediment load. See Sediment discharge River basin planning Seed tree Roadless and undeveloped areas Seed tree cutting Rock, igneous Seed-tree removal cutting Rock, metamorphic Seismic Rock, plutonic. See Rock, igneous (1) Seismic hazards Rock, sedimentary Selection cutting. See Selection logging Role. See Social role Selection logging Rotation Selection system

17 Selective grazing. See Grazing, selective Social analysis Selective logging. See Selection logging Social benefits Selectivity Social carrying capacity. See Sense of community. See Human Carrying capacity, psychological community (1) Social class Sense of scale Social costs Sensitivity analysis Social determinism Sensitivity, land Social distance Sensitivity level. For U.S. Forest Serv. Social dynamics usage see Visual sensitivity level Social engineering Seral Social equity Sere Social group Servient Social inequality Sheet erosion. See Erosion, sheet Social institutions. See Institutions, social Sheet flow. See Overland flow Social mobility Shelterwood cutting Social mores Shelterwood system Social norms Short-range planning Social planning. See Advocacy planning Shrink-swell potential Social power Silt Social prestige Silvics Social primacy. See Social determinism Silviculture Social role Simulation Social status Sink Social well-being Site Soft pesticides. See Nonpersistent Site capacity pesticides Site class Soil Site design. See Site planning Soil and water conservation. See Site index Conservation (1) Site plan Soil and water conservation district. Site planning See Soil conservation district Site quality Soil association Site region Soil climate Site specific Soil complex Site type Soil condition class Skidding Soil conservation district Skyline logging. See Logging, skyline Soil creep Skyline yarding. See Logging, skyline Soil erosion Slash Soil family Slope Soil fertility Slope gradient. See Slope steepness Soil great group Slope orientation Soil horizon Slope stability Soil liquefaction Slope steepness Soil loss equation SMSA. See Standard metropolitan Soil loss-tolerance statistical area Soil map Snag Soil map, detailed Snow avalanche Soil map, detailed reconnaissance Snow avalanche hazard Soil map, general Snowslide. See Snow avalanche Soil mapping unit

18 Soil map, reconnaissance Spot zoning. See Zoning, spot Soil order Stability. See Ecologic stability Soil permeability Stand Soil phase Standard Soil profile Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area Soil region Standard of living Soil resource inventory. See Soil survey Stand cutting Soil series Standing crop Soil subgroup Stand tending. See Intermediate cutting Soil survey State economic area Soil taxon. See Soil taxonomic unit Station point Soil taxonomic unit Status, social. See Social status Soil texture Status undetermined species. See Specie Soil type status undetermined Soil variant Steno- organism Soil zone. See Soil horizon Stochastic model. See Model, probabilistic Solitude Stochastic process Solum Stocking level Special cutting Stocking plan Special exception Stocking, proper Special interest area Stocking rate Special interest group Stock resource. See Nonrenewable Special management zone resource Species biomass. See Biomass (2) Storie index Species diversity Strategic planning Species diversity index Strategy Species, edge Stratification Species, endangered Stream load Species, endemic Strip cutting Species, exotic Strip mining. See Mining, strip Species, feral Strip pit Species, game Stumpage value Species, indigenous Subclimax Species, introduced Subculture Species, keystone Subdivision Species, local Submarginal land Species, native Suboptimization Species, naturalized Subsidence Species, peripheral Subsoil Species, rare Subsurface rights. See Mineral rights Species, recently extinct or Succession possibly extinct Succession, primary Species, resident Succession, secondary Species, status undetermined Suitability Species, threatened Suitability, inherent. See Capability Species, unique Suitability, intrinsic Splash erosion. See Erosion, splash Suitability, managed. See Suitability Spoil bank Suitable range Spoils. See Mining spoils Supplement Spot grazing Supply schedule

19 Surface erosion. See Erosion, surface Thermal pollution Surface mining. See Mining, surface Thinning Surface restoration. See Reclamation Thixotrophy. See Soil liquefaction Surface rights Threatened species. See Species, Surface soil threatened Surface storage Threshold level Surface water Timber management compartment Suspended load Timber planning Suspended sediment Timber Resource System Suspended solids Timber type. See Cover type (1) Sustained production. See Sustained Time zoning. See Zoning, time yield TLm. See Median tolerance limit Sustained yield Tolerance Sweet spoils. For mining usage see Topography Mining debris, sweet Synergism Topsoil Tractor logging. See Logging, tractor System Trade-offs System planning. See Functional planning Systems analysis Traffic classification. See Traffic composition Tailings. See Mine tailings Taking Traffic composition Target Traffic volume Taxonomy Trampling Technological assessment Transitory range. See Range, transitory Technological change Transportation network Technological forecasting. See Transportation planning Technological assessment Transportation services land Technological solution Travel influence zone Temporary license. See Temporary permit Trophic level Temporary pasture. See Pasture, Turbidity supplemental Type conversion Temporary permit Unavailable forage Terminal facilities Unacceptable risk. See Risk, Term license. See Term permit unacceptable Term permit Uncertainty Terrain Underprivileged groups. See Terrain analysis Disadvantaged groups Terrain evaluation. See Land evaluation Understocking Terrain factor Understory Terrain studies Undesirable species Terrane. See Terrain Undeveloped land Territoriality Uneven-age management Tertiary facility Uneven-age silviculture. See Uneven-age Tertiary sewage treatment. See Tertiary management wastewater treatment Uneven-aged stand Tertiary wastewater treatment Unique resource T factor. For Soil-erosion-related usages Unique species. See Species, unique see Soil loss tolerance Unit. See Planning unit Thermal enrichment. See Thermal Unit plan pollution Unit planning

20 Universal soil loss equation. See Soil Visitor day loss equation Visual character subtype Unpalatable species Visual character type Unsuitable range. See Range, unsuitable Visual landscape. See View landscape Urban and built up land Visual landscape character Urban forestry Visual quality objective Urban fringe. See Urbanized area (1) Visual resource Urbanized area Visual subtype. For U.S. Forest Serv. Urban land usage see Visual character subtype Urban planning Visual sensitivity level Urban sprawl Visual variety class Use Visual vulnerability Use, allowable Wants. See Needs Use capability Warm-water fishery Use, degree of Water bloom. See Bloom Use district Water influence zone Use factor Water pollution Use, feasibility Watershed Use, full Watershed management Use, non- Watershed protection Use, nonconforming Water table Use, over- Water table, perched Use, pre-existing Watertype. See Landtype Use, proper Water year Use suitability Water yield USGS Weather Utilitarianism Weed cutting Utility Weeding. See Weed cutting Utility theory Weighting Utilization. See Use Welfare. See General welfare Util. See Utility theory Wetlands Valid mining claim. See Mining Wet meadow claim, valid Wild and Scenic Rivers Act Value added Wilderness Value, amenity. See Amenity Wilderness Act Value judgement Wilderness area. See Wilderness (2) Values Wilderness study area Value systems. See Values Wildfire Variance Wildland Vegetation cover type. See Cover type Wildlife Vegetation type Wildlife and Fish Habitat System Veto group Wildlife land Viewer inferior. See Observer inferior Wild river area Viewer normal. See Observer normal Willingness-to-pay Viewer superior. See Observer superior Windfall View landscape Windfirm Virgin forest Windthrow Visible area Woodland Visitor carrying capacity. See Carrying Working circle capacity, economic recreation Working group

21 Working plan Zoning, exclusive use WRC Zoning, flood plain Xeric Zoning, forest Xerosere. See Succession (1) Zoning, land capability X section. See Cross section Zoning, large-lot Zoning, natural resource Yarding Zoning, open space Yarding, skyline Zoning ordinance Zonal soil. See Soil horizon (2) Zoning, performance Zoning Zoning, prohibition Zoning, aesthetic Zoning permit Zoning, agricultural Zoning, spot Zoning, cluster Zoning, time Zoning, conservation Zoning variance. See Variance Zoning, development Zoological area Zoning, Euclidean Zooplankton. See Plankton

22 A Abiotic resources while following the WRC The nonliving, material (as opposed principles and standards. to conceptual) components of the en- The "acceptability test" refers to vironment such as air, rocks, soil (in the workability and viability of the general), water, coal, peat, plant litter, plan in the sense of acceptance by the etc. (C.F.S.) public and compatibility within known constraints. (U.S. Dep. Agric. Abiotic commodity 1974) A broad class of resource products which includes all material yields of Accessibility commercial value whose initial condi- 1. The relative ease or difficulty of tion was that of a nonliving sub- getting to or from someplace. For stance—such as water, steam, minerals, example, a potential land use evalua- sand, gravel, petroleum, and natural tion procedure may locate areas with gas. (C.F.S.) characteristics highly favorable for use but which are separated from the Abiotic productivity. See Productivity, nearest road by some impediment to abiotic. travel–such as bluffs or a river. Such an area would be characterized as Absentee ownership having low accessibility. (C.F.S.) The holding of property by a per- 2. Range management usage. The son or persons not living or working ease with which animals penetrate and on the premises and not regularly pre- graze an area. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- sent to oversee its use or maintenance. age. 1964) (Abrams, 1971)

Absolute poverty. See Poverty, absolute. Accessory use. See Secondary use.

Accelerated erosion. See Erosion, accelerated. Acculturation The processes and results of contact Acceptable material between two or more different cul- Mining reclamation usage. Any soil tures. material within the waste materials Generally, acculturation brings overlying a mineral deposit to be re- about considerable diffusion of cul- moved by surface mining which (based tural traits in one or more directions. on soil fertility evaluation and other However, other change-processes also tests) possesses (or can be readily mod- occur, such as development of new ified to possess) chemical and physical intercultural roles, the growth of new properties making it a satisfactory me- customs not found in either culture dium for growth of plants common in and the disintegration of older cultural the area. (Counc. Agric. Sci. Technol. forms. (O'Connell 1974) 1973)

Acceptable risk. See Risk, acceptable. Acquisition of development rights. See Development rights, acquisition of. Acceptability test U.S. Water Resources Council Acquisition of land (WRC) usage. One of the tests to be Purchase of full land ownership applied in choosing among alternatives rights. (C.F.S.) in planning for water and related land Also see Property rights.

23 Acre-foot weightings of alternative resource yield A water or sediment volume mea- mixes is used as the basis for making surement term, equal to the amount of choices. water which would cover an area of Maximization of the net social yield one acre to a depth of one foot–i.e., of resource use is either the mix which` 43,560. cubic feet or 325,851 gallons. maximizes the sum of the additive (E. C. T.) weights, if numerically larger weights are assigned to more important values, Action plan. See Activity planning. or minimizes the sum, if relative importance values are assigned on the Active fault. See Fault, active. basis of rankings, with 1 being the most important type of yield and suc- Activity planning (Functional planning) cessively less important yields being U.S. Forest Service usage. Under assigned higher numbers. (C.F.S.) the "multiple use planning" system "activity planning" referred to the functional plans for such items as tim- Administration ber management, recreation, transpor- Execution of an organizational poli- tation and fire protection. (U.S. Forest cy to reach predetermined objectives. Serv., FSM 2111.9, Sept. 1972) (U.S. Forest Serv. 1971) Under the newly adopted "land use planning" system, activity plans are Administrative unit called "functional plans". (U.S. Forest U.S. Forest Service usage. An area Serv., FSM 8213, Oct. 1973) under the administration of one line Also see Functional planning. officer. Examples include the Forest Service California Region, a National Adaptive planning (Contingency plan- Forest, and a Ranger District. ning) This term includes a single National A planning strategy whereby plan- Forest or National Grassland or por- ning efforts are directed toward tion thereof, or a Ranger District or meeting temporary crises which arise separate portion thereof. (U.S. Forest in response to changing conditions. Serv., FSM 2624.3, Sept., 1970) The planner responds to external forces influencing the area, identifies ADT. See Average daily traffic. potential and current crises, takes advantage of externally developed resources (such as a new Federal pro- Adversary procedure gram), and attempts to forestall or Involving the Anglo-American sys- solve the crises by creating the proper tem of procedure for conducting civil response to the pressures generated by trials under strict rules of evidence those forces. (After Bolan 1967) with the right of cross examination and argument, one contestant with his Additive weighting witnesses striving to prove the facts es- Decisionmaking method whereby a sential to his case and the other number of very different kinds of po- striving to disprove those facts or to tential resource yields (whose values establish an affirmative defense. (Web- can not be directly compared by con- ster 1963) version to common units of measure- This procedure is sometimes advo- ment, such as dollars) are assigned cated as a best method for resolving numerical values on the basis of some (in or out of court) land use planning more or less objective, common-sense issues having or involving readily iden- notion of their relative importance. tified, opposing, antagonistic parties or The simple summation of the interests.

24 Its theoretical strength lies in the Aesthetics strong presentation and contrasting of 1. Evaluations and considerations both pro and con interpretations of concerned with the sensory quality of what the real facts are for the judging resources (sight, sound, smell, taste parties. Its theoretical weaknesses lie and touch) and especially with respect in the distortions of the relative merits to judgment about their pleasurable of the opposing cases that may result qualities. (C.F.S.) from unequal (1) ability to finance 2. Pertaining to the quality of presentations and defenses, (2) access human perceptual experience (in- to information, (3) theatrical and including sight, sound, smell, touch, tellectual abilities in making presenta- taste, and movement) evoked by phe- tions and cross examinations and, (4) nomena or elements or configurations limits on the ability of judging parties of elements in the environment. (L. W.) to be truly objective. (C.F.S.) Aesthetic zoning. See Zoning, aesthetic. Adverse land use 1. Not in conformity with the Affirmative easement. See Easement, planning or social requirements of the affirmative. community. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Rec- reation 1974) Afforestation 2. Use of land which results in soil The establishment of a tree crop on erosion rates greater than the soil-loss an area from which it has always or tolerance values (which have been very long been absent. (Ford- established by use of the soil loss equa- Robertson 1971) tion). (After W.A.B.) Agricultural land Advocacy planning Land used primarily for the produc- 1. The practice of professional tion of farm commodities. planners voluntarily helping under- The categories of "agricultural privileged sections of society to give land" are: cropland and pasture; or- expression to their hopes for a better chards, groves, vineyards, bush fruits, environment. (Ashworth 1973) and horticultural areas (such as nur- 2. More generally used in the sense series); feeding operations; and other. of planners working directly with socio- (Anderson, et al. 1972) economically defined special interest groups to translate their aspirations for Agricultural zoning. See Zoning, agricul- a living environment into formal plan- tural. ning goals and a set of procedures for attaining those goals. Presumably con- Agriculture flicts between different socioeconomic 1. A broad class of resource uses groups' values are to be resolved by which includes all forms of land uses adversary procedures during which the for the production of biotic crops– arguments for and against all proposals whether animal or plant. are presented. (C.F.S.) Where large amounts of wildlands are contained in planning units it is useful to subdivide agriculture in its Aerial logging. See Logging, aerial. broadest sense into subcategories which make a distinction between har- Aerial perspective. See Perspective, aerial. vesting where little or no management inputs are made to increase natural Aesthetic recreational carrying capacity. biotic productivity (as in wildland See Carrying capacity, wildland recrea- range, most timber, fish and wildlife tion, definition 5. harvesting uses) and a subcategory

25 which includes all desirable biotic pro- Although not as well defined, this ductivity which has been significantly concept is comparable to a watershed. increased over natural rates by man- (Sesco, et al. 1973) agement inputs–including such uses as cultivated and/or irrigated farming and Algal bloom (Bloom, Water bloom) managed pasture. (C.F.S.) A readily visible, high concentra- 2. The use of the land for agricul- tion of algal growth or aggregation of tural purposes, including farming, algae in or on the surface layer of a dairying, pasturage, agriculture, api- body of water. (Sesco, et al. 1973) aries, horticulture, floriculture, viticul- ture, and animal and poultry hus- Alienated land. See Land, alienated. bandry, and the necessary accessory uses for packing, processing, treating All-aged stand. See Uneven-aged stand. or storing the produce; provided, however, that the operation of any such Allocation. See Resource allocation and accessory uses shall be secondary to Land use allocation. that of normal agricultural activities and provided further that the above Allotment. For range management usage uses shall not include the commercial see Range allotment. feeding of garbage or offal to swine or Allowable cut (Prescribed cut, Prescribed other animals. (Eisner 1969) yield, Permissible yield, Allowable harvest) Air pollution 1. The volume of timber which can Any substance or energy form be cut, under specified management (heat, light, noise, etc.) which alters plans during a given period. (Sesco, et the state of the air from what would al. 1973) naturally occur. 2. The amount of forest produc- Especially associated with those al- tivity that may be harvested, annually tered states whose physical, chemical, or periodically, from a specified area biological, psychological or aesthetic over a stated period, in accordance impacts have been decreed to be unde- with the objectives of management. sirable by human value judgments. For timber productivity "allowable (E. C. T.) cut" is usually stated in terms of wood volume, number of stems of certain size categories or area that can be cut Air rights over. The right to the use of air space When "allowable cut" is expressed over property owned by another. as the amount that can be removed on Air rights can be sold or leased. an annual basis it is termed "annual Through the erection of a platform (allowable) cut" or "annual (allow- over the existing use, additional able) yield". When expressed as the "land" can, in effect, be created. amount that can be removed at recur- (Abrams 1971) ring time periods of greater than a year it is termed "periodic (allowable) cut" Air shed or "periodic (allowable) yield". The 1. A region with common sources amount actually prescribed to be cut is and problems of air pollution; it may termed the "prescribed yield", "pre- coincide with a watershed or be a scribed cut", "permissible yield" or part of a large urban agglomeration. "permissible cut". (After Ford- (Durrenberger 1973) Robertson 1971) 2. The air encompassing a specific The common usage of all these geographic region. terms carries with it an implicit conno-

26 tation of an overall rate of harvesting Alternative futures. See Futures. which is in dynamic balance with the ability of the forest to replace what Alternative life styles. See Life styles. has been removed with new wood growth. (C.F.S.) Ambient 1. Referring to surrounding, exter- Allowable harvest. See Allowable cut. nal or unconfined conditions. (C.F.S.) 2. Referring to the quality of some Allowable use. For range management specific environmental factor–such as usage see Use, allowable. the "ambient" temperature or "ambient" air pollution levels. (C F. S. ) Alluvial Pertaining to material that is transported and deposited by running Amenity (Amenity value) water. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. l. An object, feature, quality, or 1970) experience that gives pleasure or is pleasing to the mind or senses. (After Alluvial land Webster 1963) 1. An area of unconsolidated allu- 2. The pleasurable or aesthetic, as vium, generally stratified and varying contrasted with the utilitarian, fea- widely in texture, ‘recently’ deposited tures of a plan, project, location or re- by streams and subject to frequent source. flooding. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. The term amenity is now used so 1970) broadly that it can refer to just about 2. U.S. Soil Conservation Service anything that makes life more agree- usage. A miscellaneous land type in able-from a temperate climate to an the U.S. Soil Conservation Service intellectual climate. (Abrams 1971) Land Classification System charac- 3. (Amenity value.) Typically used terized by the deposits and processes in land use planning to describe those given in definition 1. (C.F.S.) resource properties for which market Alluvial valley floor values (or proxy values) are not or can- The unconsolidated stream-laid de- not be established. (E. C. T.) posits holding streams where water availability is sufficient for subirriga- Anadromous fish tion or flood irrigation agricultural ac- Those species of fish which mature tivities. (Surface Mining Control and in the sea, and migrate into streams to Reclamation Act of 1975) spawn. Salmon, steelhead, and shad are examples. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1963. Alluvium FSM 2605, Sept. 1974) Material, including clay, silt, sand, gravel and mud, deposited in riverbeds, Analysis lakes, alluvial fans, valleys and else- 1. A detailed examination of anywhere by modern streams. (Durren- thing complex in order to understand berger 1973) its nature or determine its essential Alternate grazing. See Grazing, rotation. features. (Webster 1963) 2. A separating or breaking up of Alternative any whole into its component parts The different means by which ob- for the purpose of examining their na- jectives or goals can be attained. ture, function, relationship, etc. (Web- They need not be obvious substi- ster 1963) tutes for one another or perform the 3. In mathematics and computer same specific function. (U.S. Forest science, it pertains to solving prob- Serv. 1972B) lems. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B)

27 Angle of repose (Critical slope) Annual range. See Range, annual. 1. The angle between the horizontal and the maximum slope that a soil Annual yield (Annual allowable yield). or loose rock fragments assumes See Allowable cut, definition 2. through natural processes. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Antagonism 2. The maximum slope or angle at The combined action of two or which a material, such as soil or loose more agents that is less than the sum rock, remains stable. (Amer. Geol. of the actions of each of the agents Inst. 1962) acting separately or independently. (Webster 1963) Animal community. See Biotic communi- See Synergism for combined ac- ty. tions which are greater than a simple summation of individual actions. Animal month A month's tenure upon range by Antecedent moisture (Antecedent soil one animal. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- water) age. 1964) The degree of wetness of the soil at Animal unit conversion factor the beginning of a runoff period, A numerical grazing measurement expressed as an index or as the total figure which allows conversion from inch-depth-equivalents of water stored one kind or class of animal to another. in the soil. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Such a conversion factor is satisfac- 1970) tory in respect to the amount of forage required to maintain an animal, Antiquities Act (34 Stat. 225) but may have no application in deter- The Antiquities Act of 1906 pro- mining stocking rates for range use for vides for the protection of historic or particular kinds or classes. prehistoric remains, or any object of Conversion factors generally antiquity, on Federal lands; establishes accepted are: mature cow with calf, criminal sanctions for unauthorized 1.0; mature bull, 1.25; weaned calf, destruction or appropriation of 0.6; yearling over 12 months and antiquities and authorizes scientific under 17 months, 0.7; yearling from investigation of antiquities on Federal 17 to 22 months, 0.75; two-year old lands, subject to permit and regula- from 22 to 32 months, 0.9; elk, 0.7; tions. (U. S. Forest Serv., FSM white-tail deer, 0.14; mule deer, 0.2; 2361.01, Feb., 1974) mature ewe with lamb, 0.2; ram, 0.2; weaned wether, 0.17; doe goat with Approximate original contour. See Con- kid, 0.17; buck, 0.17; weaned wether, tour, approximate original. 0.14 and grown horse, 1.25. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Aquifer A geologic formation or structure Animal unit month (AUM) that transmits water in sufficient The quantity of forage required by quantity to supply the needs for a one mature cow (1000 lbs) or the water development, such as a well. equivalent for one month. (Dyrland The term "water-bearing" is some- 1973) times used synonymously with "aquifer" when a stratum furnishes water Annual cut. See Allowable cut, definition for a specific use. 2. Aquifers are usually saturated Annual flood. See Flood, annual. sands, gravel, fractured rock, or cav- ernous and vesicular rock. (Soil Con- Annual pasture. See Pasture, annual. serv. Soc. Amer. 1970)

28 Archeological area controlled or incompatible develop- U.S. Forest Service usage. Sites and ment could result in significant dam- areas which have been designated by age to the environment, life or proper- the Forest Service as containing im- ty, or the long term public interest portant evidence and remains of the which is of more than local signifi- life of man on earth between the time cance. of his first appearance and the devel- Three specific classes of critical opment of written history. areas are defined in the Act– fragile or Archeological remains are the sole historic lands, natural hazard lands, kind of evidence that applies to pre- and renewable resource lands. States history and provides information may also add additional types of areas about all aspects of human life of critical concern. throughout this period. (After U.S. Coastal areas are specifically de- Forest Serv., FSM 2361.21, July, leted from the definitions of the types 1973) of areas of critical environmental con- Areas of this type and all other cern. In an amendment relating the special interest areas are identified and Coastal Zone Management Act to this formally classified primarily because Act the words "coastal wetlands, of their recreational values. (W. W.) marshes, and other lands inundated by the tides, beaches, dunes and signifi- Archeological resource cant estuaries" were deleted from the The subclass of cultural history re- definition of fragile or historic lands. source planning considerations which A state is free to add these areas to its includes all remaining physical evi- state land use program. However, the dence of former occupation by now state need not do so, but rather can extinct cultural groups–including skel- keep such areas separate and ac- etons, settlement remains, implements, countable only to the requirements of artifacts, monuments and inscriptions. the Coastal Zone Management Act. In the United States this subclass is The Land Use Policy and Planning most easily distinguished from its Assistance Act did not require the more recent counterpart "historical Federal government to designate such resources" by establishing a dividing areas on Federal land. Areas of critical point in time between the two at the environmental concern are to be des- beginning of movement of settlers into ignated only on private, state and In- an area. dian lands. This resource class does not include These definitions were purposely any of the more recent physical prod- left legally incomplete, in accordance ucts of contemporary native cultural with the purpose of the Act, to im- groups such as may exist on Indian prove the states' ability to devise and reservations. (C.F.S.) implement their own land use policies. Area guide. For U.S. Forest Service usage By further refining these definitions see Planning area guide. the states make the first basic policy decisions concerning the scope and the Area of critical environmental concern thrust of the state land use programs. (Critical area) For example, major policy decisions Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for are involved in determining what is a a National Land Use Policy and Plan- "shoreline". Is it a shoreline of all ning Assistance Act. bodies of water or only bodies of a Areas, as defined and designated by certain size? Is it limited to relatively states on non-Federal lands, where un- undeveloped shoreline? Is its extent

29 four hundred feet inland of the water, 1. Something that is taken for four hundred yards, or to the extent granted or accepted as true. (After of any land the use of which has a Webster 1963) direct impact on the water? What are 2. A judgmental decision by plan- "major recreational lands and facili- ners which supplies missing values, re- ties"? What are "issues of more than lationships or societal preferences for local significance" in the judgment of some informational component neces- the state? sary for making a decision. This category is not designed to be The true nature of such missing in- a "no growth" category. Only uncon- formation is either unknown or cannot trolled development is unwanted. The be readily ascertained within the time adjective "incompatible" is present to and/or budgetary constraints on the make certain that development is to be need for the planning decision. (C.F.S.) allowed which is compatible with the basic environmental or renewable re- Attitude sources values or safety problems of 1. A learned predisposition mani- the land in question. Multiple use, festing itself in a general state of readi- when planned, is clearly expected. The ness either to evaluate or to react to- category "Areas of critical environ- ward an object or class of objects in mental concern" has been subdivided either a favorable or unfavorable man- into subcategories to pinpoint the ner in a more or less consistent and basic values of the land involved so as characteristic way. to better provide opportunities for Attitudes are relatively stable and development which can demonstrate are comprised of three components: a its compatibility with such values. cognitive or belief component, an af- (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insu- fective or feeling component, and a lar Aff. 1973) conative or action-disposition component. Area planning. See Regional planning and Although behavior may be a func- Planning area. tion of attitude at times, attitudes are not necessarily predictors of behavior Area reconnaissance under all circumstances. Consequently, Engineering and surveying usage. changes in attitudes do not always re- The projection of feasible road routes cult in changes in behavior. (O'Conner on an area topographic map and their 1974) delineation on aerial photographs. 2. Behavior representative of (U.S. Forest Serv., FSH 7140, 1973) feeling or conviction. A disposition Area strip mining. See Mining, area sur- that is primarily grounded in affect face. and emotion and is expressive of opinions rather than beliefs. (Webster Area surface mining. See Mining, area sur- 1963) face. Also contrast with Belief and Opin- Aspect (Exposure, Slope orientation) ion. The compass direction that the slope of a land surface faces toward Auger mining. See Mining, auger. (e.g., north, northwest, south). (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Autotrophic organism An organism capable of synthe- Association. See Biotic community. sizing organic matter from inorganic substances. (Geckler, et al. 1963) Assumption (Basic assumption, General In contrast, a heterotrophic organ- assumption) ism must have organic matter as its

30 source of food. (After Geckler et al. otherwise stated, the period is 1 year. 1963) (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7720.5, Oct., Average daily traffic (ADT) 1970) The average 24-hour volume of traffic, being the total volume of traffic Avoidable risk. See Risk, avoidable. during a stated period divided by the number of days in that period. Unless Azonal soil. See Soil horizon, definition 2. B

Backcountry behind something and providing har- 1. An imprecise term often used to mony or contrast. (Webster 1963) refer to all those portions of wildlands 3. The portions of a view between in which usually there are no perma- 3 or 5 miles from the observer and as nent, improved or maintained access far into the distance as the eye can roads or operational, fixed facilities– detect the presence of objects. such as lumber mills, ski resorts, or set- Skylines or ridge lines against other tlements with permanent residents. land surfaces are the strongest visual Deteriorating, unused and unoccupied elements of the "background". (After structures may be present. Those roads Litton 1968) which are present are only usable by Also see Foreground and Middle- trucks or 4 wheeled-drive vehicles and ground. typically dead-end in the "backcountry", rather than continue Background level (Background, Natural through it. Any presently active uses background level) only have primitive facilities–e.g., The ever-present environmental backwoods cabins, base camps, unde- conditions or effects above which a veloped campgrounds. phenomenon must manifest itself in In common usage, primitive and order to be detected. (U.S. Dep. Def. wilderness areas are backcountry types 1968) of wildlands which show no obvious evidence of permanent human uses or Back lighting occupancy. (After A. W.M.) 1. A viewing situation in which 2. Any area where the management sunlight is coming toward the observer objectives stress dispersed, off-road from behind a feature or elements in a recreation activities–e.g. hiking, trail scene. (After Litton 1966) bike riding, hunting, fishing. 2. The viewing condition whereby "Backcountry" is defined as a rec- an observer looks toward the light reation area while "wilderness" is de- source. Solid objects are seen in shad- fined primarily as a large natural eco- ow, silhouette, translucence and/or system, to be experienced as it is. Rec- with highlighted edges. (After Litton reational opportunities can be en- 1966) hanced or even created in "backcountry", but not in "wilderness". Balanced objectivism (Lucas and Stankey 1974) An idealistic point of view which advocates that resource use decision should be reached in a completely ob- Background jective manner–not disproportionately 1. The distant part of a scene, land- influenced by any special interest scape, etc. (Webster 1963) group pressure tactics, nor special con- 2. Surroundings, especially those sideration for any particular segment

31 of society (whether priviledged or dis- 2. The area of the cross-section of a advantaged) nor any of the other plan- tree stem near its base, generally at ning value determinisms–biophysical, breast height and inclusive of bark. social, economic. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Balanced objectivism is conceptu- Also see Diameter at breast height ally unrealistic because it seeks to ig- Base flow nore the political reality of pressure That portion of the water flowing groups, fails to recognize that issues in a stream which is due to ground (i.e. value conflicts between resource water seepage into the channel. (After use audience members) are typically Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) the impetus for any planning effort and that most value system clashes Base map cannot be satisfactorily resolved by ra- A map showing certain funda- tional arguments. (C.F.S.) mental information, on which is compiled additional data of specialized na- Balance of nature (Ecologic stability) ture. (C.F.S.) The apparent stability of the population density relationships between Base property. For range management the many species of organisms that usage see Commensurate property. make up a biotic community is often Basic assumption. See Assumption, defi- spoken of as the "balance of nature". nition 2. The concept of such a balance has been severely criticized. It has been Basic productivity. See Productivity, pri- pointed out that the population den- mary. sity of each of the species in a biotic community may fluctuate more Beach erosion. See Erosion, beach. or less widely from time to time (e.g., Bedload existence of population explosions, The sediment in a stream channel die-offs, epidemics, irregular migra- that mainly moves by jumping, sliding tions, succession etc.) and that the or rolling on or very near the bottom density of no species remains at a of the stream. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) fixed value. The fluctuations in the numbers of Bedrock each species, however, usually have 1. The more or less solid rock is fairly definite limits. The usage of the place either on or beneath the surface term `balance' includes the recognition of the earth. It may be soft or hard and that the population densities of every have a smooth or irregular surface. species making up a community fluc- (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) tuate from season to season and from 2. Any in place, solid rock exposed year to year. (Dice 1952) at the surface of the earth or overlain Also see Ecologic stability. by unconsolidated material. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) Bank erosion. See Erosion, bank. Belief Basal area An unmeasurable and unprovable 1. Range management usage. The assertion based on one or more funda- area of ground surface occupied by the mental assumptions. (O'Connell 1974) stem(s) of a range plant, as contrasted Also contrast with Attitude and with the full spread of its herbage or Opinion. foliage, generally measured at one inch above soil level. (Ford-Robertson Benchmark 1971) 1. G.A. Hills land evaluation ter-

32 minology. Certain existing examples Benthos or conditions in the field which are us- The whole group of bottom- able as established standards or defini- dwelling organisms in a water body. tions suitable for practical comparison The benthos includes all organisms of his "use capability" classes. This is which crawl about on the bottom, or the concept by which units of equal burrow into the bottom or grow at "use capability", but possessing mark- tached to the bottom. edly different physical features or ap- Those aquatic organisms that are pearances, can be recognized as being carried passively by water currents or equal. (Belknap and Furtado 1967) the wind are termed plankton and 2. The use of assessed "land capa- those that swim actively and may bility" to serve as a basis from which to move long distances for feeding or estimate the effects on the land of breeding purposes nekton. (Southward alternative patterns of management. 1965) (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2813, Oct., 1973) Bequest motive. See Existence value.

Benefit Biochemical oxygen demand. See Biologi- 1. An assessment of the value of cal oxygen demand. the expected outputs. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) Biodegradables 2. Desirable effects of a plan or ac- Chemicals or substances which can tion. (P. M. R.) be readily utilized as part of the bio- Also see Social benefits. logical food chain and so broken into their component parts. (E. C. T.) Benefit-cost analysis (Cost-benefit analysis) Biogeochemical An analytical approach to solving 1. Relating to the relationship of problems of choice which identifies the earth's chemicals to plant and ani- for each objective, that alternative mal life. which yields the greatest benefit for a Relating to the chemical relation- given cost or that alternative which ships between the geology of an area and produces the required level of benefits its plant and animal life. (After Webster at the lowest cost. 1963) This same analytical process has 2. As used in land use planning, the also been referred to as cost effective- term is more often used to refer, with ness analysis when the benefits of the one word, to all of the naturally occur- alternatives cannot be quantified in ring objects, processes and interrela- terms of dollars. (U.S. Gen. Account. tionships in an area than in specific Off. 1969) reference to biogeochemical cycles. Also see Cost-effectiveness analysis Often used in the sense of the "bio- and Revenue-cost analysis. geochemical parameters" of a planning area or its "biogeochemical environ- Benefit-cost ratio (Cost-benefit ratio) ment." In such usages the term "bio- l. An economic indicator of effi- geochemical" is approximately equiva- ciency, computed by dividing benefits lent to the natural ecosystem and eco- by costs. Usually, both the benefits system functions of a planning area. and the costs are discounted so that This composite term is based on the the ratio reflects efficiency in terms of assumption that all naturally occurring the present value of future benefits things can be classified as being either and costs. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. biological, geological or chemical. 1969) (C. F. S. )

33 Biogeochemical cycle (Mineral cycle, Nu- as recognized by cooperating states trient cycle, Material cycle) even though it may not be strictly a 1. The circulation (cycling) of herd unit. It may include a drainage chemical elements such as nitrogen, system in the case of fishery manage- carbon, etc. in specific pathways from ment, any unit for species manage- the abiotic portions of the environment, or any unit of intensive or speci- ment into the organic substances in al management. (U.S. Forest Serv., the flora and fauna and then back FSM 2624.3, Sept., 1970) again into abiotic forms. (After Han- son 1962) Biological oxygen demand (BOD, Bio- 2. All of the mineral and nutrient chemical oxygen demand) cycles involving man, animals, and A measure of the demand on a plants–such as the carbon cycle, phos- water body's dissolved oxygen supply phorus cycle, nitrogen cycle, etc. (Af- which will be generated (over some ter Durrenberger 1973) specified period of time) by the biological decomposition of various addi- Bio(geo)c(o)enose. The translated Ger- tions of organic wastes. manic and Slavic language equivalent A high BOD may temporarily, or of Ecosystem. permanently, so deplete oxygen in water as to kill aquatic life. The deter- Bio(geo)c(o)enosis. The translated Ger- mination of BOD is perhaps most use- manic and Slavic language equivalent ful in evaluating impact of wastewater of Ecosystem. on the receiving water bodies. (After Feth 1973) Biogeophysical Also see Chemical oxygen demand. A composite term often used to encompass, in one word, reference to all Biological potential. See Biotic potential. of the naturally occurring materials, processes, and relationships operating Biological primacy. See Biophysical deter- in an area. minism. Often used in the sense of the "biogeophysical parameters" of a planning Biologic diversity (Species diversity, Bi- area, or its "biogeophysical environ- otic diversity) ment." In such usages the term "bio- In common usage "biologic diver- geophysical" is approximately equiva- sity usually equivalent to specie lent to the natural ecosystem and eco- diversity–i.e., the number of different system functions of a planning area. species occurring in some location or The word was constructed on the under some condition such as pollu- assumption that all the natural objects tion. and processes operating in an area can "Biologic diversity" may also be used be classified as being either biological in a more general sense to refer to the (i.e, plant and animal species, ecologi- number of higher taxonomic levels or cal interactions, biotic productivity, types and amounts of organismal rela- etc.) or geological (i.e., rock types, soil tionships in some location or under types, geomorphic history, sedimenta- some condition–e.g., number of gen- tion, erosion, etc.), or physical (i.e., era, families, orders or phyla present; heat, light, electrical, gravitational, or the number of biotic communities etc.) (C.FS.) present; or the number of energy, nutrient, or food chain pathways pres- Biological management unit ent. (C.F.S.) U.S. Forest Service usage. This term includes a big-game management unit Biologic stability. See Ecologic stability.

34 Biomass (Protoplasm mass) tion of physical principles and meth- 1. The total weight of the living ods to biological problems. organisms in some biological system. Involving biological and physical (Odum 1971) factors or considerations. (Webster 2. The total quantity (at a given 1963) time) of living organisms of one or 2. In land use planning the term is more species per unit of space (species used to encompass, in a single word, biomass), or of all the species in a bi- reference to all the naturally occurring otic community (community bio- objects and processes of an area. mass), (Hanson 1962) The word is used in such a sense on the assumption that all naturally oc- Biome curring things can be classified as being A major biotic community com- either living (i.e., biotic) or nonliving posed of all the plants and animals and (physical or abiotic). (C.F.S.) smaller biotic communities, including the successional stages of an area. The Biophysical determinism smaller communities in a biome pos- A particular point of view in plan- sess certain similarities in gross exter- ning which advocates making resource nal appearances (e.g., deciduous trees, allocation and use decisions primarily coniferous trees, grasslands, savanna/ on the basis of the inherent ability of woodlands) and environmental condi- the resource to sustain use–i.e., an tions present (especially gross climatic ecologic carrying capacity concept of conditions–e.g., desert, tropical, tem- resource capability. Economic and perate, tundra). The North American social system needs and desires are Grassland is an example of a named viewed as being completely subordi- biome. (Hanson 1962) nated to this inherent capacity of the While a particular biome is defined resource to meet any and all demands in terms of both the plants and ani- while maintaining its natural integrity, mals present in an area, it is usually condition, and performance of other identified and named in terms of the natural processes at a desirable level. characteristic vegetation forms. (Web- Economic and social demands can ster 1963) only be satisfied within the ecologic Also see Biome-type. carrying capacity constraints. The terms "biological primacy," Biome-type "physiographic determinism," and "eco- A group of similar Biomes–e.g., the logical determinism," in their common temperate deciduous forest biome- usage, are equivalent to biophysical type includes all areas dominated by determinism–though "biophysical" deciduous forests in eastern Asia, more clearly implies concern with China, Manchuria, Europe and North both physical and biological processes. America. (Hanson 1962) (C. F. S. ) Some other examples are the tropical rain forest biome-type, tropical Biosphere savanna biome-type, northern conifer- That part of the earth's crust, ous forest biome-type, temperate waters and surrounding air-layer which grassland biome-type. (C.F.S.) is inhabited by living organisms. (Dan- sereau 1957) Also see Biome. Biota Biophysical The plants and animals of an area, 1. Of or relating to the physics of taken collectively. (After Webster living organisms. Involving the applica- 1963)

35 Biotic of algae) to the most complex ecosys- All the natural living organisms in a tem (as a multistoried rain forest). planning area and their life processes. (Carpenter 1938) The term "biotic" in land use planning contexts is most commonly used 3. The word community may be as a resource classification category used for any large or small assemblage, which subdivides the natural resources of organisms. It can be used in an and properties into either the biota abstract or a concrete sense. (Dauben- and living characteristics or the abiotic mire 1968) (nonliving) entities and characteristics. 4. An aggregate of organisms which Man and his activities are not usu- forms a distinct ecological unit. Such a ally grouped with either of these cate- unit may be defined in terms of flora, gories because he is not considered to of fauna, or both. be a part of a planning area's natural Community units may be very entities or characteristics. This latter large, like the continent-wide conifer- rationale for exclusion becomes tenu- ous forest, or very small, like the ous when one encounters situations in community of invertebrates and fungi which native cultures have been ac- in a decaying log. The extent of a tively influencing the course of biotic community is limited only by the activity for centuries. (C.F.S.) requirement of a more or less uniform species composition. Biotic association. See Biotic community. A different community occurs in each different habitat and environmen- Biotic carrying capacity. See Carrying tal unit of larger size, and in fact the capacity, ecological, definition 4. composition and character of the community is an excellent indicator of the Biotic climax. See Climax community, type of environment that is present. definition 3. Since "plant communities" and "animal communities" occur together in the same habitat and have many Biotic community (Community, Associa- interrelations, the one can scarcely be tion, Biotic association, Ecologic com- considered independently of the other. munity) Together they make up the "biotic 1. A "biotic community" is any community". (Kendeigh 1961) assemblage of populations living in a prescribed area or physical habitat; it Biotic diversity. See Biologic diversity. is a loosely organized biotic unit to the extent that it has characteristics addi- Biotic potential (Reproductive potential, tional to its individual species and Biologic potential, Reproductive ca- populations components. Commun- pacity) ities have functional unity, character- The inherent ability of an orga- istic trophic structures and patterns of nism to multiply in the absence of energy flow. They also have taxono- extrinsic controlling factors. mic unity (in that there is a certain This potential depends on the num- probability that certain species will ber of live, fertile offspring produced occur together) and a relatively uni- at each reproduction, the frequency of form appearance. Communities may reproduction and, where sex is in- be sharply defined. Very frequently, volved, the sex ratio. (Soc. Amerc. however, communities blend gradually For. 1958) into one another. (Odum 1959) 2. A general term used to designate biotic sociological units of all degrees Biotic productivity. See Productivity, bi- from the simplest (as an unrooted mat otic.

36 Black box Botanical area An unknown and often unknow- U.S. Forest Service usage. An area able mechanism or system whose oper- which has been designated by the For- ation is judged solely by observation est Service as containing specimens or of its inputs and outputs. (U.S. Forest group exhibits of plants, plant groups, Serv. 1972B) and plant communities which are significant because of form, color, occur- BLM rences, habitat, location, life history, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. arrangement, ecology, environment, Department of Interior. rarity, and/or other features. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2362.43, July, 1973) Blob diagram. See Diagrammatic repre- Areas of this type and all other sentation. special interest areas are identified and formally classified primarily because Block diagram of their recreational values. Areas with A drawn illustration of a piece of similar types of values of scientific land (or water) in three dimensions importance are formally classified as which displays the land's surface ap- "Research Natural Areas" (See Natural pearance bounded around the exposed Area, Research). (W. W.) sides by a cutaway representation of the underground (underwater) condi- Boundary species. See Species, peripheral. tions at those edges. Commonly the land surface is tilted toward the viewer and image size is not reduced with Browse distance from viewer–as would truly 1. That part of the current leaf and occur in accordance with the rules of twig growth of shrubs, woody vines perspective. and trees available for animal con- The end result is a pictorial repre- sumption. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. sentation which appears as if a block 1964) of land (or water) had been cut out of 2. Act of consuming browse. (Amer. its true surroundings and lifted up so Soc. Range Manage. 1964) as to reveal both its surface and underground characteristics. (C.F.S.) Brush 1. A growth of shrubs or small trees Bloom (Algal bloom, Water bloom) usually of a type undesirable to live- 1. A readily visible, concentrated stock or timber management. (Amer. growth or aggregation of plankton Soc. Range Manage. 1964) (plant and/or animal). (Geckler, et al. 2. A collective term that refers to 1963) stands of vegetation dominated by 2. A prolific growth of plankton. A shrubby, woody plants or low growing "bloom" of algae may be so dense that trees–regardless of whether some of it distinctly colors the water. (Veatch the components are cropped. (After and Humphreys 1966) Sampson and Jespersen 1963) Blow down. See Windthrow. Brush control Boardfoot Reduction of brush to: (1) reduce its Lumber or timber measurement competition for space, moisture, light term. The amount of wood contained and nutrients with plant species that are in an unfinished board one inch thick, more preferred by grazing animals, or, 12 inches long, and 12 inches wide. (2) to reduce the wildfire hazard by (E. C. T.) reducing the amount of fuel present. (After Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964 BOD. See Biological oxygen demand. and T.E.A.)

37 Brush management 2. A strip of undisturbed vegetation Management and manipulation of that retards the flow of runoff water, stands of brush by mechanical, chem- causing deposition of transported mate- ical, or biological means or by pre- rial and thereby reducing sedimentation scribed burning. (After D.E.H. and of receiving streams. (U.S. Environ. B. W.) Prot. Agency 1974) Also see Environmental corridor. Buffer (Buffer strip, Buffer zone, Environ- Buffer strip. See Buffer. mental corridor, Filter strip) 1. A designated land or water area, Buffer zone. See Buffer. along the perimeter of some land use, Bulk density whose own use is regulated so as to The mass or weight of oven-dry soil resist, absorb or otherwise preclude per unit of bulk volume, including air unwanted development or other intru- space. (Hanson 1962) sions into areas beyond the buffer. (After U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) Bundle of rights. See Property rights. C

Cable. logging. See Logging, Cable. alternative site or resource management inputs. Calefaction. See Thermal pollution. G. Angus Hills was probably the Canopied landscape. See Landscape, can- first prominent wildland planner to rec- opied. ognize the importance of retaining the distinction between these and other Capability (Inherent capability, Inherent types of evaluations in a process for carrying capacity, Natural capability, land use planning. Hills used the terms Natural carrying capacity, Physical use capability to refer to evaluations carrying capacity, Resource bearing based on a resource's inherent or pres- capacity, Site capacity) ent condition abilities, use suitability 1. In land use planning literature the for evaluations based on potential widely used terms "suitability" and management inputs, and use feasibility "capability" (whether alone or accom- to refer to usability potential ratings panied by various modifiers) are often used interchangeably to refer to ratings based on an evaluation of offsite fac- based on two basically different evaluators–such as accessibility present and tion procedures. One basic type of eval- forecasted socioeconomic conditions, uation procedure is the rating of use or technological developments, etc. (Bel- productivity potentials based on the knap and Furtado 1967; Hills, Love and present state of the resource. This type Lacate 1970) of rating therefore is an evaluation Perhaps even earlier than Hills, the based on the resource's inherent, nat- U.S. Soil Conservation Service began ural or intrinsic ability to provide for widespread use of its land capability use and includes that existing ability classification system (Wohletz and which is the result of past alterations or Dolder 1952) which also uses "capabil- current management practices. A sec- ity" evaluation in the sense of an inher- ond basic type of evaluation procedure ent ability rating. rates the potential ability of a resource To avoid confusion in the future we to produce goods or services on the recommend that the Hills and Soil Con- basis of the maximum possible outputs servation Service usages be recognized for a given type and level of future, as having established the precedent for

38 the proper usage of these terms, thus tion consisting of property from which "capability" should be used when refer- an income is derived, expressed in terms ring to evaluations for usability based of money. Popularly, the term is fre- on the present state of the resource and quently used interchangeably with cap- "suitability" should only be used for ital good. (Sloan 1961) evaluations based on assumptions about potential usability or productivity if Capital good specified management alterations were A material economic good other to be made–such as drainage improve- than land which is used for the produc- ments, added irrigation and/or fertilization of wealth. Capital goods are cre- tion, etc. ated by man., Capital goods are some- Better yet, both terms should be times called "intermediate goods" accompanied by modifiers which make because of their function of serving it absolutely clear just what type of an consumers only indirectly in satisfac- evaluation procedure is implied by the tion of their wants. (After Sloan 1961) rating given. Thus the word capability should always be presented as "inherent Carbon cycle capability", "intrinsic capability", or 1. The sequence of transformation "natural capability". Similarly "suit- undergone by carbon utilized by organ- ability" could be referred to as "man- isms wherein it is used by one organism, aged suitability". (C.F.S.) later liberated upon the death and 2. The intrinsic ability (i.e., ability decomposition of the organism, and unaltered by any level of potential, returned to its original state to be re- future human management activities or used by another organism. (Soil Con- other type of alternation) to support a serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) given use type, intensity, and quality on 2. The name given to the biogeo- a sustained basis (i.e., without signif- chemical cycle involving the carbon icant resource deterioration over the dioxide of the atmosphere in the metab- time span of renewing biogeochemical olism of organisms. The cycle begins cycles). (C.F.S.) with: (1) the photosynthesis of carbohydrates by plant chlorophyll from Capability, inherent. See Capability. atmospheric carbon dioxide and water. (2) These carbohydrates are then trans- Capability, intrinsic. See Capability. formed by plants and animals into the Capability, natural. See Capability. structures and energy for their growth and life processes. (3) The carbon Capacity, highway dioxide is returned to the atmosphere The maximum number of vehicles by the excreta and decay of their which has a reasonable expectation of bodies. This third step is aided by - the passing over a given section of a lane or a action of bacteria and other micro- roadway in one direction (or in both organisms and by combustion. The directions for a two-lane or a three-lane carbon cycle operates concurrently highway) during a given period of time with the nitrogen cycle and the oxygen under prevailing roadway and traffic cycle. (Marsh 1964) conditions. In expressing capacity it is essential to state the "prevailing road- Cardinal value (Cardinal unit) way and traffic conditions" under The numerical values assigned to a which the capacity is applicable. variable which relate directly with some (Highw. Res. Board 1965) physical property (height, weight, etc.). Each number has some meaning by it- Capital self about the measured property. One of the major factors of produc- (E.C.T.) Also see Ordinal values.

39 Carnivore be made before ecological carrying An organism (plant or animal) that capacity can be operational for set- feeds on animal substances. (After ting ting levels of use. (C.F.S.) Hanson 1962) 4. "Biotic carrying capacity" used Also see Herbivore, Omnivore, and in a recreational context. That level of Detrivore for the other types in this development and use beyond which classification of organisms by their the site's capacity to provide a sus- dominant eating styles. tained high level of satisfaction becomes impaired due to severe Carrying capacity (Holding capacity) damage. (La Page 1963) All definitions of the concept 5. "Physical carrying capacity". "carrying capacity" (as it relates to The effect of use on the nonliving wildland planning) must involve spec- aspects of the habitat–e.g., the ability ification of some (1) level of use (2 of a particular terrain to resist trail ero- which will allow for the perpetual sion, but also the ability of the terrain maintenance (3) of some level of en- to absorb trails, roads, and other man- vironmental quality (4) within some made objects. (Conserv. Found. 1972) management objective level set with respect to the cost of maintenance Carrying capacity, economic recreation resource quality (5) at a level which (Visitor carrying capacity) will provide resource user satisfaction. The econometrically determined (After G.P.) number of people which maximizes to- Carrying capacity, aesthetic recreational. tal social benefit; the number of recre- See Carrying capacity, wildland, rec- ationists represented by the high point reation, definition 5. on a cumulative benefit curve–with some measure of "enjoyment" on the Carrying capacity, Ecological (Inherent vertical axis and the number of recrea- capability, Inherent carrying capacity, tionists on the horizontal axis. At this Natural capability, Natural carrying high point on the curve, no further capacity, Physical carrying capacity, overall "enjoyment" is gained by ad- Resource bearing capacity, Site ca- ding other recreationists. Rather, ad- pacity, Biotic carrying capacity) ding still more results in a net decline 1. The number (or weight) of in the totaled "enjoyment" of all rec- organisms of a given species and reationists. (After Alldredge 1972) quality that can survive in, without causing deterioration of, a given eco- Carrying capacity, facility system through the least favorable en- 1. The number of people which vironmental conditions that occur with- installed facilities have been engineered in a stated interval of time. (Ford- to handle. (After Alldredge 1972) Robertson 1971) 2. The maximum capacity of the 2. The limit of a natural ecosys- developments and facilities–e.g. num- tem's ability to sustain user impacts. ber of rooms, etc. (After Sudia and (After Conservation Foundation 1972) Simpson 1972) 3. Strictly speaking, any level of 3. The number of users which facil- use greater than zero will always result ities are able to (or designed to) in some alteration of natural environ- support, within some acceptable rate ments, and therefore, it is not useful for facilities deterioration (in relation to define ecological carrying capacity to amount or intensity of use) and at in "no change" terms. Some decision some level of facilities maintenance– about what is an acceptable amount of while providing a desirable level of ser- alteration of natural values must first vice for users. (C.F.S.)

40 Carrying capacity, natural. See Carrying time interval and which is developed at capacity, ecological. a certain level without causing excessive damage to the physical environment or Carrying capacity, optimal. See Carrying the experience for the visitor. (After capacity, wildland, recreation, defini- Lime and Stan key 1971) tion 4. 3. The number of persons for which an area can provide recreation while Carrying capacity, physical. See Carrying maintaining the conditions that orig- capacity, ecological. inally made it desirable for that pur- Carrying capacity, psychological pose. (After Sudia and Simpson 1972) The level of use beyond which the 4. The level of use at which the sensory and conceptual quality of the natural resources do not deteriorate resource begins to deteriorate for some faster than they can be restored by a particular user group because of an unreasonable level of maintenance ("op- acceptable amount of contact with timal carrying capacity" definition). other similar users or proximity to (After Sudia and Simpson 1972) types of use incompatible with their 5. La Page's "aesthetic recreational mental image of an acceptable quality carrying capacity". La Page considered resource environment. "recreational carrying capacity" to The notion of psychological carrying have an "aesthetic recreational carrying capacity essentially revolves about the capacity" and a "biotic carrying ca- conceptual level of utilization at which pacity" component. resource users (especially wildland rec- His "aesthetic recreational carrying reationists) begin to feel that the num- capacity" is that level of development ber of simultaneous users has become so and use beyond which measurable great that the resource is too crowded decreases in average satisfaction occur to satisfy their demands. (C.F.S.) as a direct result of gross numbers of Carrying capacity, range recreationists. (La Page 1963) In its true sense, the maximum num- For La Page's "biotic carrying ca- ber of individual animals that can sur- pacity" see carrying capacity, eco- vive the greatest period of stress each logical, definition 4. year on a given land area. It does not 6. The substitution of the terms refer to sustained yield. "use limits" or "use-intensity-quality In range management, the term has relationships" in place of "recreation become erroneously synonymous with carrying capacity" and "social carrying grazing capacity. (Amer. Soc. Range capacity" when it is being used in the Manage. 1964) latter sense has been advocated. The argument is that rather than having a Carrying capacity, social. See Carrying ca- single capacity, which is seen to be pacity, psychological. implied by using the term "carrying capacity," each site has a whole range of Carrying capacity, visitor. See Carrying potential capacities, each providing dif- capacity, economic recreation. ferent consequences. Therefore, even if Carrying capacity, wildland recreation it can be shown how areas and experi- 1. The level of recreational use an ences will change with various levels of area can withstand while providing a use and various management practices, sustained quality of recreation. (After someone must still decide what changes Wagar 1964) are acceptable. Defining what is accept- 2. The character of use that can be table is a value choice rather than a supported by an area over a specified technical issue. (After Wagar 1974)

41 Carrying capacity, wildlife Characteristic landscape. For U.S. Forest 1. The number of animals of a given Service usage see Visual landscape char- species that a habitat supports, mea- ter. sured at the low stage of any annual population cycle. (After Allen 1958) Character subtype. For U.S. Forest Service 2. The upper limit of population usage see Visual character subtype. growth beyond which no major increase can occur. (After Odum 1959) 3. The number of animals that a Character type. For U.S. Forest Service habitat can maintain in a healthy, vig- usage see Visual character type. orous condition. (After Dasmann 1945) 4. The level at which a population is Chemical oxygen demand (COD) normally held by hunting and preda- A measure of the amount of a water tion. (After Errington 1945) body's dissolved oxygen supply that 5. The level of population above would be used up in completely oxidiz- which intraspecific tolerance permits ing added inorganic oxidizable com- no further increase. (After Leopold pounds–such as in the oxidation of 1933) ammonia to nitrate. (After Feth 1973 and Wash. State Univ., Coop. Ext. Catchment area. See Watershed. Serv. 1972) Biological oxygen demand (BOD) Catchment basin. See Watershed. Tests can only measure the biodegradable fraction of the total potential dis- Census tract solved oxygen consumption by added U.S. Bureau of the Census usage. wastes; however, COD tests may be Census tracts are small areas into which used to measure the oxygen demand large cities and adjacent areas have been created by toxic organic or inorganic divided for statistical purposes. In each compounds as well as by biodegradable standard metropolitan statistical area, substances. A standard COD test, there- tracts were established by the Bureau of fore, can be used to evaluate many the Census in cooperation with a local industrial type wastes not readily ana- committee. Tracts were generally de- lyzed for water quality factors by the signed to be relatively uniform with sewage-oriented BOD test. (After respect to population characteristics, McGauhey 1968) economic status, and living conditions. Also see Biological oxygen demand. The average tract has about 4,000 residents. Tract boundaries are established Choropleth map with the intention of being maintained A map showing discrete areas, such over a long time so that comparisons as counties, soil units, vegetation types. may be made from census to census. These units are considered to be uni- (U.S. Bur. of the Census 1971) form with respect to the statistics collected within them. (Amidon 1972) Central city. See Urbanized area. City planning (Urban planning) CEQ The process of guiding growth and Council on Environmental Quality, change in urban areas. U.S. Presidential. "City planning" aims at fulfilling certain social and economic objectives Channel storage which go beyond the physical form and The volume of water which is tem- arrangement of the parts of the physical porarily present (stored) in a stream urban environment. (Howard 1961) channel and its flood plain while enroute to an outlet. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Claim. See Mining claim. 42 Classification than 45 percent sand-sized particles. 1. The forming, sorting, apportion- (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) ing, grouping, or dividing of objects into 4. Material behavior usage. A nat- classes to form an ordered arrangement ural, inorganic material with plastic of items having a defined range of char- properties. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) acteristics. Classification systems may 5. Engineering usage. A fine-grained be taxonomic, mathematical, or other soil that has a high plasticity index in types, depending upon the purpose to relation to the amount of water it can be served. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) hold without losing its plasticity. (Soil 2. The ordering or arrangement of Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1962) objects into groups or sets on the basis Cleaning cut of their relationships. These relation- Timber management usage. Clean- ships can be based on observable or ing is applied to stands not past the inferred properties. sapling stage. Usually, if otherwise The paramount purpose of classifi- practical, this is best done as soon as cation is to describe the structure and the stand has passed browse height, relationships of the constituent objects but not until the removal cut has been to each other and to similar objects, and completed. to simplify these relationships in such a At this stage, genetic differences are way that general statements can be likely to be easily recognized; oppor- made about classes of objects. tunity to improve species composition "Natural classification" schemes is at a maximum; and not much pro- attempt to reflect the natural processes duction loss to unusable stems will that have led to the observed arrange- have to be accumulated–with the pos- ment of objects. From such an ordering sible exception of areas where rainfall it is hoped to learn about the laws gov- exceeds vegetative needs. (U.S. Forest erning the behavior of these objects. Serv., FSM 2471, June, 1973) All classifications aim to achieve economy of memory and an ease of Clearcutting manipulation. (After Sokal 1974) 1. Removal of virtually all the Also see Taxonomy. trees, large or small, in a stand in one cutting operation. Class, social. See Social class. This is the meaning of "clearcutting" in its narrowest sense and in its usage as a technical term of silvi- Clay culture. The true clearcutting method 1. "Particle size" usage. Rock type lays bare the area treated and leads to particles which are less than 0.002 (or the establishment of an even-aged 0.005 or 0.074) millimeters in equiv- stand. (Smith 1962) alent diameter. (Soil Conserv. Soc. 2. The term "clearcutting" is also Amer. 1970 and Amer. Geol. Inst. loosely applied to any type of cutting 1962) in which all the merchantable timber 2. "Clay Mineral." Naturally occur- is cut and all trees that cannot be uti- ring inorganic, crystalline minerals lized profitably are left. composed of fragments of hydrous This broader usage of the term is aluminum silicate minerals found in technically incorrect but is so common soil and other earthy deposits. (Soil that it is sometimes prudent to speak Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) of clearcutting in the silvicultural 3. "Soil texture" usage. A soil tex- method sense as "complete clear- ture type consisting of 40 percent or cutting". (Smith 1962) more clay-sized particles, less than 40 Also see Cutting and Logging, defi- percent silt-sized particles and less

43 nition 2, for the distinction between ridge. Silviculture and Harvesting. An "edaphic climax" is a "climax" determined largely by the nature of Clearcutting system the soil conditions–e.g., a saltgrass A silvicultural system in which all marsh in a poorly drained, alkaline de- the trees are cleared over a consider- pression in grassland. able area at one time. Regeneration is A "biotic climax" is a "climax" generally artificial, but natural regener- caused by a permanent influence or ation is sometimes possible by seeding combination of influences caused by from the air, from adjacent stands, or one or more kinds of organisms, in- from seed and/or advance growth al- cluding man. (Hanson 1962) ready on the ground. (Ford-Robertson 4. That point in the development 1971). of a community when the changes that Also see Silviculture or Logging for normally occur in ecological succes- the distinction between these terms sion cease. The main biotic compo- and Harvesting and Cutting. nents are not overthrown by new in- vaders. No new species become domi- Climate nant in the biotic community. The The average course or condition of environmental conditions of the habi- the weather at a particular place over a tat are relatively stabilized. (After period of many years as exhibited in Woodbury 1954) absolute extremes, means, ranges and Also see Succession. seasonal distribution of air temperature, wind velocity and direction, pre- Climax species cipitation type, duration and amount, The members (or a member of) humidity and other weather elements. those plant and animal species present (After Webster 1963) in a climax community. Also contrast with Weather. Frequently used in the sense of species usually present (or at least Climax community (Climax) common) only as members of a climax 1. The final or stable biotic com- community. (C.F.S.) munity in a developmental series Climax vegetation (sere); it is self-perpetuating and in 1. The group of plant species equilibrium with the physical habitat. which is the culminating stage in plant (Odum 1971) succession for a given set of environ- 2. The plant community which, in mental conditions. (C.F.S.) a given area, perpetuates itself indefi- 2. A relatively stable type of vege- nitely on the best-drained land form tation in equilibrium with its environ- and the most differentiated (well- ment and with good self perpetuating developed) soil. (Dansereau 1957) reproduction of the dominant plant 3. The kind of biotic community species. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. capable of self perpetuation under the Amer. 1970) prevailing climatic and soil conditions; 3. The aggregate pattern or com- the terminal stage of a sere under the plex of climax plant communities prevailing conditions. (which corresponds to the pattern of A "physiographic climax" is a "cli- changing environmental factors and max" determined in large measure by their values) over an area. (After Han- the nature of the topography or soil– son 1962) e.g., a particular type of forest may be Also see Climax species. the "climax" on a north-facing slope while a grassland may be the "climax" Closed area on the south-facing slope of the same Range management usage. Any area

44 closed for management purposes for the Great Lakes area, the waters with- certain types of use. (Amer. Soc. in the territorial jurisdiction of the Range Manage. 1964) United States consisting of the Great Lakes, their connecting waters, har- Closed range. See Range, closed. bors, roadsteads, and estuary-type areas such as bays, shallows, and Cluster development (Planned unit devel- marshes and (2) in other areas, those opment, PUD) waters, adjacent to the shorelines, 1. The grouping of the structures which contain a measurable quantity in a housing development more tightly or percentage of sea water, including, together and using the open land thus but not limited to, sounds, bays, saved for common greens and squares. lagoons, bayous, ponds, and estuaries. (Whyte 1964) (Coastal Zone Manage. Act 1972) 2. Residential development in which the subdivision and zoning regu- Coastal zone lations apply to the project as a whole Coastal Zone Management Act rather than to its individual lots (as in usage. The coastal waters (including most tract housing). Densities are cal- the lands therein and thereunder) and culated on a project-wide basis, per- the adjacent shorelands (including the mitting among other things the cluster- waters therein and thereunder), strong- ing of houses and provision of com- ly influenced by each other and in mon open space. proximity to the shorelines of the Potential advantages include: an im- several coastal states, including transi- proved site design free of standard lot tional and intertidal areas, salt pattern limitations; lower street and marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The utility costs made possible by reduced zone extends, in Great Lakes waters, frontages; more useful open space due to the international boundary between to reduction or elimination of the un- the United States and Canada and, in usable side and front yards required by other areas, seaward to the outer limit traditional zoning; greater flexibility in of the United States territorial sea. the mixing of residential building The zone extends inland from the types; the possibility through its great- shorelines only to the extent necessary er freedom in design of increasing to control shorelands, the uses of over-all densities without loss of essen- which have a direct and significant im- tial amenities. (Abrams 1971) pact on the coastal waters. Excluded from the coastal zone are lands the use Cluster zoning. See Zoning, cluster. of which is by law subject solely to the Coastal state discretion of or which is held in trust Coastal Zone Management Act by the Federal government, its officers usage. A state of the United States in, or agents. (Coastal Zone Manage. Act or bordering on, the Atlantic, Pacific, 1972) or Arctic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, Long Island Sound, or one or more of Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 the Great Lakes. For the purposes of (P.L. 92-583) 86 Stat. 1280) this title, the term also includes Puerto Finds and declares that it is the Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and national policy (A) to preserve, pro- American Samoa. (Coastal Zone Man- tect, develop, and where possible, to age. Act 1972) restore or enhance, the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this and Coastal waters succeeding generations, (B) to encour- Coastal Zone Management Act age and assist the states to exercise usage. "Coastal waters" means (1) in effectively their responsibilities in the

45 coastal zone through the development (Durrenberger 1973) and implementation of management programs to achieve wise use of the Commensurability land and water resources of the coastal Range management usage. Capacity zone giving full consideration to eco- of a permittee's base ranch property to logical, cultural, historic, and esthetic support permitted livestock during the values as well as to needs for economic period such livestock are off public development, (C) for all Federal agen- land. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. cies engaged in programs affecting the 1964) coastal zone to cooperate and partici- Commensurable values pate with state and local governments 1. Having a common unit of mea- and regional agencies in effectuating sure. (Webster 1963) the purposes of this title, and (D) to 2. The state of being proportion- encourage the participation of the ate. (Webster 1963) public, of Federal, state, and local 3. Resource yields which can be governments and of regional agencies objectively compared because their in the development of coastal zone values can be expressed quantitatively management programs. With respect to on the same measurement scale (such implementation of such management as in dollars, pounds, or cubic feet). programs, it is the national policy to (C. F. S. ) encourage cooperation among the various state and regional agencies in- Commensurate property (Base property) cluding establishment of interstate and Range management usage. Land or regional agreements, cooperative pro- controlled livestock water which quali- cedures, and joint action particularly fies a person for a grazing preference regarding environmental problems. on other land, either public or private. Authorizes the Secretary of Com- (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) merce to make annual grants to any Commercial/industrial land coastal state for the purpose of assist- Land used primarily for buying, ing in the development of a manage- selling, and processing goods and ser- ment program for the land and water vices and including sites for stores, fac- resources of its coastal zone. (Coastal tories, shopping centers, and industrial Zone Manage. Act 1972) parks, together with necessary adjacent facilities such as underground and COD. See Chemical oxygen demand. surface utilities, access streets and alleys, and other servicing structures, Cold-water fishery appurtenances, and measures. (U.S. Stream and lake waters which sup- Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970) port predominantly cold-water species Commodity of game or food fishes, which have A transportable resource product maximum, sustained water tempera- with commercial value; all resource ture tolerances of about 70 degrees products which are articles of com- Fahrenheit in the summer. Salmon, merce. (C.F.S.) trout, grayling, and northern pike are examples. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM Common law. See Law, common. 2605, Sept., 1974) Common variety mineral. See Mineral, common variety. Colluvium Mixed deposits of soil material and Community. See Biotic community or rock fragments accumulated near the Human community. base of steep slopes through soil creep, Community biomass. See Biomass, defini- landslides, and local surface runoff. tion 2.

