Lecture Notes of Environmental Science ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (CE-101) UNIT- I

Introduction to Environmental Science:

The science of Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science, agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc. It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies of the sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical a biological species in the air, water and soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.

Environment – The word environment comes from the greek word “environner” meaning surroundings around us.

Scope of Environmental studies:

The environment consists of four segments as under:

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the earth:

 It sustains life on the earth.

 It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.

 It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major portion of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun.

 It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to 2500 nm) and radio waves. (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-damaging ultraviolet waves below about 300 nm. The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen and oxygen. Besides, argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.

2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoir, polar icecaps, glaciers, and groundwater.

 Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans, Prepared by: Er. Arshad Abbas Deptt. of Civil Engg. KMCUAF University Lucknow

 About 2% of the water resources are locked in the polar icecaps and glaciers.

 Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water-rivers, lakes streams, and ground water fit to be used for human consumption and other uses.

3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.

4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions with environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

Indian Scenarios of Natural Resources:

What are natural resources ?

Soil, water and vegetation are three basic natural resources. The survival of creation depends upon them and nature has provided them as assets to human beings.

Natural Management: Natural Resources Management (NRM) refers to the sustainable utilization of major natural resources, such as land, water, air, minerals, forests, fisheries, and wild flora and fauna. Together, these resources provide the services that underpin human life.

Concern for Natural Resources Management:

1. Over‐exploitation of natural resources by growing population resulted in various severe problems. Destruction of vegetation has resulted in land degradation, denudation (process of removing and breaking of rocks from the surface of earth), soil erosion, landslides, floods, drought and unbalanced . 2. Natural resources (land, water, and genetic resources, resources, forests, livestock and fisheries) – the very foundation of human survival, progress and prosperity, have been degrading fast, and the unprecedented pace of their erosion is one of the root causes of the agrarian crisis (decline in the price of agriculture commodities) that the country is facing. 3. The downward rush of water has tremendous erosive force and moves millions of tonnes of fertile soil during the rainy season. 4. Denuded hills and other wastelands pose serious problems which adversely affect agriculture and human life in the region. Landslides and landslips block hill roads and

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charge streams with heavy sediment loads. 5. Due to impacts of climate change like global warming, many adverse changes are taking place in the nature as well as in the natural resources. Conservation of Natural Resources:

Conservation is the proper management of a natural resource to prevent its exploitation, destruction or degradation.

Conservation is the sum of activities, which can derive benefits from natural resources but at the same time prevent excessive use leading to destruction or degradation.

The nature provides us all our basic needs but we tend to overexploit it. If we go on exploiting the nature, there will be no more resources available in future. There is an urgent need to conserve the nature. Some of the needs are:

1. To maintain ecological balance for supporting life. 2. To preserve different kinds of species (biodiversity). 3. To make the resources available for present and future generation. 4. To ensure the survival of human race. 5. To preserve and conserve the natural resources.

Green Chemistry Green chemistry is the utilization of set of principles that will help reduce the use and generation of hazardous substances during the manufacture and application of chemical products.

Green chemistry aims to protect the environment not by cleaning up, but by inventing new chemicals processes that do not pollute the environment. It is rapidly developing and an important area in the chemical science.

Principles of Green Chemistry: The principles of green chemistry were given by Anastas and Warner. The Green chemistry is based on twelve principles: 1. Prevention - Hundreds of tonnes of hazardous waste are released into air, water and land by industry everyday and every hour. It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created. Ability of chemistry to redesign chemical transformation to minimize generation of hazardous waste is important step. The chemical process should be designed in