46 Community development This is a means of strengthening Deliberate efforts to foster socio- zoning by providing compensation for cultural change on the community controlled land. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor level, change of a kind seen as valuable Recreation 1974) or progressive. Generally, the goals of development Competition (Ecologic competition) include an improved quality of life 1. The general struggle for exis- through increases in resources, skills, tence (and dominance) in which living facilities, technology, social compe- organisms compete for a limited sup- tence, and social power. (O'Connell ply of the necessities of life. (Carpen- 1974) ter 1938, citing Yapp 1925) Community services land 2. The condition of rivalry Land used primarily for schools, between organisms that exists when a hospitals, churches, libraries, sewerage number of organisms (of the same or and water treatment plants, sanitary of different species) utilize common land fills, public parking areas, and resources that are in short supply; or, other community service facilities, to- if the resources are not in short sup- gether with necessary adjacent facili- ply, the condition that occurs when ties such as underground and surface the organisms seeking that resource utilities, access streets and alleys, and nevertheless harm one or other in the other servicing structures, appurte- process. (Birch 1957) nances and measures. (U.S. Soil Con- Competition typically results in ul- serv. Serv. 1970) timate elimination of the less effective Compartment. See Timber management organism from that particular ecologi- compartment. cal niche. (Webster 1963) Competition may be interspecific Compatible uses (i.e., between two or more different Land uses which can exist together, species) or intraspecific (i.e., between so that no one use improves nor de- numbers of the same species). (Krebs tracts from the quality of another. In 1972) practice this definition is usually re- Competition is usually confined to laxed to include uses which can co- closely related species which eat the exist and conflict only slightly. same types of food and live in the (E. C. T.) same sorts of places. (Krebs 1972) Also see Incompatible uses, Con- flicting uses and Complementary uses. Complement To mutually supply each other's Compensable regulation lack. (A design for a site complex Land use regulations which, while which indicates the specific locations restricting the uses which may be of buildings, parking lots, etc. comple- made of land, compensate the prop- ments the management plans which do erty owner for any decrease in the not contain this information). (After value of his land caused by the regula- U.S. Forest Serv. 1971) tions. The distinction between comple- The property is first valued as in a ments and supplements of plans is that condemnation proceeding. Once a fair complements and the larger plan to value is ascertained and agreed upon, which they relate can be viewed as the state guarantees the owner that being mutual supplemental because value for his land. The owner then each supplies something which the agrees to place the land under regula- other lacks; however, plan supple- tions controlling its use. ments do not gain anything themselves

47 by their addition to a plan. (C.F.S.) changeably with the terms "general Also see Supplement. plan" and "city plan" and is probably most familiarly or notoriously known Complementary uses as a "master plan". (Abrams 1971) Land uses, each of which is im 2. Comprehensive planning–the proved in quality or quantity by the process of designing futures not only other uses existing with it in the same of three dimensional accomplishments area. (E. C. T.) in space but also social mechanisms Also see Incompatible uses, Con- such as laws, regulations, policies and flicting uses and Compatible uses. forms of organization. (Branch 1967) When used in this sense, compre- Complete clearcutting. See Clearcutting, definition 2. hensive planning is conceptually similar to extraordinary planning. Completeness test 3. U.S. Bureau of Land Manage- U.S. Water Resources Council ment usage. "Comprehensive Plan" is (WRC) usage. One of the tests to be intended to include the following: (1) applied in choosing among alternatives a land plan map which would show the in planning for water and related land location of all Bureau land, the inter- resources while following the WRC relationship between all of the uses principles and standards. proposed on said land, the circulation The "completeness test" requires system required to serve the uses exis- that an alternative plan provide and acting or proposed, and the relationship count for all necessary investments or between the Bureau land and non- other actions that will be needed to Bureau land within a reasonable area assure the full realization of the contri- of influence. (2) Land use policies re- butions provided by the plan to the lated to the resources management, components of the objectives specified conservation and disposal of public for the planning area. (U.S. Dept. of lands. (3) Land use policies related to Agri. 19 74) the activities and the regulations there- Complete protection of as they affect portions of the Bu- Range management usage. The reau land. (4) Implementation sched- withdrawal of all grazing animals from ules which establish priorities for Bu- a given range. (Amer. Soc. Range reau programs in management, map- Manage. 1964) ping, engineering and public works. (5) A program for the coordination of Comprehensive development plan. See land use and activity programs with Comprehensive plan. Federal, state, regional, county and other local agencies as well as with pri- Comprehensive plan (Comprehensive vate applicants. (Eisner 1969) development plan, General plan, Mas- ter plan) 4. "Comprehensive planning" in- 1. City planning usage. An official cludes the following, to the extent document adopted by a local govern- directly related to area needs or needs ment setting forth its general policies of a unit of general purpose local gov- regarding the long-term physical devel- ernment: (A) preparation, as a guide opment of a city or other area. The for governmental policies and action, plan should be broad enough to in- of general plans with respect to (1) the clude all aspects of a development or pattern and intensity of land use, (2) redevelopment program as distin- the provision of public facilities (in- guished from sporadic, isolated, or cluding transportation facilities) and piecemeal planning. It is used inter- other government services, and (3) the

48 effective development and utilization problem on a computer. (U.S. Forest of human and natural resources; (B) Serv. 1972B) long range physical and fiscal plans for such action; (C) programming of capi- Concentrated recreation. See Recreation, tal improvements and other major ex- concentrated. penditures, based on a determination of relative urgency, together with de- Concentration time finitive financing plans for such expen- The time required for water to flow ditures in the earlier years of the pro- from the most remote point of a gram; (D) coordination of all related watershed (in a hydraulic sense) to the plans and activities of the state and outlet. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. local governments and agencies con- 1970) cerned; (E) preparation of regulatory and administrative measures in support Concern of the foregoing. (Intergovernmental 1. Public apprehension about Cooperation Act of 1963, PL 90-577, whether some land use action might Sec. 109) produce some more or less vaguely de- 5. A plan for the development of fined undesirable results. (C.F.S.) an area including policies, goals, and 2. A point of dispute which can interrelated plans for private and pub- only be vaguely defined or in which lic land use, transportation systems, the potential undesirable results of a community facilities, and all other ele- land use action are more speculative ments and features that, in composite, than documentable. represent the decisions of local people. When the relationship between the (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) action and undesirable result can be 6. Also see Master plan and con- sharply defined, a point of dispute is trast with Incrementalism. referred to as an issue rather than a concern. (C.F.S.) Computer graphics Also see Crisis. Visual displays of information pro- Condemnation duced by an electronic computer. This In real property law, the process by includes both ‘hard copy’ (paper, film) which property of a private owner is and cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays. taken for public use, without his con- Among the common computer graph- sent, but requiring payment of just ics are maps, graphs, still drawings, and compensation. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor motion pictures. (E. C. T.) Recreation 1974) Also see Condemnation, reverse. Computer information system Two or more interacting electronic Condemnation, inverse. See Condemna- computer programs designed to facili- tion, reverse. tate storage, editing, organization, and rapid retrieval and display of large Condemnation, reverse (Inverse condem- amounts of related information. nation) (E. C. T.) Land use planning regulations may, for the public benefit, sometimes re- Computer program strain the economic uses which may be 1. A complete set of instructions made of private property without which cause an electronic computer to making any provision for compen- perform a set task. Several computer sating the owner. Such occurrences are programs may operate together to sometimes referred to as being reverse form a computer system. (E. C. T.) condemnation and therefore implicitly 2. A plan or routine for solving a constituting a violation of the Fifth

49 Amendment's prohibition of taking law enforcement, habitat acquisition property without just compensation. and maintenance, propagation, live However state land use regulations trapping, and transplantation, and, in based on the police power authority the extraordinary case where popula- may substantially diminish the eco- tion pressures within a given ecosys- nomic value of private property with- tem cannot be otherwise relieved, may out giving rise to an obligation to include regulated taking. (Endangered com-pensate the owner. (After U.S. Species Act of 1973) Dep. Justice comments in U.S. Congr., 4. The continuing protection and Sen-ate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973) management of natural renewable re- Also see Eminent domain and Po- sources–e.g., soil, water, wildlife, for- lice power. est–in accordance with principles that assure their optimum economic and Conflicting uses social enjoyment. (Ford-Robertson Land uses by which the quality of 1971) each individual use is harmed by the others when they occur together in the 5. The protection of the renewable same area–due to either competition resources–e.g., water, forests, fish- for limited resources or use byprod- eries, wildlife, etc. –of man's environ- ucts which damage alternative uses. In ment against depletion or waste and the extreme when one use prevents the safeguarding of its beauty. (After another, "conflicting uses" become in- Abrams 1972) compatible uses. (E. C. T.) This term has come to mean many Also see Incompatible uses, Com- different things to many different peo- patible uses and Complementary ple. To the naturalist and nature lover Uses. it means preserving wild areas in their pristine virginity. To the lumbermen it Conservation means harvesting a stand of timber 1. U.S. Soil Conservation Survey which is no longer producing adequate usage. Soil and water conservation new annual increments of wood. To means the development, use, and man- the hunter it means increasing or main- agement of soil, water, and related retaining the abundance of his favorite sources in a way that will restore, en- game. To the hydroelectric engineer, hance, protect, and maintain their conservation means the building of quality and quantity for the benefit of dams and reservoirs. There are many man and his environment now and other meanings. Insofar as these con- into the future. (U.S. Soil Conserv. cepts, and similar concepts, mean the Serv. 1970) elimination of waste they are in a 2. Any policy or practice which proper sense, conservation. (Marsh seeks to increase future usable supplies 1964) of a resource by present actions. (Sesco, et al. 1973) 7. Planned management of a nat- 3. The use of all methods and pro- ural resource to prevent exploitation, cedures which are necessary to bring destruction, or neglect. Webster 1963) any endangered species or threatened 8. "Conservation" is concerned species to the point at which measures with the time distribution of use. More provided pursuant to this Act (Endan- specifically conservation is defined in gered Species Act of 1973) are no terms of changes in the intertemporal longer necessary. Such methods in- distribution of physical rates of use. In clude, but are not limited to, all activi- conservation the redistribution of use ties associated with scientific resources is in the direction of the future. More management such as research, census, use (or emphasis on the availability of

50 use) of a resource is allocated for times and manner of use of natural resources more distant in the future than for use of all kinds. (After Lapedes 1974) in times closer to the present. Conser- vation always implies comparison of Conservation district. See Soil Conserva- two or more time distributions of use. tion District. For example that concept is used Conservation easement. See Easement, when comparing expected use if new conservation. practices are adopted with what use would have been if the old practices Conservation plan had been continued. 1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service Conservation in itself cannot mean usage. A document containing all ma- non-use. For nonrenewable (stock) re- jor material needed for making deci- sources, conservation is meaningless sions that will assure that the soil and when used in the sense of keeping water resources of a unit of land (or them permanently undiminished and group of units of land) will be used unimpaired. In that sense rates of use and treated so as to achieve the would have to remain zero and that conser-vation objectives which have portion of the environment could not been set forth. be considered to be a resource. A "conservation plan" includes but Interpretations of conservation as is not limited to "conservation plan being "wise use" or "the greatest use maps"; water, plant, animal and other to the greatest number over the great- inventory and management informa- est length of time" has little precise tion with needed interpretations and meaning and is of no value for eco- evaluations; a record of the decisions nomic analysis. made contributing to sound land use "Conservation" is also sometimes and conservation treatment; the alter- defined as keeping use constantly at or natives for sound land use(s) and con- less than the rate of regeneration of servation treatment for which conser- renewable resources–i.e., the sustained vation decisions have not yet been yield concept. Such a usage excludes made (including positive statements all those cases in which an attempt is about critical problems such as soil made merely to slow down rather than erosion, sedimentation, land use and to stop the decreasing rate of regenera- agricultural pollutants); records of un- tion and use. Yet different levels of derstandings as to cooperative agree- sustained yield are frequently econom- ments between individuals, groups or government representatives and re- ic alternatives. Whether any rate of use source conservation districts; and other should be maintained indefinitely may information useful to the deci-sion be less relevant economically than maker. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. what such a rate should be. (After Ciri- 1970) acy-Wantrup 1968) 2. Usage for farm, ranch, or non- 9. The concept of "conservation" agricultural land units. The properly is concerned with the rate, purpose, recorded decisions of the cooperating and efficiency of utilization of natural landowner(s) or operator on how it is resources. planned, within practical limits, to use Conservation receives impetus from the land in an operating unit within its the social conscience awareness of an capabilities and to treat it according to obligation to future generations. All the needs for maintenance or improve- the varying definitions of the nature of ment of the soil, water and plant re- "conservation" as a utilization policy sources. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. deal with the judicious development 1970)

51 Conservation treatment unit (CTU) tween the price that a consumer pays A field or group of fields or other for a good or a service and the amount units of land with similar soil and that he would be willing to pay rather water conservation problems requiring than be deprived of the good or ser- similar combinations of land use and vice. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969) conservation treatment. (U.S. Soil Also see Producer surplus and Wil- Conserv. Serv. 1970) lingness-to-pay.

Conservation zoning. See Zoning, conser- Consumptive use vation. 1. Those uses of resources that reduce the supply–such as logging and Constitutional determinism (Judicial de- mining. (C.F.S.) terminism, Legal determinism) "Consumptive use" as a category A point of view which places em- does not make any distinction be- phasis on the legal and judicial envi- tween resources whose supply will, ronment within which resource use sooner or later, build up again after planning decisions must be made. Be- the initial reduction (i.e., renewable re- cause resource use planning must oper- sources) and resources whose supply ate within such constitutional con- will essentially never be renewed (i.e., straints and provisions as due process, nonrenewable resources). (C.F.S.). property rights, taking without com- For example, for water some "con- pensation and protection of public sumptive uses" are irrigation and do- health safety and welfare, the legal as- mestic and industrial use, while non- pects of planning are seen as of pri- consumptive uses would include direct mary importance in the planning pro- power generation as well as boating, cess. All other planning considerations swimming, etc. (E.M.G.) are considered to be subservient to le- 2. The quantity of water used and gal considerations. (C.F.S.) transpired by vegetation plus that evaporated. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Consumer organism (Consumer) 1970) 1. An organism which ingests other Contingency planning. See Adaptive plan- organisms or food particles. They may ning. be further classified as "primary consumers", "secondary consumers", etc. Continuing easement. See Easement, con- depending upon their position in the tinuing. food chain. (Hanson 1962) The "primary consumers" (herbi- Continuous grazing. See Grazing, contin- vores) feed directly on plants, and uous. "secondary consumers" (carnivores) feed on the primary consumers. Continuous use grazing. See Grazing, con- (Odum 1953) tinuous. 2. Organisms, (including some non-green plants but chiefly animals) Contour (Contour line) which ingest and utilize other organ- 1. An imaginary line on the earth's isms or particulate organic matter. surface connecting points of the same (Odum 1971) elevation. 3. For the other two divisions in A line drawn on a map connecting this particular classification of biotic points of the same elevation. (Soil community organisms also see produc- Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) er organism and decomposer organism. Contour, approximate original That surface configuration achieved Consumer surplus by backfilling and grading of the In economics, the difference be- mined area so that it closely resembles

52 that surface configuration of the land tween resources, uses, activities, or prior to mining and blends into and ecological systems to meet the objec- complements the drainage pattern of tives set forth in the planning area the surrounding terrain, with all high- guide. Coordinating requirements state walls, walls, spoil banks and depressions the minimum coordination required in eliminated ... except water impound- planning and carrying out activities. ments. (Surface Mining Control and They consider assumptions about fu- Reclamation Act of 1975) ture public demands upon national forest land and forest service manage- Contour interval ment policy. The result is a series of The vertical distance between con- specific statements directing manage- tour lines. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. ment actions and considerations on a 1970) national forest. Forest "coordinating requirements" Contour line. See Contour. supplement management direction contained in the planning area guide. Contour map The forest coordinating require- A map which portrays the eleva- ments may be more specific or restric- tional features of an area by joining tive than that stated in the guide, but points of equal elevation with continu- in no case may they reduce the stan- ous lines, called contour lines. (C.F.S.) dards set in the guide. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8225, Oct. 1973) Contour strip mining. See Mining, contour surface. Cord Cut or pulpwood measurement Controlled burn term. The equivalent of a stack of 1. The planned application of fire wood four feet by four feet by eight to natural fuels, residue left on a site feet, or 128 cubic feet. (Webster 1963) after a logging operation and other slash, with the intent to confine it to a Cost predetermined area. (After Ford- The negative (adverse) effects. Robertson 1971) Costs may be monetary, social, physi- 2. Any deliberate application of cal, or environmental in nature. (After fire to an area where control is exer- U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) cised in some particular respect. Also see Social costs. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Also see Prescribed burn. Cost-benefit analysis. See Benefit-cost analysis. Coordinating criteria U.S. Forest Service usage. Policy Cost-benefit ratio. See Benefit-cost ratio. statements of the opportunities and constraints to be applied in carrying Cost effective analysis out the more intensive planning of 1. A benefit-cost analysis process planning units. (U.S. Forest Serv. utilized when all benefits of the alter- FSM 8222.2, Oct., 1973) natives cannot be quantified in terms of dollars. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. Coordinating requirements (Forest co- 1969) ordinating requirements) 2. Cost effectiveness analysis com- U.S. Forest Service usage. State- pares alternatives in terms of their con- ments of management policy in a na- tribution to a goal by using costs and tional forest land use plan. other effectiveness criteria. (U.S. For- Coordinating requirements are est Serv. 1974A) policy statements establishing the rela- Also see Revenue-cost analysis and tionships that are to be maintained be- Benefit-cost analysis.

53 Cost-revenue analysis. See Revenue-cost which a decisive change is impending. analysis. (Webster 1963) 2. A psychological or social condi- Cost-utility analysis. See Benefit-cost tion characterized by excessive stress analysis. and either endangering or felt to endanger the continuity of the individual Cover or his group. (Webster 1963) 1. The proportion of the ground Also see Concern and Issue. surface under live aerial parts of plants or the combined aerial parts of plants Criteria and mulch. (After Amer. Soc. Range 1. Regulatory and pollution crite- Manage. 1964) 2. The shelter and protection for ria usages. fish, wildlife and/or domestic animals. A. Measurements which are used to (After Amer. Soc. Range Manage. examine the relative degrees of desir- 1964) ability among alternatives or the de- The plants or other objects used by gree to which a course of action meets wild animals for nesting, rearing of an intended objective. (U.S. Gen. Ac- young, resting, escape from predators, count. Off. 1969) or protection from adverse environ- B. The quality level of a resource mental conditions. (Soil Conserv. Soc. necessary for it to be acceptable for a Amer. 1970) specific beneficial use. (After Mc- 3. The plants or plant parts, living Gauhey 1968) or dead, on the surface of the ground. C. A scientific requirement on (Hanson 1962) which a decision or judgement may be based concerning the suitability of a Cover type (Plant cover type, Vegetation resource's quality to support a desig- cover type, Forest cover type) nated use. The terms "criteria" and 1. A forest type now occupying the "requirements" can be used inter- ground, no implication being con- changeably. (U.S. Fed. Water Pollut. veyed as to whether it is temporary or Control Adm. 1968) permanent–e.g., aspen (type 217), Unlike regulatory standards, "cri- lodgepole pine (type 218). Differences in state of development teria" carry no connotations of more are subordinate to differences in spe- or less subjectively determined, au- cies composition for the purposes of thoritarian decisions as to acceptable distinguishing cover types. (Soc. Amer. resource quality levels. Rather, "cri- For. 1950 and 1962) teria" are resource quality levels which 2. "Cover type" sometimes refers have been determined by the accumu- to actual stands of any vegetation lation of scientific data showing the type, whether dominated by tree, relationship between levels of quality shrub, or grass species. (C.F.S.) and damage to the resource. "Criteria" should be capable of quantitative eval- Cow month uation by acceptable analytical pro- The tenure on range or artificial cedures. Criteria should also be capa- pasture of a cow for one month. ble of definitive resolution, i.e., their (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) controlling relationship to acceptable quality levels should not be clouded CPM. See Critical path method. by possible synergisms, antagonisms, Creep. See Soil creep. or other effects. (After McKee and Wolf 1963) Crisis For example, one of the criteria for 1. An unstable state of affairs in public drinking water supplies is that

54 fecal coliform counts have an MPN of of completion. (U.S. Gen. Account. not more than 1 per 100 milliliters. Off. 1969) This criterion reflects (1) epidemiolog- ical evidence on the relationship of Cropland indicator species (E. Coli) abundance Land used primarily for the produc- to incidence of the waterborne disease tion of adapted cultivated and close- typhoid fever, (2) Technical and eco- growing crops for harvest, alone or in nomic limitations on the ability to association with sod crops, and open sample and measure indicator species land recently in such uses. abundance, and (3) on technological In some states land in fruit and nut and economic limitations on the abil- trees, grapes, etc., is designated or- ity of water suppliers to reasonably chard land or vineyard land rather control the abundance of the indicator than "cropland". (U.S. Soil Conserv. species. (C.F.S.) Serv. 1970 and U.S. Dept. Agric. 2. Predetermined rules for ranking 1967) Also see Agricultural land. alternatives in order of desirability to facilitate and expedite the decision- Cross section (X section) making process. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1. Graphic methods usage. A two- 1972B) dimensional pictorial representation 3. A rule, or test, by which some- method which shows the characteris- thing can be judged. (U.S. Forest Serv. tics and relationships between land 1971) (and/or water) characteristics that Also see Standard, definition 2. would be observed in a vertical slice Critical area. See Area of critical environ- through that portion of the earth. mental concern. (After Durrenberger 1973) 2. In land use planning, cross sec- Critical distance tions frequently only show land sur- Environmental psychology usage. face conditions (soil, soil moisture, The zone which separates "flight dis- vegetation type distributions, elevation tance" (the distance within a personal slope steepness, etc.), though they space where an intruder will cause a may also be used to illustrate subsur- retreat or flight) and "attack dis- face geological structures, groundwater tance"–the distance within a personal relationships, etc. space where an intruder will force an The vertical scale of projection is animal to feel cornered and attack in- frequently exaggerated in relation to stead of retreating. (After Worthington the horizontal to emphasize topo- 1974, citing Heidiger 1961) graphic relationships–e.g., while the scale of horizontal projection may be Critical path method (CPM) 1 in = 10 ft, the vertical projection The CPM (Critical path method) scale may be 1 in = 1 ft. Thus slopes and PERT (Program evaluation and re- will appear steeper and elevation view technique) are network analysis changes more rapid than they truly models. Each has its own modeling are. language, but they differ in only one This graphical method is frequently fundamental respect: CPM seeks to used to analyze or show the impacts 55 determine the expected times of com- that would result from potential land pletion of the total project and times uses or use practices on an area, by of completion of the subprojects of superimposing over the natural profile which it is composed. PERT goes fur- the changes in land surface (and/or ther and seeks to estimate variances subsurface) conditions that would associated with these expected times result. (C.F.S.)

55 2. Also see Profile view. mounds, petroglyphs, etc.) and conceptual content or context (as a set- Crown ting for legendary, historic, or pre- The upper part of a tree or other historic events, as a sacred area of woody plant carrying the main branch native peoples, etc.) of an area which system and foliage above a more or is useful or important for making land less clean stem(s). (Ford-Robertson use planning decisions. 1971) In the land use planning process it is frequently convenient to subdivide CTU. See Conservation treatment unit. the cultural resource category into Cubic feet per second (c.f.s. or ft3/s) four parts for inventory and evaluation The amount of water, measured in purposes: (1) "archeological"–re- cubic feet, which flows by a point in a source values associated with former channel (or is discharged from a dis- occupancy by native cultural groups; charge point) in one second. (E.C.T.) (2) "historical"–values dating from first occupancy by settlers; (3) "relic Cultural adaptation cultural groups"–resource values asso- The typically human manner of ciated with the existence of native coping with changes in physical envi- people who continue to live in groups ronment and interpersonal relations. practicing the cultural life styles of Instead of adapting physically to their ancestors; and (4) "neoteric"– changed conditions, as animals do in outstanding examples of contempo- order to survive and thrive, human rary culture representing achievements beings modify their common patterns which, in the future, are likely to be- of thought and behavior, especially come historically significant. (C.F.S.) their technologies. (O'Connell 1974)

Cultural change Cultural resource. See Cultural history re- The modification of a society source, definition 2. through innovation, invention, dis- covery or through contact with other Culture societies. (Webster 1963) 1. That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, Cultural eutrophication custom and any other capabilities and Eutrophication which has been habitats acquired by man as a member caused by man–i.e., nutrient enrich- of society. (O'Connell 1974) ment of a body of water which stimu- The total pattern of human be- lates the growth of algae to such abun- havior and its products embodied in dance that it produces more organic thought, speech, action and artifacts matter than the self-purification pro- and dependent upon man's capacity cesses can overcome. (After Natl. for learning and transmitting know- Acad. Sci. 1969 and Durrenberger ledge to succeeding generations 1973) through the use of tools, language and Cultural history resource systems of abstract thought. (Webster 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Poten- 1963) tial knowledge about human cultural 2. A distinctive, separable bundle systems, in the form of historic and of traditions, one that develops histori- prehistoric products and byproducts cally and is handed down from genera- of man. (U.S. Forest Serv. FSM tion to generation. "Culture" is inher- 2361.05, July, 1973) ited from the past and has weight and 2. "Cultural resource". The physi- force to determine the content and cal remains (artifacts, ruins, burial limits of a group's behavior.

56 The body of customary beliefs, tion. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) social forms, and material traits con- 2. The depth below the original stituting a distinct complex of tradi- ground surface to the excavated sur- tion of a social group with that com- face. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) plex whole including knowledge, 3. To lower a land surface by belief, morals, law, customs, opinions, removal of earth materials. (C.F.S.) religion. Typical behavior or standard- 4. For tree cutting usage see Cut- ized social characteristics peculiar to a ting. specific group. (Webster 1963) 3. A fixed pattern of norms or ac- Cut and fill ceptable behavior standards, prescrip- The process of earth moving by ex- tions about what one can and proscrip- cavating part of an area and using the tions about what one cannot do in a excavated material for adjacent em- given society. bankments or fill areas. (Soil Conserv. Essentially derived from the con- Soc. Amer. 1970) cept of "custom", this definition over- emphasizes the ways social groups Cut-over forest (Logged-over forest) stress and obtain behavioral confor- A forest in which most or all of mity. (O'Connell 1974) the merchantable timber has been cut. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Cumulative use The stream of resource use over Cutting (Felling) time in its aggregate. The cutting down of standing trees. The concept "cumulative use" must "Cutting" is not a synonym for be sharply differentiated from the con- logging or harvesting. These latter cept "rate of use," with the latter re- terms also include removal of felled ferring specifically to units of use per trees and some initial processing of the unit of time. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup timber prior to removal. (After Ford- 1968) Robertson 1971)

Cunit Cutting cycle (Felling cycle, Cutting Pulpwood measurement term. An interval, Cutting rotation, Felling rota- equivalent of 100 cubic feet of solid tion, Rotation) wood. (Webster 1963) The planned, recurring lapse of time between successive major cutting Cut operations in a managed forest. (After 1. The portion of land surface or Ford-Robertson 1971) area from which earth has been re- CZMA. See Coastal Zone Management moved or will be removed by excava- Act of 1972.

D Data DBH. See Diameter at breast height. Any recorded measurements, facts, Decision theory evidence, or observations reduced to A body of knowledge and related written, graphical, tabular, or com- mathematical techniques which have puter form. The term connotes relia- been developed from the fields of stability, and, as such, implies explana- tistics, mathematics and logic and tion of source, type, precision, accu- which are designed to be of aid in the racy, etc., which permits reliability making of decisions under conditions examination. (U. S. Forest Serv. of uncertainty. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) 1972B)

57 Decision theory is quite similar to repeated interrogations, usually by game theory in several respects but a means of questionnaires, of individuals major difference between the two is whose opinions or judgments are of that in game theory the decision is interest. After the initial interrogation being made vis-a-vis an opponent, of each individual, each subsequent whereas in decision theory the only interrogation is accompanied by infor- opponent is nature with its related un- mation regarding the preceding round certainty. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. of replies. The individual is thus en- 1969) couraged to reconsider and, if appropriate, change his previous reply in Decomposer organism (Decomposer, Re- light of the replies of other members ducer, Detrivore) of the group. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1. An organism, usually a bac- 1969) terium or a fungus, that breaks down the bodies or parts of dead plants and Demand. See Demand schedule. animals into simpler compounds. (Hanson 1962) Demand schedule 2. Organisms (chiefly bacteria and The relationship between price and fungi) which break down the complex quantity demanded. The demand compounds of dead protoplasm into schedule expresses how much of the simpler substances usable by green good or service would be bought or plants. Essentially these organisms consumed at various prices at a partic- bring about the mineralization of or- ular point in time. (U.S. Gen. Ac- ganic matter. (Odum 1953) count. Off. 1969) For the other two divisions in this particular classification of biotic com- Depletion munity organisms, also see Producer 1. The utilization of a natural re- organism and Consumer organism. newable resource at a rate greater than the rate of replenishment. (Webster Decreaser. See Decreaser plant species. 1963) 2. "Depletion" is defined in terms Decreaser plant species (Decreaser) of changes in the time distribution of Range management usage. Plant physical rates of use. By "depletion" is species of the original vegetation that meant the redistribution of use is in will decrease in relative amount with the direction of the present, i.e., more continued overuse. (Amer. Soc. Range use (or emphasis on availability of use) Manage. 1964) of a resource is to be made for times Also see Invader plant species and closer to the present than on use in Increaser plant species. times more distant in the future. (Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968) Deferred grazing. See Grazing, deferred rotation. Derived demand Deferred rotation grazing. See Grazing, 1. The demand (schedule) for a deferred rotation. commodity which grows out of the desire to satisfy the demand for some Degree of use. For range management other commodity. The demand for usage see Use, degree of. housing, for example, may create a demand for lumber, bricks, and many Delphi method other things needed to build the hous- A recently developed technique, ing. (Sloan 1961) the purpose of which is to arrive at a consensus regarding an issue under in- DES. Abbreviation for Draft environ- vestigation. It consists of a series of mental statement. See Environmental

58 impact statement, draft, and discus- respect to soil and water conservation. sion in paragraph 2 under Environ- (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) mental impact statement. Desires. See Needs. Design Detailed landscape. See Landscape, de- The component of the planning tailed. process which controls the actual physical changes that will occur in time Detailed reconnaissance soil map. See Soil and space. map, detailed reconnaissance. At higher levels of planning, the Detailed soil map. See Soil map, detailed. design component sets the general guidelines for the spatial pattern and Detailed soil survey. See Soil map, de- physical character of development. At tailed and Soil survey. the individual project level design is Detention storage the activity which sets the precise The surface runoff which is tempo- character, pattern and form of the rarily present in ground surface irregu- project environment. (After Appleyard larities (or even on level surfaces) 1971) while it flows overland toward stream channels. (After Wisler and Brater Design solution (Site planning) 1959) A class of land use planning analytic approaches. The planner/designer Deterministic model. See Model, deter- generates unique solutions to potential ministic. land use conflicts by manipulating the Detritivore. See Detrivore. appearance or other physical characteristics of any changes and/or their Detrivore (Detritivore) occurrence in space and time. An organism (plant or animal) that "Design solution" potentials are feeds on the organic remains or other typically evaluated at the individual organic debris from autotrophic (most- "project level" or site specific level of ly plant) organisms. (After Odum any land use planning process. How- 1971) ever, this technique can also be used at higher planning levels by examination Developed recreation area. See Recrea- of the quality of solutions obtained by tion area, developed. superimposing design prototypes or Developer current design practices upon the Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for typical site characteristics in a plan- a national Land Use Policy and Plan- ning area. (C.F.S.) ning Assistance Act. Any person or For contrast with Engineering solu- persons who directly or indirectly, tion and Technological solution, see through any formal or informal com- Engineering solution, definitions 3 and bination or aggregation, own or con- 4. trol a tract or tracts of land for which For an example of a type of design such person or persons propose a solution planning see Site planning. project. "Person includes any individual, Desirable plant species partnership, corporation, association, 1. Range management usage. Spe- unincorporated organization, trust, cies of moderate to high palatability estate, or any other legal or commer- that are preferred by animals. (Amer. cial entity, except Federal, state or Soc. Range Manage. 1964) local government agencies. 2. Species that are beneficial with This definition is designed to make

59 certain that individuals cannot estab- Also see Extraordinary planning lish dummy corporations, trusts, or and Comprehensive plan, definition 3. otherwise organize in a manner to avoid the size and time period limita- Development rights tions of the definition of projects A broad range of less-than-fee sim- (such as using an organizational ar- ple ownership interests. It includes rangement to hide the separating of mainly various forms of the easement, tracts into two areas comprising more a clearly defined property right. The than twenty-five, but less than fifty, landowner keeps the title but agrees to units; the selling or developing of two continue using the land as in the past, such tracts which are functionally the right to develop the land resting in interrelated but separated by a short the holder of the easement. (U.S. Bur. distance; selling or developing one Outdoor Recreation 1974) such tract, waiting a few years, and developing a second tract). (U.S. Development rights, acquisition of Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular A plan implementation technique Aff. 1973) which ensures conformity of land use to the plan by purchasing for public Development ownership the landowner's right to use l. A built-up tract of land, espe- his land for certain types of potential cially used in the sense of a subdivision land uses–such as subdivision housing having the necessary utilities–i.e., or industry. water, gas, electricity, roads, etc. The originating concept was that (After Webster 1963) total public ownership was undesirable 2. In planning, the term "develop- and typically fiscally unfeasible. The ment" is typically used when referring purchase of only selected property to intensive build-up types of land rights would be substantially less ex- uses–i.e., uses predominantly consist- pensive than total purchase and would ing of buildings, paved areas and other still allow the owner to continue types of site alterations. "Develop- making other economic uses of his ment" in that sense utilizes the land land. However, in practice public ac- only as a location, not for its natural quisition of development rights has resource properties. often cost up to 95 percent of the full "Development" is sometimes bro- market value of land. (C.F.S.) ken into broad use type categories– Also see Taking. such as residential, commercial, indus- Development rights, transfer of trial, etc. (C.F.S.) A method of separating and marketing the development rights of a Development planning property. Owners of developable prop- Development planning is most com- erty can buy rights to develop more monly used in the context of planning intensively while the transferring prop- for economic growth and technolog- erty is preserved open or less devel- ical development in undeveloped re- oped. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation gions or countries. Planning in these 1974) settings involves not only creation of a strategy for resource development and Development type allocation, but also creation of the Those land use types by which the infrastructure and social institutions formerly open spaces of an area are necessary for implementation of the prominently altered or made to appear physical and economic features of built-up–i.e., buildings, paved areas, such a plan. (C.F.S.) and other types of site alterations.

60 "Development" is sometimes bro- by a close causal relationship. (After ken down into such broad type cate- Webster 1963) gories as residential, commercial, and industrial. (C.F.S.) Disadvantaged groups Lacking in the basic resources or Development zoning. See Zoning, devel- conditions (as standard housing, medi- opment. cal and educational facilities, civil rights) believed to be necessary for an Diagrammatic representation (Blob dia- equal position in society. (After Web- gram, Schematic diagram) ster 1963) A land use planning analytical tech- The current term used by the Fed- nique in which the physical compo- eral government for what has in the nents (such as parking lots, lavatories, past been called "poor" and "under- garbage cans, picnic tables, beaches, privileged". It covers more than the etc.) in a plan are represented symbol- economic conditions associated with ically, usually just by their names writ- "poor" and does not have the implica- ten inside individual circles. The relation of social or economic oppression tionships between compoments are contained in "underprivileged." (E. C. T.) then represented by lines connecting those which have necessary or de- Discharge sirable support functions. The indi- The volume of water flowing past a vidual components are then shifted so point per unit time, commonly ex- as to minimize the extent to which dif- pressed as cubic feet per second, mil- ferent interconnecting lines cross each lion gallons per day, gallons per min- other. The resulting solution is as- ute or cubic meters per second. (Soil sumed to represent the most efficient Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) spatial relationship between project components, and thus represent the Discontinuous easement. See Easement, idealized goal of the actual physical discontinuous. plan. While this technique is usually uti- Discounting lized at the project or site planning The practice of placing a lesser level, there is no conceptual reason value (economic or other) on future why it cannot also be used for study- events than on present events for the ing the optimal relationships between purpose of comparison. An item re- the more vaguely defined components ceived today is seen to be worth more of the broader levels of land use plan- than an identical item received next ning. (C.F.S.) year. Discounting refers only to the timing of an event and should not be Diameter at breast height (DBH) confused with reduced values based on The diameter of a tree measured the uncertainty of future events nor four feet, six inches from the ground implied quality changes over time. level. "Ground level" can follow two (E. C. T.) conventions; either the highest point of the ground touching the stem, or Discount rate the mean of the highest and lowest The interest rate used in plan for- points. (Ford-Robertson 1971) mulation and evaluation for discounting future benefits and computing Direct effect (Primary effect) costs, or otherwise converting benefits A condition caused by an action or and costs to a common time basis. inaction without an intermediary (U.S. Dept. of Agric. 1974) causal agent; an effect characterized Also see Discounting.

61 Disjointed incrementalism. See Incre- DOL. See Dissolved oxygen concentra- mentalism. tion.

Dispersed recreation. See Recreation, Dominant dispersed. The land against which an easement or privilege exists is called the servient Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) tenement and the estate to which it is 1. The oxygen dissolved and freely annexed is the dominant tenement and available in water. (After Wash. State their owners are called respectively ser- Univ. Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972) vient and dominant owner. (U.S. Bur. 2. The oxygen dissolved in water, Outdoor Recreation 1974) waste water, or other liquid and usu- Also see Easement. ally expressed "in milligrams per liter, parts per million, or percent of satura- Dominant use tion. (Amer. Public Health Assoc., et A concept in which land and water al. 1969) resources are classified and managed for one main type of use. Other uses Dissolved oxygen concentration (Dis- may or may not be excluded but are solved oxygen level, DOL) always of secondary importance to the The amount of oxygen dissolved in optimum development for the domi- a water sample expressed in parts per nant use. (Sesco, et al. 1973) million. (Sesco, et al. 1973) Also see Dominant use manage- In unpolluted water dissolved oxy- ment. gen is usually present in amounts of 10 parts per million or less. Adequate dis- Dominant use management solved oxygen is necessary for the life Management based on the idea that of fish and most other aquatic orga- although land may be capable of many nisms. About 3 to 5 parts per million uses it will provide for one use better is the lower limit needed for the sup- than any other. The land is managed port of fish life over a long period of for the single purpose of maximizing time. (Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext. that use to the exclusion of other uses Serv. 1972) where conflicts exist. Devoting each land unit to the use Dissolved oxygen level. See Dissolved it best provides for is assumed to be oxygen concentration. the most efficient allocation of resources. This assumption has been Dissolved solids shown to be erroneous by the science 1. The total amount of dissolved of operations research, among others. material, organic and inorganic, con- Dominant use management is pro- tained in water or wastewater. (Wash. hibited on the National Forests under State Univ. Coop. Ext Serv. 1972) the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act. 2. The solid matter that remains (E. C. T.) after a filtered volume of water has been evaporated. The amount of resi- Draft environmental impact statement. due is commonly expressed as a pro- See Environmental impact statement, portion of the original sample in parts draft. per million parts of the original. (Sesco, et al. 1973) Draft environmental statement. See En- vironmental impact statement, draft, Diversity index. See Species diversity in- and discussion in paragraph 2 under dex. Environmental impact statement.

DO. See Dissolved oxygen. Drainage basin. See Watershed.

62 Durability (Environmental durability) tally fragile" for off-road vehicle uses 1. The quality or state of being re- while unvegetated dunes are "environ- sistant to breakage or destruction. mentally durable". (C.F.S.) (After Webster 1963) 2. In a land use planning context, Duration curve. See Flow duration curve. the relative ability of resources to tolerate sustained use, without degrada- Dynamic programming tion of the resource base (i.e., lowering In a multistage decision process, a productivity or desirable resource systematic method for searching out quality). This ability is sometimes that sequence of decisions which maximizes or minimizes some predefined rated on a qualitative scale extending objective function. from "fragile" to "durable". The method is based on Bellman's "Durability" ("Environmental dur- Principle of Optimality which states ability") in land use planning refers to that "an optimal policy has the prop- those resource types or properties erty that whatever the initial state and which are resistant to degradation in initial decision are, the remaining deci- the presence of whatever types of use sions must constitute an optimal pol- are considered by the evaluation pro- icy with regard to the state resulting cess. For example, vegetated sand from the first decision." (U.S. Forest dunes may be classed as "environmen- Serv. 1972B) E

EAR. See Environmental analysis report. ing, flooding, etc. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) Easement 1. An interest in the land of an- Easement, conservation other which allows the easement hold- A group of negative and affirmative er specified uses or rights without easements .... [that] pertain to keep- actual ownership of the land. (U.S. ing land in open use or a natural state, Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) or provide some other conservation or 2. The right of the owner of one recreation function. These include sce- parcel of land, by reason of such own- nic, flooding, and agricultural ease- ership, to use the land of another for a ments. special purpose not inconsistent with An easement to assure the perma- general property ownership. The land nent preservation of land in its natural against which the easement or privilege state or in whatever degree of natural- exists is called the servient tenement ness the land possesses at the time the and the estate to which it is annexed is easement is granted. the dominant tenement and their own- An easement that may include one ers are called respectively "servient" or more of the following provisions: and "dominant" owner. (U.S. Bur. (1) prohibitions against erecting build- Outdoor Recreation 1974) ings or other structures; (2) restric- 3. The legal right to use the land of tions against constructing or altering another for a precise and definite pur- any private drives or roads; (3) propose. (Sesco, et al. 1973) hibitions against the removal or destruction of trees, shrubs, or other Easement, affirmative greenery; (4) restrictions against uses An interest in land which gives a other than residential or agricultural, person or agency the right to do some- for public utilities, and existing uses; thing on the land, such as hiking, fish- (5) restrictions against the display of

63 outdoor signs, billboards or any other Ecoclass form of outdoor advertising; (6) pro U.S. Forest Service usage. Classifi hibitions against dumping or storage of cation system for the biological and trash, wastes or unsightly or offensive earth sciences based on linking to materials of any kind; (7) other kinds gether existing disciplinary classifica of restrictions consistent with open tions of the major ecosystem compo space preservation and reservation. nents. It is a unifying framework for (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) linking three basic biological and earth science stratifications or classifica Easement, continuing tions—the vegetation subsystem, the An easement which is self-perpetu land subsystem, and the aquatic sub- ating, independent of human interven system. A hierarchical structure is tions, as the flow of a stream, or one given in which the lowest level units which may be enjoyed without any act are the "ecological land unit" (ELU), a on the part of the persons entitled composite of the land and vegetation thereto. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recrea- subsystems, and the "ecological water tion 1974) unit" (EWU), a composite of elements Easement, discontinuous (Noncontinuous of the land and aquatic subsystems. easement, Nonapparent easement) (After Corliss 1974) An easement, the enjoyment of Also see Ecological land unit and which may be had only by the inter Ecological water unit. ference of man, as a right-of-way or a right to draw water. (U.S. Bur. Out- Ecological determinism door Recreation 1974) A particular point of view in plan Easement, negative ning which advocates that retention of An interest in land which can give natural elements and processes should the easement-owner the right to pre- be given priority in planning. Natural vent the owner of the land from doing elements (such as aquifers, wildlife something on it. Scenic easements are breeding areas, and flood plains) which of this type. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Rec- are valued by segments of society or reation 1974) freely perform necessary life support or quality of life functions, or whose Easement, recreational alteration will significantly damage Affirmative easements allowing other valued resources, should be pro public entry on the servient land to tected on plans and in plan policies. hunt, fish, or enjoy other recreational Ecological determinism is essen activities. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recrea- tially a synonym for physiographic tion 1974) determinism, biological primacy, and biophysical determinism. Although Easement, scenic "ecological" strictly implies concern Essentially an easement of view. with organisms and their environ Scenic easements restrict the use of mental relationships, "ecological deter land adjacent to public highways, minism" also applies to such nonliving parks, and rivers. They may provide environmental elements as aquifers, something attractive to look at within steep slopes, and severe storm impact the easement area, an open area to zones. (C.F.S.) look through to see something attrac tive beyond the easement itself, or a screen to block out an unsightly view Ecological land unit (ELU) beyond the easement area. (U.S. Bur. 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. One Outdoor Recreation 1974) of the lowest levels of the "Ecoclass"

64 system of classifying ecosystems into Ecologic community. See Biotic com- subdivisions for forest description and munity. management. An ELU is a composite Ecologic competition. See Competition. of elements from the land subsystem and vegetation subsystem which to Ecologic diversity. See Biologic diversity gether define a homogeneous unit. and Species diversity. (After Corliss 1974) 2. U.S. Forest Service Resource Ecologic indicator. See Indicator, bio- Capability System (RCS) usage. Units logic. of land having strong uniformity in Ecologic niche. See Niche, definition 2. slope steepness; aspect; microclimate; rock types and conditions, geomor- Ecologic pyramids phology, soil characteristics and pro Groups of organisms in nature ductive capabilities, type, density and often consist of many small organisms age of vegetation and ground cover, and associated with a few larger organisms. drainage characteristics. This distribution of number and size The basic physical unit of land that has been compared to a pyramid with scientific disciplines agree must be a broad base representative of the numerous small organisms and the delineated and examined as a separate point of the pyramid representing the entity (for use evaluation or manage few largest organisms. ment purposes). There are three ecological pyramids The basic unit that is used in the which result from food and energy analysis of onsite potentials, capabili relationships: the pyramid of numbers, ties and limitations. The most signifi the pyramid of biomass and the pyra- cant level of land stratification which mid of energy or food production best communicates the basic (inher rates. (Odum 1953) ent) capabilities and limitations. (Reid 1972) Ecologic stability (Balance of nature) Land (or water) units which because An ecological system may be said of their strong uniformity in physical to be stable during that period of time and biological characteristics respond when no species becomes extinct similarly to management activities or (thereby creating a vacant niche) and other stimuli. Sometimes called "re none reaches plague proportions for sponse units". (H.G.) long enough to destroy the niches of Also see Ecoclass, Ecological water other species and cause them to be- unit and Homogeneous response unit. come extinct. A stable ecosystem is one in which all niches are fully occupied by appro Ecological water unit (EWU) priate species. U.S. Forest Service usage. One of Whatever stability there is in the the lowest levels of the "Ecoclass" sys ecological world is not a static equi tem of classifying ecosystems into sub- librium, but a fluctuating or dynamic divisions for forest description and one, and normally a highly fluctuating management. An EWU is a composite one. Stability lies in the ability to of elements from the land and aquatic bounce back, not in the ability to hold subsystems, where aquatic type and tenaciously to ground once taken or the adjacent land types together define numbers once achieved. (Preston a homogeneous unit. (After Corliss 1969) 1974) Also see Ecoclass, Ecological land Also see Balance of nature. unit, and Homogeneous response unit. Ecologic succession. See Succession.

65 Ecology maximized by providing the resources A branch of science concerned with to the highest bidders in such quan the interrelationships of organisms and tities that the price individuals are will their cycles and rhythms, community ing to pay exactly equals the cost of development and environments–espe- providing the last unit of the resource, cially as manifested by natural struc under standard economic assumptions. ture, interaction between different (E. C. T.) kinds of organisms, geographic distri 2. The view that economic factors butions, and population alterations. are the only causes of social patterns. (After Webster 1963) 3. The view that economic factors are fundamental or dominant, despite Econometrics the simultaneous importance of bio The testing and quantifying of eco logical, psychological, political, cul nomic theories and the solution of tural, and social factors. (O'Connell economic problems by their conver 1974) sion to mathematical forms, applica tion of mathematical processes and the Economic enterprise (Economic unit) use of statistical techniques. (After Range management usage. A ranch Webster 1963) business of sufficient resources to pro- Economic analysis vide an acceptable standard of living An analysis of the economic effects for a family. . . .Often termed an eco of a given action. It includes measure nomic unit, but this is considered er ment of all pertinent desirable and un roneous because a "unit" is a subdivi desirable consequences to all segments sion of a management area. (Amer. of the economy stated in comparable Soc. Range Manage. 1964) quantitative monetary terms. It also Also see Management area and Man- includes an objective or subjective agement unit. analysis of factors not quantifiable in monetary terms. (P.M.R.) Economic externalities 1. Effects of resource allocation Economic base analysis. See Export base decisions which are not included in the analysis. market mechanism, and as such have no economic influence on resource al Economic depletion. See Depletion. location decisions; failures of the mar ket mechanism as a resource allocation Economic determinism tool. (E. C. T.) 1. A point of view which advocates 2. A cost or benefit that occurs that planning decisions should be whenever the activities of one or more based primarily upon the results of persons affect the welfare or produc analysis of changes in resource supply tion functions of others who have no and demand in response to changes in direct control over that activity. the "price" for the right to use a re- (Sesco, et al. 1973) source. That potential user or use which is willing or able to give up the Economic growth most wins the use rights. Maximizing Increased economic activity in real the total economic welfare is consi terms over time. This does not neces dered to result in the maximization of sarily correspond to increased produc the benefits to society from resource tion of physical goods. (E. C. T.) use allocation and this is viewed as being the goal of all resource use. Economic life (C. F. S.) That period of time extending from The total economic welfare will be the date of installation [of a facility]

66 into service to that date when the munity) in a given area interacting facility is no longer economically prof with the physical environment so that itable to use. (Winfrey and Zellner a flow of energy leads to clearly de- 1971) fined food and feeding relationships, Also see Physical life. biologic diversity and biogeochemical cycles (i.e., exchange of materials be- Economic scarcity (Resource scarcity) tween living and nonliving parts) oper The condition whereby a limited ating as an integrated system. number of marketable goods are de- "Ecosystem" is the preferred term sired in higher quantities than avail- in English while "biocoenosis" or able. The "scarcity" can be eliminated "biogeocoenosis" is preferred by writ either by increasing the supply of ers using or familiar with the Germanic available goods and maintaining a low and Slavic languages. (After Odum price, or by raising the price of the 1971) goods until the number of people will Some (Ford-Robertson 1971, Han- ing to pay the higher price is reduced son 1962) make a distinction between to the supply level. Which is the so the two terms by using bio(geo)- cially superior method depends on coenosis to refer to actual biological supply costs and the existence of eco- units (such as a certain bog) and nomic externalities. (E. C. T.) "ecosystem" when referring to con ceptual units. Others (Odum 1971) Economic subregion make no such distinction. We prefer U.S. Bureau of the Census usage. Odum's lumping of the terms, while These areas represent combinations of recognizing that in some technical, state economic areas. The 510 state ecological literature the distinction is economic areas in the 1970 U.S. Cen significant. (C.F.S.) sus are consolidated into a set of 121 5. Any complex of living organisms economic subregions which cut across taken together with all the other biotic state lines but which, as intended, pre- and abiotic factors which affect them, serve to a great extent the homoge that are mentally isolated for purposes neous character of the state economic of study. (After Ford-Robertson 1971, areas. (U.S. Bur. Census 1971) citing Tansley) Economic unit. See Economic enterprise. Ecosystem (Bioc(o)enosis, Bioc(o)enose, Ecotone Biogeoc(o)enosis, Biogeoc(o)enose) An ecotone is a transition between 1. The system formed by the inter- two or more biotic communities. action of a group of organisms and It is a junction zone or tension belt their environment. (Durrenberger which may have considerable linear ex- 1973) tent but is narrower than the adjoining 2. A complete, interacting system community areas themselves. of organisms considered together with The ecotonal community common their environment, e.g., a marsh, a ly contains many of the organisms of watershed, a lake, etc. (After Hanson each of the overlapping communities 1962) and, in addition, organisms which are 3. An ecological community con characteristic of and often restricted sidered together with the nonliving to the ecotone. Often, the number of factors of its environment as a unit. species in the ecotone is greater than in (Webster 1963) the communities flanking it. Orga 4. Any spatial unit that includes all nisms which occur primarily or most of the organisms (i.e., the biotic com- abundantly or spend the greatest

67 amount of time in junctional commu analysis. (E. C. T.) nities are often called "edge species". See Cost-effectiveness analysis. (Odum 1959) Effectiveness test Ecotype (Geographical race, Habitat U.S. Water Resources Council type) (WRC) usage. One of the tests to be 1. A locally adapted population of applied in choosing among alternatives a species which has a distinctive limit in planning for water and related land of tolerance to environmental factors. resources while following the WRC (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Principles and Standards. 2. A genetically uniform popula The "effectiveness test" refers to tion of a species resulting from natural technical performance of the plan and selection by the special conditions of a the level of contribution to the com particular habitat. (Ford-Robertson ponents of the objectives. (U.S. Dep. 1971) of Agric. 1974)

Edaphic Efficiency test Pertaining to the soil. (Marsh 1964) U. S. Water Resources Council Edaphic climax. See Climax community, (WRC) usage. One of the tests to be definition 3. applied in choosing among alternatives in planning for water and related land Edaphic factor (Soil factor) resources while following the WRC A characteristic or factor of the soil Principles and Standards. environment which limits the develop The "efficiency test" requires that ment or existence of an organism or among all acceptable alternatives (Fed biotic community. eral and non-Federal, water and non- For example, low nutrient or water, structural and nonstructural) micro-nutrient concentrations, or the the given alternative plan should be the presence of toxic concentrations of least cost means, considering all certain substances, or insufficient or adverse effects, of achieving specified excess soil moisture conditions are components of the objectives when typical edaphic factors. (Marsh 1964) comparably evaluated according to Especially used to refer to soil fac these standards. (U.S. Dep. of Agric. tors as opposed to physiographic or 1974) climatic factors. (Sesco, et al. 1973) Effluent Edge The liquids discharged from domes- Visual terminology usage. The lin tic, industrial and municipal waste col ear elements in a view which are noted lection systems or treatment facilities. (or considered by the observer) as be (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) ing the dividing lines between major components of a scene. "Edges" serve Egalitarianism as visual boundaries–such as land– 1. A belief that all people are equal water boundaries or forest-meadow in intrinsic worth and are entitled to boundaries. (After Litton 1966) equal access to the rights and privileges Edge species. See Species, edge. of their society. (Webster 1963) 2. A social philosophy advocating Effectiveness-cost analysis. See Cost- the leveling of social, political and eco effectiveness analysis. nomic inequalities. (Webster 1963) As an ideology, it holds that equal Effectiveness index ity in various specified aspects of so The index used in cost-effectiveness cial life and organization is just and

68 proper and should be a goal in the re- Eminent domain design of social institutions. 1. The right or power of govern Exactly what aspects of social real ment subject to constitutional and ity are considered in order to decide statutory limitations to take private what should be equal and what un property for public use upon making equal is a rather complex problem that just compensation. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor sometimes involves self contradictions; Recreation 1974) for example, equality of opportunity 2. The legal right of public agencies can result in unequal distributions, be- to claim private property for public cause people have different abilities, use, if compensation is made to the degrees of motivation, and luck; equal owner for property so claimed. The ity of resource inputs in different use of this power is limited by the schools may result in inequality in "Due Process of the Law" clause in educational achievements of the stu the 14th Amendment of the United dents, if the latter began with unequal States Constitution. (Sesco, et al. advantages, and attempting to equalize 1973) output of student achievement from Also see Taking, Police power, Just different schools might require un compensation. equal resource inputs in order to overcome the initial handicaps of some stu Enclosing landscape. See Landscape, en- dents. (O'Connell 1974) closing.

EIS. See Environmental impact state- Endangered species. See Species, endan- ment. gered.

Elasticity Endangered Species Act of 1973 (PL 93- In economics, a measure of the re 205; 87 Stat. 884) sponsiveness of the quantity de Repeals and replaces the Endan manded or supplied to changes in gered Species Conservation Act of price. Elasticity measures the degree to 1969. An act to provide a means which price is effective in calling forth whereby ecosystems upon which en- or holding back quantity. (U.S. Gen. dangered species and threatened spe- Account. Off. 1969) cies depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the conservation of Element. See Plan element or Program such endangered species and threat element. ened species, and to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the pur Elites poses of the (relevant) treaties and The individuals at the top of any conventions . . . . (Endangered Species stratification hierarchy, such as eco Act of 1973) nomic, social prestige, or political. Also see Conservation, definition 3. The term "power elite" implies a high degree of coordination and a set Endangered Species Conservation Act of of common interests among those in 1969 top corporate and governmental posi Now repealed and replaced by the tions. (O'Connell 1974) Endangered Species Act of 1973. Also see Social class. Elitism. See Pluralism. Endemic organism A taxonomic category (e.g., genus, ELU. See Ecological land unit. species, variety) whose natural occur rence is confined to a certain region Eltonian pyramid. See Pyramid of and whose distribution is relatively numbers. limited. (After Hanson 1962)

69 Also see Native organism. Contrast ultimately determine its form and sur with Species, exotic; Species, feral; vival. (Holland 1970) Spe-cies, naturalized; and Species, 2. Something that surrounds; sur resident. roundings. All the conditions, circumstances, Endemic species. See Endemic organism. and influences surrounding and af fecting the development of an orga Energy resource planning nism or group of organisms. (U.S. Functional planning for the devel Forest Serv. 1971) opment and use of energy resources. 3. The aggregate of all the external (E.C.T.) conditions and influences affecting the Also see Functional planning. life and development of an organism, Engineering solution society, etc. (After Webster 1963) 1. The actual application of tech Also see Habitat. nical solutions to solve (or at least minimize) problems associated with Environmental analysis. See Environ- particular land uses or land use prac- mental impact analysis. tices. (C.F.S.) 2. The use of technical knowledge Environmental analysis report (EAR) to implement a project by minimizing A report on environmental effects its land use problems. (After Webster of proposed Federal actions which 1963) may require an Environmental impact The distinction between techno- statement (EIS) under section 102 of logical solutions, and "engineering the National Environmental Policy Act solutions" is that the first refers just to (NEPA). The EAR is an "in-house" the development of new technical document of varying degrees of for means for providing solutions whereas mality which becomes the final docu the second applies to the application ment on environmental impacts for of any technical solution (new or old) those projects which, because their to solve the potential problems. effects are minor, do not require a for The distinction between "engineer mal EIS. Although not formally pre- ing solutions" and design solutions is scribed under NEPA, the EAR is the that the second minimizes potential document normally used to determine conflicts by manipulating size, shape, whether section 102 of NEPA applied appearance, and placement whereas to the project in question, and as such the first utilizes technical solutions. is subject to court challenge if no EIS For example, an engineering solu is filed. (E. C. T.) tion to stabilizing a stream bank Also see Environmental impact against erosion by increased runoff statement, final. might be to line certain portions of the channel with concrete. A "design solu Environmental assessment. See Environ- tion" to such a potential problem mental impact analysis. would be minimization of use of im pervious pavings by projects or redi Environmental corridor (Buffer, Buffer rection of such increased runoff into strip, Buffer zone) high-infiltration-rate, heavily vegetated 1. A strip of land designed to pro portions of the site. (C.F.S.) tect the natural environment of an area and to prevent undesirable en Environment croachment such as commercial devel 1. The complex of climatic, soil opment along a stream. (Sesco, et al. and biotic factors that act upon an or 1973) ganism or ecological community and Also see Buffer.

70 Philip Lewis' usage. The linear pat- 1969) requires that such statements be tern identified in the typical midwest prepared. It is prepared first in draft or ern landscape by combining maps of review form, and then, in a final form. the major natural environmental ele An impact statement includes the fol ments of importance for recreation lowing points: (1) the environmental (rivers, lakes, wetlands and significant impact of the proposed action, (2) any relief) with man-made features having adverse impacts which cannot be recreational value (e.g., historic sites). avoided by the action, (3) the alterna (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) tive courses of action, (4) the relationships between local short-term uses of Environmental durability. See Durability. man's environment and the mainte nance and enhancement of long-term Environmental fragility. See Fragility. productivity, (5) a description of the Environmental hazard. See Natural irreversible and irretrievable commit hazard. ment of resources which would occur if the action were accomplished. Environmental impact analysis (Environ- (Sesco, et al. 1973) mental analysis, Environmental assess- Although "environmental impact ment, Environmental impact assess- statement" (EIS) is the popularly used ment) term, some prefer the term "Environ 1. An activity that involves the mental statement" (ES), feeling that consideration of the interaction of EIS is an inaccuracy due to the nega physical, natural, social and economic tive connotations of the word "im factors and a determination of prob pact". Section 102(C) of NEPA men able effects of the plan or proposal tions that impacts, effects, alterna upon these operating systems. (U.S. tives, etc. will be contained in the re Forest Serv., FSM 8310.5, Oct. 1973) quired "detailed statement". Conse 2. A process that generates know- quently, to name one feature and to ledge of environmental and ecological exclude others is inaccurate. Thus the impacts, and evaluates their conse draft is the DES and the final state quences before activities are under- ment the FES. (After J.Z.) taken. (Heyman and Twiss 1971) 3. An evaluation and objective prediction diction of the environmental impacts Environmental impact statement, draft of a proposed action using a system (DEIS, Draft environmental statement, atic, interdisciplinary approach that DES) integrates social and natural sciences The version of the statement of and environmental design arts. (After environmental effects required for National Environmental Policy Act) major Federal actions under section 102 of the National Environmental Environmental impact assessment. See Policy Act (NEPA), and released to Environmental impact analysis. the public and other agencies for com ment and review. It is a formal docu Environmental impact statement (EIS, ment which must follow the require 102 statement, Environmental statements of NEPA, the Council on En ment) vironmental Quality (CEQ) Guidelines, A document prepared by a Federal and directives of the agency respon agency in which anticipated environ sible for the project proposal. Since mental effects of a planned course of the adoption of state and local laws action or development are evaluated. modeled after NEPA, this term has A Federal statute (section 102 of the also been used to refer to similar state National Environmental Policy Act of ments required to comply with those

71 laws. (E.C.T.) outdoor environment and which rec Also see Environmental impact onciles their demands for and impacts statement and Environmental impact upon the outdoor environment. statement, final. Planning which seeks to ensure that policies, programs, designs and actual Environmental impact statement, final developments incorporate forecasts of (EIS, Final environmental statement, the effects upon environmental ame FES) nity and ecology so as to anticipate and The final version of the statement evaluate the consequences of deci of environmental effects required for sion in light of present and future major Federal actions under section values at stake. (Appleyard 1971) 102 of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). It is a revision of the draft environmental impact state Environmental psychology ment to include public and agency re That area of psychology which sponses to the draft. It is a formal deals with environmentally induced document which must meet legal re behavior or mental states of individ quirements and is the document used uals or groups, e.g., whereas psycho- as a basis for judicial decisions con analysis probes for subconscious moti cerning compliance with NEPA. This vations derived from past experience, term is also used for similar statements or behavioral psychology attempts to prepared to comply with state and alter self concepts through operant local laws patterned after NEPA. conditioning, environmental psychol (E. C. T.) ogy seeks to determine how the every- Also see Environmental impact day physical environment affects statement and Environmental impact human behavior. statement, draft. Also, the study of human percep tion of elements in the environment or Environmental index. See Index. of different types of environmental Environmental modification settings. Perception in this context is Deliberate or unintentional changes understood to mean not only direct produced by man in the external con sensory knowledge but also cognitive ditions that act upon an organism or discrimination expressed in terms of community to influence its develop preferences rated on a scale of desira ment or existence. (After T.E.A.) bility vs undesirability. (L. W.) Environmental planning Environmental quality Planning which considers the en 1. Natural environmental quality. vironment not only in terms of physi Heyman and Twiss in evaluating man cal configurations, location and space agement practices on the Federal but also in terms of direct experiential public lands speak of "environmental and sensory surroundings as a primary quality" as referring "primarily to the source of living experience, and as a continuance, to the extent feasible, of primary conditioner of physical and the natural ecosystems existing on psychological development for each public lands especially as that eco individual human being. system is important to human health Planning which recognizes the en and safety, the provision of direct vironment as a physical and biological sensory experiences, and the con-tinued system, with its own natural and tech viability of life forms and biotic nological characteristics and processes. communities that exist naturally on, Planning which is concerned with and surrounding, the public lands." human activities taking place in the (Heyman and Twiss 1971)

72 2. In general, definition 1 must be formulation for water and related land expanded to include all environments resources planning specified in the experienced by man and include as Water Resources Council's Principles pects of environmental psychology. and Standards and the U.S. Depart Even though qualities may exist with- ment of Agriculture's "Procedures" out man, it is man who makes the for adhering to them. (After U.S. Dep. judgments that define qualities. The of Agric. 1974) qualities are both individual and con 5. The sum total of the forces and sensus. The "group" may attach some factors which influence people's satis value or measure of quality to some factions with their work, leisure, living environment, and each individual may conditions and community. (Barron give a somewhat different value to the 1972) same environment. "Quality" is a "separate reality" for each individual, Environmental Quality Improvement Act but may contain universals for a great of 1970 (83 Stat. 852; 42 U.S.C. many individuals. Thus, the environ 4371-4374) ment may be a wilderness or a city Assures that each Federal depart street, with each person having his or ment and agency conducting or supporting public work activities which her own value judgment as to the qual affect the environment shall imple ity of the environment, but together ment the policies established under they may reach a consensus which existing law; and authorizes an Office forms an "environmental quality" of Environmental Quality, which shall basis for planning. (After A. W.M.) provide the professional and adminis 3. U.S. Water Resources Council trative staff for the Council on En (WRC) usage. Enhancing environmen vironmental Quality. (After U. S. tal quality by the management, conser Forest Serv. 1974) vation, preservation, creation, restora tion or improvement of the quality of Environmental quality index. See En- certain national and cultural resources vironmental quality and Index. and ecological systems is one of the two main objectives for programs in Environmental setting. For U.S. Forest volving water and related land re- Service usage see Management situa- sources administered by Federal agen tion. cies whose activities involve planning and development of water resources, as Environmental statement. See discussion contained in the Water Resources in paragraph 2 under Environmental Council Principles and Standards. impact statement. An evaluation of environmental quality effects should include: (1) Environmental system areas of natural beauty; (2) water, An arbitrarily defined set of inter- land, and air quality; (3) biological re- acting components in the environ sources and selected ecosystems; (4) ment, understood to have some degree geological, archeological, and historical of unitary integrity. (L. W.) resources; and (5) irretrievable com mitments of resources to future use. Environment, human (After U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974) The aggregate of all the external 4. One of the four "required ac conditions and influences affecting the counts" for categorizing, displaying, or life and development of an individual, "accounting" the beneficial and ad- society, etc. (After U.S. Forest Serv., verse effects of each alternative plan FSM 8310.5, Oct., 1973)

73 Ephemeral stream "Sheet" and "rill erosion" are the two 1. A stream or portion of a stream forms which "surface erosion" may that flows only in direct response to take. "Beach erosion" is always precipitation. It receives little or no "shoreline erosion"–though, because water from springs and no long-con not all shorelines are beaches, "shore- tinued supply from snow or other line erosion" is not always "beach ero sources. Its channel is at all times sion". The term accelerated erosion above the water table. (Soil Conserv. is used in comparing erosion caused by Soc. Amer. 1970) human activities with that occurring at 2. The term may be arbitrarily re natural rates (i.e., geologic erosion). stricted to streams which have no-flow (C.F.S.) periods of one month or longer. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) Erosion, accelerated 3. In areas where precipitation al 1. Erosion that can be attributed most totally consists of rainfall, the directly or indirectly to the activities term is commonly used to refer to the of man. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1963) short-lived streams which flow for 2. Erosion much more rapid than only a very short time (a few days at normal erosion, natural erosion, or most) after each storm event. (C.F.S.) geologic erosion, and occurring primar 4. They have no permanent or ily as a result of the influence of the well-defined channels but follow slight activities of man or, in some cases, of depressions in the natural contour of other animals or natural catastrophes the ground surface. (Wisler and Brater that expose bare surfaces (for exam 1959) ple, fires). (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Also see Intermittent stream and 1970) Perennial stream. Erosion, bank Destruction of land area by active Erosion cutting of stream-banks. (Wash. Dep. The group of processes whereby Ecol. 1973) earthy or rock material is worn away, loosened or dissolved and removed Erosion, beach from any part of the earth's surface. It The retreat of the shoreline of large includes the processes of weathering, lakes and coastal waters caused by solution, corrasion and transportation. wave action, shore currents or causes (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) other than subsidence. (Wash. Dep. "Erosion" is often classified by the Ecol. 1973) eroding agent (wind, water, wave, or raindrop erosion) and/or by the ap Erosion, geologic (Natural erosion) pearance of the erosion (sheet, rill, or 1. The gradual wearing away of the gully erosion) and/or by the location land surface which occurred prior to of the erosional activity (surface, or the occupancy of a land area by man shoreline) or by the material being or the present day wearing away which eroded (soil erosion or beach erosion), is not due to the activities of man. Relations between erosion terms: (U.S. Forest Serv. 1963) "raindrop erosion" always takes the 2. The normal or natural erosion form of "sheet erosion"–though caused by geological processes acting "sheet erosion" can also be caused by over long geologic periods and result wind action or the movement of thin ing in the wearing away of mountains, sheets of water over the ground sur the building up of floodplains, coastal face. "Sheet", "gully" and "rill ero plains, etc. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. sion" are all forms of "soil erosion". 1970)

74 Erosion, gully 2. The more or less uniform remov 1. The removal of soil by the for al of soil from an area without the de mation of relatively large channels or velopment of conspicuous water chan gullies cut into the soil by concen nels. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951) trated surface runoff. In contrast to rills, gullies are too deep to be obliter Erosion, soil ated by ordinary tillage practices. The detachment and movement of (US. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951) soil from the land surface by wind or 2. The widening, deepening and water. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) headward cutting of small channels and waterways due to erosion. (Wash. Erosion, splash (Raindrop erosion) Dep. Ecol. 1973) The spattering of small soil particles 3. The erosion process whereby caused by the impact of raindrops on water accumulates in narrow ephemer- wet soils. The loosened and spattered al stream channels and, over short peri particles may or may not be subse ods, removes the soil from this narrow quently removed by surface runoff. area to considerable depths. (Soil Con- (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) serv. Soc. Amer. 1970)

Erosion, natural (Geologic erosion) Erosion, surface Wearing away of the earth's surface Erosion which removes materials by natural agents under natural envi from the surface of the land as distin ronmental conditions of climate, vege guished from gully or channel erosion. tation, etc., undisturbed by man. (Soil The two main types of surface ero Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) sion are sheet erosion and rill erosion. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1963) Erosion, normal The gradual erosion of land used by ES. See Environmental impact statement. man which does not greatly exceed natural erosion. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Esthetics. A spelling variation of aes- Amer. 1970) thetics. See Aesthetics. Erosion, raindrop. See Erosion, splash. Estuarine area Erosion, rill U.S. Forest Service usage. The envi 1. The removal of soil by the cut ronmental system of an estuary and ting of numerous small, but conspicu those transitional areas which are con ous, water channels or tiny rivulets by sistently influenced or affected by concentrated surface runoff. water from an estuary. (U.S. Forest Rill erosion is intermediate between Serv. 1963, FSM 2605, Sept. 1974) sheet erosion and gully erosion. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951) Estuarine sanctuary 2. The process by which numerous Coastal Zone Management Act us- small channels, at the most only several age. A research area which may in inches deep, are formed on recently clude any part or all of an estuary, ad- cultivated or exposed soils. (After Soil joining transitional areas, and adjacent Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) uplands, constituting to the extent feasible a natural unit, set aside to pro- Erosion, sheet vide scientists and students the oppor 1. The removal of a fairly uniform tunity to examine over a period of layer of soil from the land surface by time the ecological relationships with- runoff water or wind. (Soil Conserv. in the area. (Coastal Zone Manage. Act Soc. Amer. 1970) 1972)

75 Estuary come. (Durrenberger 1973) 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. All or 2. The term "eutrophic" means part of the mouth of a navigable or well-nourished, and "eutrophication" interstate river or stream or other refers to the natural or artificial addi body of water having unimpaired nat tion of nutrients to bodies of water ural connection with the open sea and and to the effects of any resulting within which the sea water is measur stimulation of algal growth. ably diluted with fresh water derived For better understanding a distinc from land runoff, as defined in Public tion should be made between Law 89-753, and similar lands and "eutrophication" in the sense of an in- waters of the Great Lakes, as directed crease in nutrient supply as opposed to in Public Law 90-454. (U.S. Forest use in reference to the effects of nutri Serv. 1963, FSM 2605, Sept 1974) ent enrichment. 2. A water body having an open, When the effects of nutrient enrich natural connection with the sea and ment are undesirable, "eutrophica within which the sea water is measur tion" may be considered to be a form ably diluted by freshwater runoff. of pollution. (After Natl. Acad. Sci. (C.F.S.) 1969) 3. A body of water in which Man-caused "eutrophication" is stream water mixes with and measur called cultural eutrophication. ably dilutes sea water. The wide mouth of a river or arm Evaluation of the sea where the tide meets the An examination and judging con river currents, or flows and ebbs. (Reid cerning the worth, quality, signifi 1961) cance, amount, degree or condition of 4. Coastal Zone Management Act something. (Webster 1963) usage. That part of a river or stream or other body of water having unim Even-aged management paired connection with the open sea, The actions that will result in a for where the sea water is measurably di est, crop, or stand composed of trees luted with fresh water derived from having no or relatively small differ land drainage. The term includes ences in age. (Ford-Robertson 1971) estuary-type areas of the Great Lakes. Even-aged stand (Coastal Zone Manage. Act 1972) A forest stand composed of trees having no, or relatively small, differ Euclidean zoning. See Zoning, Euclidean. ences in age. By convention the maximum differ Eury- (Euroky-) ence admissible is generally 10 to 20 A combining prefix denoting ability years, though with rotations of less (of an organism) to tolerate large than 100 years differences up to 25 changes in environmental conditions. percent of the rotation period may be For example, eurythermal describes admissible. (Ford-Robertson 1971) organisms which can tolerate large EWU. See Ecological water unit. temperature ranges. (After Hanson Excepted mineral. See Mineral, excepted. 1962) Also see Steno-. Exception. For the zoning terminology usage see Special exception. Eutrophication Exclusive use zoning. See Zoning, exclu- 1. The process of overfertilization sive use. of a body of water by nutrients that produce more organic matter than the Exclusive zoning. See Zoning, exclusive self-purification processes can overuse.

76 Exempt stock societies and even to groups within so Livestock which are permitted to cieties, and which are not consciously graze on Federal land free of charge. thought of, at least until one is not Usually confined to animals actually observed. used for domestic purposes; saddle Expectations are both normative, in horses, milk cows, etc. (Amer. Soc. that they reflect what people believe Range Manage. 1964) ought to happen, and statistical, in that they express what people believe Exhaustible resource. See Nonrenewable probably will happen. (O'Connell resource. 1974)

Existence value (Bequest motive) Export base analysis (Economic base The external benefit of natural en analysis) vironments (or any kind of good) that 1. A multiplier analysis method for accrues to individuals having no inten estimating regional economic effects tion of ever visiting the site or using of projects. It is particularly suited to the good in question. These people are rural areas. The economy is divided in- willing to give up resources simply to to two sectors, "export" and "ser know that the area, feature, or good vice". The export sector includes all exists in a particular condition. goods and services produced for con The concept of "existence value" sumption outside the region being has been recognized for some time. evaluated. The service sector includes John Krutilla (1967) has used the term all other economic activity. The ex- "bequest motive" to express roughly port sector is assumed to create the the same idea. Existence value is pre need for the service sector, and a mul ferred because it is less specific in its tiplier is calculated for each export in connotations about motivations; i.e., it dustry, relating employment in the ser does not imply a handing down to vice sector to the level of activity in later generations. that industry. By determining project This type of external benefit is fre effects on the export industries, the quently claimed to be associated with total economic effects can be esti wilderness and outstanding natural mated. (After Convery 1973) features. (Tomhaugh 1971) 2. A type of economic base anal ysis. (E. C. T.) Exotic organism 1. More general than exotic species Exposure (Slope orientation, Aspect) usage. Any organism (plant or animal) The compass direction that the that is not native in the area where it slope of a land surface faces toward occurs. (Hanson 1962) (e.g., north, northwest, south). (After Also see Naturalized species, Feral Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) species, and contrast with Resident species, Native organism, and Endemic Extensive recreation. See Recreation, ex- organism. tensive. 2. An organism that has been intro duced from another continent. (Soil Externalities. See Economic externalities. Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Extinct or possibly extinct species. See Exotic species. See Exotic organism and Species, extinct or possibly extinct. Species, exotic. Extractive economics Expectations The economics of industries which The rules governing social situa remove natural resources and supply tions, which are specific to particular them to other industries as raw materi-

77 als. The economic analysis of these in tional values created by man-made dustries is more often complicated by changes, adaptations, and additions to depletion of fixed stocks, resource basic natural (i.e., intrinsic) resources. ownership ambiguities, and "common For example the occurrence of mill pool" externalities than is true with ponds, historic sites, tourist service other types of industries. (E. C. T.) facilities, archeological sites, etc. (Belknap and Furtado 1967) Extraordinary planning Any type of planning process 2. The term is now used to refer to which, by design, changes existing in any resource of human origin–especi- stitutions to obtain alternative desired ally in contrast to resources of natural futures. (H. J. V.) origin (i.e., intrinsic resources).

Extrinsic resource See Intrinsic resource for natural 1. Philip H. Lewis usage. Recrea- recreation resource features.

F Farmstead or headquarters Evaluation based on the present Land used primarily for dwellings, likelihood or under specific manage barns, pens, corrals, gardens, and other ment conditions. uses in connection with operating The relative advantage of managing farms or ranches. (U.S. Soil Conserv. or improving a unit considering its Serv. 1970) capability and suitability for a specific use under the existing or projected so Fault (Earthquake fault) cioeconomic climate. Use feasibility, A ground surface fracture or frac for example, could be applied on the ture zone along which there has been basis of accessibility or population po displacement of one side with respect tential. If one unit is closer to a metro to the other. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. politan center, it would be more acces 1970) sible and thus would have a higher feasibility rating. (Belknap and Fur- Fault, active tado 1967) A linear break in the earth's surface that has undergone movement in re- Feasibility evaluation. See Feasibility. cent geologic time (the last 10,000 years) and may be subject to future Feature-dominated landscape. See Land- movement. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. scape, feature-dominated. Amer. 1970) Federal lands Fauna Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for The animal life of an area, "animal" a National Land Use Policy and Plan- being used in the broad sense to in ning Assistance Act. All Federal land, clude birds, fish, reptiles, insects, mol no matter how it was acquired and no lusks, crustaceans, etc., in addition to matter what agency has responsibility mammals. (C.F.S.) for its management, except reservation and other tribal lands. (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973) Feasibility (Use feasibility) A step in G.A. Hills' system for land Feed evaluation. Evaluation of lands use- Any non-injurious edible material ability under present and forecasted having nutrient value; may be har socioeconomic conditions. vested forage, range or artificial pas-

78 ture forage, grain, or other processed Final environmental statement. See Envi- food for livestock or game animals. ronmental impact statement, final, and (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Environmental impact statement.

Feedback Fire break Negative feedback is a return input A natural or artificial barrier usual which reduces the quantity or quality ly created by the removal of vegeta of outputs, and positive feedback is re- tion and used to prevent or retard the turned input which increases subse spread of fire. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- quent outputs. (After Webster 1963) age. 1964) Also see Fuel break. Feedback loop The pathway by which a portion of Fire planning the output of a system or process re- Functional planning for the preven turns to become a part of its inputs. tion or detection of wildfires or the (After Webster 1963) control of a wildfire. (E. C. T.) Fee simple ownership. See Ownership, fee Also see Functional planning. simple. Fire, prescribed. See Prescribed burn. Felling (Cutting) The cutting down of standing trees. Fish "Felling" is not a synonym for log- U.S. Forest Service usage. Includes ging nor harvesting. These latter terms all species of fresh or salt-water fishes, also include removal of felled trees and as well as crustaceans, mollusks, and some initial processing of the timber other underwater organisms which are prior to removal. (After Ford-Robert- considered part of the fishery re- son 1971) source. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605, Sept. 1974) Felling cycle. See Cutting cycle. Fishery Felling rotation. See Rotation. U.S. Bureau of Land Management usage. Any premises upon which Feral species. See Species, feral. breeding, hatching or fish-rearing facil Fertility. See Soil fertility. ities are situated when such premises are required to have a license by the FES. See Environmental impact state- state fish and game code, including ment, final, and Environmental im- ponds for commercial use. (Eisner pact statement. 1969) Filter strip. See Buffer, definition 2. Flood 1. An overflow or inundation that Final cutting comes from a river or other body of The logging operation which re- water and causes or threatens to cause moves the last of the old crop trees in property damage. (Soil Conserv. Soc. a stand being managed under the shel- Amer. 1970) terwood system of silviculture. (After 2. Any relatively high streamflow Ford-Robertson 1971) which overtops the natural or artificial See Shelterwood system for timing banks in any extended portion of a of the cuttings in that silvicultural sys stream. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) tem. Flood, annual Final environmental impact statement. The highest peak discharge for a See Environmental impact statement, stream in a water year. (Soil Conserv. final. Soc. Amer. 1970)

79 Flood basin Flood plain zoning. See Zoning, flood 1. The tract actually covered by plain. water during the highest known floods. (After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) Flood stage 2. The flat areas between the The water surface elevation above sloping low plains of the valley sides some chosen reference level at which overflow of the natural banks of a and the river banks (and commonly stream begins to cause damage in the containing heavy soils and either no area in which the depth of the flow is vegetation or a strictly swampy vegeta measured. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. tion). (After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) Amer. 1970)

Flood frequency Flora Over a period of years, the average 1. The plant life of an area. (Dur- number of times a flood of a given renberger 1973) magnitude is likely to occur. (Amer. 2. The sum total of the kinds of Geol. Inst. 1962) plants in an area at one time. (Hanson 1962)

Flood peak Flow duration curve (Duration curve) The maximum volume of flow at A graphical representation of the tained at a given point during a flood number of times given stream flow vol event. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) umes are equalled or exceeded during a certain period of record. (Soil Con- Flood plain serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) That portion of a stream valley, ad jacent to the channel, which is built of Flow resource. See Renewable resource. sediments during the present regimen (i.e., the state of equilibrium between a Fluvial stream and its ability to transport 1. Of or pertaining to streams and sediments) of the stream and which is flowing waters. (Soil Conserv. Soc. covered with water when the stream Amer. 1970) overflows its banks at flood stages. 2. Growing or living in streams. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) The nearly level land situated on 3. Produced by stream action, as a either side of a channel which is sub fluvial plain. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. ject to overflow flooding. (Soil Con- Amer. 1970) serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) The extent of a flood plain obvious Focal landscape. See Landscape, focal. ly fluctuates with the size of overbank stream flows. Thus, no simple, abso Folkway lute flood plain commonly exists. As a A mode of thinking, feeling or act consequence, flood plains are deline ing common to a people or to a social ated in terms of some specified flood group–especially a social habit that size (e.g., the 50-year flood plain–the has not been rationalized or given ethi area that would be flooded by the cal force. (Webster 1963) largest stream flow that will, on the average, occur once within a 50-year Food chain period). Such expected flood-return 1. A series of spatially associated frequencies are estimated from historic species, each of which lives (at least in records of stream flows. The largest, part) as a predator, parasite or ab absolute flood plain that is ever likely sorber of the next lower down in the to occur is sometimes referred to as series. the flood basin. (C.F.S.) This concept is useful for analyzing

80 the feeding relations between asso able and palatable live plant material ciated animals. (Carpenter 1938) and dead tips of growing grasses. 2. The transfer of food energy (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) from the initial source in plants through a series of organisms by re Forage production (Forage yield) peated eating and being eaten. The weight of forage that is pro "Food chains" are not isolated se duced within a designated period of quences but are interconnected with time on a given area. one another. The interlocking pattern The weight may be expressed as is often spoken of as the food web. either green, air dry or oven dry. The (Odum 1953) term may also be modified as to time of production such as annual, current Food web (Food cycle, Web of life) year's or seasonal forage production. 1. The more or less complex feed (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) ing relationships between all the spe cies occurring in a biotic community, Forage, unavailable showing where each species obtains its That which cannot be grazed by food and what other organisms in turn livestock. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. derive their food from it. (Carpenter 1964) 1938) A "food web" typically shows all Forage yield. See Forage production. the food chains and interconnections between food chains in a biotic com Forb munity. 1. Any herbaceous plant other 2. The total complex pattern of than those in the Gramineae (true feeding relations of an independent, grasses), Cyperaceae (sedges) and self-maintaining, major, biotic com Juncaceae (rushes) families–i.e., any munity. (Allee 1949) nongrass-like plant having little or no woody material on it. (After Amer. Forage Soc. Range Manage. 1964) All browse and nonwoody plants 2. A palatable, broad-leaved, flow that are available to livestock or game ering herb whose stem, above ground, animals and used for grazing or har does not become woody and persis vested for feeding. (After Soil Conserv. tent. (Grim and Hill 1974) Soc. Amer. 1970) Forecast Forage acre A prediction of future conditions Grazing measurement term. Theo and occurrences based on the per retically, an acre with a complete areal ceived functioning of the system in cover of forage. A concept used to question. The accuracy of a forecast is estimate grazing capacity. (Amer. Soc. highly dependent on a proper under- Range Manage. 1964) standing of the system. A "forecast" differs in a strict sense from a projec- Forage acre requirement tion, which is also a prediction of The amount of forage, expressed in future conditions and occurrences, but forage acres or fractions thereof, is based on an extrapolation of past needed to sustain a mature grazing trends. While the distinction may animal for a specified period without exist, the dividing line between the injury to the range resource. (Amer. two terms is imprecise. (E. C. T.) Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Also see Projection.

Forage, green Foreground Range forage consisting of all avail- 1. That part of a scene, landscape,

81 etc., which is nearest to the viewer. tance of America's renewable re- (Webster 1963) sources of the forest, range, and other 2. The portions of a view between associated lands to the Nation's social the observer and up to ¼ or ½ mile and economic well-being, and of the distant. necessity for a long term perspective in The surface patterns on objects and planning and undertaking related visual elements are important in the National renewable resource programs "foreground" portions of views. In the administered by the Forest Service, foreground portions of a view, observ the Secretary of Agriculture shall pre- ers are able to relate themselves to the pare a "renewable resource assess size of individual visual elements (such ment"; shall prepare and transmit to the as a tree) and are able to begin to sense President a recommended "renew- their scale relationship to the land able resource program"; shall develop scape. Aerial perspective is absent or and maintain on a continuing basis a insignificant in the "foreground", and comprehensive and appropriately de- the intensity and lightness or darkness tailed inventory of all National Forest of colors are seen in maximum con System lands and renewable resources; trast. Wind motion in trees or on grass and shall develop, maintain, and, as can be seen in this close-in area but appropriate, revise land and resource seldom beyond. (Litton 1968) management plans for units of the Also see Background and Middle- National Forest System, coordinated ground. with the land and resource manage Forest ment planning processes of state and 1. Generally, an ecosystem char local governments and other Federal acterized by a more or less dense and agencies. In addition the Secretary of extensive tree cover. Agriculture may utilize the assessment, More particularly, a plant com- resource surveys, and program pre- munity predominantly of trees and pared pursuant to this act to assist other woody vegetation, growing more states and other organizations in pro- or less closely together. (Ford- posing the planning for the protection, Robertson 1971) use, and management of renewable re- 2. An area managed for the pro sources on non-Federal land. duction of timber and other forest The assessment shall include but produce, or maintained under woody not be limited to– (1) an analysis of vegetation for such indirect benefits as present and anticipated uses, demand protection of catchment areas (water- for, and supply of the renewable re- sheds) or recreation. (Ford-Robertson sources, with consideration of the in 1971) ternational resource situation, and an 3. A common usage reduction of emphasis of pertinent supply and de the term "National Forest". The area mand and price relationship trends; (2) within the administrative boundaries an inventory, based on information de of a National Forest, irrespective of veloped by the Forest Service and ground conditions or cover. (E.C.T.) other Federal agencies, of present and potential renewable resources, and an Forest and Rangeland Renewable Re- evaluation of opportunities for im sources Planning Act of 1974 (P.L. proving their yield of tangible and in- 93-378); (88 Stat. 476-480) (Humph- tangible goods and services, together rey-Rarick Act, Resources Planning with estimates of investment cost and Act, RPA) direct and indirect returns to the Fed In recognition of the vital impor- eral government; (3) a description of

82 Forest Service programs and responsi mate or water regime. (Anderson, et bilities in research, cooperative pro- al. 1972 and U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967) grams and management of the Nation 3. Land formerly at least 10 per- al Forest System, their interrelation- cent stocked by forest trees of any size ships, and the relationship of these and not currently developed for other programs and responsibilities to public uses. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967) and private activities; and (4) a discus sion of important policy considera Forest land use plan (National Forest land tions, laws, regulations, and other fac use plan) tors expected to influence and affect U.S. Forest Service usage. A plan significantly the use, ownership, and which gathers and coordinates the di management of forest, range, and rection to be followed in the overall other associated lands. management of a National Forest. In The program transmitted to the cluded in the Forest land use plan are President may include alternatives, and applicable national and regional man shall provide in appropriate detail for agement direction. Planning area protection, management, and develop guides, and management zone descrip ment of the National Forest System, tions (optional), Forest coordinating including forest development roads requirements, basic assumptions, the and trails; for cooperative forest ser Forest situation statement, planning vice programs; and for research. The unit identification and priority for program shall be developed in accor study determination, unit plans and dance with principles set forth in the maps, and other necessary graphics Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of Regional Foresters may prescribe addi June 12, 1960, and the National En- tional items to be included. (U.S. For- vironmental Policy Act of 1969. est Serv., FSM 8224, Oct., 1973) In the development and mainte nance of land management plans for Forest plan. See Forest land use plan. use on units of the National Forest System, the Secretary shall use a sys Forest type tematic interdisciplinary approach to A descriptive term used to group achieve integrated consideration of stands of similar character of develop physical, biological, economic, and ment and species composition (due to other sciences. (Forest and Rangeland given ecological factors) by which they Renewable Resources Planning Act of may be differentiated from other 1974) groups of stands. (Soc. Amer. For 1950) Forest coordinating requirements. See Also see Cover type for actual Coordinating requirements. units of "forest types." Forest use zoning. See Zoning, forest. Forest cover type. See Cover type. Forest zoning. See Zoning, forest. Forest land Fragile lands 1. Land at least 10 percent occu Those land or water areas contain pied by forest trees of any size or for ing ecosystems, possibly but not neces merly having had such tree cover and sarily rare, that are sensitive to exter not currently developed for nonforest nal stimuli which may disturb their use. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972C) balance, especially in an irreversible 2. Lands that are at least 10 per- direction. (A. W. M.) cent stocked by trees capable of pro ducing timber or other wood products Fragile or historic lands or that exert an influence on the cli- Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for

83 a National Land Use Policy and Plan- to "durable." "Fragility" in this usage ning Assistance Act. applies to those resource types or loca Areas where uncontrolled or incom tions which are more or less suscep patible development could result in ir tible to degradation under the pre reversible damage to important his sence of whatever use categories have toric, cultural, scientific, or esthetic been considered in the evaluation pro values or natural systems which are of cess. more than local significance. These For example, areas of vegetation- lands include shorelands of rivers, covered sand dunes may be charac lakes, and streams; rare or valuable terized as being "environmentally fra ecosystems and geological formations; gile" for off-road vehicle uses, whereas significant wildlife habitats; and beaches or unvegetated dunes may be unique scenic or historic areas. said to be "environmentally durable" Coastal areas are specifically de for the same uses. (C.F.S.) leted from this definition. In an amendment to this act relating to the Framework studies and assessments Coastal Zone Management Act, the (Type I plan, Level A plan) words "coastal wetlands, marshes and U.S. Water Resources Council other lands inundated by the tides, usage. One of the "levels of planning" beaches, dunes and significant estu for water and related land resources aries" were deleted from the definition planning by Federal agencies whose of fragile or historic lands. A state is activities involve planning and develop free to add these areas to its state land ment of water resources as contained use program. However, the state need in the Principles and Standards of the not do so, but rather can keep such Water Resources Council. areas separate and accountable only to "Framework studies and assess the requirements of the Coastal Zone ments" will evaluate or appraise on a Management Act. (U.S. Congr., Sen- broad basis the needs and desires of ate, Com. Inter., Insular Aff. 1973.) interested people for the conservation, This is one of the three types of development, and utilization of water areas of critical environmental concern and land resources; will identify re specifically set forth in this bill. The gions or basins with complex problems others are renewable resource lands which require more detailed investiga and natural hazard lands. tions and analyses; and may recom mend specific implementation plans and programs in areas not requiring Fragility (Environmental fragility) further study. They will consider 1. The quality or state of being: Federal, state, and local means of im (A) Easily broken or destroyed (B) plementation. Unusually susceptable to ill health or "Framework studies and assess harm (C) Barely able or unable to ments" are designed to: (1) determine endure without harm the normal day- the extent of water and land resource to-day physical demands of existence. problems and needs; (2) indicate ap (After Webster 1963) proaches appropriate for their solu 2. In a land use planning context tions; and (3) when applicable, iden the relative ability of resources to tol tify specific areas where regional, river erate sustained use without degrada basin, or implementation studies are tion of the resource base (i.e., lowering needed. (U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974) productivity or desirable resource quality) is sometimes rated on a quali Free range tative scale extending from "fragile" Range open to grazing regardless of

84 ownership and without payment of rection established in the National fees; not to be confused with open Forest land use plans. Examples in range. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. clude timber management plans, trans 1964) portation plans, land ownership adjust ment plans. (U.S. Forest Serv. FSM Frost heave 8213, Oct., 1973) The pushing up of a surface by the 4. Functional plan–a plan for one accumulation of ice in the underlying element or closely related elements of soil. (Soil Conserv, Soc. Amer. 1970) a comprehensive plan, e.g., transporta Fuel break tion, sewer and water, recreation, open A wide strip with a low amount of spaces, etc. prepared by units of gov fuel in a brush or wooded area to serve ernment. as a line of fire defense and usually Such functional plans of necessity covered with grass to provide soil should be closely related to the land- cover. It may contain a fire break in use plan. Plans that do not consider all the center. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. elements of a comprehensive plan may 1964) be considered as functional plans. Also see Fire break. Functional plans are sometimes re ferred to as comprehensive for the par Full use ticular element involved, such as a Range management usage. The "comprehensive sewer and water plan" maximum use that can be made of a or a "comprehensive open space plan." range during a grazing season without (U.S. Soil Conserv, Serv. 1970) inducing a downward trend in range condition. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Futures 1964) 1. Unlike a scenario which is con structed for examining specific causal Functional plan. See Functional planning. relationships or to aid in making a specific decision, in planning a "fu Functional planning (Activity planning, ture" is an all-inclusive description of System planning) what it is believed the planning region 1. Establishing the specific manage ment actions to be taken in the man will be like if a possible plan or course agement of a single resource or activ of action is followed. (E. C. T.) ity. Preferably this is undertaken only 2. The intent here is not to predict to detail the implementation of a more the future, but to try to understand general plan involving multiple re- where the existing trends will lead if sources and activities. (E. C. T.) they continue. Once the trends are 2. Planning which focuses on a par understood, it is possible to use them ticular aspect of the total problem such to move in a number of desired direc as production scheduling, or high-ways tions, as in the analogy to the sail boat or forest conservation in civil and wind. In order to create a vision of governmental planning. (Branch 1961) the future of a region it is necessary to 3. Functional plans–documents understand the forces that are working prepared for separate resources or on that present system. To fail to activities that identify those separate understand these trends is to fail to resource or activity management ac understand the options that are open tions that are necessary to implement to the region. (After Poirier and Vitt the coordinated land management di 1974)

85 G Game. See Species, game. General welfare 1. The state of well-being (i.e. Game species. See Species, game. health, happiness, prosperity, etc.) of Game theory all persons in a society. (After Webster The study of decision problems in 1963) competitive situations. Game theory is 2. The sum of the individual utili- concerned with the derivation of rules ties in a society. (After Webster 1963) for making decisions when two or more persons or organizations are Geographic specific competing for some objective. (U.S. This term is typically used in land Forest Serv., 1972B) use planning to apply to actions, consequences, or evaluations considered General assumption. See Assumption. to be valid only for a specified portion Generalized soil map. See Soil map, of the earth's surface. In other words, general. one cannot, with validity or without detailed documentation of the similar General plan. For city planning usage see ity between areas, transfer the observa Comprehensive plan, definition 1. tions connected with that particular location to others. General purpose local government "Geographic specific" is used to Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for describe relatively large blocks of land a National Land Use Policy and Plan- without reference to ownership while ning Assistance Act. Any general pur site specific is used to describe a spe pose unit of local government as de- cific parcel of land. (C.F.S.) fined by the bureau of census and any regional, inter-governmental, or other public entity which is deemed by a Geological area governor to have authority to conduct U.S. Forest Service usage. A unit of land use planning on a general rather land which has been designated by the than a strictly functional basis. (U.S. Forest Service as containing outstand Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular ing formations or unique geologic fea Aff. 1973) tures of the earth's development, in cluding caves and fossils. (U.S. Forest General soil map. See Soil map, general. Serv., FSM 2362.43, July, 1973) Areas of this type and all other General soil survey. See Soil survey and Special interest areas are identified Soil map, general. and formally classified primarily because of their recreational values. General systems theory Areas with similar types of values of A set of logical deductions about scientific importance are formally the behavior of a class of objects called classified as "Research Natural Areas" systems. General systems theory has (see Natural Area, Research). (W. W.) been developed in order to explain and explore the general behavior that is common to all of the various empirical Geologic erosion. See Erosion, geologic. systems found within the different dis ciplines. It is interdisciplinary in na Geologic materials ture and finds a place between the Any of the naturally occurring level of complete generalization of mineral or rock substances. mathematics and the level of specific Especially used with reference to relations within each academic field. classes of such substances whose prop (Williams 1971) erties are so significantly different that

86 a knowledge of their distribution is im quantifiable terms. (U.S. Forest Serv. portant in land use planning decisions. 1972B) (C. F. S.) 3. The broad end toward which effort is directed. In the context of Geomorphic processes land use planning, goals are normally The physical and chemical means stated in terms of the fulfillment of which cause a modification of the broad public needs, the preservation of earth's surficial form–e.g., volcanic fundamental constitutional principles, activity, weathering, mass-wasting, ero- the achievement of targeted levels of sion, sedimentation, glacial action, excellence, the alleviation of major running water, etc. (Thornbury 1969) problems, or other justifiable missions Geomorphic province. See Region, physi- or purposes to be served by govern ographic. ment effort. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) A goal is societal consensus of Geomorphology that which is good for the constitu The science that deals with land and ency at some level of generalization– submarine relief features of the earth's the particular level being determined surface and seeks a genetic in by the planning level (such as state, terpretation of them using the prin metropolitan region, city). (After ciples of physiography (see physio- Hills, Love and Lacate 1970) graphic) in its descriptive aspects and of dynamic and structural geology in Goal programming its explanatory phases. (Webster 1963) A mathematical approach to opti Goal (Plan goals, Management goal) mization. A series of goals are estab 1. A concise statement of an orga lished which can be expressed as math nization's central strategy in address ematical equations. However, due to ing a problem expressed in terms of a constraints on the original problem, desired state or process that operating not all the goals can be met simulta programs are designed to achieve. neously. It is necessary to allow posi A goal is normally expressed as a tive and negative slack within these broad, general statement, is usually goals equations. This slack is allocated not quantifiable, and is timeless in that to "slack variables," which are com it usually has no specific date by bined with the goals to form a linear which it is to be completed. Often, it equation to be minimized or maxi would not be expected that a "goal" mized and a series of accompanying could ever be completely achieved. constraint equations. This system of The "goal" is the principal statement equations is then solved by standard from which objectives must be linear programming techniques. (After developed. Goodman 1974) For example, U.S. Department of Agriculture goals relating to their Graphic scale mission to work on problems asso A bar, or other such graphic device, ciated with agricultural production are on a scale drawing, divided into prop (1) to work for disease and pest con erly scaled-down measurement units– trol and (2) to conduct research on such as 100, 500, 1000, 5000 yards or production. (U.S.D.A. Off. Manage. 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0 miles. In subsequent and Finance 1974) photographic reduction or enlarge 2. Characteristically, "goals" are ment of a drawing, the "graphic scale" enduring statements of purpose, often becomes a device from which distances not attainable in the short term, and can be readily and accurately mea frequently incapable of expression in sured. (C.F.S.)

87 Grazing cessively during the growing season to Consumption of range or artificial permit seed production, establishment pasture forage by animals. (Amer. Soc. of seedlings, or restoration of plant Range Manage. 1964) vigor. For the different types of grazing Two, but usually three or more practices see Grazing, continuous; separate grazing units are required. Grazing, deferred; Grazing, deferred Control is usually insured by unit fenc rotation; Grazing, heavy; Grazing, in- ing, but may be obtained by herding termittent; Grazing, light; Grazing, on sheep ranges. (After Amer. Soc. moderate; Grazing, premature; Use, Range Manage. 1964) proper; Grazing, rest-rotation; Grazing, rotation; and Grazing, spot. Grazing district 1. An administrative unit of Feder Grazing, alternate. See Grazing, rotation. al range established by the Secretary of Interior under the provisions of the Grazing capacity Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, as The maximum stocking rate pos amended. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. sible without inducing damage to vege 1964) tation or related resources. (Amer. 2. An administrative unit of state, Soc. Range Manage. 1964) private, or other rangelands, estab Also see Carrying capacity, range. lished under certain state laws. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Grazing capacity, maximum The maximum number of animals that a given range area is capable of Grazing, heavy supporting without injury to soil, vege A comparative term (often used in tation or watershed. (Amer. Soc. research but may apply to practical Range Manage. 1964) management as well) which indicates that the stocking rate of a pasture is Grazing, continuous relatively greater than other pastures. Allowing domestic livestock to Often erroneously used to mean over- graze a specific area throughout the use. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) grazing season. Also see Grazing, moderate and The term is not necessarily synony Grazing, light. mous with grazing for a 12-month per iod or a calendar year. (Amer. Soc. Grazing, intermittent Range Manage. 1964) Grazing range or artificial pasture Grazing, continuous use. See Grazing, for indefinite periods at indefinite in continuous. tervals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Grazing, deferred Discontinuance of grazing by livestock on an area for a specified period Grazing land, native of time during the growing season to Grazing land used primarily for pro promote plant reproduction, establish duction of native forage plants main ment of new plants, or restoration of tained or manipulated primarily vigor by old plants. (Amer. Soc. Range through grazing management. Native Manage. 1964) grazing lands include rangeland, graze- able woodland, and native pasture in Grazing, deferred rotation dividually or collectively. (D.E.H. and Discontinuance of grazing on var B. W.) ious parts of a range in succeeding Also see Rangeland and Pasture, years, allowing each part to rest suc- native.

88 Grazing, light ment to avoid over-use or before the A comparative term (often used in soil has become firm enough to with- research but may apply to practical stand or before the plant community management as well) which indicates is ready to withstand the presence of that the stocking rate of one pasture is grazing animals. relatively less than that of other pas The stage of range readiness is tures. reached when these conditions are met Often erroneously used to mean and range utilization may properly be- "underuse" of grazing capacity. gin. (Ford-Robertson 1971) (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Also see Grazing, heavy and graz- Grazing pressure ing, moderate. The actual animal-to-forage ratio at a specific time. Grazing management plan For example, three animal units per A program of action designed to ton of standing forage. (Amer. Soc. secure the best practicable use of Range Manage. 1964) range. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Grazing privilege Permissive use of lands for grazing Grazing, moderate by livestock. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- A comparative term (often used in age. 1964) research but may apply to practical Also see Grazing right and Grazing management as well) which indicates preference, definition 2. that the stocking rate of a pasture is in between the rates of other pastures. Grazing, proper. For range management Often erroneously used to mean usage see Use, proper. proper use. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- age. 1964) Grazing rate. See Stocking rate. Also see Grazing, heavy and Graz- ing, light. Grazing, rest-rotation An intensive system of management Grazing permit (Grazing license) whereby grazing is deferred on various Official, written permission to graze parts of the range during succeeding a specified number, kind and class of years, allowing the deferred part com livestock for a specific period on a deplete rest for one year. fined range allotment. (Amer. Soc. Two or more units are required. Range Manage. 1964) Control by fencing is usually necessary on cattle range, but may be obtained Grazing preference (Preference) by herding on sheep ranges. (Amer. 1. Selection of certain plants over Soc. Range Manage. 1964) others by grazing animals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Grazing right 2. In the administration of public A right to graze public lands, per lands, the basis upon which permits manently vested in the beneficiary as and licenses are issued for grazing use. specified by the terms of the law or (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) contract. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Also see Grazing privilege and Graz- 1964) ing right. Also see Grazing preference defini tion 2 and Grazing privilege. Grazing, premature 1. Grazing before range readiness. Grazing, rotation (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Grazing two or more pastures or 2. Grazing before range plants have parts of a range in regular order, with reached sufficient seasonal develop- definite recovery periods between

89 grazing periods. Where only two fields green belt preservation is that it en are involved, sometimes called alter courages the leap-frogging of develop nate grazing. ment over the green belt to the land Contrasts with continuous grazing. beyond it. (Ashworth 1973) (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) 2. "Green belts" are a particular Also see Planned grazing system. type of open space. Grazing season 1. A period of grazing to obtain Green forage. See Forage, green. optimum use of the forage resource. 2. On public lands–An established Gross residential density. See Residential period for which grazing permits are density. issued. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Ground-lead logging. See Logging, ground-lead. Grazing, selective The grazing of certain plant species Groundwater on the range to the exclusion of Water within the earth that supplies others. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. wells and springs. Specifically, water in 1964) the zone of saturation where all open ings in soils and rocks are filled–the Grazing, spot upper surface of which forms the wa Repeated grazing of small areas ter table. (After Webster 1963) while adjacent areas are lightly grazed or unused. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Groundwater recharge area. See Ground- 1964) water and Recharge. Grazing system Groundwater table. See Water table. The manipulation of livestock graz ing to accomplish a desired result. Group. See Social group. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Group culture. See Subculture. Grazing trespass Group cutting The grazing of livestock on a range 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A area without proper authority. (Amer. clearcutting system variation in which Soc. Range Manage. 1964) the logging operation removes all mer Grazing unit chantable timber from an area smaller An area of rangeland, public or pri than that normally recognized in tim vate, which is grazed as an entity. ber type and condition class mapping. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Group cuts should not exceed ten acres, nor usually be less than one-fifth Great soil group. See Soil great group. acre. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R-3, date unknown) Green belt Group cuts normally will not ex 1. Areas around villages, towns or ceed 25 acres in size nor rarely less cities in which development is strictly than 5 acres in size. (U.S. Forest Serv., controlled and usually not permitted FSM2471.21 R-5, Sept. 1971) at all. A useful device for preventing 2. U.S. Forest Service usage of the endless sprawl of towns or the co group, patch, strip, and stand cutting. agulation of one town with another, These are essentially size designations providing townspeople with a welcome of the same logging approach– release from the strain of city life, and commonly known as clearcutting. All protecting the special character of require the removal of all merchant- some towns. The main deficiency of able trees except a few which may

90 sometimes be carried over where need Guide. See Planning area guide. ed for other forest values such as nest Guideline ing sites, food caches, etc. U.S. Forest Service usage. A steer "Group cuts" are on areas which are ing or usual course of action, but not smaller than the size normally rec mandatory nor requiring a superior's ognized in type and condition class approval for deviation from it. (U.S. mapping. These should not exceed 10 Forest Serv. 1972B) acres, nor usually be less than one-fifth Gully acre. A channel or miniature valley cut Patch cuts are on areas which are of by concentrated runoff but through a size generally mapped for type and which water commonly flows only condition and for control, but which during and immediately after heavy do not include the entire stand of rains or during the melting of snow. which they are a part. The distinction between "gully" and Strip cuts are on areas running rill is one of depth. A gully is suffici through a stand and usually of a width ently deep that it would not be oblit equal to one to two times the general erated by normal tillage operations, stand height. whereas a rill is of lesser depth and Stand cuts are on areas large would be smoothed by ordinary farm enough to be practical for manage tillage. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. ment. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 1970) 2471.21, June, 1973) Gully erosion. See Erosion gully.

Habitat 4. The type of locality and imme 1. The natural environment of a diate environment in which an organ- plant or animal. (Durrenberger 1973) ism grows. (After Lawrence 1955) 2. The natural place of abode of a Also see Environment. plant or other organism. The locality Hardpan where the organism may generally be A hardened soil layer in the lower A found, and where all essentials for its or in the B horizon caused by ce development and existence are pre- mentation of soil particles with organ sent. A geographical niche. Habitats ic matter or with materials such as are described by their geographical silica or calcium carbonate. boundaries, or with such terms as The hardness does not change ap "shady woodlands", "banks of preciably with changes in moisture streams", "dry hillsides", etc. (Stamp content, and pieces of the hard layer 1961) do not disintegrate in water. (Soil Con- 3. From the point of view of plant serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) ecology a "habitat" may be described as the place of abode of a plant, a Hard pesticides. See Persistent pesticides. plant community or in some cases Harvesting even a group or a succession or related A loose term for the removal of plant communities, together with all produce (i.e., a merchantable material) factors operative within the abode, but from the forest for utilization; com external to the plants themselves. This prising therefore cutting, sometimes is said to correspond more or less further initial processing (e.g., with closely to environment. (March 1964, trees, topping and trimming) and ex- citing Yapp 1922) traction (removal from the forest).

91 When "harvesting" timber, "har Heat island vesting" is a rough or quasi-synonym 1. An area with air temperatures with logging. (Ford-Robertson 1971) measurably greater than that of its sur In imprecise usage logging, harvest- roundings. Urban areas form "heat is- ing, and silviculture are used seemingly lands". (Durrenberger 1973) interchangeably by different people, 2. "Heat island effect". An air cir often with vehemence as to which is culation phenomenon generally found the correct term in a given situation. in cities. Warm air tends to concen According to Ford-Robertson (1971) trate in the city's center, probably be- "silviculture" has as its primary con cause of the mass of tall buildings and cern the establishing, growing, and concentration of paved surface. This tending of forests. "Harvesting" and warm air rises, carrying with it its bur- "logging", however, deal specifically den of pollution. As the polluted air with the extraction of resources from moves up over the city, spreads out, the forest. "Logging" is restricted to cools, and sinks at the city's periphery, the cutting and extraction of timber it forms a distinctive ceiling (com (wood other than fuel wood after pri- posed of suspended pollutants) known mary conversion) and "harvesting" ex as a haze hood or dome. Cooler air pands this to include the cutting, ini from the edge of the city flows into tial processing if any, and extraction of the center to replace the rising air and any forest product. (After Ford- is followed again by cool air from the Robertson 1971) city's edge. Thus, a self-contained cir culatory system is set up that is altered only by a strong wind capable of Hayland breaking up the pollution-formed ceil 1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service ing. Such a heat island, if it becomes usage. Land used primarily for the pro stabilized for a sufficient length of duction of hay from longterm stands time, can create hazardous concen of adapted forage plants. (U.S. Soil trations of pollutants. (Sesco, et al. Conserv. Serv. 1970) 1973) 2. Land permanently used for forage, such as land on which the stand is Heavy grazing. See Grazing, heavy. improved occasionally by preparing a seedbed or applying other measures. Heavy metals (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967) Metals having a specific gravity (i.e., 3. Land from which grasses and weight in comparison to weight of an legumes are harvested for hay or seed equal volume of water) of 5.0 or over, and which is then pastured or left to and generally toxic in relatively low grow forage. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967) concentrations to plant and animal 4. Land in wild hay. (U.S. Dep. life. Such metals can persist in animal Agric. 1967) tissue and are capable of increasing in 5. Land in mountain meadows. concentration as they pass upward (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1967) through the food chain. Major sources of heavy metal contamination are pes ticides, limestone and phosphate ferti Hazard lizers, manures and sewage sludges, 1. A possible source of peril, dan and mine wastes. Examples include ger, duress, or difficulty. (Webster lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic. 1963) (Sesco, et al. 1973) 2. A condition which tends to create or increase the possibility of Hedging loss. (Webster 1963) Range management usage. A term

92 used to describe the appearance of Hierarchical browse plants that have been browsed 1. Of, relating to or constituting a so as to appear artifically clipped. sequentially related series of levels in a The consistent browsing of terminal classification scheme. (After Webster buds of browse species causes exces 1963) sive lateral branching and a reduction 2. A type of classification tech in upward growth. (Amer. Soc. Range nique whose successively lower (i.e., Manage. 1964) more specific) level units must fit en tirely within the separate units deline Herb ated by the next higher (i.e., less spe Any flowering plant except those cific) level in that system. The bounda developing persistent woody stems ries of the more specific level units above ground. (Amer. Soc. Range must occur within or coincide with Manage. 1964) (and not cross) those boundaries delin eated for the units of the next less spe Herbage cific level in the classification system. Herbs taken collectively, usually (C.F.S.) used in the same sense as forage, except that it may include material Highwall not acceptable to grazing or browsing The unexcavated face of exposed animals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. overburden and coal or ore in an 1964) open-pit mine or the face or bank on the uphill side of a contour strip mine Herbicide (Weedicide) excavation. (Thrush 1968) A substance used to inhibit or de stroy plant growth. If its effectiveness High-lead logging. See Logging, high-lead. is restricted to a specific plant or type of plant, it is known as a selective herbicide. If its effectiveness covers a Historical area broad range of plants, it is considered U.S. Forest Service usage. Sites and to be a non-selective herbicide. (Sesco, areas which have been designated by et al. 1973) the Forest Service as containing impor tant evidence and remains of the life Herbivore and activities of early settlers and An animal that feeds on plant sub- others who used or visited the area or stances. (Durrenberger 1973) the sites where important events took place. Examples are battlegrounds, Heterogeneous remnants of mining camps, old ceme Differing in kind; having qualities teries, important pioneer roads and which are significantly not uniform trails, and early trading sites. (U.S. throughout; possessed of different Forest Serv., FSM 2361.22, July characteristics; opposed to homogene- 1973) ous. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Areas of this type and all other spe- 1970) cial interest areas are identified and formally classified primarily because Heterotrophic organism of their recreational values. (W. W.) An organism that is dependent on organic matter for food. (Geckler, et Historic and cultural sites al. 1963) These sites are associated with the In contrast, an autotrophic organ- history, tradition or cultural heritage ism is capable of using inorganic sub- of national, state or local interest and stances as its source of food. (After are of enough significance to merit Geckler, et al. 1963) preservation or restoration.

93 The location of the feature estab Holistic lishes the site. Recreational activities 1. Emphasizing the organic or on these sites center around sight- functional relation between parts and seeing, enjoyment and study of the whole. (After Webster 1963) historic or cultural feature. Manage 2. In accordance with the theory ment is generally limited to activites or doctrine according to which a that would effect such preservation whole cannot be expressed as the sim and restoration as may be necessary to ple sum of its parts. (After Webster protect the features from deterioration 1963) and to interpret their significance to the public. Administration is by all lev Homeostasis els of public agencies and private land- One of the most important features owners who identify, set aside and of a biotic community is that it pos manage historic and cultural areas. sesses mechanisms for self-regulation. (Eisner 1969) All communities, except possibly the very simplest types, contain within themselves regulatory mechanisms Historic preservation which enable them constantly to ad- National Historic Preservation Act just themselves to the changing condi of 1966 usage. The protection, rehabil tions of their physical environments. itation, restoration, and reconstruction This ability for self-regulation is called of districts, sites, buildings, structures "homeostasis." (Dice 1952) and objects significant in American history, architecture, archeology or Homogeneous culture. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM Of the same kind or nature; con 2361.01, Feb. 1974) sisting of similar parts or of elements of a like nature; having qualities which are significantly uniform throughout; Historic Sites Act (49 Stat. 666) opposed to heterogeneous. (After Soil The Historic Sites Act of 1935 Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) authorizes the programs that are known as the Historic American Build Homogeneous response unit (Response ings Survey, the Historic American En unit) gineering Record, and the National A particular land (or water) unit Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings; which is delineated on the assumption authorizes the establishment of Na that it is sufficiently uniform within tional Historic Sites and otherwise its boundaries to respond in a homo- authorizes the preservation of proper- geneous manner throughout the area ties "of national historical or archeo to any set of inputs. That is, any treat logical significance"; authorizes the ment, stimulus, or set of conditions designation of National Historic Land- will cause the same reaction, response, marks; establishes criminal sanctions or set of outputs when applied to each for violation of regulations pursuant to location within the unit. (E. C. T.) the act; authorizes interagency, inter- Also see Ecological land unit, governmental, and interdisciplinary ef Choropleth map and Resource capabil- forts for the preservation of cultural ity unit. resources; and other provisions. The program is administered by the Hot spoils. For mining usage see Mining U.S. National Park Service. (U.S. For- debris, hot. est Serv., FSM 2361.01, Feb. 1973) Human and Community Development System Holding capacity. See Carrying capacity. U.S. Forest Service usage. This sys-

94 tem is concerned with actions that forced or coerced and without a loss help people and communities to help of individuality. (Webster 1963) themselves. The system includes activi ties that provide (1) youth develop Human environment. See Environment, ment through working and learning ex human. periences, (2) adult employment and Humphrey-Rarick Act. See Forest and training opportunities through various Rangeland Renewable Resources Plan- Federal manpower programs, (3) com ning Act of 1974. munity planning and development information and services for rural areas, Hydraulic mining. See Mining, placer. and (4) technical forestry assistance for urban areas in the establishment, Hydric. See Hygric. management, and protection of need Hydrograph ed open space and the use of trees and A graph showing variation in the woody shrubs. water depth in a stream or the volume One of the six "systems" estab of water flowing past a point in a lished by the U.S. Forest Service to stream over a period of time. (After have a systematic, orderly way to view Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) and evaluate its many diverse but in terrelated activities. The Forest Service Hydrologic cycle (Water cycle) has developed this approach to better The circuit of water movement respond to the mandates of the Forest from the atmosphere through various and Rangeland Renewable Resources stages or processes on the ground Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped (such as precipitation, interception, its various programs into these six runoff, infiltration, percolation, stor "systems," each of which incorporates age) and then back to the atmosphere all the activities concerned with de again by evaporation, and transpira veloping and managing a specific re- tion. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) source. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A) Hydrology The six "systems" are: Land and A science dealing with the proper- Water, Timber Resource, Outdoor ties, distribution, and circulation of Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland water, specifically the study of water Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and on the surface of land, in the soil and "Human and Community Develop- underlying rocks, and in the atmos ment". phere, particularly with respect to evaporation and precipitation. (After Human community Webster 1963) 1. The spatial, or territorial, unit in social organization. (O'Connell 1974) Hydrosere. See Succession. 2. "Sense of community". The Hygric (Hydric) psychological cohesiveness or feeling 1. Refers to a habitat characterized of belonging that is associated with by wet or moist conditions rather than spatial or territorial units of social or mesic (moderate) or xeric (dry) condi ganization. (O'Connell 1974) tions. (Hanson 1962) Social activity marked by a feeling 2. The nature of an organism of unity but also by individual partici adapted to wet conditions. (Dansereau pation completely willing and not 1957)

95 I Ice cream species to meet the near-term needs and allevi Range management usage. An ex ate problems. Plans will be directed ceptionally palatable species sought toward a set of specific components of and grazed first by livestock and game the two objectives (national economic animals. development, and environmental quali Such species are usually overuti ty, see Principles and Standards) which lized under proper grazing. See Use, will be determined for the planning over. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. area. The plan formulation process will 1964) be responsive to the identified needs and problems that relate to the water Igneous rock. See Rock, igneous. and land resources in the area and the planning functions that may be em ployed to meet the needs. (U.S. Dep. Implementation plan of Agric. 1974) A document for giving practical effect to, or ensuring the actual fulfill Imponderable value. See Intangible value. ment of, some regulatory standard or goal by specific measures. (Sesco, et al. Improvement cutting 1973) 1. The elimination or suppression of less valuable trees to increase Implementation studies (Level C plan) growth rates of more valuable trees, U.S. Water Resources Council typically in mixed uneven-aged forest. usage. One of the "levels of planning" (Ford-Robertson 1971) for water and related land resources 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Cut planning by Federal agencies whose ac ting made in an immature stand to im tivities involve planning and develop prove the stand composition by re- ment of water resources as contained moving trees of poor form and/or poor in the Principles and Standards of the genetic qualities. (U.S. Forest Serv., Water Resources Council. FSM 2471 R-3, date unknown) Implementation studies are project feasibility studies undertaken by the Income distribution effects Department. These studies may be Effects of proposed activities on conducted to implement findings, con the proportion of the total income of clusions, and recommendations of an area received by each segment of framework and assessment studies, re the population. gional or river basin studies, other Fed As an example, "the rich get richer eral-state investigations or at the re- and the poor get poorer" is talking quest of local government organiza about income distribution effects. A tions. Implementation studies are doubling of everyone's income, so the directed toward carrying out the proj shares of the total remain the same, ect installation authorities of Public has no income distribution effect. Law 83-566, Public Law 78-534, and (E. C. T.) the "Resource Conservation and De velopment" Program. Incommensurable values Plan formulation for implementa Resource yields for which no meth tion studies will focus on a recom od yet exists for conversion to a com mended plan of action to follow with- mon measurement scale or unit (such in the next 10-15 years. Long-range as dollars) for purposes of comparative projections of water and land resource evaluation of relative importance. For needs will be considered; however, pri example, comparison of the aesthetic mary attention will be toward a plan with the timber yields of land is diffi-

96 cult because it is often impossible to to avoid repeated error in predicting express the former objectively in dol the consequences of policy moves. A lar values. (C.F.S.) wise policy-maker consequently ex Also see Intangible value. pects that his policies will achieve only part of what he hopes and at the same Incompatible uses time will produce unanticipated con- Land uses which cannot exist to sequences he would have preferred to gether by reason of either competition avoid. If he proceeds through a suc for limited resources or use by- cession of incremental changes, he products which prevent the alternative avoids serious lasting mistakes in sev use. For example, timber harvesting eral ways. In the first place, past se and wilderness preservation are incom quences of policy steps have given him patible uses for one piece of land. knowledge about the probable conse (E. C. T.) quences of further similar steps. Sec Also see Conflicting uses, Compati- ond, he need not attempt big jumps ble uses, and Complementary uses. toward his goals that would require predictions beyond his or anyone Increaser plant species (Increaser) else's knowledge, because he never ex Range management usage. Plant pects his policy to be a final resolution species of the original vegetation that of a problem. His decision is only one increase in relative amount, at least for step, one that if successful can quickly a time, under overuse. (Amer. Soc. be followed by another. Third, he is in Range 1964) effect able to test his previous predic Also see Invader plant species and tions as he moves on to each further Decreaser plant species. step. Lastly, he often can remedy a past error fairly quickly–more quickly Incrementalism (Muddling through, Dis- than if policy proceeded through more jointed incrementalism, Incremental distinct steps widely spaced in time. planning) (Lindblom 1959) An alternative planning approach to Because practitioners of this ap comprehensive planning based on the proach expect to achieve their goals assumption that due to practical diffi only partially, they would expect to culties true comprehensive planning repeat endlessly the sequence just de- cannot exist. As an alternative it is sug scribed, as conditions and aspirations gested planners concentrate on a recur- changed and as accuracy of prediction sive process of choosing among poli improved. (Lindblom 1959) cies based on incremental changes to existing policies without trying to set Any significant problem for plan overall goals and without basing the ners or policy makers involves trade- policies on theoretical predictions of offs among conflicting values, and the consequences of the policies or on when dealing with incrementally dif an understanding of the system being ferent alternatives this is always a regulated. Instead the planners would problem of adjustments at a margin. rely heavily on the record of past ex But there is no practicable way to perience with small policy steps to pre state marginal objectives or values ex dict the consequences of similar steps cept in terms of particular policies. extended into the future. (After Lind- The only practicable way to disclose blom 1959) one's relevant marginal values even to Neither social scientists, nor politi oneself is to describe the policy one cians, nor public administrators yet chooses to achieve them. Conse know enough about the social world quently no overall goal is developed

97 and means and ends are simultane derived from a series of observations ously chosen. (After Lindblom 1959) which is used as an indicator or mea Ideally, rational-comprehensive anal sure of conditions, properties, phe ysis leaves out nothing important. But it nomena or trends. (Webster 1963) is impossible to take everything im 2. A composite numerical value for portant into consideration unless "im some environmental component (such portant" is so narrowly defined that as air or water quality) for which we analysis is in fact quite limited. Limits have more than one indicator. on human intellectual capacities and (Thomas 1972) on available information set definite 3. A number used to indicate limits to man's capacity to be compre change in magnitude (as of cost, price hensive. In actual fact, therefore, no or volume of production) of some one can practice the rational-compre complex variable as compared with its hensive method for really complex magnitude at some specified time– problems, and every administrator usually taken as having an index num faced with a sufficiently complex ber of 100. (Webster 1963) problem must find ways drastically to simplify. In the method of successive Index, economic limited comparison, simplification is 1. A measurable aspect of society systematically achieved in two princi which indicates the extent to which pal ways. First, it is achieved through certain more complex aspects are pres limitation of policy comparisons to ent. [Examples: the "consumer price those policies that differ in relatively index" or "gross national product."] small degree from policies presently in (Webster 1963) effect. Such a limitation immediately 2. A figure which discloses the rela reduces the number of alternatives to tive change, if any, of prices, costs, or be investigated and also drastically some similar phenomena between one simplifies the character of the investi period of time and some other period gation of each. The second method of of time selected as the "base period." simplification of analysis is the prac The latter period is usually assigned tice of ignoring important possible the index number of 100. There are consequences of possible policies, as numerous methods of calculating an well as the values attached to the ne index number. (Sloan 1961) glected consequences. (Lindblom 1959) Index number. See Index. Almost every interest has its watch- Index species. See Indicator species. dog. Without claiming that every inter est has a sufficiently powerful watch- Indicative planning dog, it can be argued that our system A method of planning (notably often can assure a more comprehensive used in France) which primarily re regard for the values of the whole soci stricts itself to analyzing the economy ety than any attempt at intellectual and then making this information comprehensiveness. (Lindblom 1959) available to industry. The modern Also contrast with Comprehensive economy requires the employment of plan. large investments whose profitability may be profoundly affected by Incremental planning. See Increment- changes in the environment. These alism. changes not only occur rapidly, they are difficult to predict. The individual Index (Index number) business concern has no valid basis for 1. A ratio or some other number such calculation. The entire economy

98 is interdependent beyond the analysis mal whose presence in a certain loca capabilities of a single firm. The guid tion or situation is a fairly certain sign ing principle of "indicative planning" or symptom that particular environ is to integrate all the effects of inter- mental conditions are also present. dependence by, on a nationwide scale, For example, the presence of studying the markets and making de- Escherichia coli bacteria in water is tailed analyses and forecasts. The in used to indicate probable pollution by strument used in making these fore- human fecal matter. (C.F.S.) casts is the economic input-output 2. Index species–A plant or animal analysis. species so highly adapted to a particu This information is then distributed lar kind of environment that its mere to the private sector, which is primar presence is sufficient indication that ily left alone. By providing this com specific conditions are also present. plete information it is assumed that in (After Webster 1963) dustry will adjust its production, use A living label of the presence of a of resources, and investments to satis specific set of conditions. (After Web- fy the projected demands, thus avoid ster 1963) ing bottlenecks, smoothing business Biologic indicator can be used to cycles, and increasing harmony and refer to signs or symptoms associated growth. The planning is implemented with any level of organic organization by "indicating" to all individuals in while indicator species only refers to volved the future consequences of those associated with the species level. their actions, helping individuals to (C. F. S. ) arrive at a common view on the future 4. Any organism which by its pres of a particular economic activity in re ence or absence, its frequency or its lation to the national development vigor, indicates a particular property aims, demonstrating the advantages of of its surrounding environment. For conforming to this common view, and example, a particular plant might indi only occasionally coercing confor cate a soil type or the presence or ab mance. sence of an air or water pollutant. Thus, "indicative planning" is not a (Sesco, et al. 1973) planning for land managers, but a plan ning for managers of societies and eco Indices. See Index. nomics. (After Masse 1961)

Indicator, biologic (Ecologic indicator) Indifference curve An organism or a class of organisms A graphical delineation of all com (such as a species) or an ecologic com binations of two goods or services with munity that is so strictly associated which an individual would be equally with particular environmental condi pleased (indifferent between). (E. C. T.) tions that its presence is a fairly cer Also see Indifference map. tain sign or symptom of the existence of these conditions. (After Webster Indifference map 1963) A two-dimensional graph of a com bination of indifference curves de- Indicator organism. See Indicator species. noting an individual's preference sys tem to various combinations of two Indicator plant. See Indicator species. goods or services. Each line of the fam ily of curves represents equally desir Indicator species (Index species, Indicator able mixtures of the quantities in ques organism) tion. With different curves represent 1. A particular type of plant or ani- ing differing levels of satisfaction it is

99 possible to determine what quantities tinction to the word percolation which an individual will consume when faced connotes flow through a soil. Soil Con- with different prices and incomes. serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) (After Sloan 1961) Infiltration capacity. See Infiltration rate. Indigenous, species. See Species, indigenous. Infiltration rate (Infiltration capacity) The maximum rate at which the Indirect effect (Secondary effect) soil under various specified conditions A condition caused by an action or (including the presence of an already inaction through intermediary causal excess amount of water) can absorb agents. An effect for which the causal falling rain or melting snow. (After linkages to the action or inaction are Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) not readily apparent. Contrasts with direct effect. This is not a measure of Information system importance, but merely a classification A combination of personnel, ef by causal linkages. Direct effects are forts, forms, formats, instructions, usually easier to detect and measure procedures, data, communication facil with certainty, but they may be either ities and equipment that provides an more or less important than indirect organized and interconnected means effects. (E.C.T.) (automated, manual, or a combination of these) for recording, collecting, pro Individual distance (Personal distance) cessing, transmitting and displaying in- 1. Environmental psychology us- formation in support of specific func age. The normal spacing maintained tions. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) by non-contact animals. (Worthington Also see Computer information 1974, citing Heidiger 1961) system. 2. Individual distance exists only when two or more members of the Infrastructure (Social overhead capital) same species are present, and is greatly 1. The foundation underlying a affected by population density and nation's, region's, or community's territorial behavior. "Individual dis economy (transportation and com tance" and personal space interact to munications systems, power facilities, affect the distribution of persons. The schools, hospitals, etc.). (U.S. Forest violation of "individual distance" is Serv. 1972B) the violation of society's expectations. 2. The basic equipment, utilities, (Sommer 1969) productive enterprises, installations Induced output. See Output, induced. and services essential for the develop ment, operation, and growth of an or Inexhaustible resource ganization, a city, or a nation. "Inexhaustible resource" is a term (Abrams 1971) which should be discouraged, for in Inherent carrying capacity. See Carrying the final analysis probably no resource capacity, ecological and Capability. is absolutely inexhaustible, and the term may have an undesirable reaction Inherent suitability. See Capability. (or lead to misunderstanding) among the lay public. ((E.M.G.) Input-output analysis (Interindustry anal- Also see Renewable resource. ysis, Leontief analysis) l. A systematic technique for Infiltration quantitatively analyzing the interde The movement of water into the soil pendence of producing and consuming through pores or other openings, units in an economy. It studies the connoting flow into a soil in contradis- interrelations among producers as

100 buyers of each other's outputs, as cial regulatory agencies (e.g., the spe users of scarce resources and as sellers cial legal status of the social institu to final consumers. The technique has tions of marriage and the family unit). been useful for the study of the way in (Webster 1963) which the component parts of an Also see Institutions, social and In- economy fit together and influence stitutions, legal. each other, for short-run forecasting, and for policy guidance. (U.S. Gen. Institutions, legal Account. Off. 1969) A society's system of legal rules and 2. A quantitative study of the in principles. (Webster 1963) terdependence of a group of activities The components of "legal institu based on the relationship between in- tions" that are usually of interest in puts and outputs of the activities. The land use planning include landowner- basic tool of analysis is a square input- ship patterns, administrative jurisdic output table, interaction model, for a tions, land use patterns and the legal given period that shows simultaneous framework affecting planning deci ly for each activity the value of inputs sions. (W. W.) and outputs, as well as the value of transactions within each activity itself. It has especially been applied to the Institutions, social economy and the industries into which 1. A set of informal and formal the economy can be divided. (U.S. rules, behaviors, and practices that Forest Serv. 1972B) deal with a specific basic function in society. Inputs The five basic social institutions 1. A term used broadly to refer to are: the economy, the political system, anything that is taken in by or enters the educational system, the religious into the workings of a process or a sys- system, and the family. Each of these tem–e.g., as nutrients or energy into social institutions is seen as carrying an ecosystem, effort or information in- out a basic function in society–the to a planning process, silt into a educational system is responsible for stream, etc. (After Webster 1963) passing on knowledge to new members 2. The basic resources of land, la of the society, and for creating new bor, and capital required in carrying knowledge in the society; the political out an activity. (U.S. Forest Serv. system distributes power and main 1974A) tains order; the economic system pro duces and distributes goods and ser Institutional land uses vices; the family establishes responsi All buildings, grounds and parking bility for the caring of the young, and, lots composing the facilities for educa with the educational system, transmits tional, religious, health, correctional knowledge to "new" members of soci and military installations. (Anderson, ety; and the religious system is con et al. 1972) cerned with basic questions of the meaning of life and with other social Institutions values. A significant and persistent element Sociologists use the institutional (as a practice or relationship) in the approach as a kind of checklist in life of a culture that centers on a fun studying a society, as it is assumed damental human need, activity or val that all societies (nations, regions, ue, occupies an enduring and cardinal communities) find some way to carry position within a society and is usually out these basic functions. (Gale 1975) maintained and stabilized through so 2. A relatively prevalent way of

101 thought or action that centers around uals representing two or more areas of such basic social functions as marriage, knowledge, learning, or skill focusing government, or education. on the same subject. Social institutions are common to This approach provides for inte- all societies and are part of the cus- grating two or more mental processes toms of a people. Culture may be into a common, problem-solving effort viewed as a synthesis of institutions, that is likely to be more effective than each functioning to establish social the independent thought processes of norms and give direction to human be- a single person trained or skilled in one havior. Thus institutions provide the area of knowledge. (U.S. Forest Serv., forms for the activities of human FSM 8211, Oct., 1973) beings. (O'Connell 1974) Interdisciplinary team A group of individuals with differ- Intangible value (Imponderable value) ent training assembled to solve a prob- Those resource yields which are not lem or perform a task. The team is directly quantifiable, or if quantifi- assembled out of recognition that no able, cannot be valued by market one scientific discipline is sufficiently mechanisms. The net yields from re- broad to adequately solve the prob- source use in this sense extends be- lem. The members of the team pro- yond the concept of secondary bene- ceed to solution with frequent inter- fits, and includes psychic and indirect action so that each discipline may monetary benefits to the users. Nor- provide insights to any stage of the mally intangible values accrue from problem and disciplines may combine the aesthetic, scientific, educational, to provide new solutions. This is dif- historical or recreational aspects of the ferent from a multidisciplinary team natural environment. (After Coomber where each specialist is assigned a por- and Biswas 1973) tion of the problem and their partial Also see Incommensurable values. solutions are linked together at the end to provide the final solution. Intensive recreation. See Recreation, in- (E. C. T.) tensive. Interest group. See Special interest group Interaction matrix (Matrix) and Pressure group. A table with actions, conditions, resources, effects, etc., listed along two Interflow perpendicular axes and a matrix struc- That portion of rainfall that infil- ture so created where each position in trates into the soil and moves laterally the matrix corresponds to one element through the upper soil horizons until from each axis, By either marking or intercepted by a stream channel or assigning values to the positions in the until it returns to the surface at some matrix structure interactions between point of infiltration. (Soil Conserv. pairs of elements (one from each axis) Soc. Amer. 1970) can be indicated. A matrix structure can be thought of as a rectangular Intermediate cutting (Stand tending) cross-hatching, where each square in Any removal of trees from a stand the cross-hatching belongs to one row between the time of its formation and and one column and corresponds to a the harvest cutting. Generally taken to position in the matrix structure or an include cleaning, thinning, liberation element in the matrix. (E. C. T.) and improvement cuttings, increment fellings, and sometimes even salvage Interdisciplinary approach and sanitation cuttings. (Ford-Robert- The utilization of a team of individ- son 1971)

102 Intermittent grazing (Belknap and Furtado 1967) Grazing range or artificial pasture 2. The term is now used to refer to for indefinite periods at indefinite any resource of natural origin–espe- intervals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. cially in contrast to resources of 1964) human origin (i.e., extrinsic resources). See Extrinsic resource for man- Intermittent stream made recreation resource features. 1. A stream or portion of a stream that flows only in direct response to Intrinsic suitability. See Suitability, in- precipitation. It receives little or no trinsic and Capability. water from springs and no long-continued supply from melting snow or Introduced species. See Species, exotic. other sources. It is dry for a large part of the year, ordinarily more than 3 Invader. For range management usage see months. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Invader plant species. 1970) 2. Streams which, in general, flow Invader plant species (Invader, weed during wet seasons and are dry during species) dry seasons. The groundwater table Range management usage. Plant lies above the bed of the stream during species that were absent in undis- the wet season but drops below the turbed portions of the original vegeta- bed during dry seasons. Hence the tion and will invade under disturbance flow is derived principally from sur- or continued overuse. (Amer. Soc. face runoff, but during wet seasons Range Manage. 1964) receives a contribution from ground Also see Increaser plant species and water. In many arid areas the stream Decreaser plant species. channels are always above the water table and therefore carry only surface Inventory runoff. Flow may also be interrupted 1. The gathering of data for future by freezing of the ground-water to use. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) some depth below the stream bed in 2. The quantity or count of physi- smaller streams. (Wisler and Brater cal entities (such as trees, lakes, etc.) 1959) in an area. There are two basic types Also see Ephemeral stream and Pe- of inventories in land use planning. rennial stream. A. Existing–measurement of what is actually "on-the-ground" (in terms of Interspecific competition. See Competi- number), and tion, definition 2. B. Potential–total identified undeveloped capability. (U.S. Forest Serv. Intraspecific competition. See Competi- 1972B) tion, definition 2. Inverse condemnation. See Condemna- tion, reverse. Intrazonal soil. See Soil horizon, definition 2. Irreplaceable asset. See Unique resource.