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such a way that less or no byproducts (HCL, Cl and H2) are formed. 2. Atom Economy - Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. 3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses - Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and environment. 4. Designing Safer Chemicals - Chemical products should be designed in such a way that they have high efficiency and low toxicity. Medical drug to be designed in markets should first put on trials to check their toxic effect on human beings. If toxic, alternatives are prepared such that only toxicity is reduced and not their efficiency. 5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries - The use of auxiliary substances like solvents, separation agents should be avoided whenever possible. Solvents such as acetone, benzene, ether are highly inflammable. If solvent is necessary, water is good medium which is eco-friendly solvent that do not form smog or destroy ozone layer. 6. Design for Energy Efficiency Energy –The design processes should be aimed to increase the energy efficiency. Carrying out reactions at ambient temperatures and pressures wherever possible by using catalyst and lesser use of fossil fuels. 7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks - A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable. 8. Reduce Derivatives - Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste. 9. Catalysis - Catalytic reagents are preferred over stoichiometric reagents to minimize waste. A catalyst is used in small amount to carry single reaction many times while stoichiometric reagent is used in excess and works only once. Also the catalytic reactions are faster as compared to stoichiometric reactions. 10. Design for Degradation - Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into non-hazardous substance and do not accumulate in environment. For example, use of biological insecticides instead of DDT that remain in soil and causes pollution. 11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention- Analytical methods need to be developed to allow online monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. For example, in the preparation of ethylene glycol, if reaction condition is not monitored perfectly, toxic substances are produced at high temperatures. 12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention- Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical Prepared by: Er. Arshad Abbas Deptt. of Civil Engg. KMCUAF University Lucknow

accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.

Environmental laws/Acts Environmental laws is the collective term describing the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, and common and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the . The environmental legislation is a collection of many laws and regulations aimed at protecting the environment from harmful actions.

Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986 This is an umbrella legislation designed to provide a framework for the co-ordination of central and state authorities established under the water prevention and control act, 1974 and air prevention and control act, 1981. Under this act, the central government is empowered to take measures necessary to protect and improve the quality of the environment by settling standards for emissions and discharges, regulating the location of industries, management of hazardous wastes and protection of public health and welfare. From time to time the central government issues notifications under the EPA for the protection of ecologically-sensitive areas or issues guidelines for matters under the EPA. Some notifications issued under this Act are:  Doon valley Notification (1989), which prohibits the setting up of an industry in which the daily consumption of coal/fuel is more than 24 million tonnes per day in the Doon valley.  Coastal Regulation Zone Notification (1991), which regulates activities along coastal stretches. As per this notification, dumping ash or any other waste in the CRZ is prohibited. The thermal power plants (only foreshore facilities for transport of raw materials, facilities for intake of cooling water and outfall for discharge of treated waste/cooling water) require clearance from the MoEF.  Dhanu Talka Notification (1991), under which the district of Dhanu Taluka has been declared an ecologically fragile region and setting up power plants in the vicinity is prohibited.  Revdanda Creek Notification (1989), which prohibits setting up industries in the belt around the Revadanda Creek as per the rules laid down in the notification.  All developmental projects whether or not under the Schedule I, if located in fragile regions must obtain MoEF clearance.  Industrial projects with investments above Rs. 5000 million must obtain MoEF Prepared by: Er. Arshad Abbas Deptt. of Civil Engg. KMCUAF University Lucknow

clearance and are further required to obtain a LOI (Letter of Intent) from the Ministry of Industry, and an NOC (No Objection Certificate) from the SPCB and the state Forest Department if the location involves forestland. Once the NOC is obtained, the LOI is converted into an industrial license by the state authority.  Every coal or lignite based thermal power plant commissioned subject to environmental clearance conditions stipulating the submission of an action plan for full utilization of fly ash shall, within a period of nine years from the publication of this notification, phase out the dumping and disposal of fly ash on land accordance with the plan.  Ash content notification (1997), required the use of beneficiated coal with ash content not exceeding 34% with effect from June 2001, (the date later was extended to June 2002). This applies to all thermal plants located beyond 1000 km from the pit head and any thermal plant located in an urban area or sensitive area irrespective of the distance from the pithead except any pithead power plant.  Disposal of Fly Ash Notification (1999) the main objective of which is to conserve the topsoil protect the environment and prevent the dumping and disposal of fly ash discharged from lignite based power plants. The salient feature of this notification is that no person within a radius of 50 km from a coal or lignite based power plant it shall manufacture clay bricks or tiles without mixing at least 25% of ash with oil on a weight to weight basis.

Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1981 To counter the problems associated with air pollution, ambient air quality standards was established under the 1981 act. The act provides means for the control and abatement of air pollution. Under the Act establishing operating of any industrial plant in the pollution control area requires consent from state boards. The boards are also expecting to test the air in air pollution control areas, inspect pollution control equipment, and manufacturing processes. National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) for major pollutants were notified by CPCB in April, 1994. These are deemed to be levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to protect public health vegetation and property. The NAAQS prescribe specific standards for industrial residential rural and other sensitive areas. Industry specific emission standards have also been developed for iron and steel plants, cement plants, fertilizer plants, oil refineries and the aluminum industry. The ambient air quality standards prescribed in India are similar to those prevailing in many developed and

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developing countries. To empower the central and state pollution boards to meet grave emergencies, the Air prevention and pollution amendment act 1987 was enacted. The boards where are authorized to take immediate measures to tackle such emergencies and recover the expenses include from the offenders. The power to cancel consent for the non fulfillment of the conditions prescribed has also been emphasized in the Air Act Amendment. The Air (prevention and control of pollution) rules formulated in 1982, define the procedures for conducting meetings of the boards the powers of the preceding officers decision making the quorum manner in which records of the meeting where to be set, etc. They also prescribe the manner and the purpose of seeking assistance from specialist and the fee to be paid to them. Complimenting the above Acts is the Atomic Energy Act of 1982 which was introduced to deal with radioactive waste. In 1988, the motor vehicles act was enacted to regulate regular traffic the sides ensuring proper packaging, labeling and transportation of hazardous waste. Various aspects of vehicular pollution have been notified under the EPA of 1986. Mass emission standards were notified in 1990 which were made more stringent in 1996. In 2008 standard device that yet again and for the first time separate obligations for vehicle owner’s manufacturers and enforcing agencies were stipulated. In addition fairly stringent Euro 1 and 2 emission norms were notified by the Supreme Court on April 29, 1999 for the city of Delhi. The notification made it mandatory for car manufacturers to confirm to the Euro 1 and 2 norms by May 1999 and April 2000, respectively, for new non- commercial vehicle sold in Delhi. Tribal And Forestry Act In India An Act to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded; to provide for a framework for recording the forest rights so vested and the nature of evidence required for such recognition and vesting in respect of forest land. WHEREAS the recognized rights of the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers include the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance and thereby strengthening the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood and food security of the forest dwellings Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers; AND WHEREAS the forest rights on ancestral lands and their were not adequately recognized in the consolidation of State forests during the colonial period as well as in

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independent India resulting in historical injustice to the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who are integral to the very survival and sustainability of the forest ecosystem;

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Lecture Notes of Environmental Science

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (CE-101)

UNIT- II

Ecosystem and its basic concept:

Ecosystem: The term was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek words Oikos- home + logos- study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their surroundings. The surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and physical (abiotic) components. An ecosystem is defined as a group of biotic communities of species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter. Now ecology is often defined as "the study of ecosystems".

Concept Of Ecosystem Composition and organization of biological communities and abiotic components constitute the structure of an ecosystem.

Biotic Structure The plants, animals and present in an ecosystem form the . These organisms have different nutritional behavior and status in the ecosystems and are accordingly known as Producers or Consumers, based on how do they get their food.

(a) Producers: They are mainly the green plants, which can synthesize their food themselves by making use of carbon dioxide present in the air and water in the presence of sunlight by involving chlorophyll, the green pigment present in the leaves, through the process of . They are also known as photo (auto=self; troph=food, photo=light).

(b) Consumers: All organisms which get their organic food by feeding upon other organisms are called consumers, which are of the following types:

(i) (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers and hence also known as primary consumers. e.g. rabbit, insect, man.