Intrinsic capability. See Capability. Irreversible effect One of the categories of impacts Intrinsic resource specifically mentioned in section 102 1. Philip H. Lewis' usage. The fea- of the National Environmental Policy tures of the natural environment Act (NEPA) for inclusion in the state- which are recreation resources. ment of environmental impacts re- For example, the occurrence of sig- quired for Federal actions. Although nificant topographic relief, rivers, not defined in NEPA it has been the lakes, wetlands, waterfalls, caves, etc. subject of judicial review.

103 An irreversible effect is any effect Issue of an action or inaction which (due to 1. A controversial subject or topic. physical, biological, or socioeconomic A point of debate or controversy. constraints) cannot be reversed (by (Webster 1963) returning the object of the effect to its 2. A point in question of law or previous condition) within a reason- fact. able length of time. A single material point of law or While a swamp which is channelled fact. (Webster 1963) and drained after evolving for cen- 3. Something entailing alternatives turies may be returned to its pre- between which to choose or decide. drained condition over many decades (Webster 1963) of being undisturbed, the time span in- 4. A matter that is in dispute be- volved is such that a reasonable man tween two or more parties or that is would consider the effect irreversible. disputed by the parties. (Webster Similarly, it may be physically possible 1963) to raze a city and plant a forest again, 5. A well defined, discrete subject but a reasonable man would recognize of controversy–such as whether the that socioeconomic constraints would Supersonic Transport (SST) develop- prevent this from happening. (E.C.T.) ment program should or should not proceed because of the possibility that Isochrons their exhaust gases might significantly 1. Travel-time zones. (U.S. Forest reduce the ozone concentration in the Serv. 1971) stratosphere, or whether phosphates in 2. A concentric set of lines each of detergents should be banned because which joins distances with equal travel of their alleged controlling role in the times from some central reference eutrophication of many water bodies. point of concern. (C.F.S.) When the point of controversy can Isohyetal line only be vaguely defined or when the A line drawn on a map joining causality relationships between use points that receive the same amount of actions and undesirable results are precipitation. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) more speculative than documentable the dispute is referred to as a concern Isolated land. See Alienated land. rather than an issue. (C.F.S.)

J Jackson turbidity unit. See Turbidity. property taken at the time of taking, plus compensation for delay in pay- JTU. Jackson turbidity unit. See Tur- ment, if appropriate, and plus damages bidity. to the owner for value of use of property from date of taking possession to Just compensation date of judgment if possession is taken As regards property taken for pub- by condemnation prior to judgment. lic use, the term is comprehensive and (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) includes all elements; but does not ex- Also see Eminent domain, Police ceed market value. It is the value of power, Taking.

104 K

Key area. For range management usage those associated with oil and gas drill- see Key grazing area. ing, strip or shaft mining, etc.). (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. Key facility 1973) Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for Key grazing area a National Land Use Policy and Plan- That portion of a pasture or grazing ning Assistance Act. unit which, because of its nature, loca- Public facilities, as determined by tion, and grazing use, serves to control the state, on non-Federal lands which the pattern of grazing use for the pas- tend to induce development and ur- ture as a whole. (Soil Conserv. Soc. banization of more than local impact, Amer. 1970) including but not limited to: (1) any major airport designed to serve as a Key management species terminal for regularly scheduled air Major forage species on which man- passenger service or one of state con- agement should be based. (Soil Con- cern; (2) major interchanges between serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) the interstate highway system and frontage access streets or highways; Key site major interchanges between other Range management usage. Synony- limited access highways and frontage mous with key area except the area is access streets or highways; (3) major restricted to a specific range site. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) frontage access streets and highways, both of state concern; (4) major rec- Keystone species. See Species, keystone. reational lands and facilities; (5) major facilities on non-Federal lands for the Key utilization species development, generation, and trans- Range management usage. Forage mission of energy (including such facil- species whose use serves as an indica- ities as major powerplants, transmis- tor to the degree of use of associated sion lines, oil and gas pipelines, refin- plant species. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- eries, tank farms, etc. However, not in- age. 1964) cluded in this definition are any facilities for the extraction of fuels, such as Key winter range. See Range, key winter.

Land stable, or predictably cyclic, attributes 1. A term denoting the entire com- of the biosphere directly above and plex of surface and near-surface attri- below this area including those of the butes of the solid portions of the sur- atmosphere, the soil and underlying face of the earth which are significant geology, the topography, the hydrol- to man. Water bodies occurring within ogy, the plant and animal populations, land masses are included with land in and the results of past and present some land classification systems. human activity, to the extent that (After Mabbutt 1968) these attributes exert a significant in- 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. For fluence on present and future uses of planning purposes land is defined as a the land by man. specific area of the earth's surface. Its As defined, the term "land" em- characteristics embrace all reasonably braces all but the purely socioeconom-

105 is (human) attributes of the environ- tions, such as mineral deposits, cli- ment. It is assumed that all approaches mate, and water supply; location in re- to interpretative land classification lation to centers of commerce, popula- would, to a varying extent, take additions, and other land; the size of the tional socioeconomic factors into ac- individual tracts or holdings; and exist count but these are not considered to ing plant cover, works of improve- be attributes of the "land" itself. ment, and the like. "Land" is a broader concept than Some use the term loosely in other soil. Thus, in developing interpretative senses: as defined above but without land classification from soil survey the economic or cultural criteria espe- data, additional aspects of the natural cially in the expression "natural land"; environment, notably macrotopogra- as a synonym for "soil"; for the solid phy, vegetation, surface and ground- surface of the earth; and also for water hydrology, and climate as well earthy surface formations, especially as certain stable manmade features in the geomorphological expression need investigation and integral inter- landform. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. pretation. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 1970) 8210, Oct. 1973) Land, alienated 3. Economic theory usage. One of Lands of one ownership enclosed the major factors of production con- within boundaries of another owner- sisting of a good which is supplied by ship. Often refers to land in private nature without the aid of man. The ownership within the boundaries of term may include not only the earth's public land. (Amer. Soc. Range surface, both solid land and water, but Manage. 1964) also anything that is attached to the earth's surface. Thus, all natural re- Land and Water Conservation Fund Act sources in their original state, such as (78 Stat. 897, as amended; 16 U.S.C. mineral deposits, wildlife, timber, and 4601-4 to 4601-11, 23 U.S.C. 120 fish are land within the technical (Note)) meaning of the term; so are sources of Provides funds for and authorizes energy, outside of man himself, such as Federal assistance to the states in plan- water, coal deposits, and the natural ning, acquisition, and development of fertility of the soil. (Sloan 1961) needed land and water areas and facili- 4. In the most general sense, any ties and provides funds for the Federal ground, soil, or earth whatsoever. acquisition and development of out- "Land" may include not only the soil door recreation resources. (After U.S. or earth, but also things of a perma- Forest Serv. 1974) nent nature affixed thereto or found Land and Water System therein, whether by nature, as water, U.S. Forest Service usage. One of trees, grass, herbage, and other natural the six "systems" established by the or perennial products, growing crops U.S. Forest Service to have a system- or trees, minerals under the surface; as atic, orderly way to view and evaluate well as works constructed for use of its many diverse but interrelated activi- water such as dikes, canals, etc. (U.S. ties. The Forest Service has developed Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) this approach to better respond to the 5. The total natural and cultural mandates of the Forest and Rangeland environment within which production Renewable Resources Planning Act of takes place; a broader term than 1974. It has grouped its various pro- "soil". In addition to soil, its attri- grams into these six "systems", each butes include other physical condi- of which incorporates all the activities

106 concerned with developing and man- to the risk of land damage or the diffi- aging a specific resource. (After U.S. culty of land use. The first four classes Forest Serv. 1974A) distinguish land inherently able to be The role of this system is to pro- used for cultivation and other uses. tect, conserve, and enhance the basic (I). Soils in class I have few limitations resources of air, soil, and water on for- that restrict their use. (II). Soils in est and range land. It provides the base class II have some limitations that re- on which the other resources grow. duce the choice of plants or require Activities on National Forest land in- moderate conservation practices. clude land-use planning, administra- (III). Soils in class III have severe limi- tion of special land uses, easements, tations that reduce the choice of and land adjustments, and manage- plants or require special conservation ment of mineral areas in addition to practices, or both. (IV). Soils in class the protection, conservation, and en- IV have very severe limitations that re- hancement role. (U.S. Forest Serv. strict the choice of plants, require very 1974A) careful management, or both. The The six "systems" are: "Land and second four classes distinguish land Water", Timber Resource, Outdoor generally inherently unable to be used Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland for cultivation (without major treat- Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and ment). (V). Soils in Class V have little Human Community Development. or no erosion hazard but have other limitations, impractical to remove, Land capability that limit their use largely to pasture, U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- range, woodland, or wildlife food and age. The inherent ability of land to be cover. (VI). Soils in class VI have se- used without permanent damage. Land vere limitations that make them gener- capability, as ordinarily used in the ally not able to be used for cultivation United States, is an expression of the and limit their use largely to pasture or effect of physical land conditions, in- range, woodland, or wildlife food and cluding climate, on the total ability to be cover. (VII). Soils in class VII have used without damage for crops that very severe limitations that make them require regular tillage, for grazing, for not able to be used for cultivation and woodland, and for wildlife. that restrict their use largely to graz- Land capability involves considera- ing, woodland, or wildlife. (VIII). Soils tion of (1) the risks of land damage and landforms in class VIII have limi- from erosion and other causes and (2) tations that preclude their use for the difficulties in land use owing to commercial plant production and re- physical land characteristics, including strict their use to recreation, wildlife, climate. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. water supply, or aesthetic purposes. Amer. 1970) (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Also see Capability and Suitability for comments on the preferred usage of those terms. Land capability classification Land capability class U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. A grouping of kinds of soil into age. One of the eight classes of land in special units, subclasses, and classes the land capability classification sys- according to their capability for inten- tem of the Soil Conservation Service. sive use and the treatments required for The eight land capability classes in sustained use. (Soil Conserv. Soc. this system are distinguished according Amer. 1970)

107 Land capability map whereby the complex of surface and U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- near-surface attributes of the solid por- age. A map showing land capability tions of the earths surface are identi- units, land capability subclasses, and fied and organized into some system classes or a soil survey map colored to of mappable units according to some show land capability classes. (Soil Con- set of criteria or principles for related- serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) ness. Also see Soil map. "Land classification" creates a framework of generalization about the Land capability subclass complexity of "land" properties which U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- enables common characters to be de- age. Groups of land capability units fined and described, and units with within classes of the land capability similar properties to be regarded as classification system that have the equals although geographically sepa- same kinds of dominant limitations for rate. agricultural use as a result of soil and Classification is a prerequisite if climate. there is to be any transfer of knowl- For example, some soils are subject edge about the relationships between to erosion if they are not protected, land properties and land use suitability while others are naturally wet and and capability from one unit to others must be drained if crops are to be –i.e., if there is to be any element of grown. Some soils are shallow or expectation in land use planning. droughty or have other soil deficien- (After Mabbutt 1967) cies. Still other soils occur in areas 2. The arrangement of land units into where climate limits their use. various categories based on the The four kinds off limitations recog- properties of the land or its inherent nized at the subclass level are: risks of capability for some particular purpose. erosion; wetness, drainage, or over- (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) flow; other root zone limitations; and climatic limitations. Land district The subclass provides the map user Canada Biophysical Land Classifica- information about both the degree and tion System Usage. A relatively ho- kind of limitation. (Soil Conserv. Soc. mogeneous unit of land characterized Amer. 1970) by a distinctive pattern of relief, geology, geomorphology and regional vege- Land capability unit tation. (Bajzak 1973) 1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service This is the second largest of the usage. A group of soils that are nearly four classification levels of that sys- alike in inherent ability to be used for tem. The largest unit is the land region plant growth and in their responses to and the two smaller units in order of the same kinds of soil management. decreasing size are land system and Capability units provide more spe- land type. cific and detailed information for application to specific fields on a farm or Land evaluation (Terrain evaluation) ranch than the "subclass" of the land The assessment of the inherent capability classification. (Soil Conserv. capability and managed suitability of Soc. Amer. 1970) land for man's use in agriculture, for- Land capability zoning. See Zoning, land estry, engineering, hydrology, regional capability. planning, recreation, etc. (After Stewart 1967) Land classification 1. Land classification is the process Land feasibility. See Feasibility.

108 Land form which manifests a distinctive climate. The form of the surface of the land. (Bajzak 1973) The three-dimensional shape of the This is the largest unit of the four surface of the ground. classes of that system. The other three "Land form" may have a different classes in order of decreasing size are meaning than landform when used in land district, land system and land geomorphological contexts. "Land- type. form" is always used for surface features whose origin can be attributed to Land resource area particular geological processes or par- 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Broad ticular structures. (After Savigear geographic areas having similar soil, cli- 1965) matic, geologic, vegetative and topographic features. (U.S. Forest Serv. Landform 1972B) 1. Term used to describe the many 2. An area of land reasonably alike types of land surfaces which exist as a in its relationship to agriculture with result of geological activity, such as a emphasis on combinations and/or in- plateau, plain, basin, mountain, etc. tensities of problems in soil and water (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) conservation. 2. A feature of the earth's surface It is ordinarily larger than a land with distinctive form characters which resource unit and smaller than a land can be attributed to the dominance of resource region. (Soil Conserv. Soc. particular processes or particular struc- Amer. 1970) tures in the course of its development Also see Conservation, definition 1. and to which the feature can be clearly related. (Savigear 1965) 3. Land form may have a different Land resource region meaning than "landform" when used A generalized grouping of land re- in geomorphological contexts. "Land source areas reflecting regional rela- form" is sometimes used when refer- tionships to agriculture with emphasis ring only to the three dimensional on soil and water conservation. (Soil shape of the ground surface–without Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) any reference to the processes respon- Also see Conservation definition 1. sible for that shape. (Savigear 1965) Land resource unit Land management A subdivision of a land resource The intentional process of plan- area with emphasis on a specialized ning, organizing, programming, coor- type of agriculture, intensities, or dinating, directing, and controlling problems in soil and water conserva- land use actions. (After U.S. Forest tion. Serv. 1971) It has a narrower range in relationship to agriculture (than a land re- Land, marginal source area) with emphasis on soil and Land of questionable economic water conservation. (Soil Conserv. Soc. abilities to be used for a specific pur- Amer. 1970) pose. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Also see Conservation definition 1. 1964)

Land region Land sales or development project. For Canada Biophysical Land Classifica- usage of this term in the defeated 1973 tion System Usage. An area of land bill for a National Land Use Policy and with a certain type of vegetation Planning Assistance Act see Project.

109 Landscape istics, color or touchable nature. There 1. An areal entity which is a com- is little or no sense of space and atten- posite of all of the characteristics that tion is restricted to the intimate details distinguish a certain area on the earth's of features. (Litton 1966) surface from other areas. (Holland This is one of the six general types 1970) in Litton's scenic composition classifi- 2. An expanse of natural scenery cation system. The others are pan- seen by the eye in one view. (Webster oramic landscape, focal landscape, fea- 1963) ture-dominated landscape, enclosing 3. An area made up of a distinct landscape and canopied landscape. association of forms, both physical and cultural. (Stamp 1961, citing Landscape, enclosing Sauer 1925) An outdoor space (rather than 4. The sum total of the character- strictly a view type) with definite vi- istics that distinguish a certain area on sual sidewalls or edge lines (formed by the earth's surface from other areas. terrain, tree, lake or meadow surfaces) These characteristics are a result not which enclose or define the field of only of natural forces but of human vision. occupancy and use of the land. (U.S. A small scale landscape in which Forest Serv. 1963) the viewer has a sense of presence by being within the foreground which is Landscape, canopied most apt to form the floor of the The type of visual landscape to be space. found under an extensive, continuous "Enclosing landscapes" are always crown cover of trees–as within a for- seen from a viewing position below the est. The overhead foliage and branches tops of the surrounding sidewalls. define the ceiling plane and the per- (Litton 1966) spective closure of tree stems or This is one of the six general types screens of understory shrubs and in Litton's scenic composition classifi- young trees or land forms define the cation system. The others are pan- side enclosures. (After Litton 1968) oramic landscape, focal landscape, fea- This is one of the six general types ture-dominated landscape, detailed in Litton's scenic composition classifi- landscape and canopied landscape. cation system. The others are panoramic landscape, feature dominated Landscape, feature-dominated landscape, enclosing landscape, focal A view in which a single feature (or landscape, and detailed landscape. landmark), either natural or man- made, dominates the landscape be- Landscape, cultural cause of sharp contrast with the gen- 1. The aspect of the face of the eral surroundings. earth which results from the presence Often, but not necessarily, a land- of man–the natural landscape modi- scape dominated by the middle-ground fied by man. (Stamp 1961) plane in the field of vision. 2. The material features, in com- Feature-dominated landscapes may pact areal association, which are the be recognized from any viewing posi- result of the transformation of a natu- tion–i.e., above, level with or below ral landscape through human occu- the feature or its surrounding land- pance. (Stamp 1961) scape. (Litton 1966) This is one of the six general types Landscape, detailed in Litton's scenic composition classifi- The close view of objects or fea- cation system. The others are pan- tures, particularly surface character-

110 oramic landscape, focal landscape, en- in Litton's scenic composition classifi- closing landscape, detailed landscape, cation system. The others are feature- and canopied landscape. dominated landscape, enclosing landscape, focal landscape, canopied landscape and detailed landscape. Landscape, focal A view characterized by convergent Landscape planning lines which lead the eye to the princi- A portion of the land use planning pal point of their apparent origin. process which deals with physical (i.e., Parallel lines in perspective will biological, geological and hydrologic) appear to have a focal point origin at values, aesthetic and cultural (i.e., his- the horizon. The eye's attention will torical and anthropological) values and be concentrated upon and follow these with the relationships between these dominant lines toward the horizon or values and land uses. (Fabos, et al. their focal point. 1973) "Focal landscapes" are always seen from a viewing position level with or Landscape unit above the horizon line. (Litton 1966) G.A. Hills' land evaluation usage. A This is one of the six general types regrouping of patterns of physio- in Litton's scenic composition classifi- graphic site types and physiographic cation system. The others are pan- site phases into larger (16 sq. mi. mini- oramic landscape, feature-dominated mum) units to facilitate the making of landscape, enclosing landscape, de- broad scale planning decisions. (After tailed landscape and canopied land- Belknap and Furtado 1967) scape. Land sensitivity. See Sensitivity, land.

Landscape, panoramic Landslide (landslip) A landscape viewing situation char- 1. Downslope movement of a rela- acterized by an unobstructed or com- tively dry or coherent mass of earth plete view of the area in all directions and/or rock at a rate fast enough to be or a continuous series of scenes ex- readily perceived. (After Amer. Geol. tending to the distant horizon. Inst. 1962) The visual feeling is one of expand- Readily perceptible downslope ing ing or unbounded space, receding di- movement of a wet, incoherent mass rectly ahead toward the limits of dis- of earth is termed a mudslide. (C.F.S.) tance on visibility and also extending 2. The failure of a slope in which laterally to the limits of peripheral the movement of the soil mass takes vision. Although indicating the availa- place along an interior surface of slid- bility of a view in every direction, in- ing. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) herent physiological limitations on the Landslide hazard extent of what an observer can see Some evaluation (almost always without turning the head suggests that qualitative and relative to adjacent a possible view of 180 degrees is a locations) of the chance that a land- more likely condition for defining a slide will occur on a given site. (C.F.S.) "panoramic landscape". The term should be reserved for use Landslip. See Landslide. where distant or background scenes are under observation, not horizontal Land stratification. See Stratification. scene compositions in the middle- Land subdivision. See Subdivision. ground or foreground. (After Litton 1966) Land, submarginal This is one of the six general types 1. Land that does not return

111 enough to pay costs of operation in a cation scheme are: (1) the "physio- specific use. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. graphic province" (a division of the 1970) land in which the pattern of topo- 2. Land which is economically in- graphic elements of altitude, relief and capable of sustaining indefinitely a cer- type of land forms are uniform tain use or ownership status. (Amer. throughout an area of several thousand Soc. Range Manage. 1964) square miles or larger); (2) the "section" (land units in which the com- Land suitability. See Suitability. bined factors of geologic structure, geomorphic processes, climate and Land system time have been essentially the same l. Canada Biophysical Land Classi- and thus produced a uniform pattern fication System usage. An area of land of topography over areas of hundreds with a recurring pattern of land form to several thousand square miles); (3) having homogeneous soil characteris- the "subsection" (the smallest land tics and supporting a particular type of unit which can be identified using the vegetation. (Bajzak 1973) basic criteria of uniform geologic fac- The second smallest of the four tors and climate operating over time to classification levels of that system. The delineate essentially uniform areas of other three classes in order of decreas- tens to hundreds of square miles); (4) ing size are land region, land district the "land type association" (units tens and land type. of square miles in size over which the 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Typi- cally used to categorize all the land in uniformity of geomorphic processes an area into each of various hierarchi- has produced different types of land- cal levels by the application of increas- scapes which can be visually identified ingly more specific delineation criteria on maps, air photos or on the ground); at successively lower (i.e., smaller (5) the "landtype" (visually identifi- units) levels in the system. Each set of able unit areas of a tenth to one square delineation criteria is unique to its mile resulting from homogeneous geo- classification level but is also logically morphic and climatic processes which and systematically related to the other have produced defined patterns of higher and/or lower levels in that clas- soils and vegetation potentials); (6) the sification system. "landtype phase" (.01 to .1 square A hierarchical framework of land mile areas delineated on the basis of type units. (After Nelson 1975) being characterized by uniform, specific kinds of soils or soil phases or Land systems inventory sometimes on the basis of physio- U.S. Forest Service usage. A land graphic, vegetative or bedrock char- stratification system based on geo- acteristics) and; (7) the "site" (areas of morphic principles. An understanding less than an acre defined and charac- of geologic structure, land form gene- terized by the occurrence of individual sis and geomorphic processes (as re- kinds of soils or discrete plant com- flected in land surface form and fea- munities. (After Wertz and Arnold tures), individual kinds of soil and the 1972) factors which determine the behavior of ecosystems (i.e., climate, vegetation Land tenure and animal life, relief, parent materials 1. The holding of land or the right and time), is used as the basis of this to hold it. (Abrams 1971) classification system. 2. The holding of land and the The various hierarchical levels in rights that go with such holding, in- the "land systems inventory" classifi- cluding all forms of holding from fee

112 simple title (embracing all possible depth, mineral composition, water rights within the general limitations content, etc.) and nature of parent imposed by the government) to the material in large-scale land features. various forms of tenancy or holding of (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) land owned by another. (Soil Conserv. The second largest unit in Hills' Soc. Amer. 1970) land classification system. The various 3. The rules by which members of levels, in order of decreasing size are a social group customarily exercise site region, "landtype", physiographic control, inheritance, and usage rights site class, physiographic site type and over land. The rules cover such prac- physiographic site phase. tices as individual ownership, group 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Visu- ownership with allocation procedures, ally identifiable unit areas resulting and various kinds of lending possibili- from homogeneous geomorphic and ties. (O'Connell 1974) climatic processes and having defined Also see Property rights. patterns of soils and vegetative potentials. Land type Landtype units range in size from Canada Biophysical Land Classifica- about one-tenth to one square mile. tion System usage. An area of land Their size and composition depend having a fairly homogeneous combina- upon the significance of physical char- tion of soil features at a level corres- acteristics which can be readily inter- ponding to the soil series–i.e., a group preted to identify hazard, capability of soils having horizons similar in dis- and productivity potentials that are re- tinguishing characteristics and arrange- liable for land use planning purposes. ment in the profile and developed Landtype units generally have uni- from the same parent material and form management response character- chronological sequence of vegetation. istics and so can be used to identify The land type is the basic biophysi- areas for which zoning and resource al- cal land unit that can be interpreted to location decisions can be made. (After provide land evaluation data useful for Wertz and Arnold 1972) planning and development. The map- Also see land system, definition 2. ping scale at the land type level ranges 3. Veatch's usage of "natural land- from 1/20,000 to 1/10,000. The domi- type". A natural division based upon nant ecological variables are soil mois- the intrinsic nature of the soil, the nature regime, physical and chemical soil ture of the soil association or soil com- properties and microtopography. plex, the topography, the natural (Wells and Roberts 1973) drainage and the native vegetation. The units in that classification sys- (After Veatch 1937) tem, in order of decreasing size are land region, land district, land system Land units and land type. G. A. Hills' land evaluation usage. A portion of a landscape unit – i.e., groupings of physiographic site types Landtype (Watertype) and physiographic site phases into 16 1. G. A. Hills' land classification sq. mi. minimum units–with special usage. Units created by isolating areas significance for some specific use. of differing landform, geologic com- (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) position and water content within the site region. Land use A "landtype" is a subdivision of a The occupation or reservation of "site region" and determined by cer- land or water area for any human ac- tain soil properties (such as texture, tivity or any defined purpose. It also

113 includes use of the air space above the complete coordination of existing and land or water. (Calif. Counc. Intergov. future Bureau programs and activities Relat. 1973) with those either under way or con- Also see Land use type. templated on land adjoining public lands. (Eisner 1969)I Land use allocation 3. "Land use plans" will serve as The committing of a given area of (1) a basis for the implementation of land or a resource to one or more spe- action plans and (2) the foundation cific uses–e.g., to campgrounds, wil- for future planning efforts, as well as derness areas. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM (3) a guide for direct actions and deci- 8200R-8) sions. (Rupp 1974) Land use capability. See Capability. 4. A community plan outlining proposed future land uses and their Land use constraints distribution. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. Any factor that may act to reduce 1970) management options or discourage various uses–e.g., erosive soils, unstable Land use planning slopes, steep topography, presence of 1. Land use planning is the process archeological or historic remains. (U.S. of organizing the development and use Forest Serv., Colville Natl. Forest of lands and their resources in a man- 1974) ner that will best meet the needs of Land use feasibility. See Feasibility. people over time while maintaining maximum flexibility for a dynamic Land use plan combination of resource output for 1. The concrete expression in map the future. (After Camp 1974) and text form of objectives which are 2. Land use planning is a process considered desirable by a governing which allocates geographically fixed body with the power to approve and resources to a variety of uses. (After implement the plan. (Hills, Love and Camp 1974) Lacate 1970) 3. Land use planning is the never- 2. U.S. Bureau of Land Manage- ending process of inventorying and as- ment usage. A "land use plan" is a coordinated composite of information, sessing the status, potentials, and limi- ideas, policies, programs, and activities tations of a particular geographic area related to existing and potential uses and its resources; interacting with the of land within a given area, starting populations associated and/or con- with the planning unit, extending cerned with the area to determine through an integrated system of plan- their needs, wants, and aspirations for ning units that comprise a district and the future; hypothesizing patterns of ultimately becoming part of a land use use compatible with both the area's plan for all Bureau land holdings with- capabilities and human needs and in the state and nation. wants; proposing and assessing the It, in part, identifies where these ac- consequences of, and implementing tivities take place or where additional the best of alternatives for achieving activities could take place under future the desired patterns of use, docu- conditions or circumstances, either un- menting the history of use to enable der Bureau jurisdiction or the control comparison of expected and experi- by other public agencies or private enced consequences; and repeating the parties. entire process over and over to ac- The total comprehensive land use count for changing environmental sta- plan provides the basis for the more tus, changing technology, and

114 changing human wants. (After Camp cal government. (U.S. Congr., Senate, 1974) Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973) 4. The ordering of future activities 2. U.S. Senate bill 924, 93rd Con- in space. (Ackerman 1963) gress usage. This Nixon-Administra- 5. The process by which decisions tion-proposed act was defeated in Con- are made on future land uses, over ex- gress. tended time periods, that are deemed to This Act was first proposed in 1971 best serve the general welfare. (Soil and followed the concepts contained Conserv. Soc. Amer, 1970) in the draft "model land development code" developed by the American Law Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance Institute (ALI). That code called for Act the states to take a highly selective ap- 1. U.S. Senate bill 268, 93rd Con- proach, focusing on land use questions gress usage. This proposed act was de- of more than local significance. Under feated in committee in February 1974. the ALI code some 90 percent of all The Congress, recognizing that the land use questions would continue to Nation's land is its most valuable na- be disposed of by local agencies with- tional resource and that the maximum out interference from state govern- benefit to all from this resource can be ment. Through compromise, since achieved only with the development their introduction, the two land use and implementation of sound and co- planning bills have become quite simi- ordinated land use policies, declares lar, and this proposed Act was aban- that it is the continuing policy of the doned in favor of the Senate bill 268 Federal government to cooperate with version. (After Carter 1973) and render assistance to state and local governments in the development and Land use practice (Discrete land use oper- implementation of the policies which ation) will govern the wise and balanced use 1. A term used to refer to the vari- of the Nation's land resource. The pur- ous kinds of altering actions and/or ac- pose of this Act is to establish a Na- tivities associated with or utilized in tional land use policy, to authorize the facilitating or making possible differ- Secretary of the Interior to make ent types of land uses–e.g., clearing of grants to assist the states to develop vegetation, land grading, paving, land- and implement state land use pro- scaping, fencing, fertilizing, irrigating, grams, to coordinate Federal programs etc. and policies which have a land use im- "Land use practices" are distinct pact, to coordinate planning and man- from land use types. "Land use types" agement of Federal lands and planning is a classification system based on the and management of adjacent non- purpose for which the land is being Federal lands, and to establish an of- used–e.g., timber production, range, fice of land use policy administration second home subdivisions, farming, in the Department of the Interior. heavy industry, etc. "Land use types" The purpose of the Act is to en- are bundles of more or less shared courage comprehensive, balanced–not "land use practices"–though the pre- functional planning, Thus, whenever cise types and amounts of practices levels of government below the state that are utilized in conjunction with a government are to be included in the specific use type may vary from one important decisionmaking and finan- specific instance to another. cial assistance activities in the Act, the "Land use practices" is an alterna- language of the Act limits the govern- tive to "land use types" as a way of ments involved to general purpose lo- classifying for study and/or regulation

115 the problems created by use. By re- pollution; the size of the site to be oc- stricting practice alternatives the prob- cupied; and the likelihood that addi- lems associated with specific uses can tional or subsidiary development will sometimes be eliminated or reduced be generated. while not necessarily preventing use– The purpose of this definition is to because there may be an alternative ac- focus on the size and nature of the ceptable practice. (C.F.S.J project rather than on ascertaining the precise individual or organization Land use suitability. See Suitability. which is the developer. First, the definition of the project insures that it is Land use survey A survey of the uses to which land of a size which would have significant is put in a particular area, usually sum- impacts upon the environment and ur- marized both in map form and statis- ban services. Second, it provides that tically. (Abrams 1971) the state develop a program for those projects only in remote, rural or other Land use type (Land use) areas where local government is ill- 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. The equipped to regulate the project itself. primary use of a tract of land–e.g., (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insu- crops, pasture, forest, urban and other. lar Aff. 1973) (U.S. Forest Serv. 19728) 2. A classification system based on Law, common (Precedent law) the purposes for which land is being 1. A body of rules based on judi-cial used–e.g., timber production, range, decisions rather than legislation. second home subdivisions, farming, It is the basis of the Anglo- etc. "Land use types" are bundles of American legal tradition. The "com- more or less shared land use prac- mon-law" judge relies on judicial deci- tices–though the precise types and sions of the past in rendering his rul- amounts of practices that are utilized ings. Under the "common-law" ap- in conjunction with a specific use type proach the law can change gradually at may vary from one specific instance to the hands of the judges to meet the another. (C.F.S.) changes in society. In the United States the "common-law" system is Large-lot zoning. See Zoning, large-lot. evident in the supremacy of the judi- Large scale development ciary in determining the constitution- 1. Usage in the defeated 1973 bill ality of legislation. In contrast, the sys- for a National Land Use Policy and tem of civil law prominent on the con- Planning Assistance Act. Private devel- tinent of Europe is based on Roman opment on non-Federal lands which, law and later codes of legislation. because of its magnitude or the magni- (O'Connell 1974) tude of its effect on the surrounding 2. The system of unwritten law (as environment, is likely to present issues distinguished from written statute of more than local significance in the laws) that has been declared in written judgment of the state. opinions by judges and is based either In determining what constitutes on the general customs or on reason "large scale development" the state is and fixed principles of justice. (Web- asked to consider, among other things, ster 1963) the amount of pedestrian or vehicular traffic likely to be generated; the num- Law, natural ber of persons likely to be present; the 1. An abstract concept of law potential for creating environmental based on the relation between God, problems such as air, water, or noise man, and nature. An ideal higher than

116 man-made law, it forms the basis of tion to the spore or fertilized egg of justice in the ethical sense. It embodies the next generation. such ideas as the existence of a univer- A continuous, descriptive account sal order governing all men and the un- of a life cycle is called the life history alienable rights of the individual. of an organism. (Ford-Robertson (O'Connell 1974) 1971) 2. A body of law derived from na- 2. The series of stages in the form ture and binding upon human society and mode of life of an organism be- in the absence of or in addition to in- tween successive recurrences of a cer- stitutional law. (Webster 1963) tain primary stage, such as the spore, 3. The body of rules or customs fertilized egg, seed or resting cell. derived from the general maintenance (Wash. State Univ., Coop. Ext. Serv. of human society. (Webster 1963) 1972)

LD50. See Median lethal dose. Life history Leasable mineral. See Mineral, leasable. A continuous, descriptive account of the life cycle of an organism. Legal institution (Ford-Robertson 1971) A society's system of legal rules and principles. (Webster 1963) Life quality index. See Quality of life and Index. Leontief analysis. See Input-output analysis. Life style 1. A characteristically different Lexicography way of living which may be an indivi- 1. The editing or making of a dic- dual variant within the cultural main tionary. (Webster 1963) stream or may be an individual expres- 2. Decision theory usage. A sion of a subculture. "Life styles" are method of choosing among alterna- generally expressed through the means tives based on an analogy to the way of economic sustenance, dwelling site words are arranged in a dictionary. A and type, types of group associations, single objective or attribute is rated as and social practices such as family most important, and alternatives are form, religious practices, sexual mores, ranked according to how well they sat- and style of dress, type of diet, etc. isfy this objective. If an alternative is The "life style" which is most com- clearly superior in this attribute to mon for a given culture is sometimes other alternatives it is selected. Other- referred to as the "mainstream life wise the second most important attri- style" and those which are uncommon bute is used to rank the top alterna- (culturally unusual, atypical) as "alter- tives from the first ranking. This pro- native (or subculture) life styles". cess continues, constantly reducing the (L. W.) number of alternatives ranked and ranking by less important attributes, until a single project is clearly superior Life zone for the attribute being used to rank 1. An altitudinal or latitudinal bi- the alternatives. (After Mac Crimmon otic region or belt with distinctive 1968) faunal and floral characteristics. (Han- son 1962) Life cycle 2. Areas of land classified into 1. The successive stages through gross habitat types by a combination which an organism passes from the of elevational and climatic zones and spore or fertilized egg of one genera- other factors which determine the

117 type of animal and plant life found in sources can be expressed by simultan- them–e.g., the Upper Sonoran, Transi- eous linear equations. (U.S. Gen. Ac- tion, Canadian, Hudsonian and Alpine count. Off. 1969) life zones. (After U.S. Forest Serv., 3. A class of programming tech- FSM 2800 R-8, date unknown) niques used to analyze or solve problems in which the linear function of a Light grazing. See Grazing, light. number of variables is to be maximized or minimized when those vari- Limiting factor ables are subject to a number of con- 1. Any environmental factor whose straints in the form of linear inequali- presence, absence or abundance is the ties. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) main factor restricting the distribution, numbers or condition of an or- Litter (Forest litter, Leaf litter) ganism. (After Durrenberger 1973, The uppermost layer of organic de- Sesco, et al. 1973) bris on the ground under a vegetation 2. The environmental influence by cover–i.e., essentially the freshly fal- which the limit of tolerance of an or- len or only slightly decomposed vege- ganism is first reached and which, table material, mainly from foliage but therefore, acts as the immediate re- also bark fragments, twigs, flowers, striction to one or more of its func-tions fruits, etc. (After Ford-Robertson or activities or in its geographic 1971) distribution. (Hanson 1962) Littoral Limits 1. Belonging to the shore, as of Range management usage. The seas and the great lakes; riparian pro- number of livestock which may be prietors on a stream or small pond are grazed under provisions of a grazing analogous to littoral proprietors on a preference. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- sea or lake. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recre- age. 1964) ation 1974) 2. Of or pertaining to the shore; Linear perspective. See Perspective, lin- existing, taking place upon or adjacent ear. to the shore. Applied loosely and generally to the seashore as well as to the Linear programming shores of lakes and rivers. (Stamp 1. A mathematical method used to 1971) determine the most effective alloca- 3. Also see Riparian. tion of limited resources between competing demands when both the objective (e.g., profit or cost) and the restrictions on its attainment are expre- Lobbying ssible as a system of linear equalities or 1. Activity engaged in by indivi- inequalities (e.g., y=a+bx). (U.S. For- duals or organizations (directly or est Serv. 1972B) through hired representatives) that is 2. A deterministic model which as- directed at the various elements of sumes linear behavioral relationships government in an attempt to influence and in which an optimal solution is legislation or policies in a way that is sought (by maximizing or minimizing) favorable to the interests of the lob- subject to one or more limiting con- bying group. straints. A potential source of conflict lies in Linear programming is used to de- the fact that the public, viewed as a termine the best or optimum use of collection of individuals, is seldom rep- resources to achieve a desired result resented in such activities. (O'Connell when the limitations on available re- 1974)

118 Local economic effects plain and predict the location of indi- Effects of an action or inaction on vidual, commercial, and industrial de- dollar market transactions in the im- velopment. It is important to the plan- mediate area of the action or inaction. ner for predicting population and in- The "local" area would include an area dustrial distributions which would re- encompassing the primary sources of sult from alternative plans. (E. C. T.) employment and retail outlets for basic commodities such as food utilized Lode mining. See Mining, lode. by the people of that area. (E. C. T.) Logged-over forest Local government A forest in which most or all of the Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for merchantable timber has been cut. a national Land Use Policy and Plan- (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) ning Assistance Act. Any general purpose local government or any regional Logging combination thereof, or, where appro- The cutting and extraction of tim- priate, any other public agency which ber, particularly logs. (Ford-Robertson has land use planning authority. (U.S. 1971) Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular In imprecise usage logging, harvest- Aff. 1973) ing, and silviculture are used seemingly interchangeably by different people, Local overgrazing often with vehemence as to which is Overgrazing in localized areas on a the correct term in a given situation. range, as, for example, near watering According to Ford-Robertson (1971) places. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. "silviculture" has as its primary con- 1964) cern the establishing, growing, and tending of forests. "Harvesting" and Local species. See Species, local. "logging", however, deal specifically with the extraction of resources from Locatable mineral. See Mineral, locatable. the forest; with "logging" restricted to Locatable mineral deposits. See Minerals, the cutting and extraction of timber locatable. (wood other than fuel wood after primary conversion) and "harvesting" ex- Location (Mineral location) panding this to include the cutting, ini- The acts or series of acts pursuant tial processing if any, and extraction to the general mining laws by which of any forest product. (After Ford- the right of exclusive possession of lo- Robertson 1971) catable mineral deposits is vested in the locator. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM Logging, aerial 2811.1.F, Sept., 1958) A system for hauling timber from A mining claim is sometimes called the stump to a collecting point which a "location" but those terms may of- employs aerial means of transporta- ten mean different things–e.g., "min- tion–e.g., balloons or helicopters. ing claim" may refer to a parcel of (Ford-Robertson 1971) land containing soil or rock which has value because of its chemical composi- Logging, cable tion, while "location" is the act of ap- A method for transporting logs propriating such land according to cer- from stumps to collecting points tain established rules. (Thrush 1968) which utilizes a cable system as the Also see Minerals, locatable. main device for moving them. (Ford- Robertson 1971) Location theory For some of the different types of The theory which attempts to ex- "cable logging" see Logging, skyline;

119 Logging, high-lead; and Logging, carrying the logs. (Ford-Robertson ground-lead. 1971) Contrast with Logging, tractor. Contrasts with Logging, cable.

Logging, ground-lead (Low-lead cable log- Long-range planning ging) 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Plan- A method for transporting logs ning for the period covered by basic from the stumps to a collecting point resource management plans, usually by dragging them along the ground ten or more years. (U.S. Forest Serv. with a powered cable passing through 19 72B) a block fastened close to ground level. 2. Planning in the long-range sense (After Ford-Robertson 1971) is the selection or identification of the overall, long-range objectives. The Logging, high-lead analysis of various possible courses of A method for transporting logs action in terms of their relative costs from the stumps to a collecting point and accomplishments or benefits is by using a powered cable, passing then used to decide on which courses through a block fastened high off the of action to follow in order to achieve ground, to lift the front end of the those objectives. (U.S. Gen. Account. logs clear of the ground while dragging Off 1969) them. (After Ford-Robertson 1971) 3. Planning for a future more than 5 years distant. (After U.S. Forest Serv. Logging, low-lead. See Logging, ground 19728) lead. 4. The continuous process of making present (risk-taking) decisions sys- Logging, skyline (Skyline yarding) tematically and with the best possible A method for transporting logs knowledge of their futurity for some from stumps to collecting points that 10 to 30 years, organizing systematic- uses a heavy cable stretched between ally the efforts needed to carry out high points (such as in tall trees braced these decisions, and measuring the re- with guy lines) to functions as an over- sults of these decisions through organ- head track for a load carrying trolley. ized, systematic feedback. The sched- Logs are lifted up by cables or other uling of needed improvements is on a devices attached to the trolley and less detailed basis with more flexible powered cables are used to move the timing and a recognition of the adjust- load back and forth along the main ments and re-analysis that the passage cable. (After Ford-Robertson 1971) of time will inevitably compel. (After "Skyline logging" is a particular Winfrey and Zellner 1971) type of cable logging. "Long range planning" does not deal with future decisions. It deals Logging, tractor with the future attainment of present Any logging method which uses a decisions. (Drucker 1959) tractor as the motive power for transporting logs from the stumps to a col- Low-lead logging. See Logging, ground lecting point–whether by dragging or lead.

120 M

Macroclimate (Regional climate) Management direction The general large-scale climate of a U.S. Forest service usage. A state- large area or country, as distinguished ment of goals and a detailed specifica- from the mesoclimate and microcli- tion of the ways and means for at- mate. (Huschle 1959) taining them. (W. W.)

Macroeconomics Management goal. See Goal. Economic studies or statistics that consider aggregates of individuals or Management objective. See Objective. groups of commodities; for example, Management policy. See Policy. total consumption, employment, or income. (Sloan 1961) Management program Also see Microeconomics. Coastal zone management act usage. "Management program" in- Majority determinism cludes, but is not limited to, a compre- A point of view in resource plan- hensive statement in words, maps, il- ning which advocates making resource lustrations, or other media of commu- use and allocation decisions on the ba- nication, prepared and adopted by the sis of some sort of a simple expression state setting forth objectives, policies, of the most popular choice of use or and standards to guide public and pri- mixes of uses. (C.F.S.) vate uses of lands and waters in the This conceptually simple one-man coastal zone. (After Coastal Zone Man- one-vote approach has severe problems age. Act 1972) in the land use planning context on several grounds. How are the alterna- Management situation tive resource use mix choices formu- U.S. Forest Service usage. A section lated and presented to the "voters"? of the planning area guide which con- How is the planned-for populace de- tains a comprehensive statement of the fined, located and canvassed? How are planning area resources, its history as the desires of transient resource users it may influence planning, past and (such as campers and hikers who do present uses, and a review of the pub- not belong to organized groups) to be lics directly concerned with the area. counted, and how are they to be The significance of the information weighed against the needs and desires about the area as it relates to national of permanent residents and users? objectives and program targets is also (C. F. S. ) important as it will describe how that area is unique in its ability to contrib- Major land use ute to the satisfaction of human needs. U.S. Forest Service usage. A group- A projection of program attainment ing of primary uses together into clas- targets is also included. (After U.S. ses with similar characteristics–e.g., Forest Serv., FSM 8222.2, Oct. 1973) cropland, pasture, and forest. (After This term is similar, but not identi- U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) cal to the term "environmental set- Also see Land use type. ting" as used in FSM 8412.2 item 3A.

Management area Management unit Range management usage. The total 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Under holdings under a single management. the "Multiple Use Planning" system (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) used until 1972 they were subdivisions

121 of the "multiple use management cific uses-such as administrative site zone" in the ranger district multiple development, road location, bridge use plan. It was the finest delineation sites, dam sites, campground develop- of land areas. ment, ski areas, and geological area Under the newly adopted U.S. For- maps. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1973) est Service "Land Use Planning" sys-tem they are subdivisions of planning Map overlay (Overlay map) units which identify the area of land 1. A transparent sheet accom- or water to which specific manage- panying a map, on which information, ment decisions apply. All lands within coloring, or symbols are entered so a planning unit are included in one of that when the overlay is placed on the the identified management units. (U.S. map the effect is identical to having Forest Serv., FSM 8226, Oct., 1973) entered the overlay information on the 2. Range management usage. A map itself. By combining several over- subdivision of a management area. lays it becomes a simple matter to dis- (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) play a variety of data combinations and stratifications which would not be possible otherwise. (E. C. T.) Management zone 2. A map of an area to be superim- 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. For posed on one or more maps of the planning purposes, areas of land with same area. The purpose is to find the similar characteristics, whether they be spatial distribution of data combina- social, economic, or environmental tions, or more exactly the areas of characteristics, may be delineated into joint occurrence and unsimilar occur- management zones. Such a stratifica- rence. (After Amidon 1972) tion is used for planning areas to help 3. A digital image (as in a com- in delineating more precisely the par- puter) of areas as in definitions 1 and ticular area of land on which certain 2. (After Amidon 1972) coordinating criteria apply. Three management zones are defined for for- Map plan. See Paper plan. est service-wide use–water influence, travel influence, and special manage- Map, planimetric ment zones. Other zones may also be A map representing only the hori- designated by Regional Foresters. zontal position of features. (U.S. Dep (U.S. Forest Serv. FSM 8223, Oct., Def. 1968) 1973) Contrast with a topographic map Where planning areas encompass which shows both the horizontal and lands in portions of two or more For- vertical position of features. est Service Administrative Regions, the same zone name and description will Marginal land be used throughout the planning area. Land of questionable economic The use of management zones is op- capabilities for a specific purpose. tional. However, if management zones (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) are used, they will be applied uni- formly throughout the planning area. Market place A hypothetical construct of economic theory representing the place all Map, operational potential buyers and sellers of all goods A precise, detailed, large-scale map, and services come together, express usually with small contour intervals their desires and offer their wares, but sometimes only planimetric (i.e., through bargaining establish a price representing only the horizontal, posi- structure and production schedule, and tion of features), constructed for spe- complete their transactions. In standard

122 usage it refers to all locations where Master plan economic transactions occur treated as 1. City planning usage. A compre- a single whole. (E. C. T.) hensive, long-range plan intended to Market price. See Market value. guide the growth and development of a city, town, or region, expressing official Market value (Market price) contemplations on the course its tran- 1. A price at which both buyers and sportation, housing, and other com- sellers are willing to do business; the munity facilities should take, and mak- market or current price. (Webster 1963) ing proposals for industrial settlement, 2. "Market price": The price actu- commerce, population distribution, ally given in the current market deal- and other aspects of growth and devel- ings. opment. (Abrams 1971) The price at which the supply and 2. Also see Comprehensive plan. demand are equal. Webster 1963) 3. This term has been commonly used to describe or title any plan which Mass diagram is comprehensive or depicts or describes A graphical representation of cumu- an ultimate state of development. lative quantities over time. Each point There is no unified agreement on its on the curve is the sum of all preceding precise meaning or use in either theory quantities. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. or practice. The term is found in many Amer. 1970) books on planning, and appears in many Mass instability (Slope stability) planning ordinances and state laws–all An evaluation of the tendency for of which seldom make more than a per- the materials on a slope (e.g., rocks, soil, functory or superficial attempt to snow) to move downhill as a large mass. define its use precisely. With respect to (C. F. S. ) a suggested proper usage of "master Also see Landslide hazard, Snow plan", the California Planning Act avalanche hazard. (Calif. Gov. Code Title 7, Chap. 1, Art. 7, Sec. 65460) states that "Each com- Mass movement mission or planning department shall Downslope, unit movement of a por- prepare and the commission shall adopt tion of the land's surface–i.e., a single a comprehensive, long-term general landslide or the gradual simultaneous, plan for the physical development of downhill movement of the whole mass the city, county, area or region, and of of loose earth material on a slope face. any land outside its boundaries which in (After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) the commission's judgement bears rela- Also see Landslide. tion to its planning. The plan may be referred to as the master or general plan, Mass-wasting and shall be officially certified as the A general term for any of the variety master or general plan upon its adop- of processes by which large masses of tion by the planning commission and earth material are moved downslope by the legislative body." In this statement gravitational forces–either slowly or quickly. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) "master" never appears without the Also see Landslide. word "general". Thus "master" is made synonymous with "general". The state- Mast ment also implies that adoption by an Nuts, acorns, and similar products of official body is a mandatory prereq- hardwood species, which are consumed uisite for titling a plan "master plan". by animals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Thus plans not yet officially adopted 1964) should only use the term if it is qualified

123 by some phrase, such as "study for determine the attribute with the highest a . . . " or "proposed . . . ". value for each alternative and follow The term "master" has connotations this decision rule a very high degree of of grandiose schemes, an ultimate state comparability between attributes with- and inflexible authority. This term has in each alternative and among alter- been so loosely, and often incorrectly natives is needed. (After Mac Crimmon or dishonestly, used that it has gained 1968) disfavor in the urban planning profession. They now prefer to instead use the Maximin term "general plan" (see Comprehen- A method of choosing among alter- sive plan definition 1) in the titles of natives by noting the attribute with their more comprehensive, long-range the lowest value or quality standard plans and proposals, because it has least met for each alternative, and se- connotations of flexibility and thus lecting the alternative with the most more accurately reflects the nature of acceptable lowest valued attribute or such plans. (Marsh 1964) standard. In order to determine the 4. In the past, often defined and lowest valued attribute or worst met considered synonymous with com- standard, and follow this decision rule a prehensive plan. More recently convery high degree of comparability be- sidered a component part or functional tween attributes within each alternative class of a comprehensive plan, for exam- and among alternatives is needed. ple, master plan for highways and (After Mac Crimmon 1968) thoroughfares, master plan for parks and recreation, etc. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Maximum grazing capacity. See Grazing Amer. 1970) capacity, maximum

Material cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle. MBF (MBM). Lumber or timber measurement Matrix term. One thousand board feet. 1. Mathematical usage. A rectangular array of rows and columns of real Meadow numbers. Matrices may be subjected to 1. Range management usage. A mathematical operations such as multi- herb-land used primarily for hay pro- plication of one by another, addition of duction. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. two or more, and others. Matrices may 1964) be manipulated in total in a manner 2. Openings in forests and grass- similar to the algebraic manipulation of lands of exceptional productivity in single numbers, but knowledge of spe- arid regions, usually resulting from high cial rules, called matrix algebra, is neces- water content of the soil, as in stream- sary for such manipulation. (U.S. Gen. side situations and areas having a Account. Off. 1969) perched water table. (Amer. Soc. Range 2. For land use planning's more Manage. 1964) traditional usage, see Interaction matrix. Median lethal dose (LD50) The amount of concentration of a Maximax toxic substance which will result in the A method of choosing among alter- death of 50 percent of a group of test natives by noting the attribute with the organisms upon exposure (by inges- highest value for each alternative, and tion, application, injection or in their comparing these attributes across alter- surrounding environment) for a spec- natives to choose the alternative with ified period of time. (After Geckler, the maximum highest value. In order to et al. 1963)

124 Median tolerance limit (TLm ) Microclimate The concentration of some toxic 1. The local climate of a given site or substance at which just 50 percent of habitat varying in size from a tiny crev- the test animals are able to survive for ice to a large land area, but being usually a specified period of exposure. (Geck- characterized by considerable unifor- ler, et al. 1963) mity of climate over the site involved and relatively local as compared to its Merit-weights enveloping macroclimate from which it A system for evaluating differing differs because of local climatic factors uses by different sectors of the popula- (such as elevation and exposure). tion. Espoused by Mack and Myers (Webster 1963) (1965) primarily as a method of com- 2. The fine climatic structure of the paring different outdoor recreation air space which extends from the very uses. The number of user-days in each surface of the earth to a height where activity by each section of the popula- the effects of the immediate character tion is weighted prior to comparison by of the underlying surface no longer can a value representing a societal social be distinguished from the general local welfare function, and alternatives are climate (i.e., mesoclimate or macro- compared based on these "merit- climate). weighted" user days. (E.C.T.) The microclimate varies with and in turn is superimposed upon the larger- Mesic scale conditions. While some rigid limits 1. Refers to environmental condi- have been placed on the thickness of the tions that have medium moisture sup- layer concerned, it is more realistic to plies rather than Hygric (wet) or xeric consider variable thicknesses–e.g., the (dry) conditions. (Hanson 1962) microclimate of a putting green versus 2. The nature of an organism requir- that of a redwood forest. Generally, ing constant water availability. (Dan- four times the height of surface growth sereau 1957) or structures defines the level where microclimatic overtones disappear. Mesoclimate Microclimate can be subdivided into The climate of small areas of the as many different classes as there are earth's surface which may not be repre- types of underlying surface. With suffi- sentative of the general climate of the cient detail, this could be almost limit- district area involved. It is rather indef- less. Currently, the most studied broad inite and may include topographic or types are the "urban microclimate", landscape features from a few acres to a affected by pavement, buildings, air few square miles, such as small valleys, pollution, dense inhabitation, etc. and "frost hollows", forest clearings, and the "vegetation microclimate", con- open spaces in towns, all of which may cerned with the complex nature of the have extremes of temperature differing air space occupied by vegetation, and its by many degrees from those of adjacent effects upon the vegetation. (Huschle areas. The mesoclimate is intermediate 1959, citing Geiger 1951) in scale between the macroclimate and the microclimate. (Huschke 1959) Microeconomics Economic studies or statistics that Metamorphic rock. See Rock, metamor- consider particular individuals or single phic. commodities; for example, the demand for wheat or for employment in the Metropolitan state economic area. See auto industry. (Sloan 1961) State economic area, definition 2. Also see Macroeconomics.

125 Microrelief (Microtopography) are practical–typically between three 1. Ground surface irregularities and ten years in the future. Often, which when compared from a fixed however, the planning process is point of elevation between them dis- merely divided into the short-range play differences in elevation of not and long-range planning with a single more than 10 feet nor less than 3 inches dividing point, say five years in the fu- within a distance of 4 to 64 feet. (Stone ture, and the mid-range classification is and Dugundji 1965) not used. (E. C. T.) 2. Minor differences in surface con- 2. As used by the U.S. Water Re- figuration of the land surface. (Soil sources Council in its Principles and Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Standards. Middle term refers to planning for periods up to 15 to 25 years in Microtopography. See Microrelief. the future. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1974) Middle distance. See Middleground. Mineral Middleground (middle distance) 1. Mining laws usage. A substance 1. Those portions of a scene, land- is "mineral' under the general U.S. min- scape, etc., which occur between the ing laws: (1) if it is scientifically recog- foreground and the background. (Web- nized as such, (2) if it is classified ster 1963) commercially as such or (3) if it derives 2. The portions of a view between from the earth and possesses economic 1/4 or 1/2 mile and three to five miles value and utility aside from the agricul- distant from the observer. The "mid- tural purposes of the surface itself. dleground" portions of a view are es- (U.S. Forest Serv. 1958) pecially critical because they tend to The word "mineral" is not technical, dominate the view. It is in this distance either as having a special sense by com- range that the emergence of shapes mercial usage, or as having a scientific and patterns on the landscape can be meaning different from the popular clearly seen. Consequently the "Mid- meaning. Mineral is a word of common dleground" portions of a view often speech and, as such, its interpretation is best show whether man-made changes within the judicial knowledge and rest easily or uneasily on the landscape. therefore a matter of law. (Marvel vs. (Litton 1968) Merritt, 116 U.S. 11) Also see Background and Fore- 2. Mineral rights usage. Every inor- ground. ganic substance that can be extracted from the earth for profit, whether it be Middle term planning. See Mid-range solid, liquid or gas. planning. This usage of the term "mineral" Mid-range planning (Middle term planning, includes coal, petroleum and natural Mid-term planning) gas–even though these materials are not 1. Planning that combines elements truely inorganic. (Thrush 1968) of both long-range planning and short- 3. Nontechnical usage. In a broad range planning. Generally, mid-range nontechnical sense the term "mineral" planning is designed for that period be- embraces all inorganic and organic sub- yond the immediate actions of short- stances that are extracted from the range planning, thus allowing a more earth for use by man. (Thrush 1968) general identification of long term objectives and goals, and yet within the Mineral, common variety time period where reasonably accurate Earth materials which, although predictions of the future with corre- maybe having value for use in trade, sponding specific actions to be taken manufacture, the sciences, or in the

126 mechanical or ornamental arts, do not Mineral, leasable possess a distinct, special economic Types of minerals whose prospecting value for such use over and above the and development on public lands under normal uses of the general sum of such permit or lease was authorized by the deposits. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM Mineral Leasing Act of February 25, 2803.12, Jan 1959, citing 43 C.F.R. 1920, as amended and supplemented 185.121) (41 Stat. 437; 30 U.S.C. 181-287). For example, sand and gravel are fre- For example, coal, phosphate, sodi- quently present in abundance in most um, potassium, oil, oil shale, gas and in areas and that makes them a "common some states sulfur. (U.S. Forest Serv., variety mineral". FSM 2803.1.5, Jan. 1959) Neither mining claims nor mining Also see Mineral, excepted. claim patents can be filed for "common variety mineral" deposits. Mineral, locatable Precious or semi-precious minerals Mineral cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle. that are not considered to be common variety minerals–i.e., not such mate- Mineral entry rials as sand or gravel. The filing of a mining claim for pub- Locatable mineral deposits can be lic land to obtain the right to any miner- claimed and the mining claim patented, als it may contain. (Thrush 1968) thus converting it to private ownership. (U. S. Forest Serv., FSM 2800R-8) Mineral entry, withdrawals U. S. Forest Service usage. The exclu- Mineral location. See Location. sion of mining locations and mineral development work on areas required for Mineral rights administrative sites by the Forest Ser- The ownership of the minerals under vice and other areas highly valued by the a given surface, with the legal right to public. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM enter that area and mine and remove 2860.2, Mar. 1969) them–including the right to use as much of the land surface as may be Mineral, excepted reasonably necessary for the conduct of Types of minerals which are ex- mining operations. empted from the regulations in the "Mineral rights" may be separated general mining laws which authorize from the "surface rights" ownership, prospecting for and development of but, if not separated by a distinct con- mineral resources on public lands. veyance, are included in the latter. The excepted minerals are: oil, gas, (Thrush 1968) oil shale, coal, potassium, sodium and Also see Mineral, definition 2. phosphates and in Louisiana and New Mexico, sulfur. Similarly excepted as to Mineral soil mineral locations made after 1955 are A soil consisting predominantly of, the common variety minerals sand, and having its properties determined stone, gravel, pumice, pumicite or predominantly by inorganic matter. cinders. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM Usually containing less than 20 per- 2803.11, Jan. 1959) cent organic matter but sometimes Also see Mineral, leasable. containing an organic surface layer up to 30 centimeters thick. (Soil Conserv. Mineralization Soc. Amer. 1970) The breakdown of organic com- Also see Organic soil. pounds to their inorganic (i.e., mineral) forms–e.g., proteins to nitrates, Mine tailings phosphates, etc. (Hanson 1962) 1. The waste material remaining

127 after raw minerals or ore have been pro- Mining, auger cessed. (After Grim and Hill 1974) A mining method often used by sur- 2. Material separated as refuse or face mine operators when the amount separately treated as inferior in quality of material overlying the seam from or value. which a mineral (or ore) is being ex- The sand, gravel and cobbles which tracted gets too thick to be removed pass through sluices in placer mining. economically. Large diameter (2 to 7 Refuse material resulting from the feet), closely spaced holes are drilled up washing, concentration or treatment of to 200 feet into the seam using an auger ground ore. type bit whose head breaks up the de- The residual after most of a valuable posit and whose screwlike extensions ore has been extracted. (Thrush 1968) carry the material back out of the bore 3. The mining waste from open-pit hole and into the open. mining is termed "spoils" while "tail- Auger mining is usually associated ings" is usually used for the waste from with contour strip mining. It is a com- hard rock mining. (After Grim and Hill mon practice used to recover additional 1974) tonnage after the coal to overburden ratio has become too small to render Mining, area strip. See Mining, area surface. further contour strip mining economical. When the slope is too steep for Mining, area surface (Area strip mining) contour mining, augering is often per- A type of open-pit mining or strip formed directly into the hillside from a mining that is generally practiced on narrow bench. Augers are also used to gently rolling to relatively flat terrain recover coal near the outcrop that could on relatively large tracts of land and is not be extracted safely by underground commonly found in the mid and far mining. (After Thrush 1968 and Grim western United States. A trench is first and Hill 1974) cut through the overburden to expose the deposit of mineral or ore to be Mining claim (Claim) removed. The first cut is extended to 1. That portion of the public min- the limits of the property or deposits. eral lands which a miner, for mining The overburden from the first cut is placed on unmined land adjacent to the purposes, takes and holds in accord- cut. The mineral or ore is then removed. ance with mining laws. (Thrush 1968) Once the first cut is completed, a sec- 2. The portion of mining ground ond cut is made parallel to the first, and held under the Federal and local laws the overburden from the succeeding by one claimant or association, by vir- cuts is deposited in the cut just previ- tue of one location and record. ously excavated. The final cut leaves an A lode claim's maximum size is 600 open trench equal in depth to the thick- by 1500 feet and a placer claim's 600 ness of the overburden and the mineral by 1320 feet. bed removed, bounded on one side by A "claim" is sometimes called a the last spoil pile and on the other by "location" but these terms may often the undisturbed highwall. The final cut mean different things–e.g., "mining may be up to a mile or more from the claim" may refer to a parcel of land starting point, and the overburden from containing soil or rock which has value the cuts, unless graded or leveled, re- because of its chemical composition, sembles a plowed field or the ridges of a while "location" is the act of appropri- gigantic washboard. (Grim and Hill ating such land according to certain 1974) established rules. (Thrush 1968) Also contrast with Mining, contour 3. That portion of the public min- surface. eral lands located (see location) and

128 held for mining purposes. (U.S. Forest vere erosion and landslides. (Grim and Serv., FSM 2811.1.F, Sept., 1958) Hill 1974) Also contrast with Area surface Mining claim, patented mining. A mining claim to which a patent has been secured from the government Mining debris, hot (Hot waste, Hot spoils, by compliance with the laws relating Hot tailings) to such claims. Refers to materials in the overbur- The patent is a legal document den, mining refuse, mine tailings or which conveys the title to the ground mining spoils piles that are highly acid (i.e., ownership) to the claim's owner. producing or difficult to revegetate be- No further annual assessment work cause of its acid nature. (Grim and Hill need be done, but property taxes must 1974) henceforth be paid. (Thrush 1968) Contrasts with sweet waste which is neutral or slightly alkaline.

Mining claim, valid Mining debris, sweet (Sweet waste, Sweet A claim where there is an actual dis- spoils, Sweet tailings) covery of valuable minerals in quanti- Refers to materials in the overbur- ties such that it would be profitable to den, mining refuse, mine tailings or mine. (U.S. Forest Serv. Lolo Natl. mining spoils that are neutral or slight- Forest 1974B) ly alkaline and capable of supporting certain calcium-demanding plants. Mining, contour surface (Contour strip (After Grim and Hill 1974) mining) Contrasts with hot waste which is A type of strip mining that is prac- highly acid or difficult to revegetate ticed in areas of hilly topography because of its acid nature. when the coal seam outcrops on or approaches the surface at approxi- Mining hydraulic. See Mining, placer. mately the same elevation along a hillside. The conventional method of min- Mining, lode ing consists of removing the over- The mining of a valuable mineral burden from the mineral seam, starting which occurs as a tabular deposit be- at the outcrop and proceeding around tween definite, contrasting mineral or the hillside. The cut appears as a con- rock boundaries. tour line, thus, the name. Overburden "Lode", as used by miners is nearly is cast down the hillside and stacked synonymous with the term "vein" or along the outer edge of the operating "ore body" as employed by geologists. bench. After the uncovered seam is A lode consists of several veins spaced removed, successive cuts are made closely enough together so that all of until the depth of the overburden be- them, together with the intervening comes too great for economical recov- rock, can be mined as a unit. ery of the coal. Physical limitations of The maximum size of an individual equipment reach, capacity, etc., may "lode claim" is 1500 by 600 feet. also determine the strippable limit or (Thrush 1968) cut-off point for mining. Contour mining creates a shelf or bench on the side Mining, open cast. See Mining, open-pit. of the hill. On the inside it is bordered Mining, open cut. See Mining, open-pit. by the highwall, ranging in height from a few feet to more than 100 feet; and Mining, open-pit (opencut mining, open on the outer side the pit is bordered cast mining) by a high ridge of spoil with a precipi- A form of mining operation which tous downslope that is subject to se- extracts minerals that occur near the

129 surface from an open excavation. mining operations-surface or subsur- Waste materials overlying the minerals face. (After Thrush 1968) are first removed and then the mineral 3. All overburden material re- materials are broken up and removed. moved, disturbed or displaced from The mining of metal bearing ores over a mineral deposit by excavating by surface mining methods is com- equipment, blasting, augering or any monly termed "open-pit mining" as other means. (Grim and Hill 1974) distinguished from the strip mining of 4. Contrast with mining refuse coal and the "quarrying" of other non- which is the solid waste left by mineral metallic materials such as limestone, processing operations. Mine tailings is building stone, etc. (Thrush 1968) also sometimes used in this latter sense. (After Grim and Hill 1974) Mining, pit 1. Surface mining in which the material mined is removed from below Mining, strip the surrounding land surface. (Thrush 1. Any operation in connection 1968) with prospecting for, excavating, or 2. Any mine, quarry or excavation mining minerals which results in a area worked by open-pit mining meth- large-scale surface or stream bottom ods to obtain material of value. (Thrush disturbance from stripping, trenching, 1968) dredging, rim cutting or open-pit dig- ging. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2840, Mining, placer Sept., 1958) The extraction of valuable heavy 2. The mining of coal by surface minerals from a placer deposit (a mass mining methods as distinguished from of sand, gravel or other similar alluvial the mining of metalliferous ores by material) by concentration in running surface mining methods which is com- water. monly designated as "open-pit min- When water under pressure is em- ing". (Thrush 1968) ployed to break down placer deposits 3. Refers to a type of surface placer mining is generally termed "hy- mining that removes all the waste draulic mining". (Thrush 1968) material from over a coal deposit in a series of rows (or strips), one cut at a Mining, pre-law strip time. A term used to refer to strip mining Strip mining methods employed to operations conducted previous to the recover coal can be divided into two passage of a states' first mining recla- general types: area mining and contour mation act. (Grim and Hill 1974) mining. (Grim and Hill 1974)

Mining reclamation. See Reclamation. Mining, surface (Strip mining, Open cast Mining refuse mining, Open-cut mining, Open-pit The solid waste from a mineral mining) preparation or refining plant. (After 1. Surface mining is a very broad Grim and Hill 1974) term and refers to any process of removing the earth, rock, and other Mining spoils (Mining waste) strata in order to uncover the underly- 1. The overburden or nonore mate- ing mineral or fuel deposit. (Grim and rial removed in gaining access to the Hill 1974) ore of mineral material in surface min- 2. The removal of solid, earth ing. (Thrush 1968) materials having value from surface 2. Any dirt or rock which has been excavations. removed from its original location by This type of mining is generally

130 done where the material overlying the For example, some of the 11 mis- materials being sought can be removed sions of the U.S. Department of Agri- without too much expense. culture are to work on problems asso- Surface mining of metal bearing ore ciated with (1) environmental im- is commonly termed open-pit mining provement, and resource development while the surface mining methods used and use, (2) rural development, for coal removal are commonly termed (3) agricultural production efficiency, strip mining. (Thrush 1968) etc. (After U.S. Dep. Agric. Off. Man- 3. Mining activity involving exten- age. Finance 1974) sive land surface, and/or water body disturbance, including "strip mining", placer mining, mineral exploratory Mobility, social. See Social mobility. activities, etc. (Sandpoint Zone Plan- ning Team) Model 1. An idealized representation of Mining waste. See Mining spoils. reality for purposes of describing, analyzing or understanding the behavior Minority groups of some aspect of it. The term model A term commonly limited to racial is applicable to a broad class of repre- and ethnic minorities, principally sentations, ranging from a relatively blacks and Spanish-speaking, but the simple qualitative description of a sys- meaning is currently in flux, and, by tem or organization to a highly ab- extension, may be applied to other stract set of mathematical equations. minorities–American Indians, Oriental (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) Americans, Appalachians, women, the 2. A representation of the relation- young, the old, homosexuals, the im- ships that define a situation under prisoned, the mentally ill, drug ad- study. A model may be a set of mathe- dicts, alcoholics and rural migrants. matical equations, a computer pro- (O'Connell 1974) gram, or any other type of representation, ranging from verbal statements to Miscellaneous land type physical objects. (U.S. Gen. Account. U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- Off. 1969) age. A mapping unit for areas of land 3. A simplified representation of that have little or no natural soil, or an operation, containing only those that are too nearly inaccessible for aspects of primary importance to the orderly examination, or that occur problem under study. (U.S. Forest where, for other reasons, it is not feasi- Serv. 1972B) ble to classify the soil. Examples are alluvial land, bad- Model, deterministic lands, made land, marsh, mine dump, A model in which the variables take mine wash, river wash, rock land, on only definite values; that is, a rough broken land, rubble land, scoria model that does not permit any risk as land, swamp, urban land. (Soil Con- to the magnitude of the variables. For serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) example, a set of simultaneous equations for which there is a unique solu- Mission tion is a deterministic model. (U.S. A major, continuing problem or Gen. Account. Off. 1969) concern that programs are designed to Also see Model, probabilistic. address. Missions represent the basic reasons for the existence of an organi- Modeling. See Model. zation in a governmental agency and characterize an organization's role in Model, probabilistic solving problems. 1. A model in which each variable

131 may take on more than one value. Morphological region. See Region, mor- Such models are sometimes called phological. stochastic which means, literally, making a best guess. (U.S. Gen. Ac- Morphology count. Off. 1969) Within the subject matter of geo- 2. A model that makes allowances morphology, the meaning of "mor- for randomness in one or more of the phology" is restricted to studies of the factors that determine the outputs of surface form of the earth–without any the model. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) reference to the processes responsible 3. Also see Model, deterministic. for those forms. "Morphology" is not synonymous Model, stochastic. See Model, probabil- with "geomorphology." (After Savi- istic. gear 1965)

Modulation Most probable number (MPN) In land use planning "modulation" A statistical evaluation of degree of is the modification of any aspect of a water pollution based on presence of land use plan in order that it more coliform bacteria. It is not feasible to nearly expresses the constituency's identify the exact concentration of interpretation of the relevant goals and coliform bacteria in a water sample. objectives. The MPN interprets test results in By "modulation" each part of the terms of results observed. (Feth 1973) plan is kept in proper measure or proportion relative to the whole. MPN. See Most probable number. "Modulation" is the regulation of the various controlling factors–i.e., Muddling through. See Incrementalism. natural environment, institutional control and public demands in such a way Multidisciplinary team that the optimum proportion of public 1. A joint effort by two or more welfare may be obtained. (Hills, Love people having different scientific train- and Lacate 1970) ing and/or backgrounds all assigned responsibilities in the same activity or Mores, social. See Social mores. effort. Each specialist is assigned a por- Morphogenetic region. See Region, mor- tion of the problem and their individ- phogenetic. ual solutions are combined to provide the complete solution. (After U.S. Morphologic. See Physiographic. Forest Serv. 1972B) 2. A group of individuals with dif- Morphological map ferent training assembled to solve a A morphological map represents problem or perform a task. The team the form of the surface of the land. is assembled out of recognition that no For example, a map of occurrence one scientific discipline is sufficiently of various slope steepness categories is broad to adequately solve the prob- a morphological map. lem. The problem is broken into pieces If some other aspect or classifica- and each specialist works on a portion tion, or interpretation of the earth's of the problem. Their partial solutions surface is shown a map is, for example are then linked together to provide the a surficial geology, a soils, a morpho- final solution. This is different from an graphic or a morphogenetic map–not interdisciplinary team which does not a morphological map. A countour map break the problem apart by disciplines, is not a morphological map because it but instead works with frequent inter- only portrays elevation relationships. action so that each discipline may pro- (After Savigear 1965) vide insights into any part of the prob-

132 lem and disciplines may combine to single purpose resource user, may seem provide new solutions beyond the inefficient or economically ruinous. scope of any single discipline. (E.C.T.) Under this concept the aim of resource Also see Interdisciplinary team. use allocation is to maximize the national well-being, promoting general Multifunctional social and economic prosperity. A joint effort by two or more peo- Social needs are not necessarily best ple, each person having a different served by maximizing the production functional or resource responsibility of a single resource (or even by maxi- such as timber management, engineer- mizing the production of several re- ing, etc., but not necessarily different sources) but by that over-all mix of training or backgrounds. (U.S. Forest total national resource uses that brings Serv. 1972B) the greatest social and economic benefits. (After Rowe and Mc Cormack Multiple use 1968) 1. Three somewhat different ideas are involved: (1) different uses of adja- Multiple use management cent subareas which together form a Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act composite multiple-use area, (2) the al- usage. The management of all the vari- ternation in time of different uses on ous renewable surface resources of the the same area, and (3) more than one national forests so that they are uti- use of an area at one time. lized in the combination that will best In the first two ideas it is implicit meet the needs of the American peo- that direct competition between uses ple; making the most judicious use of is avoided by alternating them in space the land for some or all of these re- or in time. The third idea involves mul- sources or related services over areas tiple use in the sense of simultaneous large enough to provide sufficient lati- use of one space and must concern tude for periodic adjustments in use to itself with complementary versus con- conform to changing needs and condi- flicting activities, compatible and tions; that some land will be used for incompatible uses. less than all of the resources; and har- Where spatially coincident uses are monious and coordinated management involved at a given time, conflicts be- of the various resources, each with the tween resource users will almost al- other, without impairment of the pro- ways occur and the concept of such ductivity of the land, with considera- forms of multiple use should be realis- tion being given to the relative values tically interpreted as a dominant use of the various resources, and not nec- with secondary uses integrated only in- essarily the combination of uses that sofar as they are compatible with the will give the greatest dollar return or first. However where the idea of in- the greatest unit output. (Multiple compatibility relates to the economics Use-Sustained Yield Act) of productivity maximization of single resource yields, management and mul- Multiple use planning tiple use can perhaps be validated in U.S. Forest Service usage. The of- terms other than single-resource pro- ficial planning system for the National duction efficiency. (After Rowe and Forests until replaced in 1972 by the Me Cormack 1968) "land use planning" system. Based pri- 2. Multiple use is also a modern marily on subdivisions within National social concept whereby the consumer Forests, the principal document was public demands a variety of values the ranger district multiple use plan. from a resource in ways that, to the Each National Forest was divided into

133 Ranger Districts, Management zones, plier" and the amount of a small and Management Units. (After U.S. change in the component, a simple Forest Serv., FSM 8226, Oct., 1973) multiplication gives a prediction of the In general, planning based on the change in the total. This prediction concepts of multiple use and multiple will be accurate if the basic equilib- use management. "Multiple use plan- rium equations used to derive the mul- ning" is a less complex precursor of tiplier accurately describe the econom- land use planning. ic processes involved. (After Samuel- son 1948) Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act (74 For example, export base analysis is Stat. 215; 16 U.S.C. 528-531) a type of multiplier analysis. Here, it is Authorizes and directs that the assumed that there is a simple, multi- National Forests be managed under plicative relationship between the "ex- principles of multiple use for outdoor port" sector of the economy and the recreation, range, timber, watershed, total economic activity of the region and wildlife and fish purposes, and to (the derivative of the total with re- produce a sustained yield of products spect to the export sector is a con- and services, and for other purposes. stant). Levels of, and changes in, the This Act does not affect the use or total regional economic activity are administration of the mineral re- assumed to be simple multiples of the sources of National Forest lands or the levels of, and changes in, the economic use or administration of Federal lands activity in the export sector. (E.C.T.) not within National Forests. (U.S. For- est Serv. 1974) MU-SY. See Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act. Multiplier (Weights) 1. General "land use planning" us- Myth age. The numerical value reflecting re- Sociological usage. A story, ratio- lative importance which is assigned to nale or explanation for the belief(s) of a resource yield or use-affecting factor a culture, subculture, life style or oth- when all values cannot be directly er social group–e.g., the belief of some compared by existing techniques for that the physically rugged experience quantitative conversion to one mea- of wilderness living is good for one's surement scale. (C.F.S.) health and many of the other beliefs Also see Weighting. about man's relationship to nature. 2. Econometric usage. Although in Popular usage regards "myths" as simplified analysis "multipliers" are fanciful fiction; but in sociological often treated as constants, in more de- usages the term is not used in the sense tailed analysis multipliers are given by of beliefs which have been shown to functions based on levels of, and de- be incorrect. Sociological usage of that grees of change in, some economic term with respect to a belief places activity. "Multipliers", in economic emphasis on the critical point that the theory, are functions relating a change myth (rightly or wrongly) is or has in some total measure to a change in been believed and therefore can be some component of the total (the deri- used to explain people's attitudes, vative of the total with respect to the behavior, preferences, etc. (After component). Knowing the "multi- O'Connell 1974)

134 N National Ambient Air Quality Standards ing to them. (After U.S. Dep. of Agric. Standards which define the levels of 1974) air quality which the U.S. Environ 3. Also see Principles and Stan- mental Protection Agency judges are dards. necessary to provide an adequate margin of safety to protect the public National economic effects health. (Sesco, et al. 1973) Effects of an action or inaction on dollar market transactions in the Na tion as a whole. This includes both ag National economic development gregation of microeconomic effects 1. U.S. Water Resources Council (individual product, industry or sector (WRC) usage. effects) and macroeconomic effects One of the two main objectives of (money supply, inflation, total eco planning for water and related land re- nomic growth effects). (E. C. T.) sources by Federal agencies whose activities involve planning and develop National Environmental Policy Act (P.L. ment of water resources, as contained 91-190; 83 Stat. 852; 42 U.S.C. 4321, in the Water Resources Council Prin- 4331-4335, 4341-4347) ciples and Standards. An act to declare a National policy "National economic development" which will encourage productive and reflects increases in the Nation's pro enjoyable harmony between man and ductive output, an output which is his environment, to promote efforts partly reflected in a national product which will prevent or eliminate dam- and income accounting framework to age to the environment and biosphere measure the continuing flow of goods and stimulate the health and welfare and services into direct consumption of man, to enrich the understanding of or investment. the ecological systems and natural re- In addition, national economic sources important to the Nation and development is affected by beneficial to establish a Council on Environmen and adverse externalities stemming tal Quality (CEQ). (U.S. Forest Serv. from normal economic production and 1974) consumption, imperfect market condi Also see Environmental impact tions, and changes in productivity of statement. resource inputs due to investment. National Forest land use plan. See Forest National economic development as land use plan. defined in these procedures is only partially reflected in the gross national National Forest System product (GNP) and national income The National Forest System con accounting framework. (U.S. Dep. of sists of units of Federally owned for Agric. 1974) est, range, and related lands through- 2. One of the four "required ac out the United States and its terri counts" for categorizing, displaying, or tories, united into a nationally signifi "accounting" the beneficial and ad- cant system dedicated to the long-term verse effects of each alternative plan benefit for present and future genera formulation for water and related land tions. The National Forest System in resources planning specified in the cludes all National Forest lands re- Water Resources Council's "Principles served or withdrawn from the public and Standards" and the U.S. Dept. of domain of the United States, all Na Agriculture's "Procedures" for adher tional Forest lands acquired through

135 purchase, exchange, donation, or other state and local as well as National sig means, the National Grasslands and nificance; authorizes matching Federal land utilization projects administered grants to states and the National Trust under Title III of the Bankhead-Jones for Historic Preservation for acquisi Farm Tenant Act (50 Stat. 525, 7 tion and rehabilitation of National U.S.C. 1010-1012), and other lands, Register properties; establishes an Ad waters, or interests therein which are visory Council on Historic Preserva administered by the Forest Service or tion; provides procedures in Section are designated for administration 106 for Federal agencies to follow in through the Forest Service as a part of the event a proposal may affect a Na the system. (Forest and Rangeland Re- tional Register property. (U.S. Forest newable Resources Planning Act of Serv., FSM 2361.01, Feb. 1974) 1974) National Land Use Policy Act. See Land Use Policy and Planning Assistance National Historic Landmark Act. The Historic Sites Act of 1935 authorized designation of areas of National Natural Landmark. See National major National historic and cultural Registry of Natural Landmarks. significance as "National Historic Landmarks". National Register of Historic Places The "National Historic Landmark" A listing (maintained by the U.S. program is administered by the U.S. National Park Service) of areas which National Park Service. have been designated as being of his Designation as a "National Historic torical significance. The Register in Landmark" makes management of the cludes places of local and state signifi resource for its historic values the cance as well as those of value to the dominant objective. Nation as a whole. The landowner or manager must re- The Register is a National inventory quest that a property be considered of our historical resources, providing for "Landmark" designation. It will an idea of the total size of this re- not be placed on the Register of His source base. toric Landmarks without his involve The "National Register of Historic ment and concurrence in the decision. Places" is separate and distinct from (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2363, July the National Historic Landmarks pro- 1973) gram–though the latter are routinely entered in the Register to afford them National Historic Preservation Act of the additional protection of the 1966 (80 Stat. 915) National Historic Preservation Act of The National Historic Preservation 1966 which is not given by the His- Act of 1966 declares a National policy toric Sites Act of 1935. of historic preservation (defined in the Federal funds may not be expended Act as "the protection, rehabilitation, on any project which will affect any restoration, and reconstruction of dis site or object listed on the Register tricts, sites, buildings, structures, and without first affording the Advisory objects significant in American his- Council an opportunity to comment. tory, architecture, archeology, or cul (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2363, July ture"), including the encouragement 1973) of preservation on the state and pri vate levels; directs the expansion of National Registry of Natural Landmarks the National Register of Historic A register of areas possessing such Places to include cultural resources of exceptional values or qualities for illus-

136 trating or interpreting the natural heri in the area in which they are found– tage of our Nation that they are con i.e., were not introduced and naturally sidered to be of National significance. occur in that area. (Henderson, Hen- To possess National significance such derson and Kenneth 1963) an area must be a true, accurate, essen Also see Endemic organism and tially unspoiled example of nature. contrast with Species, resident; Spe- The legislative authority for the cies, naturalized; Species, exotic; and Natural Landmarks Program stems Species, feral. from the Historic Sites Act of August 21, 1935 (49 Stat. 666, 16 U.S.C. Native pasture. See Pasture, native. 641). The "Register of National Natu ral Landmarks" was established in Native pasture land. See Pasture, native. 1963 and later renamed in 1965 to the "National Registry of Natural Land- Native species. See Native organism. marks". The Natural Landmark program Natural does not have the protection features Existing in, or formed by, nature; of Section 106 of the National His not artificial. (Stamp 1961) toric Preservation Act of 1966. Thus, designation of a National Natural Natural Area. See Natural Area Preserve Landmark presently constitutes only and Natural Area, Research. an agreement with the owner to preserve, insofar as possible, the signifi Natural Area Preserve (Natural Reserve, cant natural values of the site or area. Natural Area, Research Natural Area) Administration and preservation of 1. An area which retains a natural Natural Landmarks is solely the own or relatively natural condition. Within ers responsibility. The agreement it, wild parks, sanctuaries, refuges or may be terminated by either party upon wilderness can be designated. To qual notification of the other. (U.S. Forest ify as a Natural Area Preserve, a site Serv., FSM 2363, July 1973 and June should be under protection, usually by 1974) a nonprofit agency or a Government agency. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation National Trails System Act (82 Stat. 919; 1974) 16 U.S.C. 1241-1249) 2. A physical and biological unit in Institutes a national system of rec as near a natural condition as possible reation and scenic trails. Designates which exemplifies typical or unique the Appalachian Trail and the Pacific vegetation and associated biotic, soil, Crest Trail as the initial components of geologic and aquatic features. The unit that system and prescribes the meth is maintained in a natural condition by ods by which, and standards according allowing physical and biological pro to which, additional components may cesses to operate, usually without di be added to the system. Additional rect human intervention. (Buckman trails should be established primarily and Quintus 1972) near urban areas and secondarily with- 3. Also frequently used as a syn in established, more remotely located onym for Natural Area, Research. scenic areas. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974) Natural Area, Research (Nature Reserve, Natural Area Preserve) Native grazing land. See Grazing land, 1. An area set aside by a public or native. private agency specifically to preserve a representative sample of an ecologi Native organism cal community, primarily for scientific Animals or plants which originated and educational purposes.

137 Commercial exploitation is ordinar plant community that should be pre- ily not allowed and general public use served, the most suitable area that is discouraged. approached these conditions should be Where the vegetation in the Natural selected. Area is not of a stable, climax type, Research Natural Areas should be management measures may be taken large enough to provide essentially un to keep it at its present state–i.e., pre- modified conditions in their interior scribed burning or controlled grazing portions–usually over 300 acres. Ex to conserve certain floral and/or faunal ceptions to the usual minimum of 300 acres should be limited to truly out- characteristics. (Ford-Robertson 1971) standing cases. 2. U.S. Bureau of Land Manage The criterion for management of ment usage. Areas containing typical these areas is for protection against un or unusual faunistic or floristic types, natural encroachments. Logging activi associations, or other biotic phenome ties and uncontrolled grazing by do na, or characteristic or outstanding mestic livestock are not permitted. geologic, pedologic (i.e., soil), or aqua- Forest Service Experiment Station tic features or processes, and which directors may authorize such manage have been established and maintained ment practices as are necessary to pre- for the primary purpose of research serve some representation of the vege and education on the ecology, succes tation for which the Natural Area was sional trends and other aspects of the originally created. Only tried and relia natural environment. ble techniques will be used and then Research and study that is nondes only where the vegetative type would tructive and consistent with the pur otherwise be lost without manage pose for which such an area has been ment. established is encouraged. The general Research on Natural Areas will be public may be excluded or restricted essentially nondestructive in nature. where necessary to protect studies or (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 4063, preserve these areas. (After 43 C.F.R. Jan. and Mar. 1975) Also see Natural Area Preserve. 6225.0-5(A)) 3. U.S. Forest Service usage. Desig Natural capability. See Capability. nated areas representing as many as possible of the major, natural timber Natural carrying capacity. See Carrying types or other plant communities in capacity, ecological. unmodified condition. Other forest or range conditions that have special or Natural erosion. See Erosion, natural. unique characteristics of scientific or educational interest, such as examples Natural hazard (Environmental hazard) of grass or timber types near the limits 1. Those elements in the physical of their environmental range, unique environment, harmful to man and bog associations, or unusual combina caused by forces extraneous to him. (Burton and Kates 1964) tions of flora may also be set aside. To 2. Those elements in the physical whatever extent is feasible, animal life environment, which men perceive as should also be present in unmodified harmful and caused by extraneous condition. forces. (Sims and Baumann 1974; As a general guide, these areas modification of Burton and Kates should show evidence of no major dis 1964) turbance by man, such as timber cut ting, for at least the past 50 years. On Natural hazard lands rare occasions, however, in a valuable Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for

138 a National Land Use Policy and Plan- be an object of choice. (Irland 1974) ning Assistance Act. 3. Capacities or materials supplied Areas where uncontrolled or incom by nature. (Webster 1963) patible development could unreason- 4. In the narrow sense, natural re- ably endanger life and property. These sources are original aspects of nature lands include flood plains and areas untransformed by man, such as air, frequently subject to weather disas water, sunshine, wild animals or wild ters, areas of unstable geological, ice, vegetation, which are able to spontane or snow formations, and areas with ously satisfy human wants. high seismic or volcanic activity. In a wider sense the term "natural This is one of the three types of resources" also encompasses the subareas of critical environmental concern stances, forces, conditions, relation- specifically set forth in this bill. The ships and other aspects of nature others are renewable resource lands which are transformed by man and and fragile or historic lands. (U.S. underlie, shape, affect or inhere in that Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular complex mixture of natural and cul Aff. 1973) tural landscapes which constitute the environment of modern man. (Stamp Natural history resource 1961, citing Encyclopedia of the So- U.S. Forest Service usage. Natural cial Sciences 1933) phenomena which reference the devel opment of the earth's surface and the 5. The term "natural resources" is evolution of life. Two interrelated cat identical with the formal economic egories of natural features are recog concept of land. (Stamp 1961, citing nized. One, the geological category, Sloan and Zurcher 1949) results from forces and processes act 6. To be considered a natural re- ing on the earth's surface to produce source, a material or an area must be land forms and other nonliving enti useful, or of value, to a particular cul ties. The other, the ecological cate ture. It must also, by definition, be gory, involves living entities and pro basic or primary, not a manufactured cesses between biological forms and or processed product. (U.S. Bur. Out- their environments. (U.S. Forest Serv., door Recreation 1974) FSM 2362.05, June 1974) Natural resource district. See Soil con- Naturalized species. See Species, natural- servation district. ized. Natural law. See Law, natural. Natural resource zoning. See Zoning, natural resource. Natural Preserve. See Natural Area Pre- serve and Natural Area, Research. Natural vegetation 1. The vegetation native to an area Natural Region. See Region, Natural. prior to modification by man. (Dur- Natural Reserve. See Natural Area Pre- renberger 1973) serve and Natural Area, Research. 2. Vegetation which is primarily due to nature rather than to man. Natural Resource (Stamp 1961, citing Tansley 1939) 1. A feature of the natural environ 3. Vegetation (condition and/or ment that is of value in serving human species composition) that has been but needs. (Irland 1974) little changed by man. (Stamp 1961, 2. Any feature of the natural en citing Unstead 1953) vironment about which choices must be Ecological research has demon made. It need not be possessable to strated that little of the existing vege-

139 tation is unmodified by man's activi Negative feedback. See Feedback loop. ties either directly (i.e., burning or cut ting) or indirectly (i.e., introduction of Nekton grazing animals or exotic plants). The The whole group of aquatic animals current tendency is to call all vegeta that swim actively and may move long tion not deliberately managed or con- distances for feeding or breeding. trolled by farming activities "natural Those aquatic organisms that are vegetation" or to use the term "semi- carried passively by water currents or natural". (Stamp 1961) the wind are termed plankton and those that dwell on the bottom ben- Nature Preserve. See Natural Area Pre- thos. (Southward 1965) serve and Natural Area, Research. Neoteric area Nature Reserve. See Natural Area Pre- U.S. Forest Service usage. Sites and serve and Natural Area, Research. areas which have been designated by the Forest Service as containing out- Needs standing examples of man's modern The fundamental motivations and culture which will obviously become requirements of man, not to be con- historic properties in the future. An fused with "wants" or "desires". example would be a present-day build (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1971) ing designed by a very popular archi The distinction between "needs" tect. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2361.23, and "wants" becomes cloudy and sub June 1974) ject to debate beyond the minimal Areas of this type and all other spe- levels of basics such as food, clothing, cial interest areas are identified and shelter, drinkable water, and breath- formally classified primarily because able air. Items which most Americans of their recreational values. (W. W.) would consider necessities of life may NEPA. See National Environmental Poli- be useless extravagances to other cul cy Act. tures. Psychological studies have indi cated that conditions which should have Net residential density. See Residential no effect on the body may be density. necessities for maintaining mental health, and therefore physical health New study area. See Wilderness study and productivity. (E.C.T.) area.

Negative declaration. See Negative decla- New wilderness study area. See Wilder- ration statement. ness study area.

Negative declaration statement (Negative Niche declaration) l. "Habitat niche" or "spatial A statement finding that a pro- niche" usage. A place or position of posed action does not constitute a life suitable for the capabilities or mer major Federal, state or local agency its of an organism or qualities of a action significantly affecting the qual thing. ity of the human environment and A site or habitat supplying the fac therefore does not require an environ tors characteristically necessary for the mental impact statement. (E. C. T.) successful existence of an organism or Also see Environmental analysis species. (After Webster 1963) report. 2. "Ecological niche" usage. The role of an organism in an ecological Negative easement. See Easement, nega- community, involving especially its tive. way of life and its effect on the envi-

140 ronment–as through its relations to Nonconforming use. See Use, noncon- other biotic and abiotic factors. (Web- forming. ster 1963) The "ecological niche" of an orga Nonconsumptive quality nism consists of where it lives, what it The quality of an area or resource does (how it transforms energy, be- for satisfying uses which do not alter haves, responds to and modifies its the area or resource. (E.C.T.) physical and biotic environment), and Also see Nonconsumptive use. how it is constrained by other species. The "ecological niche" can be subdi Nonconsumptive use vided into a "trophic niche" and a 1. Those uses of resources that do "multidimensional or hypervolume not reduce the supply, such as many niche". (1) "Trophic niche". The feed types of recreation. (U.S. Forest Serv. ing role or position of an organism in a 1972B) biotic community–e.g., producer, con- 2. A use of an area or resource sumer, herbivore, carnivore, detrivore, which does not alter the area or re- etc. (2) "Multidimensional or hyper- source, and which the fact of one per- volume niche". An organism's position son partaking of this use does not re in the environmental gradients, such as duce the quality for another user. temperature, moisture, PH, soil and (E. C. T.) other conditions controlling existence. 3. For example, for water some (After Odum 1971) consumptive uses are irrigation and do mestic and industrial use, while "non- Nitrogen cycle consumptive uses" would include di The sequence of biochemical rect power generation as well as boat changes undergone by nitrogen, where- ing, swimming, etc. (E.M.G.) in it is used by a living organism, liber ated upon the death and decomposi Noncontinuous easement. See Easement, tion of the organism and converted to discontinuous. its original state of oxidation. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Non-Federal lands Usage in the now dead, 1973 bill Noise for a National Land Use Policy and Sound that lacks agreeable quality, Planning Assistance Act. All lands is noticeably loud, harsh or discordant. which are not Federal lands or reserva- (Sesco, et al. 1973) tion and other tribal lands and which are not held by the Federal govern Noise pollution ment in trust for the benefits of Indi 1. The addition of energy in the ans, Aleuts, and Eskimos. (U.S. form of sound to the environment Congr., Senate, Com. Inter. Insular beyond what would naturally occur or Aff. 1973) of a type which would not naturally occur. The degree of pollution is mea Non-market good valuation sured in terms of intensity, duration, Assessing the value of a good or ser frequency of occurrence, and sound vice which is not traded in the market frequency (wavelength or pitch). place and has no market value. Be- (E. C. T.) cause it is not bought and sold some 2. Sound that unreasonably inter other measure than price must be used feres with the enjoyment of life or in establishing the value. (E. C. T.) property. (Sesco, et al. 1973) Also see Market value.

Nonapparent easement. See Easement, Nonmetric scaling discontinuous. A method of choosing among alter-

141 natives similar to multiple factor anal quantity does not increase significant ysis and not based on measuring values ly with time. Thus with the total ini of the attributes of alternatives. The tial supply being limited in quantity decision makers are given pairs of each use must diminish the total stock hypothetical alternatives varying in (Wantrup's stock resources category). only one attribute. By statistical analy (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968) sis the decision makers' preferences 3. The concept of an "exhaustible" between the pairs are combined to give resource is only meaningful if em an "ideal alternative" as an origin and ployed in an economic sense. Long be- a coordinate system for measuring fore a given resource is physically used variations from the "ideal". The actual up it may be "exhausted" in the sense alternatives are then measured against that further utilization is indefinitely this internally derived scale, and the discontinued because the costs of pro alternative with the smallest distance ducing any possible quantity of this re- in the coordinate system from the source are larger than the revenues "ideal" origin is selected. (After that could be obtained from this quan Mac Crimmon 1968) tity. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968) The economic concept of resource exhaustibility typically only applies to Nonpersistent pesticide (Soft pesticides) commodity type resources because bi A pesticide whose harmful effects ological, locational and amenity type are of relatively short duration and, resources can be physically (by extinc therefore, do not normally contami tion or site occupancy) or conceptu nate the environment for long periods ally (alteration of primeval wilderness after application. Phosphate-based conditions) exhausted. (C.F.S.) pesticides such as Malathion and Para thion are examples of nonpersistent Nonselected inventoried roadless area. pesticides. (Sesco, et al. 1973) See Nonselected roadless area.

Non-point pollution source. See Non- Nonselected roadless area point source pollution. A roadless or undeveloped portion of a National Forest greater than 5000 Non-point source pollution (Non-point acres (or smaller than 5000 acres but pollution source) contiguous to designated wilderness or Pollution whose source is general primitive areas) which after admini rather than specific in location. It is strative review by the Forest Service widely used in reference to agricultural has been deleted from consideration and related pollutants. (Sesco, et al, for inclusion in the wilderness area sys 1973) tem. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8261.05, For example, logging operations Apr. 1974) production of sediments, agricultural Also see Roadless and undeveloped pesticide applications, automobile ex areas and Wilderness study areas. haust pollution, etc. Also see Point source pollution. Non-use. For range management usage see Use, Non-. Nonrenewable resources (Stock resource, Exhaustible resource) Non-utilization. For range management 1. "Stock" resources and "exhaust usage see Use, Non-. ible" resources are grouped here because they are conceptually very simi- Norm lar–if not often identical to –"nonre An ideal standard of conduct or newable" resources. (C.F.S.) ethical value binding upon the mem 2. Resources whose total physical bers of a group which serves to guide,

142 control or regulate proper and accept- sirable plant species that is unwhole able behavior. (Webster 1963) some to the range or animal. Not to be Also see Social norms. confused with species declared noxi ous by certain laws. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Normal erosion. See Erosion, normal. NPS. National Park Service, U.S. Depart- Normative ment of Interior. Of, relating to, or dealing with norms–i.e., the ideal standards of con- Nutrient cycle. See Biogeochemical cycle. duct or ethical value that are binding upon the members of a group and Nutritive value serve to guide, control or regulate Range management usage. Relative proper and acceptable behavior. (After capacity of a given forage to furnish Webster 1963) nutrition for animals. In range manage ment, the term is usually prefixed by Noxious species high, low, or moderate. (Amer. Soc. Range management usage. An unde- Range Manage. 1964) 0 OBERS projections stated time period. The results indi National, regional, and subregional cated in the statement of objectives demand schedule projections produced are those which are designed to by the Office of Business Economics achieve the desired state or process and Economic Research Service represented by the goal. An objective (OBERS) under the direction of the is measurable and implies precise time Water Resources Council (WRC). phased steps to be taken and resources These economic projections are avail- to be used which, together, represent able in the WRC "1972 OBERS pro the basis for defining and controlling jections", and represent the Council's the work to be done. current views as to probable rates of An objective must include four growth in population, the gross na essential elements. (1) It must state tional product (GNP), employment, the desired outcome–i.e., what is to productivity, and other factors. be accomplished. (2) It must indicate These national baseline projections the time period within which the ex are the best estimate of what can be pected outcome is to be achieved. expected to materialize if there are no (3) It must include measurement fac policy or program changes of an unu tors, such as quantity, quality or cost, sual or unforeseen nature or magni so that the fact that the objective has tude in the factors which have been been accomplished can be verified. changing over time and which are ex (4) It must indicate who is responsible pected to continue on course in the for achieving the indicated results. De future. Of course, identifiable, long- sirable, but not absolutely essential, term secular trends are implicitly in elements of objectives are a descrip corporated into the projections. (After tion of how it will be achieved and an U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974) indication of who will determine whether the result has been achieved. Objective (Plan objectives, Management (U.S.D.A. Off. Manage. Finance 1974) objective, End result, Target) 2. The specific, attainable ends 1. A clear and specific statement of toward which concentrated effort is planned results to be achieved within a directed.

143 When achieved, objectives represent landscape. (After Litton 1966) significant and measurable progress 2. That viewing position (with re toward the attainment of a broader, spect to a feature or scene) in which a longer range "goal". level line-of sight will generally coin Characteristically, objectives are cide with the visually dominant ele subordinate to "goals", are narrower ments of the landscape. and shorter range in nature, have a The "observer normal" viewing reasonable probability of attainment position generally concentrates visual within specified time periods and re- attention on the solid or water ele sources, and are attained through mea ments of the landscape rather than on surable and quantifiable achievements. the sky. (Litton 1968) Expected results are defined in terms of milestones accomplished, services Observer superior produced, or some other objective That visual relationship between measure, even though the specific con viewer and viewed which exists when tribution toward achieving the build-ing the location from which something is block objective may not be mea seen is above the level of that object or surable. (U. S. Forest Serv. 1972B) the dominant visual elements in the 3. "Objectives" are more specific surrounding landscape. and quantifiable than "goals" because From the "observer superior" posi (1) they mainly apply to a smaller con tion, the maximum extent and ex stituency, (2) They usually apply to a panse of view is expected to be visible narrower field of welfare, and (3) they with atmospheric conditions and earth can be framed with greater detailed curvature being ultimate distance limi understanding of immediate needs. tations. (Litton 1966) (After Hills, Love and Lacate 1970) OMB requirements Also see Target. Regulations and directives estab lished by the U.S. Office of Manage Observer inferior ment and Budget (OMB) which all That visual relationship between Federal agencies are required to obey viewer and viewed which exists when and include in their planning and the location from which something is management activities. (E. C. T.) seen is below the level of that object For an example see Questionnaire. or the dominant visual elements in the Omnivore surrounding landscape. An organism that feeds on both ani From the "observer inferior" posi mal and plant substances. (Durren- tion, features in the foreground (i.e., berger 1973) up to about ½ mile distant) are most likely to be of maximum visual impor Open cast mining. See Mining, open-pit. tance and the middleground (i.e., ½ to Open-cut mining. See Mining, open-pit. 3-5 miles) landscape is likely to con tain the most distant visible elements. Open-pit mining. See Mining, open-pit. (After Litton 1966) Open range All suitable range of an area upon Observer normal which grazing is permitted. Also, 1. That visual relationship between ranges which have not been fenced viewer and viewed which exists when into management units. (Amer. Soc. the location from which something is Range Manage. 1964) seen is at (or approximately at) the level of that object or the dominant Open space visual elements in the surrounding 1. Unbuilt or predominantly un-

144 built land serving the following pur Opinion poses; (1) conservation of land and its A time-bound judgment or specula resource features, (2) ecological pro tion that fluctuates unpredictably. In tection, (3) park and recreation pur contrast to beliefs (i.e., tenaciously poses, (4) historic and/or scenic pur held convictions) "opinions" express poses, (5) shaping and guiding urban what we believe at a given moment. form, (6) enhancement of community "Opinions" generally are short-run im values and safety, (7) maintenance of pressions or "guesses" about specific options for the future. (After Assoc. objects, ideas, issues, or events that are Bay Area Govs. 1970) usually involved with aspects of public 2. Land and water areas which are affairs. (O'Connell 1974) retained in essentially undeveloped Also contrast with Belief and Atti- state on a permanent or semiperma tude. nent basis. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recrea- tion 1974) Opportunity cost The value of the benefits foregone Open space zoning. See Zoning, open or given up due to the effect of space. choosing another management alterna tive that either impacts existing outputs or shifts resources away from Operational map. See Map, operational. other activities so that they are no longer produced and their benefits are Operational planning. See Ordinary plan- lost. (Dyrland 1973) ning and Project planning. Optimum land use Operations research That feasible use which in the opin 1. The use of analytic methods ion of the decision maker provides the adopted from mathematics for solving greatest increment of public welfare. operational problems. Among the (Hills, Love and Lacate 1970) common scientific techniques used in operations research are mathematical Option value programming, statistical theory, infor The amount an individual would be mation theory, game theory, Monte willing to pay to preserve (or would Carlo methods, and queueing theory. have to be paid to get him to sell) his (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) option to participate in some activity 2. The application of mathematical or to use some resource at some future and logical techniques to certain busi time, whether or not he ever actually ness problems with the object of dis participates or uses the resource. (Af- covering a best possible course of ac ter Cicchetti and Fisher 1973) tion. The procedure followed is usu ally to express the problem in the Ordinal value form of a mathematical equation, the Numerical values assigned to a vari solution of which indicates the effec able which represent a ranking only. tiveness of a given set of conditions. The numerical values have meaning on The method may involve a sampling ly when compared to one another. Be- process, the calculation of probabili cause of this, mathematical operations ties, linear programming, or some performed on the values (means, other such technique. The computa modes, differences, etc.) will not tions are frequently so involved or so necessarily be valid, and the results of lengthy as to require electronic data such operations must be carefully in processing. Sometimes called "manage terpreted. (E. C. T.) ment science." (Sloan 1961) Also see Cardinal value.

145 Ordinance viding and managing outdoor recrea 1. A local law or regulation en- tion opportunities and wilderness, and acted by a city council or other similar (3) provide technical assistance and ad- body under powers delegated to it by vice to other public and private forest the state. (Webster 1963) landowners in developing forest-based 2. A authoritative decree or direc recreational opportunities. tion. (Webster 1963) This is one of the six "systems" established by the U.S. Forest Service Ordinary planning (Operational planning) to have a systematic, orderly way to Any type of planning which, ac view and evaluate its many diverse but cepting existing social institutions as interrelated activities. The Forest Ser givens, seeks to design optimal alterna vice has developed this approach to tive strategies for attaining optimal al better respond to the mandates of the ternative futures. (H.J. V.) Forest and Rangeland Renewable Re- Organic soil sources Planning Act of 1974. It has A soil that contains a high percent- grouped its various programs into age (greater than 20 or 30 percent) of these six "systems", each of which in organic matter in the upper layers corporates all the activities concerned (where living roots are primarily with developing and managing a spe found). (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. cific resource. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1970) 1974A) Also see Mineral soil. The six "systems" are: Land and water, Timber resource, Outdoor rec- Orphan banks. See Orphan lands. reation and wilderness, Rangeland grazing, Wildlife and fish habitat, and Orphan lands (Orphan banks) Human and community development. Disturbed land surfaces resulting from surface mining that were inade quately reclaimed by the operator and Output for which that person no longer has A broad term for describing any re any legally fixed responsibility. sult, product, or service that a process Usually refers to lands surface or activity actually produces. (U.S. mined previous to the passage of com Forest Serv. 1972B) prehensive mining reclamation laws. (Grim and Hill 1974) Output, induced The indirect result of system activi Outdoor recreation. See Recreation, defi ties. They are generally the primary nition 3. outputs of another resource system. Outdoor recreation and wilderness system An example is a specific form of tim U.S. Forest Service usage. This sys ber harvest (primary) that produces tem provides outdoor recreation op improved wildlife habitat (induced). portunities and wilderness experiences (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A) for the Nation. The system includes all activities necessary to (1) develop, pro Output, primary tect, and administer the forest recrea The main goods, services, or envi tional, scenic, and wilderness resources ronmental conditions of a resource of the National Forests so that they system–the key indicator used to will meet their full share of the Na identify with meeting a goal. tion's existing and anticipated needs For example, the production of ani- for these resources consistent with mal-unit-months of forage for live- other uses, (2) develop new knowledge stock or board feet of timber har to improve the effectiveness of pro- vested. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974A)

146 Overburden is overutilized. However, continued 1. Mining usage. Material of any overstocking will lead to overgrazing. nature, consolidated or unconsoli (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) dated, that overlies a deposit of useful materials, ores or coal, especially over- Overstory lying those deposits that are mined That portion of the trees in a for from the surface by open cuts. est, with more than one roughly hori (Thrush 1968) zontal layer of foliage, which forms the upper or uppermost layer. (After Overgrazing, local Ford-Robertson 1971) Overgrazing in localized areas on a range, as, for example, near watering Overuse. See Use, over-. places. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Over-utilization. See Use, over-.

Overland flow (Sheet flow) Ownership The rain storm or snow melt runoff The exclusive right to occupy, sell, water which flows over the ground sur bequeath or mortgage property. face as a thin layer–as opposed to the (Abrams 1971) channelized (concentrated) runoff Also see Ownership, fee simple. which occurs in rills and gulleys. (Af- ter Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Ownership, fee simple (Fee simple abso- "Overland flow" typically causes lute, Fee simple title) sheet erosion. Ownership that may last forever and may be inherited by all heirs of an Overlay map. See Map overlay. individual owner. This term is usually used in the sense of "fee simple abso Overstocking lute" which refers to ownership that Range management usage. Placing a has no limitation, qualification, or number of animals on a given area that condition affecting it and is the maxi- will result in overuse at the end of the mum possible ownership in real estate planned grazing period. under the system of property rights Not to be confused with over- founded on English common law. (Af- grazing because an area may be over- ter Webster 1963) stocked for a short period, but the ani mals may be removed before the area Ownership rights. See Bundle of rights. P

Palatability torn of instinct, learning, physiological Range management usage. The state, individual behavioral pattern var relish that an animal shows for a par iations and animal sensory responses. ticular species, plant or plant part. (H. F. H.) (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Also see Selectivity. The characteristics of plants that stimulate a selective grazing or Paleontological area browsing response by animals. "Palati U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas bility" is controlled by the plant fac which have been designated by the tors of chemical composition, propor Forest Service as containing significant tion of plant parts, growth stage, ex remains (usually fossilized) of flora ternal form of plant parts; environ and fauna (nonhuman) of geologic mental factors such as slope steepness, time periods before the appearance of wind, sun or shade; and the animal fac- man.

147 Areas containing scientifically or cation of the central concepts and educationally significant fossilized their interrelations. This codification specimens of flora and fauna from pre encourages research and theorizing and vious geologic periods–e.g., coal may allow qualitative analysis to ap swamp forests, dinosaurs, etc. proach the precision of quantitative Vertebrate fossils of historic or sci analysis. (O'Connell 1974) entific significance are considered to be "antiquities" by the Antiquities Parent material Act. The unconsolidated, chemically Extant plants and animals which weathered mineral or organic matter are relics of the flora and fauna or from which the upper layers (i.e., other geologic time periods and are of where living roots are primarily found) historic or scientific significance are of soil develop. (After Soil Conserv. considered under botanical areas or Soc. Amer. 1970) zoological areas, respectively. (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2362.45, July Parent plan 1973) U.S. Forest Service usage. A plan Areas of this type and all other spe- establishing the decision framework in cial interest areas are identified and which other plans are made. formally classified primarily because For example, the planning area of their recreational values. (W. W.) guide is the parent plan for individual National Forest land use plans, and the National Forest land use plans are par Panoramic landscape. See Landscape, ent plans for unit plans. (U.S. Forest panoramic. Serv. 1971)

Paper plan (Map plan) Parent rock A term sometimes used to describe 1. The original rocks from which formal plan documents which consist sediments were derived to form later mainly of a map on which land use rocks. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) regulation districts are indicated. While 2. The rock from which the parent a "paper plan" is accompanied by such materials of soils are formed. (Amer. explanatory written information as is Geol. Inst. 1962) necessary to convey its meaning, the basic regulatory document is the map. Pareto optimum In contrast, plans whose basic regu In welfare economics, a concept latory document consists of a set of that sets a condition necessary to max policies are sometimes called policy imize the economic wealth of a given plans, whether accompanied or not by society. The pareto optimum is said to maps differentiating the planning area have been achieved when it is impossi into districts where some specific poli ble to make one person better off cies apply while others do not. without making another (or others) (C.F.S.) worse off. (After U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969)

Paradigm Part per million (PPM) A collection of the major assump One part by weight of dissolved tions, concepts, and propositions in a chemical, or suspended sediment, in 1 substantive area. Paradigms serve to million parts by weights of water. orient research and theorizing in the (Feth 1973) area, and in this respect they resemble models. Pasture The usefulness of paradigms derives 1. An area devoted to the produc- from their providing a compact codifi-

148 tion of forage (introduced or native) land, or cropland originally cleared and harvested by grazing. (Soil Con- from forest and managed for native or serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) naturalized forage plants. (U.S. Soil 2. Grass or other growing plants Conserv. Serv. 1970) used as food by grazing animals. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Pasture, permanent 3. A grazing area enclosed and sep A pasture consisting mainly of in arated from other areas by a fence. troduced perennial plants which are (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) permitted to remain for a number of years. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Pasture, annual 1964) A pasture consisting of introduced Contrast with Pasture, annual. forage species planted for only one year or season's duration. (After Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Pasture, rotation Contrast with Pasture, permanent. 1. A pasture of introduced perenni al and/or self-seeding annual species, Pastureland comprising a unit in a crop rotation of 1. Land used primarily for the pro 5 years duration or less. (Amer. Soc. duction of adapted domesticated for- Range Manage. 1964) age plants to be grazed by livestock. 2. May also refer to a pasture (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970) within a rotation-grazing, deferred- 2. Land producing forage plants, rotation grazing, or rest-rotation graz- principally introduced species, for ani ing system. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- mal consumption. Management prac age. 1964) tices usually include one or more treat ments such as reseeding, renovating, Patch cutting mowing, liming, or fertilizing. Native 1. A clearcutting system variation pasture that because of location or soil in which the logging operation re- limitation is treated like rangeland is moves all merchantable timber in included in this category. (U.S. Dep. patches of about 40 to 200 acres, sep Agric. 1967) arated for as long as practicable (pref erably until the regeneration is ade Pastureland, native. See Pasture, native. quately shading the forest floor) by living forest, so as to both secure the Pasture management optimum dispersal of seed and to The application of practices to keep avoid the high hazard of large continu pasture plants growing actively over as ous areas of logging debris. (Ford- long a period as possible so that they Robertson 1971) will provide palatable feed of high nu 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. tritive value; to encourage the growth of "Patch cuts" are logging operations of desirable grasses and legumes while the size generally mapped for timber crowding out weeds, brush, and inferi type and condition and for control, or grasses. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. but which do not include the entire 1970) stand of which they are a part. The minimum size will be 10 acres Pasture, native (Native pasture land) and the maximum size, 100 acres. (Af- Land used for grazing on which the ter U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471R-3, climax (natural potential) plant com date unknown) munity is forest but which is used and Patches are usually between 15 and managed primarily to produce native 40 acres in size. (After U.S. Forest or naturalized plants for forage. In Serv., FSM 2471,2]R-5, Sept. 1971) cludes cutover forest land, pasture- Also see Group cutting, definition 2

149 for a comparison with similar logging of perennial plants which are permit approaches. ted to remain for a number of years. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Patented mining claim. See Mining claim, patented. Permanent water Range management usage. A water Peak discharge ing place which supplies water at all The maximum volume of flow at times throughout the year or through- tained at a given point in a stream dur out a grazing season. (Amer. Soc. ing a runoff event. (After Amer. Geol. Range Manage. 1964) Inst. 1962) Permeability Perched groundwater table. See Water ta- 1. Capacity for transmitting water. ble, perched. It is measured by the rate at which Perched water table. See Water table, water can move through soil in a given perched. interval of time. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Percolation 2. The readiness with which water The downward movement of water moves through the soil pores. within a soil, especially the downward "Permeability" also implies move flow of water in saturated or nearly ment into the soil and a "surface saturated soil. permeability" (i.e., an infiltration rate) Flow through a soil in contradis could he measured. tinction to the word infiltration which Quantitatively, "permeability" is connotes flow through a soil. (Soil the rate of readiness with which a soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) transmits water under standard condi tions. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1961) Perennial stream 3. The readiness with which soil or Streams that flow throughout the rock allows water, air, or plant roots year and from source to mouth. to penetrate or pass through. (After (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) Webster 1963) Also see Ephemeral stream and In- termittent stream. Permissable cut. See Allowable cut, defi Performance standard zoning. See Zoning, nition 2. performance. Permissable soil loss. See Soil loss Performance zoning. See Zoning, per- tolerance. formance. Permissable yield. See Allowable cut, def Periodic allowable cut. See Allowable cut, inition 2. definition 2. Periodic allowable yield. See Allowable Persistent pesticides (Hard pesticides) cut, definition 2. Pesticides composed of compounds that retain their toxicity for long per Periodic cut. See Allowable cut, defini iods of time after application such as tion 2. DDT and many other chlorinated hy Periodic yield. See Allowable cut, defini drocarbons. Such pesticides do not tion 2. deteriorate quickly, work their way up the food chain through various animals Peripheral species. See Species, peripher- and may accumulate in the fatty tis- al. sues of animals, including man, and re- Permanent pasture main there indefinitely. (Sesco, et al. Artificial pasture consisting mainly 1973)

150 Personal distance. See Individual distance. cluding insecticides for insects, herbi cides for plants, fungicides for fungi, Personal space and rodenticides for rodents. (Sesco, Environmental psychology usage. et al. 1973) An area with invisible boundaries sur rounding a person's body into which pH intruders may not come. It is not nec A measure of the hydrogen-ion ac essarily spherical in shape, nor does it tivity in solution, expressed on a scale extend equally in all directions. An in 0 (highly acid) to 14 (highly basic); vasion of "personal space" is an intru 7.0 pH is a neutral solution, neither sion into a person's self boundaries. acid nor basic. (Feth 1973) Individual distance and personal space interact to affect the distribu Photomontage tion of persons. (Sommer 1969) 1. A combination of several dis Also see Individual distance. tinct photographic pictures so they often blend with or into each other to Persons at one time (PAOT) produce a composite picture which Public recreational usage measure may or may not appear to be made up ment term. The number of people in of separate pictures. (Webster 1963) an area or using a facility at the same 2. A composite picture or edited time. Generally used as "maximum film in which contrasting shots or se PAOT" to indicate capacity of an area quences are juxtaposed or blended for or facility to support peak usage loads. the purpose of suggesting a total idea (E.C.T.) or impression, or developing a theme. (After Webster 1963) Perspective That which suggest the effects of Phreatophyte distance upon the appearance of ob 1. A type of plant that habitually jects. (Runes and Sehrickel 1946) obtains its water supply from the zone of groundwater saturation, either di Perspective, aerial rectly from within the ground water Concerning the effects of distance level or from the capillary fringe just from the viewer upon the color and above it. (Durrenberger 1973) distinctness of objects–especially as 2. Plants which grow from ground due to the transparency of the inter water supplies. (Marsh 1964) vening air. Typically objects become bluer, greyer, edges less distinct, and there is less contrast of light and shade Physical carrying capacity. See Carrying with increasing distance from the view capacity, ecological definition 5. er. (After Runes and Sehrickel 1946) Physical life Perspective, linear That period of time that a facility Pertaining to the effects of distance exists, not necessarily in a useable con from a viewer upon the appearance of dition or used. Often facilities are re- the size and form of objects. (Runes moved from active service and kept in- and Sehrickel 1946) tact some years before they are junked or destroyed, or they may be just left PERT in their service position but never Program Evaluation and Review used. (Winfrey and Zellner 1971) Technique. See Critical path method. Also see Economic life.

Pesticide Physical planning A general term applied to a variety 1. A form of urban land use plan of chemical pest control measures, in- ning which attempts to achieve a phys-

151 ically attractive urban open space envi tions. For example, "nature" should ronment by regulating the physical re have priority in the planning the lationships of structures to their sites "aquifers" and wetlands, and the rest and surroundings–with such devices as of nature's assets should be preserved set back requirements, building height in any development plan. (After controls, maximum lot coverage by Abrams 1971) structures and unnatural surfaces, etc. Physiographic determinism is essen (C. F. S.) tially equivalent to ecologic determin- The intent of such physical stan ism and biophysical determinism. dards is to avoid the claustrophobic However in its true meaning physio and ugly urban open space environ graphic only refers to the nonliving ments which came to characterize elements of an environment while cities in the 1800's. Some feel that rig- "physiographic determinism" is in- id application of these regulatory tools tended to encompass the living ele is responsible for much of the physical ments as well. (C.F.S.) monotony in our present cities. (C. F. S.) Physiographic production Referring to those controls over the Physiographic (Morphologic) amount of occurring or potential bi- 1. Physiography is the description otic productivity which are due to abi- of the surface features of the earth, as otic environmental factors (such as bodies of air, water and land. (Stamp regional climate, geologic materials, 1961, citing Powell 1895) slope orientation, elevation, etc.). 2. Physiographic refers to the sur (C. F. S. ) face features of the earth's solid crust and with the relations of air and water Physiographic province. See Region, to it. (Stamp 1961, citing Salisbury physiographic. 1907) 3. In the United States the term Physiographic region. See Region, physio- "physiographic" is sometimes used as graphic. equivalent to geomorphologic. How- ever, geomorphology is definitely lim Physiographic site class ited to the study of landform genesis. G.A. Hills land classification usage. Whereas "physiography" may be only Units created by isolating areas within descriptive, "geomorphology" must be the landtypes on the basis of local cli interpretive of the origins of land sur mate considerations–such as slope face forms. (Stamp 1961, citing Fen- orientation. (After Belknap and Fur- neman 1938 after Stamp 1961) tado 1967) In the United States "physio Subdivisions of a "landtype" based graphic" is used in the same sense as on local climate variations in air tem the British usage of "morphologic"– perature and humidity. Variation in i.e., relating to the form of land sur plant communities is used as the prin faces. (After Stamp 1961) cipal indicator of climate variation. (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) The third largest unit in Hills' land Physiographic climax. See Climax com- classification system. The various lev munity, definition 3. els, in order of decreasing size, are Site region, Landtype, Physiographic site Physiographic determinism class, Physiographic site type and A theory that the natural elements Physiographic site phase. of an environment should be respected in planning and given priority consid Physiographic site phase eration in arriving at policy determina- G.A. Hills land classification usage.

152 If specific land use activity require land classification system. The various ments cannot be determined on the levels, in order of decreasing size, are basis of the information contained in site region, landtype, Physiographic physiographic site types, a "physio site class, Physiographic site type and graphic site phase" is added to the Physiographic site phase. hierarchy to isolate the other needed significant qualities. (After Belknap Phytoplankton. See Plankton. and Furtado 1967) A "site phase" is created by adding Pit mining. See Mining, open-pit. information on the use requirements (e.g., beach slope and width, water Pitting depth) to the map of "physiographic Range management usage. Making site types". (After Belknap and Fur- shallow pits or basins of adequate ca tado 1967) pacity and distribution on range to Further subdivision of "site types" speed range improvement by retaining to indicate site requirements for spe water from rainfall and snowmelt and cific activities. (After Belknap and by reducing competition to desirable Furtado 1967) species from a dense stand of less de The various levels in Hills' land clas sirable vegetation. (Amer. Soc. Range sification system, in order of decreas Manage. 1964) ing size, are Site region, Landtype, Placer claim Physiographic site class, Physiographic A mining claim located upon a mass site type and Physiographic site phase. of gravel, sand, or similar material (re sulting from weathering, erosion and/ or stream deposition) containing par Physiographic site type (Landscape type, ticles of gold, platinum, tin or other Facies) valuable minerals and whose valuable G.A. Hills land classification usage. mineral contents are extracted by con The smallest unit with any homogene centration in running water. ity in landscape features. (After The maximum size of an individual Belknap and Furtado 1967) "placer claim" is 600 by 1320 feet (10 The units delineated by differentia acres). (Thrush 1968) tion of micro-landform variations (ex. ridge tops, valley bottoms, toeslopes, Placer mining. See Mining, placer. etc.) within a physiographic site class. (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) Plan A subdivision of the physiographic 1. A formalized statement of goals, site class based on local variations in objectives, and policies. (U.S. Forest soil moisture and depth. Serv. 1971) A physiographic site type can vary 2. An assemblage of management from 5 to 100 acres. directions. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1971) The site type is the basic unit of 3. A predetermined course of ac plant ecology according to Hills. Ac tion. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1971) cording to the natural controls of 4. A plan is an ordered decision plant succession and the human con or set of decisions on the ways in trols of crop production, a variety of which to achieve certain objectives. ecosystems may develop on each phys A plan is not an end in itself. It is a iographic site type. Crop production is means to an end, and the end is more defined broadly to include such uses as important than the means. (Allen and corn, houses, or a recreational activity. Sharpe 1960) (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) 5. Statements in words and graph Generally the smallest unit in Hills' ics of the findings, conclusions, pro-

153 posals and recommendations of the (zooplankton) that are carried passive planning process. When adopted, ly in the water currents. Those that "plans" become public policies and can swim do so to change or adjust programs. their depth in the water, not to move "Plans" are working instruments– from place to place. guides for administration, but not end Plankton is one of the 3 main divi products. As such, plans are never sions of aquatic life with the others completed. Plans are subject to change being "nekton" (the animals that swim as policies change due to unfolding actively and may move long distances events, such as changing standards of for feeding or breeding) and the "ben life style, environmental factors, and thos" (organisms which crawl about advancing technology. (U.S. Civil Serv. on the bottom, or burrow into the Comm. 1973) bottom or grow attached to the bot tom). (Southward 1965) Plan controls Any of the various legal and admin Planned grazing system istrative methods which are available A system of grazing in which two for implementing a land use plan's or more grazing units are alternately goals, objectives, or policies. (C.F.S.) rested from grazing in a planned se "Plan controls" include such de- quence over a period of years. The rest vices as ordinances, zoning, use permit may be throughout the year or during and hearing procedures, design criteria, the growing season of the key species. performance standards or any other (D.E.H. and B. W.) formal means or procedure for attain ing a land use plan's goals, objectives Planned unit development. See Cluster or policies. (C.F.S.) development.

Plan element Planned unit development zoning. See 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. The Zoning, cluster. major land use planning elements of the U.S. Forest Service are: legal re Planner quirements and authorities, national 1. Anyone who plans–for exam and regional objectives and targets, ple, a city planner, economic planner, management situation, basic assump- public health planner, social planner or tions, data collection, land capability, landscape planner. (Abrams 1973) alternative considerations, plan selec 2. One whose profession consists tion, functional planning and docu of identifying community needs, re- mentation. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM sources and problems and assisting citi 8213, Oct., 1973) zens in making decisions on goals, poli- 2. A discrete topic area or issue of cies, priorities, plans, programs and concern in an overall plan–e.g., hous methods of implementation designed ing, open space, recreation, transporta to create a physical, economic and so tion. (C.F.S.) cial environment in which the human activities desired by the members of Plan goals. See Goal. the community may flourish. (U.S. Civil Serv. Comm. 1973) Planimetric map. See Map, planimetric. Planning Plankton 1. The act of deciding, in advance, The small (usually less than 2mm what to do. A dynamic effort to use long) floating or drifting life forms in decisions to guide future actions and water bodies, plankton includes both decisions. plants (phytoplankton) and animals A means of solving future problems

154 by intent. One step in the process of 10. The planning process can be guiding the future. (U.S. Forest Serv. conceptually divided into five phases: 1971) (1) identification of opportunities, 2. The determination of the objec- problems and issues; (2) formulation tives or goals of an enterprise and the of policies and objectives; (3) data col- selection, through a systematic consid- lection, analysis and interpretation; eration of alternatives, of the policies, (4) plan formulation; and, (5) plan im- programs and procedures for achieving plementation. In practice, these are them. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) not discrete steps and the sequence 3. Colloquial context–designing may vary. Objectives are refined as the the future organization and relation- process proceeds. Feedback among the ship of parts. (Friedman 1963) phases is continuous. Work on plan 4. Professional context–the pro- formulation often indicates the need cess of finding alternative solutions to for additional information which may a problem. A way of thinking about alter the conception of objectives and and coming up with solutions for problems. In addition, experiences future problems. (Friedman 1963) with implementation may result in 5. A process oriented predominant- plan modification or the need for addi- ly toward the future and deeply con- tional information. Each phase of the cerned with the relation of goals to process is strongly interconnected with collective decisions in policy and pro- all the others in a monitoring feedback gram. (Friedman 1963) loop. Citizen participation, public in- 6. A process of conflict resolution put, and reaction are a key part of (usually future) by designing optimum every phase in the planning process. relationships between components (Calif. Council Intergov. Relat. 1973) without attempting to favor or elimi- 11. The process of preparing a set nate any party in the (future) conflict. of alternative courses for decisions in (H.J.V.) establishing the best action to insure 7. The attainment or the effort to the future availability and develop- attain, some future objective or objec- ment of adequate resources, facilities, tives by a rational determination in the and services required to support hu- present of the requisite resources, per- man activities. (U.S. Civil Serv. Comm. sonnel, and procedures needed to 1973) achieve that objective or those goals. (Mc Closkey 1971) Planning agent 8. A continuous process through The person(s) or organization actu- which some planning agent identifies ally doing the planning. A "planning goals, designs alternative resource-use agent" may be a natural person (an in- programs, selects and activates a pro- dividual householder or entrepreneur), gram, and analyzes its consequences a family, a legal person (a corporation, for the purpose of determining wheth- a trade association), or various levels er the goals are being achieved. of government (Federal, state, county, (H.J.V.) public district). (H.J.V.) 9. A method of public decisionmaking which emphasizes explicit Planning, anticipatory goal-choice and rational goals-means Any planning approach which oper- determination, so that decisions can be ates by attempting to foresee potential based on the goals people are seeking issues and develop solutions to them and on the most effective programs to before they become real, overt prob- achieve them. (Gans 1968) lems. (C.F.S.)

155 Planning area Forest Service land management re- 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A sponsibilities (National Forest Service, specifically identified geographic area State and Private Forests; and Re- containing social and physical research, as appropriate). They also sources and land characteristics of a maintain coordination between Forest generally similar nature. Service and other government agencies The reason for identifying planning (State and Federal), and attempt to areas is that general similarities in make coordinated demand projections physical characteristics, resources, eco- for the resources located within the nomics, and social needs should give land area with specific allocation to rise to similar management opportuni- the National Forest lands. (U.S. Forest ties, and constraints. Therefore, all Serv., FSM 8221, Oct., 1973) planning efforts, irrespective of admin- 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. The istration or government boundaries, geographical area to which a planning should be coordinated. area guide applies. A variety of considerations may in- 3. U.S. Forest Service usage. The teract to determine the size and largest Forest Service land use plan- boundaries of a planning area; topog- ning subdivision. raphy, vegetation or broad habitat "Planning areas" are delineated by type, climate, history of land use, pop- use of county boundaries in the Cali- ulations–human and animal, economy fornia Region. and the relationship of these and other elements to each other will affect the definition of a planning area. These Planning area guide (Guide, Area guide) areas may, and will likely, cross such 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. administrative boundaries as Forest A Forest Service document which Service Regions, National Forests, and specifies the peculiarities of the plan- Ranger Districts. A planning area ning area as compared to other areas should be of sufficient size to provide and provides an interpretation of the for flexibility in patterns of land devel- significance to management of these opment and use of resources. State peculiarities. and multicounty planning districts, The objective of the guide is to pro- and the integrity of counties, should vide broad land use direction to be fol- be strong considerations in the estab- lowed by all Forest Service administra- lishment of planning area boundaries. tive units with land management Commonality of boundaries will aid in responsibilities within the planning area. cooperative planning and data ex- The planning area guide should pro- change. The area should permit a max- vide goals and targets reflecting the imum of agencies or governments to National Forest's share of all forest contribute and receive resource data and objectives and outputs for the plan- relate demand allocations with the ning area, including, and in relation to, highest degree of compatibility prac- State and private lands. (U.S. Forest tical. Serv., FSM 8222.1, Oct., 1973) Planning area level considerations A document that provides broad are basic for all Forest Service land and management direction for all National resource management programs in Forest System land planning, manage- that area. The Regional Foresters in ment, development, use, and protec- such planning areas provide the man- tion activities within the planning area. agement direction for each area by A separate planning area guide is devel- coordinating the managers having oped for each planning area. A "plan-

156 ning area guide" is frequently referred to analyze the cost of the various ef- to merely as the "guide" or "area forts to achieve similar ends and rank guide". them in terms of their effectiveness per dollar. (Abrams 1971) Planning horizon 1. The time period (fixed by the planner) which will be considered in Planning unit the planning process. It is assumed to 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Na- span all activities covered in the plan tional Forests (including lands within and all future conditions and effects of and contiguous to National Forests) alternative actions which would influ- are subdivided into planning units. ence the planning decisions. (E.C.T.) These units are geographic areas of 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. The land, varying in size, that are charac- furthest point in time for which man- terized by particular patterns of topog- agement systems are specified in a raphy, climate, and land use. A unit management program for a planning may occur as one major drainage, sev- unit. eral separate drainages, or portions of For example, in the 1970 timber drainages. review, the "planning horizon" was Planning units are described as spe- 2020. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) cific, identified and delineated land Planning level areas. They are large enough to encom- Referring to the scale of a planning pass most of the meaningful or signifi- effort–usually denoted by the size of cant relationships within a drainage or the project or the governmental level series of drainages. Topographic fea- at which the planning is being done, tures are logical places for planning e.g., site or project planning, municipal unit boundaries because of the need to planning, county planning, metropoli- be able to identify boundaries on maps tan regional planning, state planning, and photographs, and on the ground. interstate regional planning, national A number of factors influence the planning, etc. (C.F.S.) boundaries, size, and layout of planning units, among which are: (1) inten- Planning process. See Planning definition sity of planning expected; (2) the re- 10. sources available for doing planning, such as people and time; (3) presence Planning-Programming-Budgeting System or absence of particularly unique fea- (PPBS) tures; (4) perceived complexity or A planning and decision-making homogeneity of the land features; tool that attempts to organize infor- (5) public involvement inputs; and mation and analysis so that the conse- (6) planning team judgment. quences of alternative policies are In defining these units, the objec- clearly revealed and fully comparable. tive is to preserve as much uniformity Under PPBS, ordered instituted in as possible in relationships significant each Cabinet agency by President to land management. Such factors as Johnson in 1966, programs having the existing transportation systems, popu- same purpose are grouped together lation influences, current land use, under the same category and com- topography, soils, industrial dependen- pared to see which represents the best cy, ownership, and public feelings are use of the government's money. PPBS considered in establishing the bound- endeavors to display the allocation of aries for planning units. No two plan- resources in terms of the function; to ning units are exactly equivalent in the gather hard, quantitative information factors which influence the boundaries on the actual results of programs; and of the planning unit.