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(ii) (meat eaters): They feed on other consumers. If they feed on herbivores they are called secondary consumers (e.g. frog) and if they feed on other carnivores (snake, big fish etc.) they are known as tertiary carnivores/consumers. (iii) : They feed on both plants and animals. e.g. humans, rat, fox, many birds.

(iv) ( feeders or Saprotrophs): They feed on the parts of dead organisms, wastes of living organisms, their castoffs and partially decomposed matter e.g. beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc. (c) : They derive their nutrition by breaking down the complex organic molecules to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic nutrients. Various bacteria and fungi are decomposers.

Abiotic Structure The physical and chemical components of an ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure. It includes climatic factors, edaphic (soil) factors, geographical factors, energy, nutrients and toxic substances.

(a) Physical factors: The sunlight and shade, intensity of solar flux, duration of sun hours, average temperature, maximum-minimum temperature, annual rainfall, wind, latitude and altitude, soil type, water availability, water currents etc. are some of the important physical features which have a strong influence on the ecosystem.

(b) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, level of toxic substances, salts causing salinity and various organic substances present in the soil or water largely influence the functioning of the ecosystem.

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The major functional attributes of an ecosystems are as follows:

(i) , food webs and trophic structure (ii) (iii) Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles) (iv) Primary and Secondary production (v) Ecosystem development and regulation

The flow of energy is mediated through a series of feeding relationships in a definite sequence or pattern which is known as food chain. Nutrients to move along the food chain. The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a definite manner and their interactions along with are expressed together as trophic structure. Each food level is known as and the amount of living matter at each trophic level at a given time is known as standing crop or standing biomass.

FOOD CHAINS The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food chain. All organisms, living or dead, are potential food for some other organism and thus, there is essentially no waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem. A caterpillar eats a plant leaf, a sparrow eats the caterpillar, a cat or a hawk eats the sparrow and when they all die, they are all consumed by microorganisms like bacteria or fungi (decomposers) which break down the organic matter and convert it into simple inorganic substances that can again be used by the plants- the primary producers. Some common examples of simple food chains are: Prepared by: Er. Arshad Abbas Deptt. of Civil Engg. KMCUAF University Lucknow

1. Grass grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk (Grassland ecosystem) 2. Phytoplanktons water fleas small fish Tuna (Pond ecosystem) 3. reindeer Man (Arctic tundra) The decomposers consume the dead matter of all these trophic levels. In nature, we come across two major types of food chains: 1. Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants (primary producers) and culminates in carnivores. All the examples cited above show this type of food chain.

2. Detritus food chain: It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and decomposers consume. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators. An example of the detritus food chain is seen in a Mangrove (estuary).

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FOOD WEB is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level.

What is the significance of food chain and food web ?

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex is knows as an . Ecological pyramids are of three types:

Pyramid of numbers: It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. We may have upright or inverted pyramid. of numbers, depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain as shown in figure below.

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Pyramid of biomass: It is based upon the total biomass (dry matter) at each trophic level in a food chain. The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted.

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Pyramid of Energy: The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of pyramid. Pyramid of energy gives the best representation of the trophic relationships and it is always upright.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION “ is defined as an orderly process of changes in the structure and function with time mediated through modifications in the physical environment and ultimately culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax. culminating in a stabilized ecosystem known as climax”. The whole sequence of communities which are transitory are known as Seral stages or seres whereas the community establishing first of all in the area is called a pioneer community. Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrata are named differently as follows:

Ecological successions starting on different types of areas or substrata are named differently as follows:

(i) Hydrarch or : Starting in watery area like pond, swamp, bog (ii) Mesarch: starting in an area of adequate moisture. (iii) Xerarch or Xerosere: Starting in a dry area with little moisture. They can be of the following types:  : starting on a bare rock  : starting on sand  Halosere : starting on saline soil

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Process of Succession The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of sequential steps as follows:

(i) Nudation: It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc. (topographic factor), or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc. (Climatic factor), or due to overgrazing, disease outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities (biotic factors).

(ii) Invasion: It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area through dispersal or migration, followed by ecesis or establishment. Dispersal of the seeds, etc. is brought about by wind, water, insects or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on the land. As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups or aggregations.