157 The purpose of planning units is to Plant community provide a focus for planning activities 1. Any aggregation of plants. (Han- in a small enough area to be workable son and Churchill 1961) and large enough to enable a planning 2. A group of stands (i.e., a partic- team to envision or predict the cause- ular aggregation of plants having a high and-effect relationships of manage- degree of uniformity in composition ment alternatives. (U.S. Forest Serv., and structure and occupying an area of FSM 8226, Oct. 1973) essentially uniform environment) that 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. That are similar in species composition and geographical area of land and water, structure and occupy similar habitats. smaller than a Forest Service planning (Hanson and Churchill 1961) area to which a forest service unit plan 3. Plant species tend to be grouped applies. in different combinations forming No size limits are arbitrarily estab- more or less definite "communities". lished for planning units. Planning unit Each of these communities is charac- boundaries may cross both planning terized by certain species which are in- area and administrative unit bound- conspicuous or unrepresented in other aries. communities, and wherever areas of The "planning unit" will be the equivalent environment are encoun- only area for which a site specific plan tered, whether continuous or de- will be developed. Planning for the tached, essentially the same plant as- other two types of areas in the U.S. semblage reappears. In other words, Forest Service land use planning sys- the individuals of each species are not tem, the planning area and the na- scattered at random, but are distrib- tional forest, concentrate more on gen- uted in a pattern over the landscape. eral assumptions, goals, policies, tar- (Daubenmire 1968) gets, national and regional conditions, Also see Biotic community. etc, to build the framework within which the "unit planning" will occur. Plant cover type. See Cover type. (After Rupp 1974) Plant retrogression Plan objective. See Objective. The process of vegetational deterioration whereby the same area becomes Plan selection successively occupied by different 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Sub- plant communities of lower ecological jected to the planning process, it is order in succession. (Amer. Soc. Range essentially a choice governed by a rea- Manage. 1964) sonable and rational perception of how the available resources can be Plant succession. See Succession. most efficiently managed to achieve optimum multibenefits for the Ameri- Plat can people. The process includes full A diagram drawn to scale and show- consideration of the priorities and ing essential data pertaining to bound- preferences expressed by the public aries and subdivisions of a tract of at all levels to be affected by the plan. land, as determined by survey or draw- (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8213, Oct. ing to scale. 1973) The primary purpose of a plat is to 2. The selection of one plan from a show boundary survey and ownership set of alternative plans. (E.C.T.) information rather than map information. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7140.5, Plant association. See Plant community. June 1973)

158 Pluralism er over persons and property which en- A description of society that con- ables the society to prohibit or regu- tends that political power is distrib- late all things inimical to its comfort, uted among a variety of groups and safety, health, and welfare. (U.S. Bur. institutions. Pluralist theory argues Outdoor Recreation 1974) that political resources–wealth, educa- Also see Eminent domain, Just tion, prestige, skill, votes–are divided compensation, and Taking. and that no group has a monopoly over all resources. In contrast, elitist theories of power Policy argue that small groups of individuals 1. A definite course or method of rule a country in their own economic action selected by a governmental interest. Pluralists agree that only agency, institution, group or individual small numbers of citizens participate from among alternatives and, in the directly in decision-making, but they light of given conditions, to guide and argue that these elites compete for usually determine present and future economic rewards, differ on policy, decisions. are open for others to join, and are A specified decision or set of deci- indirectly influenced by voters. "Elit- sions designed to carry out such a ists" contend that members of the rul- chosen course of action. (Webster 1963) ing power elite share a procapitalist 2. A specific decision or set of ideology, are unified by a similar up- decisions together with the related ac- per-class background, and are linked tions designed to implement them. by institutional and personal ties. (Webster 1963) (O'Connell 1974) 3. The specification in concrete details of ways and means for the attain- Pluralistic society (Cultural pluralism) ment of goals and objectives. (Hill A society in which there are widely 1968) differing and often conflicting points of view as to how the access to or use of a particular resource (or resources Policy plan in general) should be allocated. The This term is sometimes used to de- United States is most often cited as scribe a formal plan document con- the prime example of a pluralistic so- sisting entirely of a set of policies un- ciety. (C. F. S.) accompanied by maps differentiating the planning area into districts where Plutonic rock. See Rock, igneous. some policies apply while others do not. Point pollution source. See Point source In contrast, a plan whose formal pollution. plan documents consist mainly of a map on which land use regulation dis- Point source pollution (Point pollution tricts are indicated is sometimes called source) a paper plan or "map plan". While Pollution whose source is specific "paper plans" are accompanied by rather than general in location. For such explanatory written information example, particulate matter emanating as is necessary to convey their mean- from a specific smoke stack is point ing, the basic regulatory document is source pollution. (Sesco, et al. 1973) still the map. (C.F.S.) Also see Non-point source pollution. Political boundary Police power A boundary which marks the limits A state's inherent and plenary pow- of a political jurisdiction. The bound-

159 aries of cities, counties, states and na- serve, or which reduces the quality of tions are political boundaries. Lesser water, air or soil for any subsequent political boundaries limit tax districts, use. In this context such terms as natu- legislative districts, etc. (Banks 1964) ral pollution and visual pollution (not referring to decreased visibility due to air pollution) are meaningless and Political determinism should not be used. (Russell 1974) A particular point of view in plan- 3. Pollution is the presence of mat- ning which advocates that all resource ter or energy in an unusual or unin- use and allocation decisions should be tended place. (Yapp 1972) made via the political process–i.e., by 4. The presence in the environment elected representatives and legislation. of one or more contaminants, nui- In theory, politics is our society's sances, and the like in sufficient quan- means for attaining some needed reso- tities and of such characteristics and lution of issues via compromise from duration as to be injurious or irritating the often conflicting demands on a re- to human, plant, or animal life, to source by different groups. This point health, or to property, or to unreason- of view believes that elected represen- ably interfere with the enjoyment of tatives' decisions are responsive to and life or property. (Sesco, et al. 1973) representative of the collective judgments of their constitutents [sic]. Politics Pollution criteria. See Criteria. thus is viewed as the process by which society makes group choices about re- Pollution standard. See Standard. source use allocation, passes final judg- Positive feedback. See Feedback loop. ment upon interim administrative decisions and conveys the right (via legisla- Possibly extinct species. See Species, re- tion) to regulate resource use–be the cently extinct or possibly extinct. resource some commodity such as Potential. See Biotic potential. timber or the exercise of private property rights. It is believed that because Poverty, absolute political decisions are societal choices A standard of living below the mini- they are the best choices that can be mum needed for maintenance of life made and thus should be the basis for and health. (O'Connell 1974) making planning decisions. (C.F.S.) Also see Poverty, relative.

Poverty, relative Political institutions A condition characterized by a scar- A society's system of legal rules and city rather than a lack of economic ne- principles. (Webster 1963) cessities. A relatively poverty-stricken person is poor in comparison with a Pollution majority of others in his society, but 1. Any substance or energy form his level of living usually does not con- (heat, light, noise, etc.) which alters stitute an immediate threat to life or the state of the environment from health. (O'Connell 1974) what would naturally occur. Especially associated with those altered states Power. See Social power. which human value judgments have decreed as bad. (E. C. T.) PPBS. See Planning-Programming-Budget- 2. Pollution is best considered an ing System. activity of man, which directly or indirectly results in the addition to water, PPM. See Parts per million. air or soil, of matter or energy which has a deleterious effect on living orga- Prairie nisms or structures it is desirable to pre- An extensive tract of level or rolling

160 land that was originally treeless and source use allocation. Pressure groups grass covered. seek to influence decisions on resource A prairie is usually characterized by use allocation in excess of their pro- a deep fertile soil. (Amer. Soc. Range portional representation in the plan- Manage. 1964) ned-for populace by seeking preferen- tial consideration for their resource Pre-existing use. See Use, pre-existing. use choices. (C.F.S.) 3. Any group having a distinct ide- Preferable species ology or set of goals and attempting to Range management usage. Species achieve those goals through the use of that are preferred by animals and are organized means of interaction, such grazed by first choice. (Amer. Soc. as lobbying. Range Manage. 1964) Pressure groups may be distin- Also see Ice cream species. guished from the broader category of special interest groups by their some- Preference. For range management usage what more formal organization and see Grazing preference. their more noticeable activity over Pre-law strip mining. See Mining, pre-law time. (O'Connell 1974) strip. 4. A voluntary association of citizens who attempt to influence public Premature grazing. See Grazing, prema- policy. An interest group may be ture. formed solely to influence policy or Prescribed burn political activity may be only one of Intentional application of fire to its many activities. wildland fuels in either their natural or Interest groups affect policy modified state, under such conditions through lobbying, raising money for of weather, fuel moisture, soil mois- political campaigns, promising to "de- ture, etc. as allow the fire to be con- liver" votes on election day or workers fined to a predetermined area and at in political campaigns, developing the same time to produce the intensity some special expertise, or having some of heat and rate of spread required to special relationship with an agency in further certain planned objectives of the government bureaucracy. silviculture, wildlife management, graz- Interest groups are the most impor- ing, fire-hazard reduction, etc. It seeks tant unit of analysis in pluralist theo- to employ fire scientifically so as to ry, for they mediate between an indi- realize maximum net benefits with vidual citizen's desires and the political minimum damage and at acceptable parties. cost. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Two major differences between Also see Controlled burn. American parties and interest groups are that parties compete for office, Prescribed cut. See Allowable cut, defini- whereas interest groups do not, and tion 2. that interest groups present a homogeneous interest, whereas parties have Prescribed yield. See Allowable cut, defi- a heterogeneous clientele. (O'Connell nition 2. 1974) Pressure group (Interest group, Special in- 5. Also see Special interest group, terest group) and Pluralism. 1. Any special interest group which actively advocates for special consider- Prestige. See Social prestige. ation of its resource use goals. (C.F.S.) 2. Any politically active group Primary conversion with a common set of values about re- The initial steps in the process of

161 converting a felled or fallen tree to Ext. Serv. 1972 and Mc Gauhey 1968) lumber–e.g., topping, trimming limbs, removal of bark, sawing into logs, etc. Prime agricultural land (Ford-Robertson 1971) 1. All land which qualifies for rating as Class I or as Class II in the U.S Primary effect. See Direct effect. Soil Conservation Service land use ca- Primary facility pability classifications. (Eisner 1969) Transportation planning usage. Pri- Also see Land capability class. mary facilities provide access and ser- 2. Land which has returned from vice to large land areas encompassed the production of unprocessed agricul- and served by the public transporta- tural plant products an annual gross tion system. They include public trans- value of not less than two hundred portation facilities and form the basic dollars ($200) per acre for three of the framework around which the transpor- previous five years. (Eisner 1969) tation network is designed. A substan- 3. Land identified (after consider- tial percentage of the traffic served by ing the long term productive potential these facilities is public service traffic, and topographic position of the soil(s), and emphasis is given to travel speed climatic factors, and availability and and efficiency. (After U.S. Forest quality of water) as being required for Serv., FSM 7705.41, Aug., 1975) the economic production of specific Also see Secondary facility and Ter- agricultural commodities that are des- tiary facility. ignated by local units (of government). (J. H. H.) Primary output. See Output, primary. 4. Land meeting any of the following four criteria: (1) Class I or II of the Primary range. See Range, primary. U.S. Soil Conservation Service land ca- Primary sewage treatment. See Primary pability classification scheme, (2) a wastewater treatment. Storie index rating of 80 to 100, (3) a carrying capacity (see Carrying capaci- Primary succession. See Succession, pri- ty, range) of one animal unit per acre, mary. (4) a gross annual revenue of $200 per Primary treatment. See Primary waste- acre in unprocessed, plant production, water treatment. or (5) land in fruit or nut-bearing trees, vines or bushes that have less Primary wastewater treatment (Primary than a 5-year nonbearing period and treatment, Primary sewage treatment) return not less than $200 per acre. The first treatment given to raw (Anderson, Gustafson and Boxley sewage collected from household and 1975) commercial sources. Typically the process first separates floating solids by screening. The undigested material is Primitive Area then piped into settling tanks where, 1. A large tract within a U.S. Na- depending on the temperature and tional Forest set aside for preservation length of stay, varying amounts of sus- in natural condition with no alteration pended solids are removed by gravity or development beyond measures for precipitation. Primary treatment re- fire protection being permitted. (Web- moves most of the floating solids, 50 ster 1963) percent of the suspended solids and at According to the Wilderness Act of best only about 35 percent of the or- 1964 the administrative classification ganic waste and biochemical oxygen "Primitive Area" will cease to exist as demand from wastewater. (After Sesco of September 1974. By that date those et al. 1973, Wash. State Univ., Coop. Primitive Areas considered to be of

162 wilderness quality as defined by the habitations or recreation facilities ex- Wilderness Act will be reclassified as cept trails. No mechanized equipment Wilderness Areas. (After Wilderness is allowed except that needed for man- Act 1964) agement and protection purposes. Ad- 2. As defined in the 1929 U.S. For- ministration is usually by the Federal est Service regulation creating the Government, some state agencies, or "Primitive Area" classification. Areas private landowners such as large tim- within which, to the extent of the De- ber and mining companies. (Eisner partment of Agriculture's authority, 1969) there "will be maintained primitive 4. In common usage, Primitive Areas conditions of environment, transporta- are those backcountry types of tion, habitation, and subsistence, with wildlands which show no obvious evi- a view to conserving the value of such dence of permanent human uses and in areas for purposes of public education, which people are only transitory visi- inspiration, and recreation. Within any tors. Some use the terms "primitive" area so designated no occupancy under and "wilderness" interchangeably to the special-use permit shall be allowed, refer to all areas displaying no obvious or the construction of permanent im- evidence of present or previous human provements by any public agency be uses–other than foot or pack animal permitted, except as authorized by the trails. Others make a distinction be- Chief of the Forest Service or the Se- tween the two, using "primitive" to re- cretary of Agriculture." fer to all areas possessing wilderness Supplemental instructions sent to qualities and restricting the use of Forest Service Regions indicated that "wilderness" to only those portions of "the establishment of a Primitive Area the larger primitive area which have ordinarily will not operate to with- been designated as "Wilderness Areas" draw timber, forage or water resources according to the Wilderness Act of from industrial use, since the utiliza- 1964. (After A.W.M.) tion of such resources, if properly regulated, will not be incompatible with the Primitive recreation. See Recreation, purposes for which the area is des- primitive. ignated." (Calif., Univ., Wildland Res. Cent. 1962) Principles and Standards 3. These areas are extensive natu- Guidelines for water and related ral, wild and undeveloped areas, usual- land resources planning established by ly in a setting far removed from the the U.S. Water Resources Council for sights, sounds, and smells of civiliza- Federal agencies whose activities in- tion. Essential characteristics are that the volve planning and development of natural environment has not been water resources. (Published in Federal disturbed by commercial utilization Register; 38(174): 24777-24869, "Wa- and that the areas are without mecha- ter and Related Land Resources, Es- nized transportation. The area must be tablishment of Principles and Stan- large enough and so located as to give dards for Planning.") The "Principles" the user the feeling that he is enjoying provide the broad framework for plan- a wilderness experience. Activities in ting activities and include the concep- Primitive Areas involve camping out tual basis for planning. The "Stan- on one's own without mechanized dards" provide for uniformity and con- transportation, permanent shelter or sistency in comparing, measuring, and other conveniences. There is no devel- judging beneficial and adverse effects opment of public roads, permanent of alternative plans. (U.S. Dep. Agric. 1974)

163 The "Principles and Standards" 2. Organisms, largely green plants, specify two main objectives to be re- which are able to manufacture food flected in the planning: national eco- from simple inorganic substances by nomic development and enhancement fixation of light energy. (Odum 1971) of environmental quality. For the other two divisions in this Also specified is the accounting sys- particular classification of biotic com- tem which gives four required ac- munity organisms also see Consumer counts in which all effects of programs organism and Decomposer organism. are to be discussed; national economic development, regional economic devel- Producer surplus opment, environmental quality, and In economics, the difference be- social well being. (After U.S. Dep. tween the price that a producer sells a Agric. 1974) good or service at and the amount that he would be willing to accept in ex- Private property change for the good or service. The exclusive right to the posses- (E.C.T.) sion, use or disposal of property or Also see Consumer surplus. goods. Private property can be real property, land and the buildings fixed Production function on it, or personal property–that is A mathematical relationship (fre- movable property. quently presented as a graph) which The concept of "private property" shows how inputs of various physical is the creation of man in society and factors are related to changes of out- thus subject to such intrusions upon it put–e.g., the effect of different as society requires for the general wel- amounts of fertilizer or thinning on fare. (Abrams 1971) the rate of timber production. (After H.J.V.) Probabilistic Model. See Model, probabilistic. Productivity, abiotic The amount of material yielded by Process an inorganic, renewable resource pro- The action of moving forward process (e.g., abiotic products include gressively from one point to another water, sand, gravel). (C F S.) on the way to completion. The action of passing through con- Productivity, biotic tinuous development from a beginning 1. The amount of living matter ac- to a contemplated end. tually produced by the unit being dis- The action of continuously going cussed. (E. C. T. ) along through each of a succession of 2. The growth products and by- developmental stages. (Webster 1963) products of living organisms (e.g., Land use planning is often de- wood, meat, other plant fibers) scribed as being a "process" rather (C.F.S.) than a single, finite, irreversible event Also see Productivity, primary, in time or space. (C.F.S.) Productivity, secondary and Produc- For geologic usage see geomorphic tivity, tertiary. process. Productivity, primary (Basic productivity) Producer organism (Producer, Auto- 1. The rate at which energy is trophic organism) stored by the photosynthetic and 1. An organism that can utilize ra- chemosynthetic activity of producer diant energy (i.e., sunlight) to synthe- organisms (chiefly green plants) in the size organic substances from inorganic form of organic substances that can be materials. (Hanson 1962) used as food materials. (Odum 1953)

164 2. The rate of new biomass addi- various activities required to produce tion (weight growth) on photosyn- specified final outputs and end results. thetic (i.e., plant) organisms. (After (U. S. Forest Serv. 1972B) Parsons and Takahashi 1973) A major agency endeavor, mission Also see Productivity, secondary oriented, which fulfills statutory or ex- and Productivity, tertiary. ecutive requirements, and which is defined in terms of the principal actions Productivity, secondary required to achieve a significant end 1. The rate of new biomass addi- objective. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. tion (weight growth) on plant eating 1969) (herbivorous) animals. (After Parson and Takahashi 1973) Program element 2. The rate of energy storage by A subdivision of a program cate- consumer organisms. (Odum 1971) gory which comprises the specific Also see Productivity, primary and products that contribute to an agen- Productivity, tertiary. cy's objective. If an agency's operating program is distributed over several pro- Productivity, tertiary gram categories each part of the oper- The rate of new biomass addition ating program identified by a discrete (weight growth) on meat eating (i.e., program category is a program ele- carnivorous) animals. (After Parsons ment. (U.S. Gen. Account Off. 1969) and Takahashi 1973) Also see Productivity, primary and Program evaluation and review technique. Productivity, secondary. See Critical path method.

Profile. For graphic representation meth- Programming ods usage see Profile view and for soil The process of deciding on specific terminology usage see Soil profile. courses of action to be followed in carrying out planning decisions and objec- Profile view tives. It also involves decisions in terms An illustration in which the fea- of total inputs required or total costs tures coinciding in space with the to be incurred over a period of years as plane of sectioning are strongly em- to personnel, material, and financial phasized (usually by thick linework). resources to be applied in carrying out Features in the background are usually programs. (After U.S. Forest Serv. shown with much thinner linework and 1972B and U.S. Gen. Account. Off. without any reduction in size in 1969) proportion to their increasing distance from the plane of sectioning (as would Prohibition zoning. See Zoning, prohibi- occur if they were drawn according to tion. the rules of linear perspective). Under- ground features are seldom shown in Project (Land sales or development pro- "profile" type drawings nor is there ject) ever any exaggeration of the scale of Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for vertical or horizontal features. (C.F.S.) a National Land Use Policy and Plan- Also see Cross section. ning Assistance Act. Any of the activities set forth below which occur Program ten miles or more beyond the bounda- 1. An activity or combination of ries of any Standard Metropolitan activities carried out to meet an objec- Statistical Area or of any other general tive. (US. Forest Serv. 1972B) purpose local government certified by 2. A coordinated organizational en- a governor as possessing the capability deavor which is defined in terms of the and authority to regulate such activi-

165 ties: (1) the partitioning or dividing in- is attained, and if the influence of ex- to fifty or more lots for sale or resale ternal forces remains constant, projec- primarily for housing purposes within tions could reasonably be expected to a period of ten years of any tract of chart the future. (U.S. Dep. Agric. land, or tracts of land in the same vi- 1974) cinity, owned or controlled by any de- Also see Forecast. veloper; (2) the construction or improvement primarily for housing pur- Project planning (Operational planning) poses of fifty or more units within a Types of planning concerned with period of ten years on any tract of physical undertakings (such as a dam). land, or tracts of land in the same vi- Project planning incorporates a greater cinity, owned or controlled by any de- range of specific elements than func- veloper, including the construction of tional planning and, thus, deals with detached dwellings, town houses, more numerous and diverse parts. apartments, and trailer parks, and (Branch 1967) adjacent uses and facilities, whatever See site planning for the distinc- their form or ownership or occupancy; tions between project planning and site (3) such other projects as may be des- planning. ignated by a State. (U.S. Congr., Sen- ate. Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973) Proper grazing. For range management usage see Use, proper. Projection Proper stocking. See Stocking, proper. 1. An extrapolation of a series of Property past data to predict future conditions 1. The dominion or indefinite right and occurrences. The accuracy of a of use or disposition which one may projection is very dependent on past lawfully exercise over particular things trends continuing, or else changing in or subjects, land, improvements or ob- some known manner. jects of value to which rights of owner- A "projection" differs in a strict ship and control may be acquired. sense from a forecast, which is also a (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) prediction of future conditions and oc- 2. The social, and sometimes legal, currences, but is based on an under- set of relationships of rights and obli- standing of the system being discussed, gations between people concerning the from current and past data rather than use of an object. An object in these merely continuing and adjusting past relationships may be material or non- trends. Although the distinction may material, such as a trademark. exist, the dividing line between the (O'Connell 1974) two terms is imprecise. (E. C. T.) 2. Projections are conditional fore- Property rights casts of the future. They are based The sum total of the rights pertain- upon stated assumptions about factors ing to property ownership. In the case that are expected to impact on future of real property it embraces the right conditions. Projections reflect histori- to quiet enjoyment, the right to sell, to cal development and economic activity mortgage, to lease, to bequeath, to as modified by discernible trends de- regain possession at the end of a lease, termined by analysis of present and to build and remove improvements, past relationships. If there are no and to control the property's use with- changes in the objectives of the peo- in the law. In short, it describes the ple, if limits of resource availability are scope of legal protections granted to not reached, if anticipated technology property ownership. (Abrams 1971)

166 Proper use. For range management usage pation and considering the views of see Use, proper. interested parties in planning and decision-making processes. Proper utilization. For range management The "public" referred to includes usage see Use, proper. individuals, local, state, regional and national public service organizations Prospecting and interest groups. It also includes The removal of overburden, core state, local and other Federal agencies drilling to obtain subsurface samples, which have jurisdiction, special exper- construction of roads or any other dis- tise or information to offer relevant to turbance of the surface for the pur- the total planning and implementation pose of determining the location, picture. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8212, quantity or quality of a mineral depos- Oct. 1973) it. (Grim and Hill 1974) Public land Proxemics Land for which the title and con- The study of man's use of social trol rests with a government–Federal, and personal space. (Worthington state, regional, county, or municipal. 1974, citing Hall 1966) (E. C. T.)

Proxy value Public participation. See Public involve- A value assigned to a good or ser- ment. vice for evaluation purposes when the good or service is not bought nor sold PUD. See Cluster development. and an established monetary price does not exist. (E. C. T.) Pyramid of biomass Also see Market value. When the total weight of individ- Psychological carrying capacity. See Car- uals at successive trophic levels in a rying capacity, psychological. food chain is plotted, a gradually sloping pyramid usually results–regardless Public domain of the individual size of the producer The territory ceded to the Federal organisms or consumer organisms, and government by the original thirteen regardless of whether predators or states, together with certain subse- parasites are considered. This "pyra- quent additions by cession, treaty, and mid of biomass", in effect, gives a pic- purchase. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM ture of the over-all effect of food 7140.5, July 1967) chain relations for the ecological group as a whole. Public involvement The number of organisms that can 1. The opportunity for maximum be supported at higher trophic levels feasible participation by citizens in actually depends not on the amount of rulemaking, decision making and land food organisms present at any one use planning, including public hear- time, but on the number being re- ings, advisory mechanisms and such placed as fast as some are eaten. other procedures as may be necessary (Odum 1953) to provide public input in a particular In such pyramids if the biomass of instance. (After U.S. Congr., House the various trophic levels is taken at Represent., Com. Inter. Insular Aff. one instant in time, a lowest trophic 1975) level consisting of organisms with 2. The use of appropriate proce- short life times commonly has a dures for informing the public, obtain- smaller standing crop biomass than the ing early and continuing public partici- next higher level. However if the total

167 productivity of biomass at different mass, are pictures of the standing levels in such pyramids is summed on states, i.e., organisms present at any an annual basis, the expected pyra- one moment, while the energy pyra- midal biomass relationships will be mid is a picture of the rates of passage observed, because of the larger total of food mass through the food chain. weight of biomass produced over such Its shape is not affected by variations periods of time by the commonly in the size and metabolic rate of indi- small and short-lived but much more viduals, and, if all sources of energy numerous and rapidly reproducing are considered, it must always be right organisms in the lowest trophic level. side up (i.e., with the largest numbers (C.F.S.) at the base) because of the second law of thermodynamics. (Odum 1971)

Pyramid of food production rates. See Pyramid of energy Pyramid of energy. A graphical representation of the rate of energy flow and/or energy pro- Pyramid of numbers (Eltonian pyramid, ductivity at successive trophic levels in Food pyramid) a food chain or for a complete biotic 1. A graphic representation of the community. food chain which indicates the large Of the three types of ecological numbers of producer organisms (i.e., pyramids, the energy pyramid gives by plants) at the base of the food chain, far the best overall picture of the func- and the progressively decreasing num- tional nature of biotic communities bers of herbivores (plant eaters) and since the number and weight of orga- carnivores (meat eaters) higher up in nisms that can be supported at any the food chain. (After Odum 1971) level in any situation depends not on 2. Elton's concept that in most the amount of fixed energy present at food chains the number of individuals any one time in the level just below, decreases in each succeeding stage, but rather on the rate at which food is with large numbers of animals occur- being produced. In contrast the pyra- ring at the base and a few large ones at mid of numbers and pyramid of bio- the top. (Hanson 1962)

Q Quality of life consensus could be found about a 1. This quality is seen as a measure range of choice of goods and services of the degree to which a society offers and about the qualities of the environ- effective opportunity to enjoy the ment which should be offered. "good life". The components of the (Coombs 1972) "good life" are a combination of 2. The measure of harmony be- goods and services available in a total tween individual and cultural value systems and the capacity and oppor- environment; physical, social, and cul- tunity for their realization. (L. W.) tural. Their precise composition would 3. A broad, all-encompassing term be a matter of personal judgement used to refer to the quality characteris- about which widely differing opinions tics of all the aspects of one's environ- would be held. The "quality of life", ment. (Sesco, et al. 1973) therefore, is an essentially subjective concept. It may, however, be that for Questionnaire a particular community a reasonable 1. A set of questions for obtaining

168 statistically useful or personal informa- tains more than brief descriptions dis- tion from an individual. (Webster tinguishing alternative actions, chapter 1963) headings to aid in review, and space 2. U.S. Office of Management and for whatever comments the respon- Budget usage. A form provided by a dent may wish to make. (After U.S. government agency to solicit informa- Forest Serv. Wash. Off. 1974) tion and comments from the public 3. A printed research form pre- which requires prior approval by the sented to the person from whom data Office of Management and Budget are sought. Ordinarily, it is fixed with (OMB) if submitted to ten or more respect to the wording and order of people, in contrast to a response form the questions. These may include which does not require OMB approval. agreement/disagreement items, items A form becomes a questionnaire if (a) which are to be ordered by rank, items it is distributed to members of the in which the respondent is asked to public who have not requested infor- choose one of two or three different mation material or are not directly af- statements as coming closest to his or fected by possible management ac- her opinion or beliefs, and open-ended tions, or (b) it asks any questions rela- questions in which he or she provides tive to the nature or attitudes of the one-word or short-answer responses. respondent beyond name, address, and (O'Connell 1974) organizational affiliation, or (c) it con- Also see Response form.

Raindrop erosion. See Erosion, splash. prescribed number of cattle or sheep, or by common use of both under one plan of management. (Amer. Soc. Rainfall intensity Range Manage. 1964) The rate at which rain is falling at any given instant, usually expressed in Range, annual inches per hour. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Range on which the principal for- Amer. 1970) age plants are herbaceous species which only live for one year. (After Range Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) 1. All land producing naturalized or native forage for animal consump- Range, closed tion, and lands that are revegetated A suitable range that is closed to naturally or artificially to provide a grazing by domestic livestock. (Amer. forage cover that is managed like natu- Soc. Range Manage. 1964) ralized or native vegetation. Generally considered as land that is not culti- Range condition vated. (After Amer. Soc. Range Man- The state and health of the range age. 1964) based on what it is naturally capable 2. Embraces rangelands as well as of producing. (Soil Conserv. Soc. many forestlands which support an Amer. 1970) understory or periodic cover of herbaceous or shrubby plants suitable for Range condition class grazing without impairing other forest One of a series of arbitrary cate- values. (D.E.H. and B. W.) gories used to classify range condition, usually expressed as either excellent, Range allotment (Allotment) good, fair, or poor. (Soil Conserv. Soc. An area designated for the use of a Amer. 1970)

169 Range improvement that is managed like native vegetation. "Physical improvement." Any Rangelands include natural grasslands, structure or excavation to facilitate savannas, shrublands, many deserts, management of range or livestock. tundra, alpine communities, coastal "Biological improvement". An in- marshes, and wet meadows. crease in the grazing capacity of range. Rangeland Grazing System Improvement in range condition. U.S. Forest Service usage. This sys- (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) tem includes all those activities that bear directly upon management, pro- Range, key winter tection, and development of the Na- The smaller portion of the total tional Forests and Grasslands for live- year's range where big game animals stock grazing. It also includes the find food and/or cover during severe cooperative aspects of state and pri- winter weather. vate forestry associated with produc- "Key winter" areas limit the num- ing livestock on non-Federal forest ber of animals the range can support. range. Research provides the system (U.S. Forest Serv. Lolo Natl. Forest with management alternatives that re- 1974B) late range productivity with other forest and range land resources. Rangeland One of the six "systems" estab- 1. Land on which the natural plant lished by the U.S. Forest Service to cover is composed principally of native have a systematic, orderly way to view grasses, forbs or shrubs valuable for and evaluate its many diverse but in- forage. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972A) terrelated activities. The Forest Service 2. Land used for grazing by live- has developed this approach to better stock and big game animals on which respond to the mandates of the Forest the natural potential climax communi- and Rangeland Renewable Resources ty of plants is dominated by grasses, Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped grass-like plants, forbs, and shrubs. its various programs into these six (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970) "systems", each of which incorporates 3. Land where the potential nat- all the activities concerned with devel- ural vegetation is predominantly oping and managing a specific re- grasses, grasslike plants, forbs. or source. (After U. S. Forest Serv. shrubs, where natural grazing and 1974A) browsing was an important influence The six "systems" are: Land and in its precivilization state, and that is Water, Timber Resource, Outdoor more suitable for management by eco- Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland logical rather than agronomic princi- Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and ples. Human and Community Development. Some "rangelands" have been or may be seeded to introduced or do- Range management (Range planning) mesticated plant species. (Anderson, et The art and science of planning and al. 1962) directing range use to obtain sustained 4. Land on which the (climax or maximum animal production, consis- natural potential) plant community is tent with perpetuation of the natural dominated by grasses, grass-like plants, resources. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. forbs, or shrubs suitable for grazing or 1964) browsing and present in sufficient Range, open quantity to justify grazing or browsing 1. All suitable range of an area use. Includes rangelands revegetated upon which grazing is permitted. naturally or artifically to provide cover (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964)

170 2. Ranges which have not been and natural biotic factors that is signif- fenced into management units. (Amer. icantly different from adjacent areas. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) These environmental areas are con- Range planning. See Range management. sidered as units for purposes of discussion, investigation and manage- Range, primary ment. Changes from one site to anoth- Areas which animals prefer to use er represent significant differences in and over which they will graze when potential forage production and/or dif- management is limited. ferences in management requirements The areas on which overuse will oc- for proper land use. (Amer. Soc. cur before secondary range is used Range Manage. 1964) when animals are allowed to shift for themselves. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- Range suitability age. 1964) The adaptability of a range to grazing by livestock and/or game. (Amer. Ranger District multiple use plan Soc. Range Manage. 1964) U.S. Forest Service usage. A document, prepared for each Ranger Dis- Range, suitable trict and consisting of sub- Range which is accessible to live- (administrative) Region multiple use stock or game and which can be grazed guides supplemented at the Ranger on a sustained yield basis without District level, that serves to direct and damage to other resources. (Amer. coordinate National Forest land man- Soc. Range Manage. 1964) agement, development, protection, Range, transitory and use until this role is assumed by Land that is suitable for grazing use part I of the National Forest land use of a nonenduring or temporary nature plan. (W. W.) over a period of time. For example, on Range readiness particular disturbed lands, grass may The stage of growth of the impor- cover the area for a period of time be- tant palatable plants on the range and fore being replaced by trees or shrubs the condition of soil which permit not suitable for forage. (U.S. Forest grazing without undue compacting of Serv., Lolo Natl. Forest 1974A) the soil or endangering the ability of Range, unsuitable the plants to maintain themselves. An area which has no value for, or (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) which should not be used by livestock Range, secondary because of steep topography, barren- Range which is lightly used or un- ness, dense timber, lack of forage, or used by livestock under minimal man- unstable soils. (Amer. Soc. Range agement and will ordinarily not be Manage. 1964) fully used until the primary range has Range use. See Use, degree of. been overused. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Rare and Endangered Species Act A misnomer for the Endangered Range site Species Conservation Act of 1969. 1. A distinctive kind of rangeland This act has now been repealed and that differs from other kinds of range- replaced by the Endangered Species land in its potential to produce native Act of 1973. plants. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. See Endangered Species Act of 1970) 1973. 2. An area of land having a combination of soil, climatic, topographic Rare species. See Species, rare.

171 RAU. See Resource analysis unit. and at a relatively low cost. (U.S. For- est Serv., FSM 7140.5, July, 1967) Raw land (Undeveloped land) A term of comparison sometimes Recreation used to contrast land which has been 1. Leisure time activity such as built upon (i.e., "developed") or sub- swimming, picnicking, boating, hunt- divided in preparation for developing and fishing. (Federal Register ment with undeveloped and unsub- 38(174:24803) divided (i.e., "raw") land. (C.F.S.) 2. Use of leisure time for personal RCD. Resource conservation district. See satisfaction and enjoyment. Recrea- Soil Conservation District. tion is a basic human need. It may be undertaken individually or with RCU. See Resource capability unit. others. It may be planned or spontane- ous. It may be passive or active, may Recently extinct species. See Species, re- or may not require skills and training, cently extinct or possibly extinct. and may or may not require a designated area. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recrea- Recharge tion 1974) The addition of water to an aquifer 3. Recreation is an exceedingly var- that occurs naturally from infiltration iable term meaning almost anything of rainfall and from water flowing over people do with their leisure. It is not a earth materials that allow water to in- resource but an activity compounded filtrate below the land surface. (Feth of two parts, recreationists and recrea- 1973) tion environments. Resources such as Reclamation timber, forage, water, or minerals exist Mining usage. The filling in of open in land. Recreation exists in the mind pits, grading of the mined area, reduc- and takes place in an environment tion of high walls, replacement of top based on the land. soil, planting, revegetation and such Outdoor recreation involves the other work as is necessary to restore protection, preservation, development, an area of land affected by surface public use, and enjoyment of scenery, mining operations. water, primitive or natural landscape The process of reconverting mined (including roadless areas), wildlife, nat- land to other forms of productive uses. ural phenomena (e.g., petrified wood), (After Grim and Hill 1974) and archeological and historical sites. (Eisner 1969) Reclamation, effective Mining usage. Rehabilitation of Recreation easement. See Easement, rec- mining-affected land to make it ac- reational. ceptable for designated purposes, with protection of the natural resources and Recreational experience levels aesthetic value of adjoining areas. U.S. Forest Service usage. The ex- (Count. Agric. Sci. Technol. 1973) tent to which various classes of outdoor recreation experiences provide Reconnaissance soil map. See Soil map, opportunities for satisfying some of reconnaissance. the basic needs of individuals–such as Reconnaissance soil survey. See Soil map, to find isolation and solitude, to so- reconnaissance and Soil survey. cialize, to achieve self-fulfillment, for aggression outlets, etc. Reconnaissance survey The levels in the Forest Service sys- U.S. Forest Service usage. A prelim- tem are qualitatively broken into six inary survey usually executed rapidly classes based upon the extent to

172 which; (1) outdoor skills are required, are readily accessible by road or rail- (2) the natural environment has been road, that may have some develop- modified to facilitate use and, ment along their shorelines, and that (3) comfort and/or convenience facili- may have undergone some impound- ties ties are provided. (After U.S. Forest ment or diversion in the past. (After Serv., FSM 2330.5-3, Jan., 1969) U.S. Forest Serv. 1974)

Recreational experience quality Recreation and park planning The quality of recreational experi- An organized procedure to deter- ence is the degree of excellence, value, mine goals, objectives, and actions in or worth of any form of recreational recreation and park functions. Such experience determined through per- planning is one unit of comprehensive sonal judgments and preferences. Con- planning. It involves the consideration sensus and individual variation form of the total environment, physical and expectations that, depending upon the social, and the role that recreation extent to which they are achieved, plays in the master plan for a given specify the degrees of quality judg- area. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation ments. Consensus may provide relative 1974) value scales or standards that may offer some universal basis for quality Recreation area, developed judgments. Individual variation, as A relatively small, distinctly de- shown through personal judgments fined area where concentrated public and preferences, is the deviation from use for the more traditional recreation consensus as a consequence of individ- purposes predominates–e.g., camp- ual intelligence and qualities of person- grounds, picnic areas, swimming areas. ality as influenced by education, ex- (U.S. Forest Serv. Region 9 1975) perience, perception, and socialization and modified by external influences Recreation, concentrated such as area, design facilities, activities, Those types of activities associated human relations, impacts, finances, with developed recreation sites–such health and safety, weather, travel, and as campgrounds, picnic grounds, ski time. (A,W.M.) areas, fishing ramps, scenic overlooks, Also see Recreational quality. interpretive sites, etc. (U.S. Forest Serv., Lolo Natl. Forest 1974B)

Recreational quality Recreation day The degree to which a recreational A standard unit of use for an area experience or area normally contrib- or activity consisting of a visit by one utes to the physical and psychic well- individual to a recreation development being of recreationists. Thus a thor- or area for recreation purposes during oughly worn area usually offers lower any reasonable portion or all of a 24 recreational quality than areas present- hour period. This corresponds roughly ing a fresh and natural scene. Individ- with what is termed a "recreation ual tastes differ, and an experience is visit". of high quality only to people for For example, if the average stay at a whom it provides a large measure of picnic site were four hours then a enjoyment or well-being. (Wagar 1964) four-hour visit to the picnic site by Also see Recreational experience one person would be a recreation day. quality. (Dyrland 1973)

Recreational river area Recreation, dispersed Wild and Scenic Rivers Act usage. 1. Recreation of various kinds that Those rivers or sections of rivers that occurs generally throughout a large

173 area, and is not confined to a specific Forest Serv. 1971) place. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2300 Also see Recreation, definition 3. R-8) 2. Scattered, individual outdoor Recursive recreation activities normally not iden- The process of repeating an opera- tified with developed facilities or areas tion or group of operations, usually of group concentration. (U.S. Forest with the result of each repetition being Serv., FSM 2300 R-8) in some way dependent upon the re- 3. Recreational use of trails, natu- sult of the preceding repetition. (U.S. ral lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and Gen. Account. Off. 1969) generally undeveloped areas. Includes such activities as hiking, back packing, Reducer organism. See Decomposer orga- hunting, fishing, snowmobiling, horse nism. back riding and cross-country skiing. (U.S. Forest Serv. Region 9 1975) Reforestation 1. The natural or artificial restock- Recreation, extensive ing of an area with forest trees; most Low-density, dispersed recreation commonly used in reference to the lat- types–e.g., general hiking and riding, ter. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) snowmobile use, dispersed camping, 2. Re-establishment of a crop on hunting, etc. (Sandpoint Zone Plann. forest land. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Team 1974) 3. "Reforestation" includes measures to obtain natural regeneration as Recreation, intensive well as tree planting and seeding. High-density recreational activi- Reforestation is done to produce ties–e.g., developed camp and picnic timber and other forest products, pro- grounds, swimming beaches, hiking tect watersheds, prevent erosion and trails that are major access routes into improve other social and economic val- wilderness areas, all-terrain vehicle ues of the forests, such as wildlife, rec- areas (except snowmobile courses), reation and natural benefits. (U.S. For- etc. (Sandpoint Zone Plann. Team est Serv., FSM 2472, June, 1973) 1974) Refuse. See Mining refuse. Recreation land Land and water used primarily for Regeneration recreation. (Recreation may be a sec- 1. The renewal of a tree crop, ondary use of land where woodland, whether by natural or artificial means. cropland, rangeland, etc., is the pri- (Ford-Robertson 1971) mary use.) (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 2. Regeneration is also used when 1970) referring to the young crop itself. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Recreation, primitive Those types of recreational activi- Regeneration cutting ties associated with unroaded land– 1. Any removal of trees intended e.g., hiking, backpacking, cross coun- to assist regeneration already present try travel. (U.S. Forest Serv., Lolo or to make regeneration possible. Natl. Forest 1974B) (Ford-Robertson 1971) 2. "Regeneration cutting" applies Recreation resource generally to the logging stands of rota- The combination of the natural tion age or greater, and stands below qualities of land and water areas and rotation age which cannot economical- the ability and desire of man to use ly be held any longer because of poor this combination for recreation. (U.S. stocking, health, thrift, quality, or

174 composition. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM formulation for water and related land 2471.2) resources planning specified in the 3. "Regeneration cutting" applies U.S. Water Resources Council's Princi- to all cutting in virgin stands and to all ples and Standards and the U.S. De- cutting in cutover stands where the partment of Agriculture's "Proce- overwood components of the stand are dures" for adhering to them. over rotation age. (U.S. Forest Serv., Also see Principles and Standards. FSM 2471 R-3) (After U.S. Dep. Agric. 1974)

Region Regional plan 1. A large tract of land; a country. The plan for a region (i.e., an area (Stamp 1961) larger than a single city and whose 2. A more or less defined portion boundaries have typically been desig- of the earth's surface, now especially nated according to some physio- as distinguished by certain natural fea- graphic, biological, political, admini- tures, climatic conditions, a special strative, economic, demographic or fauna or flora, or the like. other criteria). (C.F.S.) An area space, or place, of more or Also see River basin plan. less definite extent or character. An area of the earth's surface dif- Regional planning ferentiated (from adjoining areas) by 1. The planning discipline con- one or more features or characteristics cerned with the clarification of social which give it a measure of unity. Ac- objectives in the ordering of activities cording to the criteria employed in dif- in supra-urban space–that is in any ferentiation, "regions" are termed area which is larger than a single city. physiographic, political, economic, "Regional planning" is a discipline, etc. (Stamp 1961) primarily oriented to the future, that 3. A U.S. Forest Service Adminis- looks to the relation between social trative unit consisting of several Na- purposes and spatial arrangements in tional Forests in one or more states. any area which is larger than a single Within the Forest Service, Regions of city. (After Friedman 1963) this type are known by their number In the U.S. Forest Service land use (e.g., Region 5), and the adjective "Re- planning this is approximately equiva- gional" often refers specifically to lent to its largest land use planning these administrative units. In planning, subdivision (i.e., the geographic area to the Forest Service equivalent of a re- which a planning area guide applies) gion as defined in 2, above, is a plan- and should not be confused with For- ning area. (E.C.T.) est Service administrative Regions (i.e., Also see Region, natural. administrative units consisting of several National Forests in one or more Regional climate (Macroclimate) states). (E. C. T.) The general large-scale climate of a Also see Planning area. large area or country, as distinguished from the mesoclimate and microcli- Region, morphogenetic (Formkreis) mate. (Huschle 1959) 1. A region whose distinguishing landscape characteristics are the result Regional economic development of the operation of particular domi- One of the four "required ac- nant geomorphic processes which have counts" for categorizing, displaying, or been caused by the occurrence of a "accounting" the beneficial and ad- certain set of climatic conditions. verse effects of each alternative plan (Thornbury 1969)

175 2. A region in which, under a cer- The basis of the regional division is tain set of climatic conditions, the pre- to be found in nature as a whole, in- dominant geomorphic processes will cluding man, in contrast to a division give to the landscape land form charac- based on a single element, as in the teristics that will distinguish it from case of "climatic regions," "agricultur- those of other areas developed under al regions" etc. The basis of the region- different climatic conditions. (Amer. al division is to be found in regions Geol. Inst. 1962) considered in terms of their non- 3. Related land forms which owe human elements. (Stamp 1961, citing their existence to the action of the Hartshorne 1951; interpretation of same geomorphic process–such as run- Herbertson 1905) ning water or ice action. (Stamp 1961) For analogous uniform land form 2. The term "natural region" has pattern concepts also see Region, mor- been used to cover two distinct types phological and Region, physiographic. of unit-areas of the earth's surface: (1) those, which are marked out as pos- Region, morphological sessing certain common physical char- Land units with a high degree of acteristics–e.g., a certain kind of struc- homogeneity in all their morphological ture and surface relief, or a particular (i.e., land surface form) features. (Af- kind of climate; and (2) those regions ter Stamp 1961, citing Linton 1951) which possess a unity based upon any "Morphological" regions only refer significant geographical characteristics to areas possessing a uniformity of whether physical, biological or human, land surface forms without any im- or any combination of these, as con- plied, underlying speculation as to the trasted with areas marked out by processes responsible for those forms. boundaries imposed, frequently for For analogous uniform land form political or administrative purposes, pattern concepts also see Region, mor- without reference to any geographical phogenetic and Region, physiographic. unity of the areas. (Stamp 1961, citing Geographical Association 1937) Region, natural 3. The concept of the "natural re- 1. A part of the earth's surface gion" is a much debated problem. characterized by the comparatively Hartshorne (1951) points out that, high degree of uniformity of structural while some use the term "natural re- and climatic features within it. (Stamp gions" to indicate something inherent 1961, citing Mill circa. 1910) and not arbitrarily imposed, we are "Natural regions" deal not merely fundamentally measuring the different with the mutual adjustment of drain- natural criteria in terms of their impor- age and land forms, but also with the tance to man. Since the relative impor- well-marked zones of climate, vegeta- tance of the different natural elements tion, and even human distributions which characterize such forms when to man is certainly not determined by situated in similar climatic areas. A nature as distinct from man, it follows natural region should have a certain that our systems inevitably have a hu- unity of configuration, climate, and man basis. In the delimitation of revegetation. The mapping of human gions, the crux of the matter seems to conditions has less significance in indi- be "is the region inherent in the land- cating the major natural geographical scape or is it the product of criteria regions. Political divisions must be applied by the individual geographer?" eliminated from any consideration of In other words, is the region an objec- natural regions. (Stamp 1961, citing tive or subjective concept? (Stamp Herbertson 1905) 1961)

176 Region, physiographic (Geomorphic prov- cipally, scrub trees, brush, and vines ince, Geomorphic region, Physio- that inhibit their growth or desirable graphic province) development. (B) Treatments to pre- 1. A region having a particular pat- vent development of brush and trees tern of relief features or land forms that threaten to overtop desired grow- that differs significantly from that of ing stock trees. (C) Removal of grass, adjacent regions. (Webster 1963) weeds, or brush from around individu- 2. A region of similar geologic al seedlings or small trees to release structure and climate that has had a them from competition for soil mois- unified geomorphic history. (Amer. ture, shade, or smothering as under Geol. Inst. 1962) matted grass or weeds. (U.S. Forest 3. An area or division of land in Serv., FSM 2476.41) which the pattern of topographic ele- 3. Cutting an immature stand to ments (altitude, relief and land forms) free the crop trees from excessive com- are characteristic throughout and as petition by removing the excess of an such distinguish it from other areas undesired age class (such as a young with different sets of topographic ele- age class which because of excessive ments. (Thornbury 1965) numbers is competing severely with an For analogous uniform land form older but desired regulated age class). pattern concepts see Region, morpho- (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R-3) genetic and Region, morphological. Relic Register of National Natural Landmarks. Historical or archeological remains See National Registry of Natural Land- usage. Something that is left behind marks. after decay, disintegration or disap- pearance (as of a structure, a culture, Regolith etc.). (Webster 1963) The layer or mantle of loose, non- For biologic or ecologic usage, see cohesive or cohesive rock material, of Relict. whatever origin, that nearly every- where forms the surface of the land and rests on bedrock. It comprises Relict (Relic) rock waste of all sorts; volcanic ash; 1. As related to a climax communi- glacial drift; alluvium; wind-blown de- ty, fragments of presently existing posits; and accumulations of vegeta- flora on areas with a historical record tion, such as peat; and soil. (Soil Con- of no disturbance and the plant com- serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) munity is assumed to be in near virgin condition. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Regulatory standard. See Standard. 1964) 2. A biotic community or species Relative poverty. See Poverty, relative. which, through the operation of some compensating or protective environ- Release cutting mental features has survived some 1. Freeing a tree, or group of trees, major change (e.g., climatic, land use) from more immediate competition by that has altered the general vegetation cutting, or otherwise eliminating, of the surrounding territory. (Ford- growth that is overtopping or closely Robertson 1971) surrounding them. (Ford-Robertson 3. A remnant of the population of 1971) a species that was formerly more wide- 2. Three principal operations come spread. (Hanson 1962) under this classification: (A) Treat- ments to free desired growing stock Relief trees from over-story vegetation; prin- 1. The difference in elevation be-

177 tween the high and low points of a haustible" in the sense that utilization land surface. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) can continue indefinitely because it is 2. The elevations or the inequali- only economically feasible to use very ties of a land surface, taken collective- small amounts, per unit of time, of rely. (After U.S. Geol. Surv. 1954) sources which are available in only comparatively small physical quanti- Remote sensing ties. (After Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968) Any data or information acquisi- 3. Resources whose supply be- tion technique which utilizes airborne comes available for use at different in- techniques and/or equipment to deter- tervals in time. The use of present sup- mine the characteristics of an area. ply flows does not diminish future Aerial photos are the most common flows and it is possible to maintain use form of remote sensing product, but indefinitely provided the use rate does side scanning radar (SLAR) and other not exceed flow rate. pictoral and nonpictoral forms of data Many renewable resources can be collections are also produced by some stored–such as water in a reservoir or remote sensing techniques. (C.F.S.) mature timber in a stand and such stores can be treated as a stock (i.e., Removal cutting exhaustible) resource. The availability The removal of the seed source, of a flow for replenishing the stock, typically the seed trees, after adequate however, differentiates such stores regeneration has taken place. (U.S. "flow resources" from truely "nonre- Forest Serv., FSM 2471.22.) newable resources." See Shelterwood system for the There are two broad classes of "re- timing relationships between this cut- newable resources" one in which hu- ting type and others in that silvicultur- man resource use activities do not sig- al system. nificantly alter future flows (ex. wind, tidal and solar energy) and a second Removal regeneration cutting class where human activities may in- Cutting a stand which has an ad- crease or decrease future flows (ex. vanced manageable understory of 1-20 timber growth, soil productivity). (Af- year old age class reproduction. The ter Ciriacy-Wantrup 1968) seed-tree cutting is bypassed and all 4. Natural resources are of two the overstory competition is removed types: "renewable" and non-renew- in one cutting. The stand is reduced to able. "Renewable resources" are living the single age class for future manage- organisms and others such as soil and ment. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 water which are closely associated R-3) with and affected by living organisms. Non-renewable resources are non-living Renewable resource (Flow resource, Inex- materials such as minerals and fuels. haustible resource) (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) 1. "Flow resource" and "inexhaustible resource" are grouped here Renewable resource assessment. See For- because these categories are conceptu- est and Rangeland Renewable Re- ally very similar, if not often identical sources Planning Act of 1974. to "renewable resource." (C.F.S.) 2. Resource inexhaustibility is only a meaningful concept if employed in Renewable resource lands the economic sense. "Inexhaustibility" Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for need not imply superabundance com- a National Land Use Policy and Plan- pared to demand nor rapid, abundant ning Assistance Act. renewal. A resource may be "inex- Areas where uncontrolled or incom-

178 patible development which results in the tribes could not control key tracts the loss or reduction of continued long within their reservations which they range productivity could endanger fu- did not own or lands outside a reserva- ture water, food, and fiber require- tion which they owned or for which ments of more than local concern. they possessed administrative responsi- These lands include watershed lands, bility. (U.S. Congr., Senate, Com. aquifers and aquifer recharge areas, sig- Inter. Insular Aff. 1973) nificant agricultural and grazing lands, and forest lands. Reservoir Salvage Act (74 Stat. 220) This is one of the three types of The Reservoir Salvage Act of 1960 areas of critical environmental concern provides for the recovery and preserva- specifically set forth in this bill. The tion of "historical and archeological others are natural hazard lands and data (including relics and specimens)" fragile or historic lands. (U.S. Congr., that might be lost or destroyed as a Senate, Com. Inter. Insular Aff. 1973) result of the construction of dams, reservoirs, and attendant facilities and ac- Renewable resource program. See Forest tivities. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM and Rangeland Renewable Resources 2361.01, Feb. 1974) Planning Act of 1974. Residential density Reproductive capacity. See Biotic poten- The average number of families liv- tial. ing on one acre of land in a given area. "Gross residential density" is ob- Reproductive potential. See Biotic poten- tained by dividing all land in a defined tial. area used for residences, streets, local schools, local parks and local shopping Research Natural area. See Natural Area, facilities into the total number of fam- Research. ilies is said area. "Net residential density" is deter- Reservation and other tribal lands mined by dividing the total number of Usage in the defeated 1973 bill for families in a defined area by the total a national Land Use Policy and Plan- acreage of all parcels of land within ning Assistance Act. "All lands within the area that is used for residential the exterior boundaries of any Indian purposes. (Eisner 1969) reservation, notwithstanding the issu- ance of any patent, and including Residential land rights-of-way, and all lands held in Land used primarily for permanent trust for or supervised by any Indian dwellings, such as houses, apartments, tribe." and housing developments, including The first part of this definition is adjacent facilities such as underground intended to eliminate pockets of free- and surface utilities, access streets and patented land inside Indian reserva- alleys, and other servicing structures, tions which might otherwise be subject appurtenances, and measures. (U.S. Soil to laws different from their surround- Conserv. Serv. 1970) ings. Similarly, the second part of the definition, which includes "all lands held in trust or supervised by any Indi- Resident species. See Species, resident. an tribe," is intended to cover lands Resource which are Indian country for all practi- 1. Anything which is useful for cal purposes but which do not enjoy something–be it animal, vegetable, reservation status. The Indian tribal mineral, a location, a labor force, etc. land use planning processes and pro- Resources, in the context of land use grams would be largely meaningless if planning, thus vary from such com-

179 modities as timber and minerals to bility System usage. Broad homogene- such amenities as scenery or scenic ous soil-vegetation groupings of the viewing points. (C.F.S.) ecological land units (ELU). 2. Those aspects of man's environ- The RAU may be comprised of a ment which render possible or facili- single ELU or a group of ELU's which tate the satisfaction of human wants have been determined by analysis to and the attainment of social objec- have similar inventory characteristics tives. (Stamp 1961, citing Encyclo- and which will react in a similar man- pedia of the Social Sciences 1933) ner to land management activities at 3. The concept of "resource" pre- the intensity of analysis being under- supposes an appraisal of the usefulness taken. (Reid 1972) of an environment for some purpose. What constitutes a "resource" there- Resource area. See Land resource area. fore, is a highly relative concept whose precise definition changes depending Resource bearing capacity. See Carrying upon the planning agent, the plan- capacity, ecological. ning's purpose, with the state of tech- Resource capability unit nological means for using an environ- U.S. Forest Service Resource Capa- ment for a purpose, and with the abili- bility System (RCS) usage. This term ty to make use within the constraints has generally been replaced by ecologi- imposed by existing social institutions cal land unit. (laws, customs, etc.). (After Ciriacy- See Ecological land unit, definition Wantrup 1968) 2. Thus, for example, garbage is not a "resource" to those attempting to get Resource conservation district. See Soil rid of their wastes but it is a "re- conservation district. source" to those who are attempting to recover recyclable materials from Resource conservation planning it–provided existing regulations and U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- separation technology permit them to age. SCS technical planning assistance do this economically. (C.F.S.) to individuals, groups and representatives of units of government concerning the opportunities and problems in- Resource allocation volved with the use, development, and 1. The action of apportioning the conservation of soil and water re- supply of a resource to specific uses or sources. to particular persons or organizations. Such technical assistance may range (After Webster 1963) from providing aid during the entire 2. The division of limited resource planning process (as with individuals capacity or supplies among the com- developing conservation plans for units petitors for use. (C.F.S.) of land) to helping develop resource 3. Allocation is necessary when inventories and interpretations and as- there are limitations on either the sisting in their evaluations, analysis and amount of resources available or on use. It also includes assisting repre- the way in which they can be used sentatives of units of government such that each separate activity cannot develop and carry out resource plans be performed in the most effective for communities, areas or regions. (Af- way conceivable. (U.S. Forest Serv. ter Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) 1972B) Resource depletion. See Depletion.

Resource analysis unit (RAU) Resource, extrinsic. See Extrinsic re- U.S. Forest Service Resource Capa- source.

180 Resource, intrinsic. See Intrinsic resource. in review. It may not contain any other questions relative to the nature Resource Management System (RMS) or attitudes of the respondent. Any U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- form eliciting public comment which age. A combination of interrelated does not meet all of these criteria is a conservation, practices and manage- questionnaire and when issued by an ment techniques used to maintain or office of the federal executive branch improve soil, water, plant and related to ten or more people must have prior resources. The system is designated ac- approval of OMB. (After U.S. Forest cording to primary use. (J.H.H.) Serv. Wash. Off. 1974) Also see questionnaire. Resource plan U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- Response unit. See Homogeneous re- age. A plan prepared by a unit(s) of sponse unit and Ecological land unit. government and used as a guide for public policy and action on the use, Rest-rotation grazing. See Grazing, rest- treatment, and management of soil rotation. and water resources. Resource plans are generally parts of comprehensive Retention plans or functional plans. (U.S. Soil The amount of precipitation on a Conserv. Serv. 1970) drainage area that does not escape as runoff. It is the difference between Resource region. See Land resource re- total precipitation and total runoff. gion. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970)

Resource scarcity. See Economic scarcity. Revegetation The reestablishment and develop- Resources Planning Act. See Forest and ment of a plant cover. This may take Rangeland Renewable Resources Plan- place naturally through the reproduc- ning Act. tive processes of the existing flora or artificially through the direct action of Resource Unit. See Land resource unit. man–e.g., afforestation, range reseeding. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Response form Federal Executive Branch usage. A Revenue-cost analysis form not needing prior approval of the A method of comparing alternatives Office of Management and Budget by analyzing the monetary income (OMB), which is provided by a govern- each alternative would generate in rela- ment agency to allow interested mem- tion to its cost. (E.C.T.) bers of the public to comment on an Also see Benefit-cost analysis and agency action or publication. To quali- Cost-effectiveness analysis. fy as a "response form" the form must be distributed only to those members Reverse condemnation. See Condemna- of the public who have requested in- tion, reverse. formational material or are directly affected by possible management ac- Right-of-way tions. The form may include In its strict meaning, it is the right (A) name, address, and organizational of passage over another man's ground; affiliation of respondent, (B) a brief and in its legal and generally accepted description distinguishing alternative meaning, in reference to a roadway, it actions and space where the respon- is a mere easement in the lands of dent may express comments on the al- others, obtained by lawful condemna- ternatives, and (C) chapter headings tion for public use or by purchase. It is listed for respondent comments to aid unusual to use the term to apply to an

181 absolute purchase of the fee simple loss of $5 if it comes up tails. (After ownership of land to be used for a U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) roadway or other kind of way. Under the Bayesian school of "Right-of-way" has two-fold signifi- thought the distinction between "risk" cance being sometimes used to mean and uncertainty is not useful and in the mere intangible right to cross, and fact may not exist. In any practical often used to otherwise indicate that analysis all uncertain situations are as- strip of land upon which a road is signed probability distributions, either built. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation explicitly or implicitly by the selection 1974) of the analysis method. Whether or not the true probability distribution is Rights, mineral. See Mineral rights. known, a probability distribution is selected for analysis purposes based on Rights, subsurface. See Mineral rights. experience, intuitive feelings, knowledge, and the lack of knowledge. Rights, surface. See Surface rights. (E.C.T.) 2. The possibility of loss, injury, Rill erosion. See Erosion, rill. disadvantages, or destruction. (Webster 1963) Riparian Also see Uncertainty. 1. In loose usage, referring to the land bordering a stream, lake or tide- Risk, acceptable water. (Hanson 1962) The level of risk (see definition 2) 2. Of, pertaining to, or situated on below which no specific action by lo- the banks of a river (though by com- cal government is deemed necessary, mon usage extended to include any other than making the risk known. stream, irrespective of size). (Stamp (Calif. Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1961) 1973) Also see Littoral. Risk, avoidable Riparian rights Risk (see definition 2) not neces- 1. The rights of owners of lands on sary to take because the individual or the banks of watercourses or bodies, public goals can be achieved at the relating to the water, its use, owner- same or less total "cost" by other ship of soil under the stream, shoreline means without taking the risk. (Calif. accretions, etc. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1973) Recreation 1974) 2. The rights accruing to a landowner on the bank of a natural water- Risk cutting course, lake, or ocean. These rights Cutting to remove trees that are vary with state law. Riparian rights likely to die before the next periodic cease at the water's edge and do not cut. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471R-3) interfere with use of the water area by others offshore. (After Abrams 1971) Risk, unacceptable The level of risk (see definition 2) Risk above which specific action by govern- 1. Uncertainty in a situation is ment is deemed necessary to protect characterized as risk if it is possible to life and property. (Calif. Counc. on In- describe all possible outcomes and to tergov. Relat. 1973) assign meaningful, objective, numerical, probability weights to each one. River basin. See Watershed. For example, an action might lead to this risky outcome: a reward of $10 River basin plan (Regional plan, Level B if a "fair" coin comes up heads, and a plan, Type II plan)

182 1. One of the "levels of planning" for Roadless and undeveloped areas water and related land resources A portion of a National Forest planning by Federal agencies whose ac- larger than 5000 acres, or smaller than tivities involve planning and develop- this but contiguous to designated wil- ment of water resources as contained derness or primitive areas, which con- in the Principles and Standards of the tains no roads and has been inventoried U.S. Water Resources Council. by the Forest Service for possible in- "Regional" or "river basin plans" clusion in the wilderness areas system. are reconnaissance-level evaluations of By management directive these areas water and land resources for selected were not to be developed until a deter- areas and are performed under plan- mination was made on an individual ning authorities of Public Law 83-566 basis whether the area should be con- and Public Law 87-639. They are di- sidered as a possible wilderness area. rected toward resolving the complex (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 8261.05, problems identified by framework Apr. 1974) studies and assessments or other Also see Wilderness study area, Federal-state investigations and termi- Nonselected roadless area, and Wilder- nate in a recommended plan or disclo- ness, definition 2. sure of possible alternative plans. They may vary widely in scope and detail; Rock, igneous will consider present and long-range Rocks formed by solidification problems with a focus on middle term from a molten or partially molten (15 to 25 years) needs and desires; and state–e.g., various types of lava. will involve interested Federal, state, This class of rock types is often and local entities. subdivided, for convenience, into Regional or river basin plans are "plutonic rocks" (those which were concerned with a broad array of com- formed by the solidification of molten ponent needs of objectives. Alternate materials below the ground surface– plans will consider effects on many e.g., granite) and "volcanic rocks" components of objectives. Scheduling (those formed by solidification of mol- for implementation of the recom- ten materials which have been extrud- mended plan or alternative plans will ed onto the ground surface. (After be presented to indicate the relation- Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) ship to needs and the urgency or prior- Also contrast with the other two ity associated with meeting the needs. main classes of rock–Rock, metamor- (U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974) phic and Rock, sedimentary. 2. A plan for development of water and related land resources to make the Rock, metamorphic best use of such resources to meet the Rocks which have been formed in basin needs and make the greatest the solid state under the conditions of long-term contribution to the econom- high pressure, high temperature and ic growth and social well-being of the the introduction of new chemical sub- people of the basin and the nation. stances that, in general occur at great (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) depths within the earth–e.g., slate, marble, jade. (After Amer. Geol. Inst. River basin planning 1962) Comprehensive planning where the Also contrast with the other two planning unit is defined by the natural main classes of rock–Rock, sedimen- boundaries of a river basin. (E. C. T.) tary and Rock, igneous. Also see Comprehensive planning and River basin plan. Rock, plutonic. See Rock, igneous.

183 Rock, sedimentary Rotational deferment Rocks which have been formed Range management usage. A graz- from deposits of sediment–whether ing system in which one or more parts from fragments of other rock trans- of the range are rested during the ported from their sources and depos- growing season each year; and rota- ited by water–e.g., sandstone or tional use of other segments of the shale–or by precipitation from solu- range are not necessarily planned for. tion or fixation by organisms–e.g., (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) rock salt, gypsum, limestone. (After Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) Rotation grazing. See Grazing, rotation. Also contrast with the other two main classes of rock–Rock, metamor- Rotation pasture. See Pasture, rotation. phic and Rock, igneous. RPA. See Forest and Rangeland Renew- Role. See Social role. able Resources Planning Act.

Rotation (Cutting rotation, Felling rota- Runoff tion, Cutting cycle, Cutting interval) 1. The total stream discharge of 1. The period of years between the water, including both surface and sub- initial establishment of a stand of tim- surface flow, usually expressed in acre ber and the time when it is considered feet. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. ready for cutting and regeneration. 1964) (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972A) 2. The rate at which water is dis- 2. The planned, recurring lapse of charged from a drainage area, usually time between successive major cutting expressed in cubic feet per second per operations in a managed forest. (After square mile of drainage area. (Amer. Ford-Robertson 1971) Soc. Range Manage. 1964) S

Sacrifice area poor-risk trees that will not be mer- 1. A relatively small area of land chantable if left in the stand until the in a grazing unit that may still be over- next scheduled cut. (U.S. Forest Serv., used after practical measures for secur- FSM 2471.33, June 1973) ing uniform grazing distribution have 2. The exploitation of trees that been installed. (Soil Conserv. Soc. are dead, dying, or deteriorating (e.g., Amer. 1970) because overmature or substantial 2. A portion of the range, irrespec- damage by fire, wind, insects, fungi or tive of site, that is intentionally over- other injurious agencies) before their grazed to obtain efficient overall use timber becomes worthless. (Ford- of the management area. (Amer. Soc. Robertson 1971) Range Manage. 1964)

Sacrifice site Sand Range management usage. A range 1. Particle size usage. Inorganic site which is intentionally overgrazed particles between 0.05 (or 1/16) and to obtain efficient overall use of the 2.0 millimeters in diameter. (Soil Con- management area. (Amer. Soc. Range serv. Soc. Amer. 1970 and Amer. Manage. 1964) Geol. Inst. 1962) 2. "Soil texture" usage. Soil mater- Salvage cutting ial that contains 85 percent or more 1. Cutting primarily to utilize dead sand and a percentage of silt plus 1.5 and downed material and scattered times the percentage of clay that does

184 not exceed 15. (After Soil Conserv. 2. Aesthetics of proportions usage. Soc. Amer. 1970) A feeling for the size and/or appropri ateness of the size of some construc Sanitary landfill tion element (i.e., a building, paved A site where solid waste materials area, etc.) or project. (C.F.S.) are disposed of on land–supposedly in Also see Sense of scale for a more a manner which prevents their escape extensive discussion of this usage of into–or pollution of–the surrounding "scale". environment. The waste is spread in layers, then compacted to the smallest Scarcity. See Economic scarcity. practical volume and covered with compacted soil at the end of each SCD. See Soil conservation district. working day. (After Sesco, et al. 1973)

Sanitation cutting Scenario The removal of dead, diseased, in 1. A hypothetical sequence of fu fested, damaged, or susceptible trees ture events constructed for the pur essentially to prevent the spread of pose of focusing attention on causal pests or pathogens and so promote processes and decision points. (After forest hygiene. (After Ford-Robertson Kahn and Wiener 1967) 1970) 2. "Scenarios" express a series of integrated objectives for preserving the Sapling environment, the fulfillment of which A loose term for a young tree great is dependent upon timing as an "ur er than a few feet tall and an inch or so gency" rather than as a "sequence". in diameter at breast height and For example, some strategic natural typically growing vigorously and with- areas that may be shown on scenarios out dead bark or more than an oc actually exist on the ground today, casional dead branch. Many countries but will not be found anywhere in the set arbitrary size limits–2 to 4 inches year 2000 unless they are reserved diameter at breast height in the United now. (Hills, Love and Lacate 1970) States. (Ford-Robertson 1971) 3. A word picture of a fixed se quence of future events in a defined Satisficing environment. (U.S. Forest Serv. A method of choosing among alter- 1972B) natives. Minimum values or quality standards are established for all attri Scenic area butes affected by the alternatives. All 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A those alternatives which do not meet place which has been designated by the minimum requirements are elimi the Forest Service as containing out- nated from consideration. By succes standing or matchless beauty which re- sively raising the minimum require quires special management to preserve ments you can successively reduce the these qualities. (U.S. Forest Serv., number of alternatives under consider FSM 2362.41, June, 1974) ation. (After Mac Crimmon 1968) Areas of this type and all other special interest areas are identified and Scale formally classified primarily because 1. Graphics usage. The proportion of their recreational values. (W. W.) al relationship (ratio) between the re 2. An area preserved primarily be- duced size at which something is being cause of its present beauty, such as represented on a map or other type of cliffs, streams, vistas, vegetation, and drawing and its true distance or size wildlife. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recrea- relationships. (C.F.S.) tion 1974)

185 Scenic corridor Secondary treatment. See Secondary The visible land area outside the wastewater treatment. highway right-of-way and generally described as "the view from the road" Secondary use (Accessory use) (Calif. Counc. on Intergov. Relat A use incidental, related, appropri 1973) ate, and clearly subordinate to the Scenic easement. See Easement, scenic. main use of an area, lot or building. An accessory use does not alter the Scenic river principal use of the subject lot or af Wild and Scenic Rivers Act usage fect other properties in the zone. Those rivers or sections of rivers that (Eisner 1969) are free of impoundments, with shore- Also see Dominant use as a con lines or watersheds still largely primi- trasting position in the use allocation tive and shorelines largely undevel hierarchy to secondary use. oped, but accessible in places by roads (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974) Secondary wastewater treatment (Sec- Schematic diagram. See Diagrammatic ondary treatment, Secondary sewage representation. treatment) 1. Any process that takes the efflu SCS ent from primary wastewater treat- Soil Conservation Service, U.S. De ment and reduces the suspended solids partment of Agriculture. and biological oxygen demand by ap Secondary effect. See Indirect effect. proximately 90 percent. During sec ondary treatment, the wastewater is Secondary facility subject to biochemical action, in- Transportation planning usage. creased sedimentation, and clarifica Sec-ondary facilities provide access to tion. (Sesco et al. 1973) smaller land areas than primary facili- 2. This wastewater treatment uses ties. They are multi-resource oriented, biological methods (primarily bacterial providing access and mobility for the action) in addition to the primary utilization of a variety of resource sys treatment's removal of most floating tems, and are usually developed and and suspended solids by screening, sed operated for long-term service. Em imentation and floatation. In second phasis is given to achieving a balance ary treatment biodegradation by bac between travel efficiency and resource teria is used to destroy organic wastes, service. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM commonly by trickling the waste 7705.42, Aug. 1975) water over coarse stones. The process Also see Primary facility and Terti- removes up to 90 percent of the dis ary facility. solved biodegradable pollutants and 93 Secondary range percent of the suspended solids from Range which is lightly used or un wastewater, but leaves many other pol used by livestock under minimal man lutants untouched. (Wash. State Univ. agement and will ordinarily not be ful Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972 and Mc Gauhey ly used until the primary range has 1968) been overused. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Second growth Forest growth that has come up Secondary sewage treatment. See Second- naturally after some drastic interfer ary wastewater treatment. ence (e.g., wholesale cutting, serious Secondary succession. See Succession, fire, or insect attack) with the previous secondary. forest crop. (Ford-Robertson 1971)

186 Sediment stock, but not overstock, the area. Solid material, both mineral and or (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471.22, June, ganic, that is in suspension, is being 1973) transported, or has been moved from See Shelterwood system for the its site of origin by air, water, gravity, timing relationships between this cut or ice and has come to rest on the ting type and others in that silvicul earth's surface either above or below tural system. sea level. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Seed tree removal cutting Cutting made to remove the seed Sedimentary rock. See Rock, sedimen- trees when adequate reproduction tary. above browse height has been estab lished. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM Sediment discharge 2471R-3) The quantity of sediment, mea sured in dry weight or by volume, Seismic transported through a stream cross- Pertaining to or caused by an earth- section in a given time. Sediment dis quake. (Calif. Counc. on Intergov. charge consists of both suspended load Relat. 1973) and bedload. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Seismic hazards Amer. 1970) Hazards related to seismic or earthquake activity. (Calif. Counc. on Inter- Sediment load. See Sediment discharge. gov. Relat. 1973) Seed tree Selection cutting. See Selection logging. 1. A tree purposely left standing at the time of cutting in a forest, for the Selection logging (Selection cutting) purpose of producing seed for regener Removal of mature timber, usually ation of trees in the cut-over area. the oldest or largest trees, either as sin (Hanson 1962) gle scattered trees or small groups at 2. A tree selected, and often re- relatively short intervals, commonly 5 served, to be a source of seed for col to 20 years, repeated indefinitely, by lection. (Ford-Robertson 1971) means of which the continuous estab lishment of natural reproduction is en Seed tree cutting (seed cutting) couraged and an uneven-aged stand is 1. Removal in one cut of the ma maintained. (Ford-Robertson 1971) ture timber from an area, save for a small number of seed bearers left Selection system singly or in small groups. (Ford- An uneven-aged silvicultural system Robertson 1971) in which trees are removed individu 2. A regeneration cutting where ally, here and there, from a large area the planned source of the new stand is each year. from seed existing on, or to be pro Regeneration is mainly natural and duced by, trees standing on the cut- the timber crop ideally all different over area. ages. (Ford-Robertson 1971) The cutting removes all the mature Selective grazing. See Grazing, selective. timber except for the number of seed trees which are needed to provide seed Selective logging. See Selection logging. for reproducing the stand. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R-3) Selectivity Cutting which leaves the number of Range management usage. The de seed trees needed to provide the opti gree to which a plant or plant part is mum amount of seed required to re- removed differently from that which is

187 expected by random removal. Selec are said to be "sensitive" to that as tivity is expressed as the ratio of the sumption or parameter. (U.S. Forest proportion of a plant or plant part in a Serv. 1972B) diet to all the other herbage. (H.F.H.) Also see Palatability. Sensitivity, land The degree to which the land cannot sustain or heal itself from external Sense of community. See Human commu- ly imposed disturbance or land uses. nity, definition 2. (Sandpoint Zone Plann. Team 1973) Also see Fragility and Fragile land Sense of scale for very similar concepts. A feeling for the size and/or appro priateness of the size of some project Sensitivity level. For U.S. Forest Service or construction element (i.e., building, usage see Visual sensitivity level. paved area, etc.). An evaluation of the sense of ap Seral propriate size (or mass) relationship of A biotic community which is a de some design material, element, or ob velopmental, transitory stage in an ject to its surroundings, its intended ecologic succession. (Carpenter 1938, use or user group, etc. For example, citing Phillips 1930) the use of brick as a building material is sometimes said to result in construc Sere tions of a "human scale"–because 1. The series of stages that follow people have a strongly developed one another in an ecologic succession. awareness of the size of individual (Hanson 1962) bricks, and therefore, can sense the 2. The series of biotic communities size of buildings or paved areas by that follow one another in time on any using the individual brick as the basis given area of the earth's surface. (Car- of judgement. In contrast, because penter 1938) concrete can be poured into almost Also see Succession, definition 1. any size units, people can have diffi Servient culty correctly judging the size of ob The land against which an easement jects made out of concrete. In a similar or privilege exists is called the "servi sense, entire large highrise (i.e., multi- ent" tenement and the estate to which storied) buildings may be described as it is annexed is the dominant tene being out-of-scale when placed in sur ment. Their owners are respectively roundings dominated by 2- or 3-story the servient and dominant owners. buildings. (C.F.S.) (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) Also see Easement. Sensitivity analysis 1. Varying the value of the param Sheet erosion. See Erosion, sheet. eter or parameters in question and examining the extent to which these Sheet flow. See Overland flow. changes affect the results of the anal ysis. (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969) Shelterwood cutting 2. Repetition of an analysis with Cutting which leaves enough trees different quantitative values for the to provide about half shade or more variables in order to determine their on the ground. In some places, more effects on the results of the basic anal trees than are needed to provide shade ysis. for reproduction must be left in order If a small change in an assumption to prevent windthrow. (U.S. Forest results in a proportionately greater Serv., FSM 2471.22, Jan. 1974) change in the results, then the results See Shelterwood system for the

188 timing relationships between this cut Silviculture ting type and others in that silvicul 1. Generally, the science and art of tural system. cultivating (i.e., growing and tending) forest crops, based on a knowledge of Shelterwood system silvics. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Even-aged silvicultural systems in 2. More particularly the theory and which (in order to provide a source of practice of controlling the establish seed and/or protection for regenera ment, composition, constitution, and tion) the old crop is removed in two or growth of forests. (Ford-Robertson more successive "shelterwood cut 1971) tings", the first of which is ordinarily 3. In imprecise usage, cutting, log- the seed tree cutting and the last is the ging, harvesting, and "silviculture" are final cutting, any intervening cuttings used seemingly interchangeably by dif being termed removal cuttings. (Ford- ferent people, often with vehemence Robertson 1971) as to which is the correct term in a Short-range planning given situation. According to Ford- 1. Planning for a future less than 5 Robertson (1971) "silviculture" has as years distant. (U.S. Forest Serv. its primary concern the establishing, 1972B) growing, and tending of forests. "Har 2. U.S. Forest Service usage. Infor vesting" and "logging", however, deal mation use for planning and control specifically with the extraction of re- for the period covered by specific ac- sources from the forest; with "log tion plans–i.e., functional plans. (U.S. ging" restricted to the felling and ex- Forest Serv. 1972B) traction of timber (wood other than fuel wood after primary conversion), Shrink-swell potential whereas "harvesting" expands this to The susceptibility for a soil's vol include the cutting, initial processing if ume to change due to loss or gain in any, and extraction of any forest prod moisture content. (Soil Conserv. Soc. uct. "Cutting" refers only to the actu Amer. 1970) al felling of standing trees. (After Silt Ford-Robertson 1971) 1. Particle size usage. Fragments of rock or organic matter sediment most Simulation of the individual particles of which are 1. An abstraction or simplification between 1/16 and 1/256 millimeters in of a real world situation. In its broad diameter. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) est sense any model is a simulation, Soil particles which are between since it is designed to represent the 0.05 and 0.002 millimeters in equiva most important features of some exis lent diameter. (Soil Conserv. Soc. tential conditions. (U.S. Gen. Ac- Amer. 1970) 2. "Soil texture" usage. A soil tex- count. Off. 1969) ture type consisting of 80 percent or 2. Use of a model to determine re more of silt particles and less than 12 sults under specific sets of circum percent clay particles. (After Soil Con- stances. (After U.S. Gen. Account. serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Off. 1969) 3. A technique for solving complex Silvics problems that are not amenable to The natural science which deals solution using formal analytical tech with the laws underlying the growth niques. Essentially simulation consists and development of single trees and of of a representation of a system or or the forest as a biological unit. (Smith ganization by means of a model. The 1962) behavior of the system under various

189 possible operational conditions is then essentially uniform with respect to analyzed through repeated manipula those factors controlling productivity tion of the model. (U.S. Forest Serv. for the crop or stand under study. The 1972B) quantitative measure is based on the volume, height or maximum mean Sink annual increment that is attained or at In pollution terminology, any loca tainable on that area at a given crop tion where wastes are or ultimately be- age. (After Ford-Robertson 1971) come deposited–as in underground burial places, in underwater deposits, in Site design. See Site planning. ocean water, etc. (After Sesco, et al. 1973) Site index 1. A numerical evaluation of the Site quality of land for plant productivity, 1. City planning and environmental especially used in forest land where it design professions usage. A plot of is determined by the rate of growth in land intended or suitable for develop height on one or more of the tree spe ment. cies. (Hanson 1962) The ground or area upon which a 2. A particular measure of site building or town has been erected. class, based on the height of the domi (Abrams 1971) nant trees in a stand at an arbitrarily 2. Forestry usage. An area con chosen age. (Ford-Robertson 1971) sidered in terms of its environment, particularly as this determines the type Site plan and quality of the vegetation the area A plan, prepared to scale, showing can inherently produce. accurately and with complete dimen "Sites" are classified either qualita sioning, all of the buildings, structures tively, by their climate, soil and vege and uses and the exact manner of de tation, into site types, or quantitative velopment proposed for a specific par ly, by their potential wood produc cel of land. (Eisner 1969) tion, into site classes. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Site planning (Site design) The organization of the external Site capacity physical environment up to the largest U.S. Forest Service usage. The num scale at which it can still be subject to ber of persons who may, at one time, unified and complete control. It deals use the developed capacity (i.e., facili- with structures, land and the entire ty carrying capacity) of a location complex of physical forms above, while not exceeding the safe, season- below and on the surface. It has at its long carrying capacity (i.e., ecological heart the disposition of objects and ac carrying capacity) per acre. tivities in 3-dimensional space. It be- The inherent capacity of a resource gins with the careful analysis of the area to support use without unaccept project site and purpose; and, it con able damage (i.e., "ecological carrying cludes with design of a pattern which capacity"). (After U.S. Forest Service, interacts as a totality with its users, FSM 2331.110, Oct. 1967) and which is subject to continuous fu ture development and change. Site class (Locality class, Productivity "Site planning" produces plans class, Quality class, Growth class, which can be carried out in one con Yield class) tinuous forseeable process, according A quantitative measure of the pro to one original design, under the con ductive capacity of an area which is trol of one agency, inclusive of all de-

190 tails of site engineering, landscaping, and often form administrative and and architecture. management units. (After Belknap and "Site planning" may take place on Furtado 1967) areas as small as a single building and The largest unit in Hills' land classi its grounds, or as large as the layout of fication system. The various levels, in a complete small town. (Lynch 1962) order of decreasing size, are Site re- "Site planning" is the smallest level gion, Landtype, Physiographic site at which "land use planning" is done. class, Physiographic site type and In some instances "site planning" Physiographic site phase. can almost be a synonym for project planning. The main difference usually Site specific is that "site planning" is more con In "land use planning" usage this cerned with the specifics of the design term commonly refers to something aspects of site use–e.g., site circu only valid for, or confined to, a certain lation, optimum relationships between given parcel of land and/or water. The project components on the site, place term may apply to data, studies to ob ment of structures and other changes tain information, environmental im in relation to any inherent site limita pacts, use restrictions, etc. tions or potentials, the aesthetics of The assumption is that mapped site use, maintenance of some sense of land characteristics are, in varying de continuity with surroundings, etc. grees, generalizations about a true dis Those portions of "project planning" tribution of characteristics. Such ap which are concerned with the design propriate-use-affecting generalizations aspects of site use are sometimes called cannot be assumed valid for every par the "site planning" phase of "project cel of land contained within the larger planning". However, "project plan mapped units. "Site specific" studies ning" typically involves many addi may be needed to confirm or change tional considerations which are not the appropriate land use classification within the scope of site planning–such of a particular parcel. as economic studies of markets and lo- "Site specific" implies limitations cation, optimum organization of facili on transference or extrapolation of ob ties within buildings, etc. (C.F.S.) servations beyond a specific parcel of land, while geographic specific implies the same limitations with respect to rel Site quality atively large blocks of land of unspeci A loosely used term denoting the fied ownership. (C.F.S.) relative productivity of a site for a par ticular tree species. (Ford-Robertson Site type 1971) A biotic productivity unit (usually Also see Site class and Site index. for trees) which is qualitatively defined on the basis of being relatively Site region uniform with respect to climate, soil G.A. Hills land classification usage. and natural vegetation cover. (After The subdivision of a region on the ba Ford-Robertson 1971) sis of broad macroclimatic similari- For quantitative productivity classi ties–such as cool humid vs. warm hu fications see Site class. mid. Also see Site, definition 2. Broad areas where air temperature and relative humidity generally cor Skidding respond to similar landform and vege A loosely used term for the trans tation succession. Site regions vary in portation of logs from stumps to a col size from 1000 to 4000 square miles lecting point by sliding or dragging

191 along the ground–as opposed to the Slope steepness (Slope, Slope gradient, use of wheels, helicopters, balloons, Slope inclination) cables, etc., to keep them totally off The degree of deviation of a land the ground. surface from the horizontal–usually The logs may slide more or less expressed in percent (i.e., amount of wholly along the ground or with their elevation change per 100 feet, expres forward end supported. (After Ford- sed as a percentage) or degrees. (After Robertson 1971) Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Sometimes the term "skidding" is even used to refer to log transporta SMSA. See Standard metropolitan statis- tion methods which keep them wholly tical area. off the ground during their main journey (especially when sliding logs Snag along a cable as in "aerial skidding") 1. A standing dead tree from which but this usage is clearly in conflict the leaves and most of the branches with the central concept, and there- have fallen. (Ford-Robertson 1971) fore, should be discouraged. (C.F.S.) 2. A standing section of the stem of a tree broken off at a height of 20 Skyline logging. See Logging, skyline. or more feet above the ground. (Ford- Robertson 1971) Skyline yarding. See Yarding, skyline. Slash Snow avalanche The residue left on the ground after The rapid downslope movement of timber cutting and/or accumulating large quantities of snow. (Amer. Geol. there as a result of storm, fire or other Inst. 1962) damage. It includes unutilized logs, uprooted stumps, broken or uprooted Snow avalanche hazard (Snowslide haz- stems, branches, twigs, leaves, bark ard) and chips. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Some evaluation (almost always qualitative and relative to adjacent lo- Slope cations) of the chance that a snow ava- An inclined portion of the surface lanche will occur on a given site. of the earth. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) (C.F.S.) Also see Slope orientation and Slope steepness. Snowslide. See Snow avalanche. Slope gradient. See Slope steepness. Social analysis 1. An analysis of the social (as dis Slope orientation (Aspect, Exposure) tinct from the economic and environ The compass direction that the mental) effects of a given plan or pro slope of a land surface faces toward posal for action. Social analysis in (e.g., north, northwest, south). (After cludes identification and evaluation of Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) all pertinent desirable and undesirable consequences to all segments of soci Slope stability (Mass instability) ety, stated in some comparable quanti An evaluation (almost always quali tative terms–such as persons or per- tative and expressed as a probability) cent of population in each affected of the tendency for the materials on or social segment. It also includes a sub constituting a slope (e.g., rocks, soil, jective analysis of social factors not ex snow) to either remain in place or to pressable in quantitative terms. move downhill. (C.F.S.) (C.F.S.) Also see Landslide hazard, Snow For example, "social analysis" avalanche hazard. would include effects on life styles,

192 the political process, education, health the evaluation of the extent to which care, housing, distributions of power different social groups will be bene and income, and the quality of public fited or harmed by any decision that services. (E. C. T.) may be made. This usually involves 2. A phase in the planning process making some hard decisions about bal which (1) identifies groups (whether ancing the net gains in the quality of formally organized as groups or not) life for some groups against the gains who may be affected by or have an and losses of others. interest in planning decisions; (2) gath In the end, the findings and guid ers and quantifies (objectively when ance developed by the "social anal possible) both the preferences of these ysis" process are combined (compro groups and the possible consequences mising where necessary) with the anal of proposed alternatives on these ogous findings and guidances originat groups; (3) evaluates the role of social ing from analysis of economic, eco group preferences and consequences in logic, amenity, and other decision resource allocation decisions; and making considerations to arrive at an (4) determines how a given plan overall set of plan guiding and/or eval should be formulated (or adjusted) so uative criteria. (C. F. S. and E.CT.) as to respond to these evaluations and Social benefits to generally defined social equity cri 1. The net benefit considerations teria. of long-range societal values at the re "Social analysis" is a part of both gional or national level which might the plan formulation and impact evalu not be taken into account in the profit ation processes. and loss statement of an individual The determination of the best farmer, forest operator, industrialist or method(s) for obtaining the desired in- other private citizen. (Wash. State formation from representative samples Univ., Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972) of each social group and the collection Note that this term in economic of that information usually involves usage does not include the profit and use of such survey research procedures loss statements of such legally defined as: questionnaire design, distribution individuals as corporations. Their prof- and retrieval; conducting polls; holding its and losses are assumed to appear in public hearings; forming ad hoc task the statement of single individuals. forces and advisory groups; and con In common usage "social benefits" ducting behavioral studies. is often used when referring to the ex The determination of how to evalu ternality benefits (see economic exter- ate the various social groups' diverse nalities) accruing to groups of individ (and often conflicting) preferences for uals or to society as a whole. (C.F.S.) allocation choices usually consists of 2. The non-monetary and rarely some systematic method for establish quantifiable returns to society arising ing the relative importance of the vari from any form of economic activity– ous social groups and expressing this as e.g., those recreational benefits result multipliers or weightings. ing from the creation of a scenic over- Establishing how social groups' at look. (Ford-Robertson 1971) titudes, use behavior characteristics, Social carrying capacity. See Carrying ca- etc. could be reflected in future plan pacity, psychological. ning decisions, or how plan decisions which have already been made could Social class be altered so as to better respond to 1. In its simplest usage, merely a these kind of considerations includes category of people who have been

193 grouped together on the basis of one or or society with a hierarchical com more common characteristics. The mand structure, and (3) aggregates of characteristics can usually be viewed as persons in similar power positions hierarchical. Basically, then, a class (with the basic sources of power being stratum in a hierarchically stratified force, position, occupation and pro social structure. perty). Disputes about a more precise defi In many empirical studies "social nition of "social class" revolve around classes" are defined as socioeconomic two issues–the choice of the factors categories on the basis of two or more by which a population is classified, objective hierarchical indicators (for and whether or not a class must have example, income, occupation, educa grouplike features in addition to the tion). (O'Connell 1974) objective similarities that its members share. Classes are viewed by some soci Social costs ologists as quasigroups (that is, cate 1. The net loss considerations of gories with some grouplike characteris long-range societal values at the re tics) or statistical aggregates. (O'Con- gional or national level which might nell 1974) not be taken into account in the profit and loss statement of an individual 2. The most common usage of farmer, forest operator, industrialist or "class" implies a definition in terms of other private citizen. (Wash. State categories that share relatively equal Univ., Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972) amounts of economic, prestige, and Note that this term in economic political-power resources. usage does not include the profit and The factors according to which a loss statements of such legally defined society may be stratified into classes individuals as corporations. Their prof- fall into three broad categories– its and losses are assumed to appear in economic, social, and political. the statements of single individuals. Economic factors used to define In common usage social cost is of- classes include: (1) relationship to the ten used when referring to the exter means of production (i.e., basically, nality costs (see economic externali- ownership or nonownership of capital), ties) accruing to groups of individuals (2) similarity of market positions or to society as a whole. (C.F.S.) (whether they may or may not have 2. The non-monetary and rarely developed a sense of commonality), or quantifiable losses to society arising most commonly, (3) aggregates of in from any form of economic activity– dividuals sharing similar amounts of e.g., from air pollution whose only del income or wealth. eterious side effect is reduced visibili Social factors used to define classes ty, over and above the expenditures include differential life styles (subcul- for the goods and services causing the tures), prestige or the clustering of in smoke. (Ford-Robertson 1971) teraction patterns. Political factors used to define soci Social determinism (Social primacy) al class structure include (1) the rela 1. A point of view in planning tionship to the means of force and which advocates that the primary basis government (viewing political control for making use and allocation deci as not solely dependent on economic sions should be satisfaction of current control), (2) defining classes as con societal demands on resources. The flict groups (comprised of those with ability of the resource base to sustain and those without authority) which such demanded use levels on a long develop inevitably in any association term basis is not recognized as an im-

194 portant criterion for decision making important, and others, such as intelli by the social primist. (C.F.S.) gence, will enter into the determina 2. Sociological usage. The belief tion of social distance. (O'Connell that human behavior is produced by 1974) conditions in the social world. In this Also see Social role. view, when a person is born, he is es sentially unmarked, a clean surface. Social dynamics His potential for good or evil, success The forces and processes involved or failure, or the various states in be- in social change. The processes of in tween, will be decided by the social teraction leading to change may in environment, which is formed by his volve economic, political, ideological, family, his friends, his work associates, individual, or other variables. and overlaying all of these groups, the Some theorists see this dynamic as culture. Sociologists are basically "so a dialectical one, involving a succession cial determinists". (O'Connell 1974) of conflicts and their resolutions. Oth ers see the dynamic as a development al, cumulative process in which con Social distance flict is merely incidental. (O'Connell 1. Environmental psychology us- 1974) age. The distance maintained by ani Social engineering mals and persons based on the social Application of sociological princi situation involved. "Social distance" is ples to problems of society. a psychological distance which is not (O'Connell 1974) rigidly fixed, but shifts with the situa tion and varies from species to species. Social equity (After Worthington 1974) The distribution of the gains and 2. Presuming that people are con losses that will accrue to individuals or scious of having a certain "place" in a groups (defined according to social cri social hierarchy and, further, that they teria), as a consequence of land use are conscious of the places of others, planning decisions, in a manner which the differences between the respective is in reasonable conformity to ac places is "social distance". For exam cepted standards of natural rights, law ple, the social distance between a phy and justice, without prejudice, favorit sician and a garbage collector will ism or fraud and without causing un probably be greater than that between due hardship. (C.F.S.) the physician and a car salesman. Occupational status is only one Social group component of "social distance"; Generally, an aggregate of people others will be relevant to the situation present in some sort of situation in in which the individuals find them- volving their interaction with one selves. For example, on a ski slope, oc another. A group may consist of al cupation may mean little and skiing most any number of people, and the ability may be the essential determi interaction may involve the perfor nant of social distance. Social distance mance of a complex task or simply will also vary with the extent to which being together in the same place at the the two people know each other. On same time. first encounter the determinants of so In any setting the behavior of the cial distance will include appearance, individual is determined by being part mode of self-introduction, and attri of the group, though the ways in butes of social status such as occupa which such determining occurs will tional prestige. As the relationship de vary with the settings. (O'Connell velops, these factors may become less 1974)

195 Social inequality viduals. Moreover, in societies such as A condition in which various mem the United States, whose structure bers of a society have unequal manifests subcultural variations, ambi amounts of income, prestige, and soci- guities and variations concerning the al power. (O'Connell 1974) meaning of norms are to be expected. Norms are external to the individu Social institutions. See Institutions, social to the extent that normative defini al. tions exist in the reality defined by a Social mobility particular culture, which may preexist The upward or downward move his being. There is a hierarchy of such ment of individuals or groups into dif definitions of "right and wrong". ferent positions in a social hierarchy These are traditionally identified as based on wealth, income, occupation, "folkways", mores, and laws. education, social power, or any other (O'Connell 1974) scarce social resources. Also see Norm. A society with a high rate of social mobility and good opportunities for Social planning. See Advocacy planning. upward social mobility is not egalitari- an but does maximize opportunities Social power for one individual or group to get The extent to which a person can more of the society's scarce resources impose their will on a group. That is a than other individuals or groups can person has power when he gets the get. (O'Connell 1974) members of a group to do what he or she wants, regardless of what they Social mores want. (O'Connell 19 74) The fixed customs or folkways of a Social prestige particular social group that are morally The respect or favorable regard en- binding upon all members of the group joyed by individuals or groups and and necessary to its welfare and preser linked to the social status accorded to vation. (Webster 1963) these individuals or groups. Prestige is frequently, but not necessarily, the re Social norms sult of the possession of power or The shared expectations of a social wealth. (O'Connell 1974) group or society. The concept assumes a relationship Social primacy. See Social determinism. between the perceptions of shared ex pectations by members of the social Social role group and the extent to which the Generally, a role consists of those norm influences behavior. To the de behaviors typically performed by an gree to which human behavior is influ individual in a particular situation. The enced by the normative content of the individual's assumption of a role im culture of one's society, such behavior plies his acceptance of the need to act might be explained in terms of the col in ways that are socially agreed upon lective expectations as perceived, as being appropriate in that situation. shared, and enforced by the group. To differentiate role from status, a Normative variations exist even in a status generally refers to an institu- relatively stable culture. These varia tionalized role. Thus, statuses often in tions are due to the generalized nature volve occupational or kinship sys- of norms relative to specific social situ tems–physician, lawyer, factory work ations and to the variations in their er, or father, mother, uncle. Whereas perception and interpretation by indi- the physician, by virtue of his profes-

196 sion, enjoys a certain "status", his 2. Agricultural usages. The collec "role" in any situation will be more tion of natural bodies occupying por fluid. (O'Connell 1974) tions of the earth's surface that support plants and that have properties Social status due to the integrated effect of climate A position based on prestige and and living matter, acting upon parent life style. Status group members share material, as conditioned by relief, over these characteristics to a similar de periods of time. (U.S. Soil Conserv. gree. Serv. 1951) It is often useful to consider a soci The unconsolidated mineral and or ety's status hierarchy independently ganic material on the immediate sur from its social class hierarchy which is face of the earth that serves as a natu based largely on economic position. ral medium for the growth of land Status frequently derives from class plants. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. position, but it may be achieved inde 1970) pendently of economic standing. The unconsolidated mineral matter (O'Connell 1974) on the surface of the earth that has Also see Social class and Social been subjected to and influenced by power. genetic and environmental factors of parent material, climate (including Social well-being moisture and temperature effects), 1. U.S. Water Resources Council macro- and micro-organisms, and to (WRC) usage. One of the four "re pography, all acting over a period of quired accounts" for categorizing, dis time and producing a product–soil– playing, or "accounting" the beneficial that differs from the material from and adverse effects of each alternative which it is derived in many physical, plan formulation for water and related chemical, biological, and morphologi land resources planning specified in cal properties and characteristics. (Soil the Water Resources Council's Princi- Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) ples and Standards and the U.S. De According to these definitions partment of Agriculture's "Proce dures" for adhering to them. (After "soil" only extends to the depth im U.S. Dep. of Agric. 1974) portant for plant growth–operation- 2. The "social well-being" account ally defined for the U.S. Soil Conserva includes (at least): (1) real income dis tion Service surveys as the depth to tribution among individuals, classes, root growth limiting material or a 60 and groups; (2) life, health, and safety; inch depth, which ever is encountered (3) educational, cultural, and recrea first. (C.F.S.) tional opportunities; and (4) emergen In agricultural usage the "soil" is cy preparedness. (After U.S. Dep. of the solum. Agric. 1974) 3. Engineering usages. The layer of loose, incoherent rock material of Soft Pesticides. See Nonpersistent pesti- whatever origin that rests on the hard cide. or bedrocks–i.e., the entire soil profile down to and sometimes even into the Soil underlying consolidated rocks. 1. The loose surface material of the (Jumikis 1962) earth, usually consisting of disinte Note that in this definition the low grated rock with an admixture of or er boundary between a soil and a non- ganic matter and soluble salts. (Web- soil is not defined by root growth- ster 1963) limiting material or the operational 5

197 foot depth–whichever is encountered serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) first. Spatially the engineer recognizes Also see Soil complex. that there is an ungeneralizable, infi nite variety of soils, each with slightly Soil climate differing physical characteristics while The moisture and temperature con the agricultural soil scientist believes ditions existing within the soil. The that "soils" can be mapped as signifi soil has a microclimate which is the cantly homogeneous, discrete units– environment of the organisms which i.e., soil types. (C.F.S.) live within the soil. (Marsh 1964) 4. Geological usage. Any loose sur face material overlying solid rock. Soil complex The regolith, or blanket of uncon A mapping unit used in detailed soil solidated rock material that lies on the surveys where two or more defined bedrock. (Thrush 1968) taxonomic units are so intimately in 5. Soils are not simple structures, termixed geographically that it is un nor are they static. Each soil is the re desirable or impractical (because of sult of the interactions of the parent the scale being used) to separate them. materials, the climate, and the vegeta A more intimate mixing of smaller tion and animal organisms which they areas of individual taxonomic units support. They respond to environ than the soil association. (Soil Con- mental changes and to alterations in serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) topography. They can be improved or destroyed. (Marsh 1964) Soil condition class 6. A kind of soil is the collection A reference to soil stability based of soils that are alike in specified com principally on the amount of ground binations of characteristics. Kinds of cover weighted by the degree of ac- soil are given names in the system of celerated erosion. (Amer. Soc. Range soil classification. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Manage. 1964) Amer. 1970) Soil conservation district (SCD, Soil and Soil and water conservation. See Conser- water conservation district, Natural re- vation, definition 1. source district, Conservation district, Resource conservation district, RCD) A subdivision of a state or territory Soil and water conservation district. See organized pursuant to the state soil Soil conservation district. conservation district law, as amended, for the purpose, with the powers, and Soil association subject to the restrictions, determined 1. A group of defined and named by that law. soil taxonomic units occuring together Under amendments to the districts' in an individual and characteristic pat- laws, the names of districts in some tern over a geographic region. (Soil states have been changed to conserva Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) tion districts, soil conservation dis 2. A mapping unit used on recon- tricts, natural resource districts or, in naissance soil maps or general soil California, resource conservation dis maps in which two or more defined tricts. taxonomic units occurring together in SCD's are locally created and oper a characteristic pattern are combined ated. They are controlled by an because the scale of the map does not elected and/or appointed governing enable (nor does the purpose for body, generally made up of resident which it is being made require) deline landowners. In most states, SCD's are ation of the individual soils. (Soil Con- under the general supervision of a state

198 conservation commission, committee, paratively uniform characteristics pro board, or agency. duced by soil-forming processes. Functions, operations, purposes, One soil horizon is commonly dif and powers of SCD's vary widely from ferentiated from an adjacent one on state to state. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. the basis of characteristics that can be 1970) seen in the field. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951) Soil creep (Creep) 2. A term applied to a layer of soil The slow, mass movement of soil which differs in composition or struc material down relatively steep slopes, ture, or in both, from adjacent layers. primarily under the influence of grav The various horizons in a soil are gen ity but facilitated by saturation with erally described by a diagram repre water and by alternate freezing and senting a vertical section of the soil thawing. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. called a profile. The horizons in a soil 1970) profile are designated as follows: A- horizon, topsoil; B-horizon, mineral Soil erosion. See Erosion, soil. soil; and C-horizon, parent soil materi Soil family al, weathered or unweathered rock 1. Soil classes defined largely on fragments and minerals. the basis of physical and mineralogic Between any of the above horizons properties of importance to plant may be found a waterlogged or "gley" growth. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. horizon, formed by the influence of 1970) ground water and marked by the pres 2. In soil classification one of the ence of iron and other reduced com categories intermediate between the pounds, alkaline salts, or aluminum Great soil group and the soil series. oxides. (Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 1965) A layer under the C-horizon which is unlike the parent material may be Soil fertility indicated as a D-horizon on a soil pro- The quality of a soil that enables it file. The A, B, and C-horizons are to provide nutrients in adequate quite distinct in mature soils, devel amounts and in proper balance for the oped under forest vegetation in tem growth of specified plants when other perate and humid climates. These are growth factors, such as light, moisture, called "zonal soils". Soils in which the temperature, and the physical condi horizons are undistinguished are called tion of the soil, are favorable. (Soil "azonal". Where the horizons do not Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) fall into the above pattern or some horizons are absent, the soils are called Soil great group (Great soil group) "intrazonal". (Marsh 1964) Soil classes that are grouped upon the basis of having the same kind of Soil liquefaction (Thixotrophy) horizons in the same sequence and The change of the strength of a similar moisture and temperature re water saturated, cohesionless soil to gimes. Exceptions to the soil horizon that of a liquid, usually from intense sequences are made for horizons near ground shaking. On liquefaction a soil the surface that may get mixed or lost loses all its bearing strength. (Calif. by erosion if plowed. (Soil Conserv. Counc. on Intergov. Relat. 1973) Soc. Amer. 1970)

Soil horizon (Soil zone) Soil loss equation (Universal soil loss 1. A layer of soil, approximately equation) parallel to the soil surface, with com- An equation used for the design of

199 water erosion control systems. A = Soil map, detailed RKLSPC wherein A = average annual 1. U.S. Soil Conservation Service soil loss in tons per acre per year, R = usage. Referring to a soil map at a pub rainfall factor, K = soil erodibility fac lication scale commonly of 2 inches = tor, L = length of slope, S = percent of 1 mile on which soil types and soil slope, P = conservation practice factor, phases are the main types of units de and C = cropping and management fac lineated. The smallest unit size shown tor. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) on such maps is about 1 1/3 acres. Sur The equation as originally devel vey traverses are usually made at ¼ oped predicted soil losses from agricul mile or more frequent intervals. The tural lands induced by rainfall. A re- unit boundaries on detailed soil maps cent revision takes into account the should have been seen throughout effect of snowmelt in areas where the their course and their placement on contribution from this cause is signifi the map should be accurate to at least cant. (J.H.H.) 50 to 100 feet. The maximum amount of unlike soil inclusions in mapped Soil-loss tolerance (Permissible soil loss, T units is 15 percent. (After U.S. Soil factor) Conserv. Serv. 1951 and Soil Sci. Soc. The maximum average annual rate Amer. 1965) of soil erosion (whether from rainfall or wind) that will permit a high level of crop productivity to be sustained Soil map, detailed reconnaissance economically and indefinitely. A reconnaissance soil map on which T factors of 1 through 5 are used, some areas or features are shown in and these numbers represent the greater detail than usual, or than amount of soil loss in tons per acre per others. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. year that should be permitted on a 1965) given soil. The T factor is used in the soil-loss equations for rainfall and Soil map, general (Generalized soil map) wind erosion. (After Soil Conserv. Soc. U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- Amer. 1970 and W.A.B.) age. Referring to a soil map with a publication scale commonly of 1 inch - Soil map 1 mile on which soil associations and 1. A map which shows the location, miscellaneous land types are the delin and extent of the different soils in an eated units. The smallest unit size area. Soil maps are prepared and pub shown is about 3½ acres. The maxi- lished by various agencies of state and mum amount of unlike soil inclusions local governments, in cooperation with in such mapping units is 15 percent. the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (After U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1951 and/or Forest Service or by the Forest and 1971) Service. (After Marsh 1964) 2. A map showing the distribution Soil mapping unit of soil types or other soil mapping A kind of soil, a combination of units in relation to the prominent kinds of soil, or miscellaneous land physical and cultural features of the type or types, that can be shown at the earth's surface. scale of mapping for the defined The following kinds of soil maps purposes and objectives of the survey. are recognized in the United States: Soil mapping units are the basis for "detailed", "detailed reconnaissance", the delineations of a soil survey map. "reconnaissance", "generalized", and Mapping units normally contain inclu "schematic". (Soil Conserv. Soc. sions of soils outside the limits of the Amer. 1970) taxonomic name, or names, used as

200 the name for the mapping unit. Map- slope, degree of erosion, content of ping units are generally designed only stones, texture of the surface, etc. to reflect significant differences in use Phases of soil series are the major and management. (After Soil Conserv. components of the soil mapping units Soc. Amer. 1970) shown on detailed soil maps in the United States. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Soil map, reconnaissance Amer. 1970) U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Referring to a soil map of highly Soil profile variable publication scale (1 inch = 1 1. A diagram of the vertical section mile to 1 inch = 8 miles) and quality. of a soil showing the thickness and The most detailed units commonly character of the various soil horizons. shown are miscellaneous land types (Marsh 1964) and soil associations or one or more 2. The succession of zones or phases of soil families. The smallest "horizons" beginning at the surface unit that can be shown on such a soil that have been altered by normal soil- map at a scale of 1 inch = 1 mile is forming processes of which leaching about 3½ acres and at 1 inch = 4 miles and oxidation have been particularly about 280 acres. Map unit boundaries important. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) are plotted where they cross field sur Also see Soil horizon. vey traverses. Traverses are at intervals varying from about ½ mile to several Soil region miles. Between these points of field An area with approximately uni observation most boundaries are form soils. Fifty soil regions are recog sketched from the appearance of nized in the United States, excluding ground patterns on aerial photographs Alaska and Hawaii. They are corre and the general appearance of the lated with the climatic provinces and landscape. (After U.S. Soil Conserv. plant growth regions. A map of these Serv. 1951 and 1970 and Soil Sci. Soc. regions is included in "Native Plants of Amer. 1965) the United States" by William R. Van Dersal, U.S. Department of Agricul Soil order ture, miscellaneous publication no. The category at the highest level of 303. (Marsh 1964) generalization in the soil classification system. The properties selected to dis Soil resource inventory. In U.S. Forest tinguish the orders are reflections of Service usage this term is approximate the degree of soil horizon development ly equivalent to soil survey. See Soil and the kinds of horizons present. survey. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Soil series Soil Permeability. See Permeability. 1. Soils which have similar soil profile characteristics and which are de- Soil phase rived from similar parent materials are A subdivision of a soil taxonomic grouped together in a "soil series". A unit, usually a soil series or other unit soil series is usually named for the lo of classification based on character cality where the typical soil was first istics that affect the use and manage recorded. (Marsh 1964) ment of the soil but which do not vary 2. A group of soils having soil hori- sufficiently to differentiate it as a sep zons similar in differentiating charac arate soil series. teristics and arrangement in the soil For example, a variation in a prop profile (except for texture of the sur erty or characteristic, such as degree of face portion); or, if genetic horizons

201 are thin or absent, a group of soils Soil type that, within defined depth limits, is 1. A subdivision of a soil series uniform in all soil characteristics diag based on surface soil texture. At the nostic for that series. (Soil Conserv. present time in the United States a soil Soc. Amer. 1970) type is considered as a kind of soil phase and is not part of the soil classi Soil subgroup fication system presently being used. Soil great groups are subdivided (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) into subgroups that (1) show the cen 2. In Europe, a class roughly equiv tral properties of the great group or alent to a Great soil group. (Soil Con- (2) intergrade subgroups that show serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) properties of more than one great group or (3) other subgroups for soils Soil variant with atypical properties that are not A kind of soil whose properties are characteristic of any great group. (Soil believed to be sufficiently different Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) from recognized soil series to justify a new series name but comprising such Soil survey a limited geographic area that creation A general term for the systematic of a new series is not justified. (Soil examination of soils in the field and in Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) laboratories; their description and clas sification; the mapping of kinds of Soil zone. See Soil horizon. soil; the interpretation of soils accord ing to their adaptability for various Solitude crops, grasses, and trees; their behavior 1. An experience where man may under use or treatment for plant pro commune with his surroundings in a duction or for other purposes; and natural setting generally undisturbed their productivity under different by the sound or sight of technology. management systems. (Soil Conserv. (U.S. Forest Serv. Region 9, 1975) Soc. Amer. 1970) 2. The quality or state of being The U.S. Forest Service now uses alone or remote from society. (Web- the term "soil resource inventory" ster 1963) rather than "soil survey". (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2250.3, Aug. 1974) Solum 1. The upper part of a soil profile, Soil taxon. See Soil taxonomic unit. above the parent material, in which the processes of soil formation are ac Soil taxonomic unit (Soil taxon) tive. The solum in mature soils in A unit comprising all soils that fall cludes the A and B soil horizon. Usual within the defined limits of a class at ly the characteristics of the material in any categoric level in a system of soil these horizons are quite unlike those classification. of the underlying parent material. The Commonly used as a member of the living roots and other plants and ani lowest class in the present classifica mal life characteristic of the soil are tion scheme and in that use is equiva largely confined to the solum. (Soil lent to soil series. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Amer. 1970) 2. In the agriculturally oriented usage of the term soil, the "solum" is Soil texture the soil. The relative proportions of the three individual particle size classes Special cutting (i.e., sand, silt and clay) in a soil. (Af- U.S. Forest Service usage. The term ter Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) usually applies to logging activities in

202 special areas, such as recreation areas Such areas are classified or formally and administrative sites, where other designated by the Congress, Secretary uses or other values override timber of Agriculture, Chief of the Forest Ser production values. (U.S. Forest Serv,, vice, or Regional Foresters. (U.S. For- FSM 2471.43, June 1973) est Serv., FSM 8223.3, Dec., 1974)

Special exception (Exception) Species biomass. See Biomass, definition An exception (or special exception) 2. is the granting of a permit for a use which is a deviation from standard Species diversity (Biologic diversity) zoning practice, but it is anticipated The number of different species oc within the zoning ordinance and pro- curring in some location or under visions for "exceptions" are made some condition–such as water pollu within the text. A private school, for tion. instance, would not ordinarily be per Of the total number of species in a mitted in an area zoned exclusively biotic community only a few are usu residential; yet, since this might be a ally abundant while most are relatively perfectly desirable and acceptable uncommon. Because the large number place for a school, allowance for the of uncommon, relatively unimportant exception, subject to close scrutiny by species largely determine the amount the zoners, will be pre-established on of "species diversity", this property is the books. (Abrams 1971) often expressed as a species diversity index which is calculated so as to bet Special interest area ter reflect the importance of those few U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas species whose numbers, biomass, pro managed to make recreation opportu ductivity, etc., so greatly dominate nities available for the understanding these attributes of the entire biological of the earth and its geological, histori community. (Odum 1971) cal, archaeological, botanical, and Species diversity tends to be low in memorial features. (U.S. Forest Serv., physically controlled ecosystems (i.e., 1971) subjected to strong physiochemical For specific types of such areas see limiting factors) and high in biologic- Archaeological area, Botanical area, ally controlled ecosystems. Diversity Geological area, Historical area, Pale- tends to be high in older communities ontological area, Scenic area, and Zoo- and low in newly established ones. logical area. (Odum 1971) Diversity is directly correlated with ecologic stability, but it is not certain Special interest group to what extent this relationship is a Any group (whether formally or cause-and-effect one. (Odum 1971) ganized or not) with a specialized set of shared preferences about how re- Species diversity index (Diversity index) source use should be allocated. The ratio between the total number (C.F.S.) of species in a biotic community and Also see Pressure group. some rating of the relative importance (numbers, biomass, productivity, etc.) Special management zone of individual species. U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas of "Diversity indices" provide one of unusual public interest or other signifi the best ways to detect and evaluate cance. Examples are: wilderness, prim pollution. (Odum 1971) itive areas, experimental forests, natu ral areas, scenic areas, and historical, Species, edge geological, or archeological areas. Species which occur primarily,

203 most abundantly or most of the time serious disturbance; (D) its survival is in the transition zones between two or threatened by the unwanted introduc more biotic communities–i.e., in the tion of other species through preda ecotone. (Odum 1959) tion, competition, or disease; or (E) environmental pollution threatens its survival. Species, endangered Rare and endangered species are 1. An endangered species, or sub- listed in the "Red Data Book" pub species, of animal or plant is one lished by the International Union for whose prospects of survival and repro Conservation of Nature and Natural duction are in immediate jeopardy. Resources and in "Rare and Endan Its peril may result from one or gered Fish and Wildlife of the United many causes–loss of habitat or change States" compiled by the Bureau of in habitat, overexploitation, predation, Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De competition, disease or even unknown partment of the Interior. (Calif State reasons. An endangered species must Dep. of Fish and Game 1974) have help, or extinction may follow. It 4. Those species in danger of ex must be designated in the Federal Reg tinction throughout all or a significant ister by the appropriate Secretary as portion of their ranges. an "endangered species." (After U.S. Species or subspecies from very Forest Serv., FSM 2605, Sept., 1974) limited areas, e.g., the type localities Species which are likely to become only, or from restricted fragile habitats "endangered species" within the fore- usually are considered "endangered". seeable future throughout all or a sig (Smithsonian Inst. 1975) nificant portion of their range are des Also see Species, rare and Species, ignated as threatened species in the threatened. Federal Register by appropriate De partment Secretaries. (Endangered Species, endemic A species whose natural occurrence Species Act of 1973) is confined to a certain region and 2. Any species which is in danger whose distribution is relatively limited. of extinction throughout all or a sig (Hanson 1962) nificant portion of its range–other than members of the class Insecta Species, exotic which have been determined by the 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Any Secretary to constitute a pest whose species of wildlife not native to the protection under the provisions of this continental United States. (U.S. Forest Act would present an overwhelming Serv., FSM 2605, Sept., 1974) and overriding risk to man. (Endan- 2. Any species that is not native in gered Species Act of 1973) the area where it occurs. (Hanson 3. Animals are declared "endan 1962) gered" by the California Fish and Game Commission because their con Species, feral tinued existence is threatened by one 1. Non-native species, or their or more conditions. If any of the fol progeny, which were once domesti lowing conditions are true, the species cated but have since escaped from cap (or subspecies) under consideration is tivity and are now living as wild ani- declared "endangered": (A) the mor mals–such as wild horses, burros, tality rate consistently exceeds the hogs, cats and dogs. (U.S. Forest Serv., birth rate; (B) it is incapable of adapt FSM 2605, Sept., 1974) ing to environmental change; (C) its 2. An organism (and its offspring) habitat is threatened by destruction or that has escaped from cultivation or

204 domestication and has reverted to a presence is essential to the integrity wild state. (Hanson 1962) and stability of a particular ecosystem. Feral is seldom used when referring (Estes and Palmisano 1974) to escaped plants. Escaped non-native Keystone species may be unimpor plants are usually referred to as exot- tant as energy transformers in a biotic ics, while escaped non-native animals community (i.e., they may be neither are commonly referred to as either very abundant nor consume large por feral or exotic species. (C.F.S.) tions of the biotic productivity of a Also see Species, exotic, Species, community). However slight variations naturalized; contrast with Species, resi- in keystone species' abundance results dent, Native organism, and Endemic in large changes in the abundance of organism. other species and/or in biotic com munity relationships and structure. Species, game (After Paine 1969) 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Any species of wildlife for which seasons Species, local and bag limits have been prescribed, A species with a relatively small and which are normally restricted to range but which is sufficiently com possession by sportspersons under mon not to be called rare. (Little state laws and regulations. (U.S. Forest 1975) Serv., FSM 2605, Sept., 1974) 2. Animals considered worthy of Species, native pursuit by sportspersons, especially Animals or plants which originated wild animals hunted for sport or food. in the area in which they are found, (Webster 1963) (i.e., were not introduced and natu rally occur in that area). (Henderson, Species, indigenous Henderson and Kenneth 1963) 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Any Also see Endemic organism and species of wildlife native to a given contrast with Species, resident; land or water area by natural occur Species, naturalized; Species, exotic; rence. and Species, feral. For planning purposes, indigenous species will include introduced or Species, naturalized exotic species which have established a A (non-native) species established niche in the area's ecology and are as if it were a native species–for exam compatible with national forest man ple the annual grasses of California's agement objectives. Hungarian and central valley and foothills. (E.M.G.) chukar partridges are examples. (U.S. Also see Species, exotic; Species, Forest Serv., FSM 2605, Sept. 1974) feral; contrast with Endemic organism 2. An organism (plant or animal) and Native organism. that is native, not introduced, in an area. (Hanson 1962) Species, peripheral (Boundary species) 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A Species, introduced. See Species, exotic. peripheral species, or subspecies, is one whose occurrence in the United States Species, keystone is at the edge of its natural range, and A species which plays an important which is rare or endangered within the ecological role in determining the over- United States, although not in its all structure and dynamic relationships range as a whole. Special attention is within a biotic community. necessary to ensure retention in the An evolutionary, component nation's fauna. (U.S. Forest Serv., species of a biotic community whose FSM 2605, Sept. 1974)

205 2. A species which reaches the incapable of adapting to different envi limit of its natural range a short dis ronmental conditions; (B) although tance into a country (especially the found in other parts of the world, it is U.S.) or some other boundary of sig nowhere abundant; (C) it is so limited nificance to making planning area eval that any appreciable reduction in uations. (After Little 1975) range, numbers, or habitat would cause it to become endangered; or Species, rare (D) if current management and protec 1. A rare species, or subspecies, is tion programs were diminished in any one that, although not presently degree, it would become endangered. threatened with extinction, is in such Rare and endangered species are small numbers, throughout its range, listed in the "Red Data Book" pub that it may be endangered if its envi lished by the International Union for ronment worsens. (U.S. Forest Serv., Conservation of Nature and Natural FSM 2606.11, Aug. 1973) Resources and in "Rare and Endan 2. Species which occur in widely gered Fish and Wildlife of the United separated, small sub-populations, so States" compiled by the Bureau of the that inbreeding between sub-popula Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, U.S. De tions is seriously reduced or is re partment of the Interior. (Calif. State stricted to single populations. (Drury Dep. of Fish and Game 1974) 1974) Also see Species, threatened and 3. A species which lacks the ability Species, endangered. to displace other species in competi tion, to increase its population or to Species, recently extinct or possibly ex- expand its range. (Drury 1974) tinct 4. Classes of rare species according Those species no longer known to to geographical distribution: exist after repeated search of the type Species occurring as a very few in localities and other known or likely dividuals or small groups at widely places. scattered localities over a large geo Some species may be extinct in the graphic area of what appears to be wild but are being preserved by culti suitable habitat. vation in gardens or as domesticated Species found in very small num animals. (After Smithsonian 1975) bers widely dispersed in each commu nity where they grow, but which occur Species, resident in many suitable areas over their geo Species common to an area without graphic range. distinction as to being native (i.e., na- Species with a range restricted to so tive organism or endemic organism) or few localities that they are considered introduced (i.e., exotic species, natu- rare even though they occur in large ralized species or feral species). (Amer. numbers at each locality. (Drury 1974) Soc. Range Manage. 1964) 5. Animals are declared "rare" by the California Fish and Game Commis Species, status undetermined sion because their continued existence U.S. Forest Service usage. A spe is threatened by one or more condi cies, or subspecies, that has been sug tions. If any of the following condi gested as possibly being endangered tions are true, the species (or subspe but about which there is not enough cies) under consideration is declared information to determine its true sta rare: (A) it is confined to a relatively tus. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605, small and specialized habitat, and it is Sept. 1974)

206 Species, threatened composition (species), age arrange 1. Any species which is likely to ment, and condition as to be distin become an endangered species within guishable from the forest or other the foreseeable future throughout all growth on adjoining areas. (U.S. For- or a significant portion of its range and est Serv., FSM 2471.4, May, 1972) which has been designated in the Fed 3. A stand need not be limited to eral Register by the Secretary of Inter trees. Any group of plants satisfying ior as a threatened species. (Endan- the definition of a plant community gered Species Act of 1973) may be so termed–a mat of lichens on This includes species categorized as a rock, covering only a few square rare, very rare, or depleted. (Smithson- inches, an algal mat on a pond, or a ian Inst. 1975) forest of fairly homogeneous composi tion extending over a thousand acres Also see Species, endangered and or more. (Oosting 1956) Species, rare. Species, unique Standard U.S. Forest Service usage. Species 1. A statement which describes a which are not endangered, but have condition when a job is done properly. considerable scientific, local, or na Standards show how well something tional interest. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM should be done, rather than what 2605, Sept. 1974) should be done. (U.S. Forest Serv. Splash erosion. See Erosion, splash. 1971) 2. Regulatory and pollution stan Spoil bank (Spoil heap, Spoil pile) dard usage. A plan that is established The place on the surface where any by governmental authority as a pro- dirt or rock which has been removed gram for prevention and abatement of from its original location by mining resource degradation. operations accumulates or is piled The terms "standards" and objec- up–especially the waste deposits from tives can be used interchangeably. surface mining. (After Thrush 1968) (After U.S. Fed. Water Pollut. Control Spoils. See Mining spoils. Adm. 1968) Any definite rule, principle or mea Spot grazing sure established by authority. (After Repeated grazing of small areas Mc Kee and Wolf 1963) while adjacent areas are lightly grazed An authoritative origin does not or unused. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. necessarily mean that a "standard" is 1964) fair, equitable, or based on sound sci Spot zoning. See Zoning, spot. entific knowledge, (e.g., of the func tional cause-effect relationship be- Stability. For biologic and ecologic usage tween specific pollutant concentra of this term, see Ecologic stability. tions and the resulting levels of damage) for it may have been established Stand (Concrete community, Individual somewhat arbitrarily on the basis of association) 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. A inadequate technical data tempered by growth of trees on a minimum of 1 a cautious factor of safety. (After acre of forest land that is at least 10 Mc Kee and Wolf 1963) percent stocked by forest trees of any Also see regulatory and pollution size. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) criteria under Criteria. 2. A stand is an aggregation of trees or other growth occupying a spe Standard metropolitan statistical area cific area and sufficiently uniform in (SMSA)

207 U.S. Bureau of the Census usage. As 2, for a comparison with similar log defined by the Bureau of the Census in ging approaches. 1960, a county or group of contiguous counties that contains at least one city Standing crop (Standing biomass, Stand- of 50,000 inhabitants or more (or ing crop biomass, Standing stock) "twin cities" with a combined popula 1. The total amount of the biomass tion of at least 50,000); also, contigu of organisms of one or more species ous counties essentially metropolitan within an area. (Hanson 1962) in character and socially and econom 2. The total number or the total ically integrated with the central city. weight of one or more species of ani In New England, the SMSA is defined mals in an area at a given time. (Ford- on a town rather than county basis. Robertson 1971) (Abrams 1971) 3. Note that the emphasis in the The SMSA is of importance to plan term biomass is on weight per unit ners since much of the information area; in "standing crop" it is on the collected in the census and useful for summation of all those weights per research or analysis is organized on a unit area over some spatial extent of SMSA basis. (E.C.T.) concern. For the SMSA's relationship to an "urbanized area" see Urbanized area. Stand tending. See Intermediate cutting. For SMSA's relationship to "state economic area", see State economic State economic area area, definition 2. 1. U.S. Bureau of the Census usage. Single counties or groups of counties Standard of living which have similar economic and so Standards of living constitute an or cial characteristics. The boundaries of ganic whole, touching every phase of these areas have been drawn in such a the life of the individual, the family, way that each state is subdivided into or the group. They concern the kind relatively few parts, with each part and quantity of food consumed, the having certain significant character sort of house lived in, clothing worn, istics which distinguish it from adjoin etc., as well as the various cultural ele ing areas. ments of existence, such as education, In the 1970 U.S. Census there were recreation, participation in church and 510 "state economic areas." (U.S. Bur. civic organizations, and numerous Census 1971) other activities. (Soil Conserv. Soc. 2. Relation to standard metropoli- Amer. 1970) tan statistical areas. The combination Also see Quality of life. of counties into state economic areas has been made for the entire country, Stand cutting and in this process the larger standard U.S. Forest Service usage. A clear- metropolitan statistical areas (those in cutting system variation in which the 1960 with a central city of 50,000 or logging operation removes all mer more and a total population of chantable timber from areas that are 100,000 or more) were recognized as large enough to be practical for future "metropolitan state economic areas". management as uniform even-aged When a standard metropolitan statisti stands. cal area was located in two or more The minimum size will be 100 acres states or economic subregions, each and the maximum size, 500 acres. (Af- state part and each part in an econom ter U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2471 R-3) ic subregion became a separate metro Also see Group cutting, definition politan state economic area. In New

208 England this correspondence of "me trees as compared to the desirable tropolitan state economic areas" and number for best results–e.g., maxi- "standard metropolitan statistical mum productivity of wood. (After areas" did not exist because state eco Ford-Robertson 1971) nomic areas are composed of whole counties, whereas standard metropoli Stocking plan tan statistical areas are built up from The number and kind of livestock towns. Here a county with more than assigned to one or more given manage- half its population in one or more ment areas or management units for a "standard metropolitan statistical specified period. (Amer. Soc. Range areas" was classified as a metropolitan Manage. 1964) "state economic area" if the county or a combination of counties containing Stocking, proper the standard metropolitan statistical Range management usage. Placing a area or areas had 100,000 inhabitants number of animals on a given area that or more. (U.S. Bur. Census 1971) will result in proper use at the end of the planned grazing period. Station point Continued proper stocking will lead 1. The location from which some- to proper grazing. (Amer. Soc. Range thing is viewed. (After Litton 1968) Manage. 1964) 2. The location of the viewer as that person looks upon a visual objec Stocking rate (Grazing rate) tive, particularly with regard to being Range management usage. The ac below, at the same level as, or above tual number of animals, expressed in the visual objective. (Litton 1968) either animal units or animal unit Status, social. See Social status. months, on a specific area at a specific time. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Status undetermined species. See Species, 1964) status undetermined. Stock resource. See Nonrenewable re- Steno- organism source. A prefix denoting an organism which can only tolerate a narrow range Storie index of changes of one or more of its envi A numerical expression of the de ronmental conditions. For example, gree to which a particular soil presents stenothermal refers to organisms conditions favorable for plant growth which can not tolerate much change in and crop production under favorable temperature. (Hanson 1962) climate and adequate moisture condi Also see Eury- organism for organ- tions. isms that can tolerate large changes. Four general factors are considered: (1) the character of the soil profile; Stochastic model. See Model, probabil- (2) soil texture; (3) slope of the land istic. and; (4) other modifying factors such Stochastic process as drainage, salinity, alkalinity, soil Any process whose development in acidity, erosion conditions, fertility time is governed by chance or proba level and microrelief. Each of these bilistic considerations. (U.S. Forest four factors is evaluated on the basis Serv. 1972B) of 100 percent for the most favorable or ideal conditions, with limiting maxi- Stocking level mum and minimum ratings ascribed to In a forest, a more or less subjective conditions that are less favorable for indication of the number of existing plant growth. (Storie 1964)

209 Strategic planning through a stand and are usually of a The study of objectives and analysis width equal to one or two times the of alternative ways to achieve objec general stand height. (After U.S. For- tives in terms of their relative costs est Serv., FSM 2471 R -3) and accomplishments. (U.S. Forest Also see group cutting, definition 2, Serv. 1972B) for a comparison with similar logging practices. Strategy 1. A consideration of alternative Strip mining. See Mining, strip. means to reach an objective. (U.S. For- est Serv. 1971) Strip pit 2. A carefully thought out plan or 1. A coal or other mine worked by method for achieving a goal or objec stripping away the surface soil and tive. (After Webster 1963) rock above a mineral deposit. (Thrush 1968) Stratification (Land stratification) 2. An open-pit mine. (Thrush 1. This term commonly infers both 1968) mapping and classification. 3. That part of a strip mining oper For example, the "soils are strati ation from which minerals are being or fied"; meaning they have been map have been removed from their natural ped, examined, grouped, and deline state. (Grim and Hill 1974) ated to a given classification key or base. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) Stumpage value 2. A land use planning concept The value of timber as it stands un which was probably borrowed from cut in terms of an amount per cubic the statistical technique of "stratified unit. (Ford-Robertson 1971) sampling" which subdivides a study area into units which are, more or less, Subclimax internally homogeneous with respect A stage in succession short of the to the (those) character(s) of interest. climax community in which further Subsequently, sampling data is taken development is inhibited by the influ to characterize each unit. This strategy ence of some factors other than cli provides maximum information for an matic factors. (After Hanson 1962) economy of sampling effort. Subculture (Group culture) Land use planning has adopted the Refers to the more or less different concept in the sense that a planning folkways and mores developed by each unit can theoretically be classified into group within a society. Groups with homogeneous response units about common play, age, vocational, sexual, which useful generalizations can be habitational, or other interests evolve made without having to make site spe- behavior patterns that differ from cific studies. (C.F.S.) those of other groups and from soci ety's conventions. (O'Connell 1974) Stream load The quantity of solid and dissolved Subdivision (Land subdivision) material carried by a stream. (Soil 1. The process of dividing a given Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) area of undeveloped land into individ ual home sites and/or blocks of lots Strip cutting with streets or roads and open spaces. U.S. Forest Service usage. A clear (After Abrams 1971) cutting system variation in which the 2. Also an area which has been so logging operation removes all mer divided. (Abrams 1971) chantable timber from areas that run 3. A tract of land surveyed and di-

210 vided into lots for purposes of sale. Succession (Ecologic succession, Ecosys- (Webster 1963) tem development) 1. It is an orderly process of biotic Submarginal land community development that involves Land which is economically incapa changes in species, structure and com ble of sustaining indefinitely a certain munity processes with time; it is rea use or ownership status. (Amer. Soc. sonably directional and, therefore, pre Range Manage. 1964) dictable. It results from modification of the Suboptimization physical environment by the com 1. The selection of the best alterna munity: that is, "succession" is com tive course of action which pertains to munity-controlled even though the a subproblem, that is, to only part of physical environment determines the the overall problem or objective. pattern, the rate of change, and often Suboptimization is usually neces sets limits as to how far development sary because alternatives at all the vari can go. ous levels of decision making cannot, It culminates in a stabilized ecosys as a practical matter, be analyzed si tem in which maximum biomass and multaneously before decisions are symbiotic function between organisms made at any level. (U.S. Gen. Account. are maintained per unit of available Off. 1969) energy flow. 2. Any intermediate stage in a long-run goal attainment program. The whole sequence of communi (U.S. Gen. Account. Off. 1969) ties that replaces one another in a given area is called the sere; the rela Subsidence tively transitory communities are vari A downward movement of the ously called "seral stages" or "develop- ground surface caused by solution and mental stages" or "pioneer stages", collapse of underlying soluble de- while the terminal stabilized system is posits, rearrangement of particles upon known as the climax. removal of underground mineral de- Species replacement in the sere oc posits, or reduction of fluid pressures curs because populations tend to mod within an aquifer or petroleum reser ify the physical environment, making voir. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) conditions favorable for other popula tions until an equilibrium between Subsoil biotic and abiotic is achieved. (Odum The B soil horizon of soils with dis 1971) tinct soil profiles. In soils with weak A "sere" whose first stage is open profile development, the subsoil can water is termed a "hydrosere", one be defined as the soil below the soil in whose first stage is dry ground, a which roots normally grow (i.e., below "xerosere". Succession is "primary" the plowed soil or its equivalent of sur on sites that have not previously borne face soil). Although a common term, it can- vegetation, "secondary" after the not be defined accurately. It has been whole or part of the original vegeta carried over from early days when tion has been supplanted, "allogenic" "soil" was conceived only as the when the causes of succession are ex plowed soil and that under it as the ternal to and independent of the com "subsoil". (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. munity (e.g., accretion of soil by wind 1970) or water, or a change of climate) and "autogenic" when the developing vege Subsurface rights. See Mineral rights. tation is itself the cause. (Ford-

211 Robertson 1971) and level of future, alternative site or 2. The process of replacement of resource management inputs. one plant community by another until G. Angus Hills was probably the first the climax community is reached. prominent wildland planner to (Durrenberger 1973) recognize the importance of retaining the distinction between these and Succession, primary (Prisere) other types of evaluations in a process 1. Successions beginning from new for land use planning. Hills used the ly formed soils or upon surfaces ex- terms use capability to refer to evalua posed for the first time (as by land- tions based on a resource's inherent or slides) which have as a consequence present condition abilities, use suita- never borne vegetation before. (Car- bility for evaluations based on poten penter 1938, citing Clements 1905) 2. Any succession beginning on a tial management inputs, and use feasi- bare area, such as a lava flow, not pre bility to refer to usability potential viously occupied by plants or animals. ratings based on an evaluation of off- (Hanson 1962) site factors–such as accessibility, pres Also see Succession, secondary. ent and forecasted socioeconomic conditions, technological develop Succession, secondary ments, etc. (Belknap and Furtado 1. Any succession caused by man 1967; Hills, Love and Lacate 1970) or human agency. (Carpenter 1938) Perhaps even earlier than Hills, the Successions on denuded soils. (Car- U.S. Soil Conservation Service began penter 1938, citing Clements 1905) widespread use of its Land Capability 2. The kind of succession which Classification System (Wohletz and takes place following the destruction Dolder 1952) which also uses "capabil of part or all of the vegetation in an ity" evaluation in the sense of an in area, usually caused directly or indi herent ability rating. rectly by man. (Hanson 1962) To avoid confusion in the future we recommend that the Hills and Soil Suitability Conservation Service usages be recog 1. In land use planning literature nized as having established the prece the widely used terms "suitability" dent for the proper usage of these and "capability" (whether alone or ac terms, Thus "capability" should be, companied by various modifiers) are used when referring to evaluations for often used interchangeably to refer to usability based on the present state of ratings based on two basically differ ent evaluation procedures. One basic the resource and "suitability" should type of evaluation procedure is the rat only be used for evaluations based on ing of use or productivity potentials assumptions about potential usability based on the present state of the re- or productivity if specified manage source. This type of rating therefore is ment alterations were to be made– an evaluation based on the resource's such as drainage improvements, added inherent, natural or intrinsic ability to irrigation and/or fertilization, etc. provide for use and includes that exist Better yet, both terms should be ac ing ability which is the result of past companied by modifiers which make it alterations or current management absolutely clear just what type of an practices. A second basic type of eval evaluation procedure is implied by the uation procedure rates the potential rating given. Thus the word capability ability of a resource to produce goods should always be presented as "inher or services on the basis of the maxi- ent capability", "intrinsic capability", mum possible outputs for a given type or "natural capability". Similarly

212 "suitability" could be referred to as Surface erosion. See Erosion, surface. "managed suitability". (C.F.S.) 2. Range management usage. The Surface mining. See Mining, surface. adaptability of an area to grazing by livestock or game or the adaptability Surface restoration. See Reclamation. of a particular plant or animal species to a given area. (Amer. Soc. Range Surface rights Manage. 1964) 1. The ownership of the surface of the land only, where the mineral rights Suitability, inherent. See Capability. have been separately reserved. (Thrush 1968) Suitability, intrinsic 2. Those ownership rights reserved Ian Mc Harg's usage. Locations to the owner of the land beneath or within a planning area displaying the from which ore is being mined. maximum coincidence of favorable (Thrush 1968) natural environmental factors relevant 3. The right of a mineral owner to to the location of a prospective land use so much of the surface of the land use and the fewest constraints on that as may be reasonably necessary for the use. (Wallace, Mc Harg, Roberts and conduct of mining operations. (Thrush Todd 1972) 1968) Also see Capability. Surface soil (Topsoil) Suitability, managed. See Suitability. The uppermost part of the soil ordinarily moved in tillage (or its equiva- Suitable range. See Range, suitable. lent in uncultivated soils) ranging in Supplement depth from 5 to 8 inches. 1. Something that makes an addi- Frequently designated as the "plow tion; something that completes, adds a layer," the AP layer, or the AP soil finishing touch, or brings closer to horizon. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. completion or a desired state. (Webster 1970) 1963) 2. The relationship between com- Surface storage plements and supplements to plans is The sum of detention storage and that complements can be viewed as channel storage, representing, at any being mutual supplements while sup- given moment, the total water enroute plements do not gain anything unto to an outlet from an area or water- themselves by their addition to a plan. shed. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) (C. F. S. ) Also see Complement. Surface water Water which remains on top of the Supply. See Supply schedule. land, such as a river or lake. (E.C.T.)