(iii) and Coaction: As the number of individuals grows there is competition, both inter-specific (between different species) and intra-specific (within the same species), for space, water and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways, known as coaction.

(iv) Reaction: The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients from the substratum, and in turn, they have a strong influence on the environment which is modified to a large extent and this is known as reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the existing species and favor some new species, which replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.

(v) Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment. The is characterized by maximum biomass and symbiotic (mutually beneficial) linkages between organisms and are maintained quite efficiently per unit of available energy.

Types of Succession

1. Hydrosere (Hydrarch): This type of succession starts in a water body like pond. A number of intermediate stages come and ultimately it culminates in a Prepared by: Er. Arshad Abbas Deptt. of Civil Engg. KMCUAF University Lucknow

climax community which is a forest .The pioneer community consists of phytoplanktons, which are free floating , diatoms etc. Gradually these are replaced by rooted submerged plants followed by rooted-floating plants. Growth of these plants keep on adding organic matter to the substratum by death and decay and thus a layer of soil builds up and shallowing of water takes place. Then Reed swamp (marshy) stage follows in which the plants are partly in water and partly on land. This is followed by a sedgemeadow stage of grasses then by a woodland consisting of shrubs and and finally by a forest acting as climax.

2. Xerosere (Xerarch): This type of succession originates on a bare rock, which lacks water and organic matter. Interestingly, here also the climax community is a forest, although the intermediate stages are very different. The pioneer community here consists of crustose and foliose lichens. These lichens produce some weak acids and help in disintegrating the rock, a process known as weathering. Their growth helps in building up gradually some organic matter, and soil. Then comes the community of , followed by , shrubs and finally the forest trees. Throughout this gradual process there is a slow build up of organic matter and water in the substratum. Thus, succession tends to move towards mesic conditions (moderate condition), irrespective of the fact, whether it started from a dry (Xeric) condition or a moist (hydric) condition and it culminates in a stable climax community, which is usually a forest.

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Lecture Notes of Environmental Science

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE (CE-101)

UNIT- III

Biodiversity and Its Conservation

 Amalgamation of two words: Biological and diversity  The variety of life found on earth  Term was coined by Walter G Rosen in 1985  Biodiversity comprises of all species of plants, animals, microorganisms and the ecosystem and ecological process.

Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. From the driest to the dense tropical rainforests and from the high snow-clad mountain peaks to the deepest of ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of forms, size, color and shape, each with unique ecological inter-relationships.

In the Convention of Biological diversity (1992) biodiversity has been defined as “The variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part”.

Scope of Biodiversity:  Medicinal field  Industries  Research  Environmental conservation  Job opportunity

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LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

a. Genetic biodiversity – Variation of genes within species

Genes – carriers of hereditary from parents to offsprings and

contain information that determine the characteristics

of each organisms.

b. – Variety of species within a region

Species - Group of organisms capable of interbreeding.

c. Ecosystem biodiversity – Ecosystem components + Abiotic components E.g. terrestrial: forests deserts

Aquatic such as freshwater

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY The following are the values of biodiversity:

(1) Ethical and moral values – Every form of life on earth is unique and warrants us regardless of its worth to human beings, this is the ecosystem right of an organism. Every organism has an inherent right to exist regardless of whether it’s valuable to human beings or not. The well being of all the future generation is a social responsibility of the present generation

(2) Aesthetic values – Human beings derive great benefits from the natural environment. This is illustrated majorly in the popularity of biodiversity conservation measures and the myriad of the many organizations which fight for the protection of different organisms.

(3) Utilitarian values - These contribute to our material well beings, beside our feeling and emotions, they are things that will give us satisfaction and include conservative and productive materials from biodiversity E.g. agricultural materials

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or food sources, medicines, industrial raw materials, educational values and scientific research.

(4) Ecological values – From the ecological point of view the biodiversity maintains

the integrity of the environment by maintaining the CO2 and O2 balance, regulation of biochemical cycles, absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through .

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