Supply schedule (Supply) Suspended load The amount of a good or service 1. The smaller sediment particles that will be offered for sale over a that are lifted far from the bottom for given range of prices at a particular long periods by running water and are point in time. (U.S. Forest Serv. distributed through the whole body of 1972B) the current. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) The U.S. General Accounting Of- 2. The quantity of suspended sedi- fice titles of output that will be offer- ment actually transported by a cur- ed for sale or use during a planning rent. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) period at specified output prices or price assumptions. (U.S. Forest Serv. Suspended sediment 1972B) Sediment which remains suspended

213 in the water for a considerable period debris, sweet. of time without coming in contact with the bottom. (Amer. Geol. Inst. Synergism 1962) The combined action of two or more agents that is greater than the Suspended solids sum of the actions of each of the The small, solid particles in water agents used alone. (Webster 1963) or sewage that cause a cloudy condi- See Antagonism for combined action in water. (Sesco, et al. 1973) tions which are less than a simple summation of individual actions. Sustained production. See Sustained yield. System 1. An organized collection of parts Sustained yield (Sustained production) united by regulated interaction. (U.S. 1. The achievement and mainte- Forest Serv. 1972B) nance in perpetuity of a high-level 2. A group of components which annual or regular periodic output of are interrelated to each other in such a the various renewable re- way that changes in one component sources . . . . without impairment of can affect some, or all of the other the productivity of the land. (After components. (Williams 1971) Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act) 2. The yield that a forest can pro- System planning. See Functional plan- duce continuously at a given intensity ning. of management. Sustained-yield management, there- Systems analysis fore, implies continuous production so An integrated, step by step ap- planned as to achieve at the earliest proach for helping a decision maker practical time a balance between incre- choose a course of action by investi- ment and cutting. (Ford-Robertson gating his full problem, searching out 1971) objectives and alternatives, and com- 3. The yield that a renewable re- paring them in the light of their conse- source can produce continuously at a quences, using an appropriate frame- given intensity of management. (After work (in so far as possible analytic and Ford-Robertson 1971) quantitative) to bring expert judgement and intuition to bear on the Sweet spoils. For mining usage see Mining problem. (Quade and Boucher 1968) T

Tailings. See Mine tailings. O. Rr. vs. Chicago, 166 U.S. 226 (1897) ), it has long been established Taking that state regulation based on the po- 1. A violation of the U.S. Constitu- lice power may substantially diminish tional provision "... nor shall private the economic value of private property property be taken for public use without just compensation . . . " by a sys- without giving rise to an obligation to tem of land use regulation. (After Bos- compensate the owner. See e.g., Mug- selman, et al. 1973) ler vs. Kansas, 123 U.S. 623 (1887); Although the Fifth Amendment's Euclid vs. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. prohibition of "takings" of property 365 (1926). There is a very hazy without "just compensation" applied boundary between "taking" (compen- to the states by virtue of the Four- sation required) and "police power" teenth Amendment (Chicago, B. and regulation (compensation not re-

214 quired). The Supreme Court itself has reached within a stated time period. acknowledged that "there is no set for- Results must be measured in terms of mula to determine where regulation some specific indicators, may include ends and taking begins" (Goldblatt vs. standards, and must be relatable to Hempstead, 369 U.S. 590, 594 some criteria for how well they were (1962) ). In the language of the de- achieved. Often one or more separate cided cases, the phrase "police power" targets are used to make an objective normally connotes that the action in explicit and to achieve its desired state question is being taken without com- or purpose. (U.S.D.A. Off. Manage. pensation to the property owner. By and Finance 1974) contrast, where compensation for a "taking" is contemplated, the cases Taxonomy speak of "eminent domain" or "expro- 1. The science of classification of priation" powers. organisms; the arrangement of organ- Most of the Supreme Court cases in isms into systematic groups such as this area have involved zoning laws or species, genus, family, and order. other governmental action largely un- (D.E.H. and B. W.) related to environmental concerns. 2. "Taxonomy" is a term closely See, e.g., United States vs. Causby, related to classification but it em- 328 U.S. 256 (1946). However, in re- bodies a broader concept. cent years, several state court decisions Taxonomy is the science of how to have invalidated, under the Federal or classify and identify. state constitutions, state or local po- It is the theoretical study of classifi- lice power (no compensation) initia- cation including its bases, principles, tives designed primarily to preserve the procedures, and rules. natural environment. See, e.g., Bartlett Taxonomy includes classification as vs. Zoning Commission, 232 A. 2D well as identification. (Sokal 1974) 907 (Conn. 1971); Maine vs. Johnson, 265 A. 2D 711 (ME 1970); Dooley vs. Technological assessment (Technological Town Plan and Zoning Commission, forecasting) 197 A. 2D 770 (Conn. 1964). (From The attempt to estimate or predict U.S. Dep. Justice comments in U.S. the completely new technological de- Congr., Senate Com. Inter. Insular Aff. velopments which will occur in the 1973) future; and, to evaluate the extent to 2. An issue in planning centering which such likely, future new abilities around the right of the government to will be able to solve (or at least accept- control private use of private land, in ably minimize) current land use prob- effect taking away property rights for lems, or problems which are expected the common good. It involves pur- to be associated with particular land chasing lands through eminent domain uses in future times. (C.F.S.) for special purposes, compensation for decreased property values due to regu- Technological change lation, and the rights of private owner- 1. The increase of our ability to ship versus public needs. (E. C. T.) solve problems or increase efficiency Also see Eminent domain, Just by technical means with time. (C.F.S.) compensation, Police power, and De- 2. The increase with the passage of velopment rights, acquisition of. time of the availability of alternative or completely new technical methods for solving problems associated with Target land uses because of the inevitable evo- A clear and concise statement used lution and development of new ideas. to express planned results to be Thus, for those land use problems

215 which are potentially resolvable by juncts of the transportation network technical means, what may be essenti- and serve as a transfer interface be- ally impossible to do now because of tween the transportation network and the lack of available technology most resources served or between different likely will become possible in some fu- transportation modes. Typical termi- ture time period. (C.F.S.) nal facilities are vehicle parking areas, boat ramps and docks, trail heads, log Technological forecasting. See Techno- landings and dumps, and air fields and logical assessment. heliports. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7705.24) Technological solution 1. The application of the devices or Term license. For range management us- techniques developed by science for age see Term permit. practical purposes. A technical method for achieving a Term permit (Term license) practical purpose. (After Webster Range management usage. A docu- 1963) ment which authorizes grazing on pub- 2. In land use planning this con- lic lands for a stated number of years cept is especially used in the context as contrasted with an annual or tempo- of the emergence of completely new rary permit. (Amer. Soc. Range Man- technical methods for solving current age. 1964) or potential problems for which no Also see Temporary permit. "technological solutions" presently exist. (C.F.S.) Terrain (Terrane) Also see the related terms Techno- 1. The physical features of a tract logical assessment, Technological of land. (Webster 1963) change, Engineering solution. 2. An area of ground considered as The distinction between "technical to its extent and natural features in solutions" and "engineering solutions" relation to its use for a particular oper- is that the first refers just to the devel- ation. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) opment of new technical means while A tract of country considered with the last applies to the application of regard to its natural features, configu- any technical means (new or old) to ration, etc.; in military use especially solving potential problems. (C.F.S.) as affecting its tactical advantages, fit- ness for maneuvering, etc.; also an ex- Temporary license. For range manage- tent of ground, region, district, terri- ment usage see Temporary permit. tory. (Stamp 1961) Temporary pasture. See Pasture, supplemental. Terrain analysis The process of interpreting a geo- Temporary permit (Temporary license) graphical area to determine the effect Range management usage. A docu- of the natural and man-made features ment authorizing grazing a certain on a particular activity. This interpre- number of livestock on public lands tation includes the influence of during an emergency or for a certain weather and climate on those features. period, terminable at the end of such (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) period and with no guarantee of renewal in whole or in part. (Amer. Terrain evaluation. See Land evaluation. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) Also see Term permit. Terrain factor 1. Terrain factors consist of land Terminal facilities forms, drainage features, ground, vege- Terminal facilities are fixed ad- tation, etc. and cultural features or

216 man-made changes in the earth's sur- tration, and other more complex pro- face. (Amer. Geol. Inst. 1962) cedures. (After Wash. State Univ., 2. A specific attribute of the ter- Coop. Ext. Serv. 1972) rain that can be described in quantita- Tertiary treatment removes up to tive terms. (U.S. Dep. Defense 1968) 99 percent of the suspended solids and biological oxygen demand, 95 percent Terrain studies of the phosphate and 75 percent of Regional studies usually with an the nitrate from wastewater. (Martin emphasis on relief and essential physi- and Weinberger 1966) cal features–soil, vegetation, and drainage. (Stamp 1961) T factor. For soil erosion related usages see Soil loss tolerance. Terrane. See Terrain. Territoriality Thermal enrichment. See Thermal pollu- The behavior by which an organism tion. claims an area and defends it against members of its own species. (Worth- Thermal pollution (Thermal enrichment, ington 1974) Calefaction) Altering the amount of energy Tertiary facility available in the environment by the ad- Transportation planning usage. Ter- dition of heat or cold. Most frequently tiary facilities are usually intended to this occurs in the form of the heat ad- provide access for a specific resource ded by returning water which has been utilization activity, such as a timber used for cooling purposes to a river, sale or recreation site, although other lake, estuary, bay or the ocean. How- minor uses may be served. Emphasis is ever "thermal pollution" may also oc- given to resource service rather than cur with the release of large volumes travel efficiency. Tertiary facilities of the cold, deep water in reservoirs may often be developed and operated into warmer bodies of water. (E. C. T.) for short term or intermittent service. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 7705.43 Aug. Thinning 1975) Cutting made in an immature crop Also see Primary facility and or stand in order primarily to acceler- Secondary facility. ate the diameter increment (annual growth) of the residual trees but also, by Tertiary sewage treatment. See Tertiary suitable selection, to improve the wastewater treatment. average form of the trees that remain, Tertiary treatment. See Tertiary waste- without (at least according to classical water treatment. concepts) permanently breaking the canopy. (Ford-Robertson 1971) Tertiary wastewater treatment (Tertiary treatment, Tertiary sewage treatment) Thixotrophy. See Soil liquefaction. Wastewater treatment processes, beyond "primary" and secondary waste- Threatened species. See Species, threat- water treatment, which remove or re- ened. duce the amount of nitrate and phosphate nutrients still present in their ef- Threshold level fluents. Tertiary treatment may con- The minimum concentration or sist of extensions or modifications of amount of a given substance or condi- secondary treatment processes, addition necessary to produce a measur- tional forms of chemical treatment, able physiological or psychological ef- electrochemical processing, carbon fil- fect. (Sesco, et al. 1973)

217 Timber management compartment Timber type. See Cover type, definition U.S. Forest Service usage. A com- 1. partment is defined as an organization unit or small subdivision of forest area Time zoning. See Zoning, time. for purposes of orientation, administration, and silvicultural operations, TLm. See Median tolerance limit. and defined by permanent boundaries (either of natural features or artifi- Tolerance cially marked) which are not neces- 1. The resistance of an organism to sarily coincident with stand bound- the excess or the deficiency of an ele- aries. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2412.3) ment or a condition in its environment–e.g., elm trees are "resistant" to periodic flooding. (Dansereau 1957) Timber planning 2. The capacity of an organism or Functional planning for the growth biological process to subsist under a and harvesting of commercial trees. given set of environmental conditions, (E.C.T.) such as high levels of pollution. (Sesco, Also see Functional planning. et al. 1973) For soil erosion related usages see Soil loss tolerance. Timber Resource System U.S. Forest Service usage. The role Topography of the Timber Resource System is to The configuration of a surface in- grow and make available wood for the cluding its relief, elevation and the nation on a continuing basis. Thus, the position of its natural and man-made system includes those activities neces- features. sary to (1) protect, improve, grow, and The physical or natural features of harvest timber from forest land and an object or entity and their structural (2) protect, process, and utilize wood relationships. (Webster 1963) and wood-related products. In addition to wood, the system produces Topsoil other goods and services, either by de- 1. Earthy material used as top-dres- sign or incidentally. sing for house lots, grounds for large One of the six "systems" estab- buildings, gardens, road cuts, or similar lished by the U.S. Forest Service to areas. It has favorable characteristics have a systematic, orderly way to view for production of desired kinds of and evaluate its many diverse but in- vegetation or can be made favorable. terrelated activities. The Forest Service (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) has developed this approach to better 2. The surface plow layer of a soil. respond to the mandates of the Forest Synonymous with surface soil. (Soil and Rangeland Renewable Resources Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped 3. The original or present dark- its various programs into these six colored upper soil that ranges from a "systems," each of which incorporates mere fraction of an inch to two or all the activities concerned with devel- three feet thick on different kinds of oping and managing a specific re- soil. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) source. (After U. S. Forest Serv. 1974A) 4. The original or present "A" soil The six "systems" are: Land and horizon varying widely among differ- Water, "Timber Resource", Outdoor ent kinds of soil. Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland Applied to soils in the field, the Grazing, Wildlife and Fish Habitat, and term has no precise meaning unless de- Human and Community Development. fined as to depth or productivity in

218 relation to a specific kind of soil. (Soil jacent to and serving the planning area. Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) (After U. S. Forest Serv., FSM 7705.21, Aug. 1975) Tractor logging. See Logging, tractor. Trade-offs Transportation planning The combination of benefits and The process by which new transpor- costs which are gained and lost in tation facilities (and improvements to switching between alternative courses the old facilities) are systematically de- of action. "Trade-offs" include only signed, their adequacy tested, and those portions of benefits and costs their future construction programmed. which are not common to all alterna- Comprehensive transportation plan- tive courses of action under considera- ning considers all modes (mass transit, tion. (E. C. T.) automobile, air, rail, etc.) of transportation and regards the total as a single Traffic classification. See Traffic compo- system. Transportation planning is a sition. type of functional planning. (After Abrams 1971) Traffic composition (Traffic classifica- Also see Functional planning. tion) The classification and grouping of the various sizes and weights of vehi- Transportation services land cles making up the traffic of a road U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- such as passenger cars and trucks. This age. Land used primarily for highways, is frequently called traffic classifica- roads, beltways, railroads, utility tion. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSH 7709.11, rights-of-way, airports, and other May 1969) transportation facilities, together with necessary adjacent facilities such as ap- Traffic volume proaches, underground and surface The number of vehicles traveling in utilities, and other servicing structures, both directions past a given point dur- appurtenances, and measures. (U.S. ing a specified period of time. This is Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970) usually expressed as seasonal average daily traffic for roads that are open Travel influence zone only part of the year, or annual aver- 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas age daily traffic for roads (highways) comprising existing or anticipated sig- open year round. (U.S. Forest Serv., nificant public outdoor recreational FSH 7709.11, May 1969) occupancy, use, and enjoyment along existing and planned overland routes Trampling of travel; areas in and around existing Treading under foot; the damage to or planned developed recreation sites. plants or soil brought about by move- These are areas in which beauty of the ments or congestion of livestock and/ landscape and other aesthetic values or people. (After Amer. Soc. Range are key management considerations Manage. 1964) and are an important part of the out- Transitory range. See Range, transitory. door environment. These areas offer significant opportunities for existing, Transportation network planned, or anticipated recreational U.S. Forest Service usage. The use and enjoyment by people visiting transportation network includes all or traveling through the zone. existing and planned roads, trails, Includes area immediately adjacent bridges, airfields, and other transport to and surrounding developed or plan- facilities wholly or partly within or ad- ned sites where people may stroll.

219 Comprises areas along existing or plan- whose food is obtained from plants by ned overland routes of public travel the same number of feeding steps in a where the immediate scenic frame or food chain are said to belong to the foreground is subject to close scrutiny. same "trophic level". Thus green Other foreground and backdrop areas plants occupy the first trophic level, should be recognized in zones with ap- plant-eaters (i.e., herbivores), the sec- propriate management emphasis on ond level, the carnivores (i.e., meat beauty and other aesthetic values. eaters) which eat the herbivores the Roads, trails, railroads, tramways, and third level, and secondary carnivores ski lifts are included as overland travel (i.e., carnivores which eat other car- routes. This does not include work nivores) the fourth level. (Odum 1953) roads, trails, and other overland routes where public travel is only occasional. Turbidity Lands which have these character- Defined as the capacity of materials istics and are also significantly influ- suspended in water to scatter light. It enced by considerations related to is measured in arbitrary Jackson tur- water will be included in the water in- bidity units (JTU). Highly turbid fluence zone. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM water is often called "muddy", al- 8223.2, Dec. 1974) though all manner of suspended parti- 2. The area adjacent to selected or cles contribute to turbidity. (Feth proposed highways, roads and trails 1973) subject to special management mea- Type conversion sures to maintain or improve the The conversion of one type of vege- aesthetic quality for the traveler. (U.S. tation cover to another, e.g., the con- Forest Serv. Region 9, 1975) version of brush or forest covered lands to grass as for grazing purposes Trophic level or the conversion of a white fir forest In biotic communities organisms to a ponderosa pine forest. (C.F.S.) U

Unacceptable risk. See Risk, unaccept- explicitly or implicitly by the selection able. of the analysis method, whether or not the true probability distribution is Unavailable forage known. A probability distribution is Forage which cannot be grazed by selected for analysis purposes based on livestock. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. experience, intuitive feelings, knowl- 1964) edge, and the lack of knowledge. (E.C.T.) Uncertainty Also see Risk. 1. Decision making in which there is no objective basis for assigning numerical probability weights to the dif- Underprivileged groups. See Disadvan- ferent possible outcomes or there is no taged groups. way to describe the possible outcomes. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1972B) Understocking Under the Bayesian school of Range management usage. Placing a thought the distinction between risk number of animals on a given area that and "uncertainty" is not useful and in will result in underutilization of the fact may not exist. In any practical available forage by the end of the plan- analysis all uncertain situations are as- ned grazing period. (Amer. Soc. Range signed probability distributions, either Manage. 1964)

220 Understory or excellence exists. (After Webster The trees and other woody species 1963) growing under a more or less continu- 3. The ability to produce or repli- ous cover of branches and foliage cate facilities producing final con- formed collectively by the upper por- sumption goods to gratify given tastes tions of adjacent trees and other will lie at the base of the distinction woody growth. (After Ford-Robertson between "producible" and "irreplace- 1971) able" assets. Irreplaceability, of course, will be a function of the close- Undesirable species ness of substitutes in final consump- Range management usage. Plant tion. With this as a point of departure, species that are not desirable because at least three classes of "irreplaceable they are unpalatable or low in palata- assets" can be distinguished. One bility, injurious to animals, poisonous, would be "gifts of individual genius" poor stabilizers of soil and water, etc. such as the work of Leonardo da Vinci (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) or Rembrandt. A second might be called "gifts of collective genius", rep- Undeveloped land (Raw land) resented by the cultural antiquities of A term of comparison sometimes Egypt, Greece, and Rome, among used to contrast land which has been others. Finally, we have the "gifts of built upon (i.e., "developed") or sub- nature", namely the accidents of geo- divided in preparation for develop- morphology, biological evolution, and ment with land on which such activi- ecological succession. ties have not taken place (i.e., raw In the latter we differentiate be- land). (C.F.S.) tween natural endowments as factors Uneven-age management (Uneven-age sil- of production, or intermediate goods, viculture) that are transformed through some The course of actions involved in production technology either into maintaining a forest or stand, com- other goods in process or into final posed of intermingling trees that differ consumption goods, on the one hand, markedly in age. (After Ford-Robert- and natural endowments that directly son 1971) give rise to stimuli eliciting satisfaction in an ultimate consumption of final- Uneven-age silviculture. See Uneven-age good sense, on the other. If a natural management. resource is used as a good in process, technology may provide a wide spec- Uneven-aged stand (All-aged stand) trum of substitutes for the particular A forest stand composed of inter- input without significantly altering the mingling trees that differ markedly in final product either in appearance or age. performance. (Krutilla, et al. 1972) By convention, a minimum range of 10 to 20 years is generally accepted, Unique species. See Species, unique. though with rotations of less than 100 years, 25 percent of the rotation peri- Unit. See Planning unit. od may be the minimum. (Ford- Robertson 1971) Unit plan U.S. Forest Service usage. The plan Unique resource (Irreplaceable asset) for a specifically identified planning 1. A resource which is not dupli- unit. cated anywhere. (After Webster 1963) 2. A resource for which no equal Unit planning (although different) resource in kind The activity of developing a com-

221 prehensive general long-range plan for et al. 1972) a planning unit. (W. W.) Also see Urban land.

Universal soil loss equation. See Soil loss Urban forestry equation. 1. The practice of forestry in an urbanized environment. (Andresen 1974) Unpalatable species 2. A specialized branch of forestry Range management usage. Species that has as its objective the cultivation that are not readily eaten by animals. and management of trees in urban (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) areas and the evaluation of their contribution to the physiological, socio- Unsuitable range. See Range, unsuitable. logical, psychological (and sometimes economic) well-being of urban society. Urban and built-up land and (Urban and (After Andresen 1974, citing Soc. built-up areas) Amer. For., Urban For. Work. Group) 1. "Urban and built-up areas." Cities, villages, and built-up areas of Urban fringe. See Urbanized area. more than 10 acres; industrial sites (except strip mines, borrow and gravel Urbanized area pits); railroad yards; cemeteries; air- U.S. Bureau of the Census usage. ports; golf courses; shooting ranges; in- An urbanized area consists of a central stitutional and public administration city, or cities, and surrounding closely sites; and similar kinds of areas. Road settled territory. The specific criteria and railroad acreage is included, and for the delineation of an urbanized intermingled Federal acreages may be area are as follows: (1) a central city of included. Farmland acreage inside city 50,000 inhabitants or more; or twin and village limits is not included. (U.S. cities (i.e., cities with contiguous Dep. Agric. 1967) boundaries and constituting, for gener- 2. Areas of intensive use with al social and economic purposes, a much of the land covered by struc- single community) with a combined tures. Included in this category are population of at least 50,000. (2) sur- cities, towns, villages, strip develop- rounding closely settled territory, in- ments along highways, transportation, cluding incorporated places of 2,500 power, and communications facilities, inhabitants or more; or, incorporated and such isolated units as mills, mines, places with fewer than 2,500 inhabi- and quarries, shopping centers, and in- tants, provided that each has a closely stitutions. settled area of 100 housing units or Small blocks of land of less inten- more; or, parcels of land normally less sive or nonconforming use isolated in than one square mile in area having a the midst of built-up areas are general- population density of 1,000 inhabi- ly included in this category. Agricul- tants or more per square mile. tural, forest, or water area on the An urbanized area is sometimes fringe of urban and built-up areas are divided into the "central city (or not included, except where they are cities)" and those in the remainder of part of low-density urban develop- the area or the "urban fringe." The ment. The "urban and built-up land" central city category consists of the category takes precedence over others cities, having 250,000 inhabitants or when the criteria for more than one more, named in the title of the ur- category are met. Thus, residential banized area. areas that have sufficient tree cover to The urbanized area can be charac- meet forest land criteria will be placed terized as the physical city as distin- in the residential category. (Anderson, guished from both the legal city and

222 the metropolitan community. General- Use (Utilization) ly, urbanized areas are smaller than and Range management usage. The pro- in most cases are contained in portion of current year's forage pro- standard metropolitan statistical areas duction that is consumed or destroyed (SMSA). However, in a few instances, by grazing animals. the fact that the boundaries of SMSA's The putting of range to a purpose are determined by political lines, and by animals such as grazing, bedding, those of urbanized areas by the pat- shelter, trailing, watering, etc. (Amer. tern of urban land use, means that Soc. Range Manage. 1964) there are small segments of urbanized areas which lie outside SMSA's. In gen- Use, allowable eral, then, urbanized areas represent Range management usage. The de- the thickly settled core of the SMSA's, gree of use estimated to be proper un- with the exceptions noted above. (Af- til proper use is known. Forty or fifty ter U.S. Bur. Census 1971) percent of the annual growth by weight is often used as a rule-of-thumb Urban land on ranges in good or excellent condi- 1. Areas within the legal boun- tion. daries of cities and towns; suburban The amount of forage planned to areas developed for residential, indus- be used to accelerate range rehabilita- trial, or recreational purposes. (U.S. tion. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. Forest Serv. 1972B) 1964) 2. U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. An area so altered or obstructed Use capability (Capability) by urban works or structures that G.A. Hills usage. The first of Hills' identification of soils is not feasible. three-level system for land evaluation. A miscellaneous land type mapping The process begins with evaluation for unit of the Soil Conservation Service. "use capability" based upon inherent (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) usability potentials, then to evaluation Also see Urban and built up land. for "use suitability" on the basis of management level potentials and final- Urban planning (City planning) ly to "use feasibility" evaluation on In its common usage "urban plan- the basis of usability under present ning" is equivalent to city planning. and forecasted socio-economic condi- However, a distinction is sometimes tions. (After Belknap and Furtado made between the use of the two 1967) terms. "City planning" can refer just Also see Capability. to planning activities that take place within or at the level of a specific city Use, degree of boundary. "Urban planning" can be Range management usage. Utiliza- used to refer to planning for areas tion or consumption of plant growth which are in predominantly urban uses in respect to weight. It may be expres- but which are larger in extent than a sed in qualitative terms such as un- single city's boundaries. (C.F.S.) used, slight, moderate, full, close, severe, over, extreme, destructive, etc., Urban sprawl or as percent of weight for either an A term used to describe the irregu- individual plant or the vegetation as a lar and often poorly planned spreading whole. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. of urban development into adjoining 1964) land areas. Many suburban residential developments are examples of urban Use district sprawl. (Sesco, et al. 1973) A section of a city designated by a

223 zoning ordinance that prescribes the the exercise (temporarily) of a grazing use of its land and the type and char- privilege on grazing lands. acteristics of the structures that may An authorization to refrain, tempo- be placed on it. rarily, from placing livestock on public The most common form of zoning ranges without loss of preference for in the United States is that in which future consideration. (Amer. Soc. "use districts" are designated (e.g., Range Manage. 1964) light manufacturing, commercial, single-family residential) and only the Use, nonconforming permitted use or a "higher" one is al- A building or use that is inconsis- lowed. Thus in an area zoned for tent with a use district's zoning regula- heavy industry, all other uses would tions. If erected after the enactment of theoretically be permitted (though the ordinance it may be ordered re- there are some exceptions to this un- moved. If in being before the enact- der the principle of exclusive zoning), ment it may continue in use, but a whereas in an area of single-family resi- new nonconforming or different non- dences, no other uses are likely to be conforming use may not be substi- permitted. (Abrams 1971) tuted. Nor is its extension or enlarge- ment permissible if the ordinance so Use factor provides. Many ordinances permit the Range management usage. An index rebuilding of the nonconforming to the grazing use that is made of for- premises when destroyed by fire. Once age species, based on a system of range the use is abandoned, however, the management that will maintain the right to its restoration falls, and the economically important forage species. future use of the premises must con- (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. 1964) form to the zoning. Some states allow for the abatement of such uses at the Use feasibility (Feasibility) end of a prescribed and usually G.A. Hills usage. The third of Hills' lengthy period of time (i.e., use of three-level system for land evaluation. time zoning). (Abrams 1971) The process begins with evaluation for "use capability" based upon inherent Use, over- usability potentials, then to evaluation Range management usage. Utilizing for "use suitability" on the basis of an excessive amount of the current' management level potentials, and final- year's growth which, if continued, will ly to "use feasibility" evaluation on reault [sic} in range deterioration or over- the basis of usability under present grazing. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. and forecasted socio-economic condi- 1964) tions. (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) Use, pre-existing Also see Feasibility. A land use that does not conform to a zoning ordinance but that existed Use, full before the enactment and that there- Range management usage. The fore may not be banned until its aban- maximum use that can be made of a donment. Sometimes the "pre-existing range during a grazing season without use", if a nuisance, can be abated by inducing a downward trend in range court action. In some jurisdictions condition. (Amer. Soc. Range Manage. "pre-existing uses" have been banned 1964) after the lapse of a reasonable period equivalent to a prescribed "deprecia- Use, Non- (Non-utilization) tion period" or amortization of its use Range management usage. Lack of by time zoning. (Abrams 1971)

224 Use, proper (Proper utilization) ment of utility is possible. (O'Connell Range management usage. The de- 1974) gree and time of use of current year's Also see Utility theory. growth which, if continued, will either maintain or improve the range condi- Utility tion consistent with conservation of The usefulness or satisfaction caus- other natural resources. (Amer. Soc. ing qualities of a good or service. Range Manage. 1964) (E.C.T.) Also see Utility theory. Use suitability (Suitability) G.A. Hills usage. Classification Utility theory based upon the degree to which a unit, 1. A theory of valuation according in its present condition, can respond to some measure of individual prefer- to specific management practices. ences or intrinsic usefulness and satis- (Belknap and Furtado 1967) faction causing qualities (utility) devel- The capacity of a unit in its present oped in the study of welfare economics. condition to respond to an assumed The valuation can occur either in management practice. (Belknap and cardinal units of utility (called utils) Furtado 1967) or as a comparison to other available The relative ability of a specific goods given by indifference curves. An area in its present condition to pro- indifference curve is a delineation of duce specific goods and services. (Hills, all combinations of two goods with Love and Lacate 1970) which an individual would be equally The second of Hills' three-level sys- pleased (indifferent between). (E. C. T.) tem for land evaluation. The process 2. "Non-market good" valuation begins with evaluation for "use capa- usage. In attempting to place a value on bility" based upon inherent usability goods which are not traded in the potentials, then to evaluation for "use marketplace, proxy values can be de- suitability" on the basis of manage- rived by developing indifference curves ment level potentials, and finally to between the non-market good and a "use feasibility" evaluation on the good with a well established price. basis of usability under present and (E.C.T.) forecasted socioeconomic conditions. 3. Decision theory with uncer- (After Belknap and Furtado 1967) tainty usage. In choosing among alter- Also see Suitability. natives where the outcome of each alternative is uncertain, each possible USGS. outcome is weighted by its probability Geological survey, U.S. Department of occurrence and a cardinal value of of Interior. the outcome's utility should it occur, to obtain an expected utility value for Utilitarianism each alternative. The alternative with A political philosophy based on the the highest expected utility is chosen. principle of "the greatest good of the (After Mac Crimmon 1968) greatest number". Public policy ought to be aimed at maximumizing utility (that is, the maximization of pleasure Utilization. For range management usage for the maximum number of citizens). see Use. The notion has been ridiculed on the grounds that no objective assess- Util. See Utility theory.

225 V

Valid mining claim. See Mining claim, zoning law by a public agency vested valid. with the power to authorize it. It may be given when the application of the Value added law creates unnecessary hardship; For a given enterprise, the market where equally safe methods or materi- value of goods completed, less the cost als may be used; where there are prac- of materials purchased from others. tical difficulties in meeting the existing requirements literally; or where the de- Value, amenity. See Amenity. viation or exception would not affect substantial compliance with the regula- Value judgement tions and not threaten health or safe- A more or less subjective opinion ty. (Abrams 1971) about the worth (e.g., good, evil, beau- Also see Special exception. tiful, desirable) of a thing, action or entity (even when evaluators protest Vegetation cover type. See Cover type. their lack of prejudice). (Webster 1963) Vegetation type A plant community with distin- Values (Value system) guishable characteristics. (Soil Con- 1. The particular (frequently sub- serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) jective) point of view of an individual Also see Cover type. or the common point of view of a group on an issue, way of life, or con- Veto group cerning the worth of things or experi- A pressure group that is sufficiently ences. (C.F.S.) powerful to block any policy or law 2. An individual or collective con- that it considers inimical to its interception of that which is desirable. This ests. (O'Connell 1974) conception usually has both emotional and symbolic components. Values may Viewer inferior. See Observer inferior. range from those that are subjectively meaningful to a given individual to Viewer normal. See Observer normal. those that are shared cultural norms. Viewer superior. See Observer superior. They influence the selection of the means and ends of actions, and they View landscape (Visual landscape) serve as criteria by which objects or A landscape which due to its juxta- actions are evaluated. (O'Connell position with areas of human use is 1974) vulnerable to critical observation by Also see Value judgement. various segments of the public. For economic usages see Market (A.W.M.) value, Non-market good valuation, and Proxy value. Virgin forest 1. Natural forest virtually uninflu- Value systems. See Values. enced by human activity. (Ford- Robertson 1971) Variance (Zoning variance) 2. A mature or overmature forest 1. A license to do some act con- essentially uninfluenced by human ac- trary to the usual rule. (U.S. Bur. Out- tivity. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) door Recreation 1974) 2. The granting of relief from the Visible area terms or conditions of a building or The ground or vegetation thereon

226 that can be directly seen from a given cept and the types of land units it pro- lookout point under favorable atmo- duces should be about the same as spheric conditions. (U.S. Forest Serv. morphological region and physio- 1972B) graphic regions. (C.F.S.) "Visual character type" units are Visitor carrying capacity. See Carrying caused as a frame of reference for classi- pacity-recreation, economic. fying the physical features of a given area as to their degree of scenic quali- Visitor day ty. (U.S. Forest Serv. 1974B) The use of an area for a total of 12 Also see the related terms of the person-hours by one or more people, visual management system Visual char- either continuously or spread over sev- acter subtype and Visual landscape eral visits. (E.C.T.) character.

Visual character subtype (Character sub- Visual landscape. See View landscape. type, Visual subtype) U.S. Forest Service, Visual Manage- ment System usage. Areas of signifi- Visual landscape character (Characteristic cant size and visual difference within landscape) visual character type units–e.g., steep U.S. Forest Service, Visual Manage- mountain lands, foothill lands, rolling ment System usage. The overall im- plateau lands. pression created by a landscape's Subdivisions of "visual character unique combination of visual features types" which are significantly differ- (such as land, vegetation, water, struc- ent in visual characteristics from each tures) as seen in terms of form, line, other. color and texture. (U.S. Forest Serv. "Visual character subtypes" are de- 1973) lineated when a larger "visual charac- The naturally established landscape ter type" unit is too broad or has too being viewed as visually represented by great a visual character diversity to the basic vegetative patterns, land provide a logical frame of reference to forms, rock formations and water usefully classify physical features. forms which are in view. (U.S. Forest "Subtype" units are also used to Serv. 1974B) identify those portions of major char- A "visual landscape character" unit acter types having distinctive or out- usually makes up a small portion of a standing common features. (U.S. For- visual character subtype, depending est Serv. 1974B) upon how much of the subtype unit Also see the related terms of the can be viewed at one time. (After U.S. visual management system, Visual Forest Serv. 1974B) character type and Visual landscape character. Visual quality objective U.S. Forest Service Visual Manage- Visual character type (Character type, ment System usage. "Visual quality Visual type) objective" should more appropriately U.S. Forest Service, Visual Manage- be called "visual quality goals" as per ment System usage. A large area of the definition of goals. Contrast the land that has common distinguishing definition of goal with that of objec- visual characteristics of landform, rock tive. formations, water forms and vegeta- A set of measurable goals for the tion patterns. (U.S. Forest Serv. management of forest visual resources. 1974B) The stated goals of this visual manage- The "visual character type" con- ment system are: (1) preservation,

227 (2) retention, (3) partial retention, Visual sensitivity level (Sensitivity level) (4) modification, and (5) maximum U.S. Forest Service, Visual Manage- modification. Except for "preserva- ment System usage. A three-level rat- tion" each goal describes a different ing system used to delineate areas re- degree of acceptable alteration of the ceiving different amounts of exposure natural landscape based upon the im- (present or potential) to user groups portance of aesthetics. with differing attitudes towards "Preservation" allows only natural changes in scenic quality (such as ecological changes. "Retention" allows might occur as a result of management management activities which are not activities). visually evident. "Partial retention" al- The system initially classifies all lows management activities which are travel routes, special interest areas and visually subordinate to the charac- water bodies into areas of primary and teristic visual landscape. "Modifica- secondary aesthetic management im- tion" allows management activities portance on the basis of their national that may visually dominate the origi- importance, number of users, duration nal "characteristic visual landscape", of use and area size. The system next but, when vegetation and land forms uses the assumptions that aesthetic are altered, which must use the form, quality will be of major concern to line, color, texture and/or scale of that recreational users and minor concern landscape for its visual characteristics. to functional users of forest areas "Maximum modification" allows vege- (such as daily commuters and loggers) tation and land form altering manage- as the other basis for classifying the ment activities that dominate the entire planning area into the three sen- "characteristic visual landscape" in the sitivity levels. (After U.S. Forest Serv. foreground and middleground but 1974) which have the same visual character- Visual subtype. For U.S. Forest Service istics as the surrounding area when usage see Visual character subtype. seen as background. Two additional short-term management goals may be Visual variety class (Variety class) required. The first, "rehabilitation", is U.S. Forest Service Visual Manage- used to upgrade landscapes containing ment System usage. A classification visual impacts which do not meet the system for establishing three visual quality objectives set for that particu- landscape categories according to the lar area. The second, "enhancement", relative importance of the visual fea- is for landscapes having a potential for tures–i.e., landforms, vegetation pat- greater natural-appearing variety. Once terns, stream or lake water forms and one of the short-term goals is attained, rock formations. The class A ("distinc- one of the five quality goals is then tive") category contains those land- applied. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974) scape features of unusual or outstanding visual quality, and, that are usually not common in the visual character type or visual character subtype. The Visual resource class B ("common") category contains The composite of basic terrain, geo- those landscape features which tend to logic features, water features, vegeta- be common throughout the visual tive patterns, and land use effects that character type or subtype and thus are typify a land unit and influence the not of outstanding visual quality. The visual appeal the unit may have for class C ("minimal") category contains visitors. (Sandpoint Zone Plann. Team those areas with few distinguishing 1974) landscape features–including all areas

228 not classed as A or B. tion (of scenic quality) –in essence, the This classification system is based landscape's resistance or susceptibility on the premise that all landscapes have to visual changes. (Litton 1974) some visual values, but those with the 2. The susceptibility of an object most variety or diversity of visual fea- or changed condition to critical evalua- tures have the greatest potential for tion as a consequence of its location in being or attaining high scenic value. a position where it can be readily seen (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974) by the public. Visual vulnerability As applied to landscapes it means 1. The degree to which man-made their susceptibility to criticism (pro or changes might be seen in the land- con) as a consequence of their availa- scape and their potential for degrada- bility to public observation. (A.W.M.) W

Wants. See Needs. overwater travel routes and water- sports use where the immediate scenic Warm-water fishery frame and foreground are subject to Stream and lake waters which sup- close scrutiny. Other foreground and port fishes with a maximum summer backdrop areas should be recognized in water temperature tolerance of about other zones with appropriate man- 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Bluegills, perch agement emphasis on beauty and and largemouthed bass are examples. esthetic values. Live and intermittent (After U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605, streams and waters where developed Sept. 1974) facilities for occupancy and use do not exist, or are not anticipated or plan- Water bloom. See Bloom. ned, or areas which are seldom visited for recreation and enjoyment, are usu- Water influence zone ally not included. Such areas should be 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. Areas comprising existing or anticipated sig- recognized in other management zones nificant public outdoor recreational with due consideration given to the occupancy, use, and enjoyment along aquatic and related wildlife habitat and streams and rivers and around lakes, to soil and water values. (U.S. For- reservoirs, and other bodies of water, est Serv., FSM 8223.1, Dec., 1974) areas in which uses and activities are 2. The areas adjacent to lakes and oriented to overwater travel and out- selected streams subject to special door recreation. (U.S. Forest Serv., management measures to protect FSM 8223.1, Oct. 1973) water quality and maintain or improve These are areas in which beauty, aesthetic quality. (U.S. Forest Serv. aesthetic values, and water quality, Region 9 1975) and usefulness are key management values and an important part of the environment and offer significant op- Water pollution portunities for existing, anticipated, or Any substance or energy form planned use and enjoyment by persons (heat, light, noise, etc.) which alters visiting or traveling through the zone. the state of a body of water from what Includes areas immediately adjacent would naturally occur. Especially asso- to and surrounding developed or plan- ciated with those altered states which ned sites along the banks and shores human value judgements have decreed where people may fish or stroll. Com- as bad. (E. C. T.) prises areas adjacent to. the water along Also see Pollution.

229 Watershed (Drainage basin, Catchment The 12-month period, October 1 basin, River basin) through September 30, designated by 1. United States usage. The total the calendar year in which it ends area above a given point on a stream (used with streamflow data and analy- that contributes water to the flow at that ses). (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. 1970) point. The entire region drained by a wa- Water yield terway or which drains into a lake or 1. The runoff from a watershed, in- reservoir. (After Sesco, et al. 1973) cluding groundwater outflow. (U.S. 2. British usage. The topographic Forest Serv. 1972B) dividing line from which surface 2. Water yield is the precipitation streams flow in two different direc- minus the evapotransportation. (U.S. tions; the line separating two contigu- Forest Serv. 1972B) ous drainage areas. (Stamp 1961) Weather (Meteorological condition) Watershed management The state of the atmosphere at a 1. The management of all the natu- definite time and place with respect to ral resources of a watershed to protect, air temperature, humidity, wind, pre- maintain, or improve its water yields. cipitation, cloudiness, etc. (Webster (Satterlund 1972) 1963) Also contrast with Climate. Watershed protection Watershed protection involves a Weed cutting (Weeding) combination of complementary prac- Cutting made in a young stand, not tices of land treatment and structural past the sapling stage, to free the small works to maintain or improve total trees from weeds, brush, chaparral, yield, quality, stability of flow of sur- vines, sod-forming grasses, or other ace and subsurface water and preven- competing vegetation. (U.S. Forest tion of damage and loss due to exces- Serv., FSM 2471 R-3) sive and uncontrolled runoff, flooding, salination, and siltation. (Eisner 1969) Weeding. See Weed cutting.

Water table (Groundwater table) Weighting The upper surface of the ground- 1. Assigning numbers to express the water or that depth below which the relative importance of items in a soil is saturated with water. (Soil Con- group or series under consideration. serv. Soc. Amer. 1970) (After Webster 1963) 2. The assignment of numerical val- Water table, perched (Perched ground- ues to resource yields when their val- water table) ues can not be directly compared by The upper surface of a local zone of existing techniques for quantification soil water saturation held above the on some measurement scale. The as- main body of groundwater by an im- signed numerical values are usually re- permeable layer or stratum, (usually erred to as "weights" or "multi- clay) and separated from the main pliers". body of groundwater by an unsatu- As a technique, weighting is usually rated zone. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. done according to some more or less 1970) objective sense of the relative importance of the different types of resource Watertype. For G.A. Hills' land classifica- yields. tion system usage, see Landtype. While weightings are usually added (i.e., additive weighting) to obtain a Water year measure of the total social value of re-

230 source uses or resource yield mixes for United States that certain selected riv- planning areas, they may also be multi- ers of the nation which, with their implied or divided (or some combination mediate environments, possess out- of these processes) to facilitate deci- standing remarkable scenic, recrea- sion making. (C.F.S.) tional, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values, Welfare. See General welfare. shall be preserved in free-flowing condition, and that they and their imme- Wetlands diate environments shall be protected 1. Areas that are permanently wet, for the benefit and enjoyment of pre- or intermittently water covered, such sent and future generations. Imple- as swamps, marshes, bogs, muskegs, ments this policy by instituting a Na- potholes, swales, glades, and overflow tional Wild and Scenic Rivers System, land of river valleys. Large, open lakes by designating the initial components are commonly excluded, but many of that system, and by prescribing the kinds of ponds, pools, sloughs, holes, methods by which and standards ac- and bayous may be included. (Veatch cording to which additional compo- and Humphrys 1966) nents may be added to the system 2. Inland usage. Any area that is from time to time. (After U.S. Forest more or less regularly wet or flooded. Serv. 1974) Where the water table stands at or above the land surface for at least part Wilderness of the year. 3. Coastal usage. Land types such 1. Popularly, any tract unculti- as salt marshes, and brackish marshes vated and uninhabited by human subject to saline and/or tidal influ- beings. (Ford-Robertson 1971) ences. (Durrenberger 1973) 2. "Wilderness area". Undeveloped 4. Lowlands covered with shallow Federal land retaining its primeval and sometimes temporary or intermit- character and influence, without per- tent waters. Shallow lakes and ponds, manent improvements or human habi- usually with emergent aquatic vegeta- tation, which is protected and man- tion (such as reeds or cattails) as a con- aged so as to preserve its natural condi- spicuous feature, are included in the tions and which (1) generally appears definition, but the permanent waters to have been affected primarily by the of streams, reservoirs and deep lakes forces of nature, with the imprint of are not included. Neither are water man's work substantially unnoticeable; areas that are so temporary as to have (2) has outstanding opportunities for little or no effect on the development solitude or a primitive and unconfined of moist-soil dependent vegetation. type of recreation; (3) has at least (Shaw and Fredine 1956) 5000 acres or is of sufficient size as to make practical its preservation and use Wet meadow in an unimpaired condition; and A meadow where the surface re- (4) may also contain ecological, geo- mains wet or moist throughout the logical, or features of scientific, educa- summer, usually characterized by tional, scenic, or historical value. sedges and rushes. (Amer. Soc. Range (Wilderness Act 1964) Manage. 1964) A tract of land, including interior bodies of water, open to overnight Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (82 Stat. 906; public use and entry by foot, horse- 16 U.S.C. 1271-1273, 1274(A), back, or hand-propelled vessel; primar- 1275(A) ) ily in public ownership, in the conti- Declares that it is a policy of the nental U.S.; not less than 100,000

231 acres in extent; containing no roads by Congress as wilderness areas, and constructed for passenger car traffic in these shall be administered for the use mountainous terrain, or suitable for and enjoyment of the American peo- passenger car traffic in desert or plains; ple in such manner as will leave them existing as a single unit with bounda- unimpaired for future use and enjoy- ries reasonably free of indentation; ment as wilderness, and so as to pro- without interruption by on-site influ- vide for the protection of these areas, ence, except that–effects of domestic the preservation of their wilderness livestock are acceptable; effects of se- character, and for the gathering and lection logging before 1920 are accept- dissemination of information regarding able east of the 98th meridian; ecologi- their use and enjoyment as wilderness. cal effects of fire suppression are ac- (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974) ceptable in all areas. (Calif., Univ., Wildland Res. Cent. 1962) Wilderness area. See Wilderness, defini- A continuous stretch of country tion. 2. preserved in its natural state, open to lawful hunting and fishing, big enough Wilderness study area to absorb a two weeks' pack trip, and An area which has been placed under formal consideration for possible kept devoid of roads, artificial trails, inclusion in the wilderness area sys- cottages, or other works of man. tem. A new study area in a National (Leopold 1921) Forest is removed from standard man- An area where the earth and its agement and planning considerations community of life are untrammeled by until its status as a wilderness area is man, where man himself is the visitor determined. After study such areas will who does not remain. (Wilderness Act be classified as either nonselected 1964) roadless areas or roadless and undevel- In common usage, "wilderness" oped areas. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM refers to those backcountry types of 8261.05, Apr., 1974) wildlands which show no obvious Also see Roadless and undeveloped evidence of present or previous human areas and Nonselected roadless area. uses other than foot or pack animal trails. Some use the terms primitive Wildfire (Forest fire) and wilderness interchangeably to re- A free-burning fire. fer to all areas displaying no obvious Any fire other than a controlled, evidence of present or previous human burn or a prescribed burn, occurring uses–other than foot or pack animal on wildland. (Ford-Robertson 1971) trails. Others make a distinction be- Any fire other than one intentional- tween the two, using "primitive" to ly set for management purposes and refer to all areas possessing wilderness whose extent is confined to a predeter- qualities and restricting the use of mined area on wildlands. (C.F.S.) "wilderness" to only those portions of the larger primitive area which have Wildland officially been designated as "wilder- 1. Non-urban areas that are not in- ness" areas. (After A. W.M.) tensively managed and manipulated. They include most managed forests but not city parks with their exotic Wilderness Act (78 Stat. 890; 16 U.S.C. plants, "manicured" lawns, and sprink- 1131-1136) ler systems. The term is not exact be- Establishes a National Wilderness cause it includes lands that are under Preservation System to be composed management and are not truly wild. of Federally owned areas designated Through long usage it has come to ap-

232 ply to lands that are sparsely settled 2. Undomesticated vertebrate ani- and present a fairly natural appear- mals, except fish, considered collec- ance. Forests, deserts, mountains, tively. (Soil Conserv. Soc. Amer. grasslands, and other extensive lands 1970) are normally included. (Wagar 1964) 3. Generally, all non-domesticated This term is most often used as one animal life. (Ford-Robertson 1971) of several terms of comparison con- 4. More particularly, a loose term trasting the differing degrees of utiliza- that includes non-domesticated verte- tion and alteration of land which oc- brates especially mammals, birds and cur–e.g., urban lands, agriculture lands fish and some of the higher inverte- and wildlands. The dividing lines be- brates (such as crabs, crayfish, etc.) tween these states cannot be defined (Ford-Robertson 1971) in any generally acceptable quantita- 5. Living things that are neither tive terms. The only firm sense of dif- plant, human nor domesticated, especi- ferentiation between these terms exists ally the mammals, birds and fishes that when they are used to describe broad- are hunted by man for sport or food. ly contrasting natures and intensities (Webster 1963) of land utilization. "Wildlands" are simply those natures and intensities of use on the least utilized and altered Wildlife and Fish Habitat System side of the continuum from totally de- U.S. Forest Service usage. This sys- veloped to completely untouched. tem protects and improves wildlife and (C.F.S.) fish habitat with special emphasis on 2. Lands unoccupied by crops, pas- threatened and endangered species. tures, urban, residential, industrial or Management of wildlife and fish habi- transportation facilities. tats is closely coordinated with the Lands over which man has not ex- states because they control wildlife tended his complete and permanent and fish populations. This coordina- domain with his bulldozers, plows and tion includes (1) close working rela- asphalt spreaders. (After Calif. Univ., tions among National Forest, State, Wildland Res. Cent. 1959) and private land managers; (2) coop- 3. Uncultivated land, except fallow erative forestry programs designed to lands. (Ford-Robertson 1971) assist non-Federal land managers; and 4. Land that is uncultivated or un- (3) research programs that define envi- fit for cultivation. (Webster 1963) ronmental requirements of fish and wildlife and provide management alternatives through which these require- Wildlife ments can be attained. 1. U.S. Forest Service usage. All One of the six "systems" estab- nondomesticated mammals, birds, rep- lished by the U.S. Forest Service to tiles, and amphibians living in a natural have a systematic, orderly way to view environment, including both game spe- and evaluate its many diverse but in- cies and nongame species, whether terrelated activities. The Forest Service considered beneficial or otherwise. has developed this approach to better Animals, or their progeny, which respond to the mandates of the Forest once were domesticated but escaped and Rangeland Renewable Resources captivity and are running wild (i.e., Planning Act of 1974. It has grouped feral animals), such as horses, burros, its various programs into these six and hogs, are not considered to be "systems", each of which incorporates wildlife. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2605, all the activities concerned with devel- Sept. 1974) oping and managing a specific re-

233 source. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 2. Any area on which (many of) 1974A) the trees have been uprooted (i.e., The six "systems" are: Land and windthrown) or broken by the wind. Water, Timber Resource, Outdoor (Ford-Robertson 1971) Recreation and Wilderness, Rangeland Grazing, "Wildlife and Fish Habitat", Windfirm and Human and Community Develop- Trees able to withstand strong ment. winds–i.e., able to withstand the force of wind without being uprooted (i.e., Wildlife land windthrown). (Ford-Robertson 1971) U.S. Soil Conservation Service usage. Land and water managed primari- Windthrow (Blow down) ly for fish and wildlife. Wildlife may 1. Uprooted by the wind. (Ford- be a secondary use of land with crop- Robertson 1971) land, rangeland, woodland, etc., as the 2. Also used to refer to a tree or primary use. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. trees so uprooted. (Ford-Robertson 1970) 1971) In forestry "windthrow" becomes Wild river area particularly important in conjunction Wild and Scenic Rivers Act usage. with the clearcutting system and clear- Those rivers or sections of rivers that cutting logging methods. Trees tend to are free of impoundments and general- develop root systems to support them- ly inaccessible except by trail, with selves against the forces they face. watersheds or shorelines essentially When either a new forest edge is primitive and waters unpolluted. These created by logging or selected trees represent vestiges of primitive Ameri- from a group are removed the remain- ca. (After U.S. Forest Serv. 1974) ing trees may face a significant increase in the force of the wind. The Willingness-to-pay trees growing on the edge of a forest An economic cconcept used either tend to shelter the interior trees, and in non-market good valuation or when trees in a group protect each other from the prevailing price of a good or ser- the full force of the wind. If the vice is thought to be different from its remaining trees do not have root sys- true value to an individual or society. tems capable of absorbing this addi- It refers to the price an individual tional stress they will be blown down. would be willing to pay rather than be (E.C.T.) deprived of the good or service. In precise economic theory the va- Woodland lidity and applicability of "willing- U.S. Soil Conservation Service us- ness-to-pay" is dependent on who is age. Land used primarily for the pro- assigned initial ownership rights to the duction of adapted wood crops and to good or service being evaluated. provide tree cover for watershed pro- (E.C.T.) tection, beautification, etc. Does not Also see Consumer surplus and Pro- include farmstead and field windbreak ducer surplus. plantings. (U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. 1970) Wildfall 1. A tree or trees thrown or their Working circle stems broken off or other parts A forest area organized -for a par- (branches, foliage, fruit, etc.) blown ticular objective and under one set of down by the wind. (Ford-Robertson working plan prescriptions, and em- 1971) bodying one silvicultural system or a

234 designed combination of systems. agement is to be modified, such as in (Ford-Robertson 1971) landscape management areas. (U.S. Forest Serv., FSM 2412.5, May 1972) Working group U.S. Forest Service usage. Those Working plan parts of a working circle that have the 1. A plan for managing a forest. same general management prescrip- (After Ford-Robertson 1971) tions. 2. The written, often printed and This designation may be applied to published management plan, aiming at combinations of species, types, or continuity of policy and action, and sites, such as pine and hardwood both prescribing and controlling basic working groups, mixed conifer and operations in a forest over a period of douglas-fir working groups, and site I - years. (After Ford-Robertson 1971) III and site IV-V working groups. In some working circles a working group WRC is set up for areas where timber man- Water Resources Council, U.S.

Xeric adapted to dry conditions. (Dansereau 1. Refers to a habitat characterized 1957) by dry conditions rather than mesic (moderate) or hygric (wet) conditions. Xerosere. See Succession, definition 1. (Hanson 1962) 2. The nature of an organism X section. See Cross section.

Yarding Yarding, skyline (Skyline logging) The operation of hauling timber A method for moving logs to a cen- from the stump to a collecting point. tral loading area by the use of over- (Ford-Robertson 1971) head cable systems that lift at least one end of the log off the ground. (Af- ter Ford-Robertson 1971) Z

Zonal soil. See Soil horizon, definition 2. Zoning, aesthetic Zoning which regulates property in Zoning the interest of protecting aesthetic In general, the demarcation of a values. planning area by ordinance into zones The U.S. Supreme Court in the and the establishment of regulations to 1954 "Berman vs. Parker" case upheld govern the use of the land (commerci- this extension of the original legal jus- al, industrial, residential, type of resi- tification for zoning powers with its dential, etc.) and the location, bulk, finding that "It is within the power of height, shape, use, and coverage of the legislature to determine that the structures within each zone. (Abrams community should be beautiful as well 1971) as healthy." (After Abrams 1971)

235 Zoning, agricultural zoning which regulate development– Zoning which restricts land uses to i.e., types of land use which promi- agriculture and other low-density uses. nently alter or dominate the original (After U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation open space of an area with built-up 1974) facilities such as buildings, streets and other paved areas, etc. (C.F.S.) Zoning, cluster (Residential planned de- For example, large-lot zoning and velopment zoning, Planned unit devel- cluster zoning are types of "develop- opment zoning) ment zoning". (U.S. Bur. Outdoor 1. A form of zoning that allows a Recreation 1974) developer to reduce his minimum lot size below the zoning ordinance's re- Zoning, Euclidean quirements if the land thereby gained Zoning of the type adopted by the is preserved as permanent open space city of Euclid, Ohio, and made famous for the community. (Abrams 1971) in 1926 by the United States Supreme 2. Residential planned develop- Court decision in village of Euclid vs. ment zoning is zoning which allows Ambler Realty Company, upholding landowners the opportunity to inten- the nation's first comprehensive zon- sively develop one portion of their ing ordinance. The Euclid zoning or- property while leaving the remaining dinance restricted the location of portion in an undeveloped state. trades, industries, apartment houses, "Cluster zoning". Instead of the two-family houses, single-family developer covering his tract with houses, the lot area to be built upon, equal-sized lots, the local government the size and height of the buildings, alters standard lot size regulations to etc. The court found these restrictions permit tighter patterns of house neither "unreasonable" nor "arbi- groupings. This can save money for the trary." Since that time the term has developer; he builds the same number come to describe the most common of housing units, but does not have to form of zoning in the United States, in bulldoze as much or lay as much which "use districts" are designated asphalt and service facilities. In ex- (i.e., light manufacturing, commercial, change, the developer leaves from 40 single-family residential) and only the to 60 percent of the land open and permitted use or a "higher" one is al- deeds it for common use of the resi- lowed. Thus in an area zoned for dents. heavy industry, all other uses would Cluster zoning is a device for build- theoretically be permitted (though ing open space into the everyday envi- there are some exceptions to this un- ronment of residential subdivisions. der the principle of exclusive zoning), Planned unit development (i.e., cluster whereas in an area of single-family resi- development) uses this approach. (U.S. dences, no other uses are likely to be Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) permitted. (Abrams 1971)

Zoning, conservation Zoning, exclusive use Zoning which restrains develop- A zoning regulation which permits ment of unsuited areas such as steep only one type of use in a particular slopes with fragile soils, areas of scenic established zone or district. (After beauty, and spaces with other natural U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) values. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor Recreation 1974) Zoning, flood plain Zoning which prohibits and re- Zoning, development stricts development within flood plains A term used to refer to all types of to prevent property loss, to insure

236 public safety, and to enable the safe and coverage of structures, etc. within and natural flow of streams. (U.S. Bur. each zone. (After Webster 1963 and Outdoor Recreation 1974) Abrams 1971)

Zoning, forest (Forest use zoning) Zoning, performance (Performance stan- Zoning which restricts land uses to dard zoning) forestry and related uses–e.g., timber Regulations providing general cri- production, watershed, Christmas tree teria for determining the acceptability farms, recreation, etc. (C.F.S.) of certain industries, land uses, and buildings as distinguished from specifi- Zoning, land capability cation standards or detailed require- Zoning which limits development in ments. This type of zoning does not areas which are subject to natural land bar an industry or use by name but or water hazards. (U.S. Bur. Outdoor admits any use, provided the particular Recreation 1974) requirements set for admission are met. (Abrams 1971) Zoning, large-lot Zoning which prohibits subdivision Zoning, prohibition of land into individual parcels of less Any of the class of zoning regula- than a specified, relatively large lot tions which only allows certain types size–e.g., 1 acre or more. (C.F.S.) of use in certain kinds of areas. For Large-lot zoning is used extensively example, flood plain zoning frequently to retard development. (U.S. Bur. Out- permits only uses which do not need door Recreation 1974) structures nor reduce the flood water storage capacity of such hazardous Zoning, natural resource areas. (C.F.S.) A blanket term used to refer to all zoning which restricts the uses that are made of natural resource lands so as to Zoning permit maintain the benefits which flow from An official finding that a planned their natural capacities, productivity use or structure complies with the or material contents. For example zoning regulations or is allowed by the floodplain zoning, agricultural zoning granting of a special exception or vari- and forest zoning are types of "natural ance. No new development or substan- resource zoning". (C.F.S.) tial change of use can occur until such a permit is issued in a planning area Zoning, open space regulated by zoning ordinances. (After Zoning which restricts land uses so Abrams 1971) as to retain open space. (C.F.S.) "Open space zoning" includes Zoning, spot large-lot zoning and cluster zoning The designation of an isolated par- (forms of development zoning) and cel of land for a use classification natural resources zoning. (U.S. Bur. harmful to or inconsonant with the Outdoor Recreation 1974) use classification of the surrounding area so as to favor a particular owner Zoning ordinance The courts have held such zoning to be A local law or regulation enacted "unreasonable" and "capricious". To by a city council or other similar body avoid judicial invalidation, zoning of (working under the powers delegated small areas can be enacted only when to it by the state) which establishes it is in furtherance of a general plan the appropriate uses within a particu- properly adopted by, and designed to lar, designated area (i.e., a zone) and serve the best interests of the commu- the location, bulk, height, shape, use nity as a whole. This does not mean

237 that an entire city or county must be which has been designated by the For- zoned at one time, but there must be est Service as containing authentic, sig- uniformity in the class or type of nificant and interesting evidence of building to which the zoning applies. our American national heritage as it (Abrams 1971) pertains to fauna. The areas are meaningful because they embrace animals, Zoning, time animal groups or animal communities Restricting an existing non-con- that are natural and important because forming use within a use district to a of occurrence, habitat, location, life specific period, upon the expiration of history, ecology, environment, rarity which it becomes illegal. Sometimes or other features. (U.S. Forest Serv., the time period's justification is referred to as "amortization of the use" and FSM 2362.44, July 1973) it is presumed to afford the non- Areas of this type and all other spe- conforming owner a reasonable num- cial interest areas are identified and ber of years within which to recover formally classified primarily because his investment under the pre-existing of their recreational values. Areas with use. (Abrams 1971) similar types of values of scientific importance are formally classified as "re- Zoning variance. See Variance. search natural areas" (see Natural area, research). (W. W.) Zoological area U. S. Forest Service usage An area Zooplankton. See Plankton.

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Smithsonian Institution Stamp, L. Dudley (ed.) 1975. Report on endangered and 1961. A glossary of geographical threatened plant species of the United terms. John Wiley and Sons, New States. House document 94-51. U.S. York. 539 p.

248 Stewart, G.A. (ed.) Tombaugh, Larry W. 1968. Foreword. In Land evaluation. 1971. External benefits of natural en- Papers of a Commonwealth Scientific vironments. In Forest recreation sym- and Industrial Research Organization posium, Syracuse, New York, 1971. p. symposium, Canberra, 1968, G.A. 73-77. U.S. Forest Service, Northeast Stewart (ed.). p. ix. Macmillan of Aus- Forest Experiment Station, Upper tralia, South Melbourne. Darby, Pennsylvania.

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252

¤ GPO 689-987 The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture . . . Conducts forest and range research at more than 75 locations from Puerto Rico to Alaska and Hawaii. . . . Participates with all State forestry agencies in cooperative programs to protect and improve the Nation's 395 million acres of State, local, and private forest lands. . . . Manages and protects the 187-million-acre National Forest System for sustained yield of its many products and services.

The Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station represents the research branch of the Forest Service in California and Hawaii.