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The Arid Soils of the Balikh Basin (Syria)

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The Arid Soils of the Balikh Basin (Syria) THE ARID SOILS OF THE BALIKH BASIN (SYRIA) M.A. MULDERS ERRATA THE ARID SOILS OF THE BALIKH BASIN (SYRIA). M.A. MULDERS, 1969 page 21, line 2 from bottom: read: 1, 4 instead of: 14 page 81, line 1 from top: read: x instead of: x % K page 103t Fig» 19: read: phytoliths instead of: pytoliths page 121, profile 51, 40-100 cm: read: clay instead of: silty clay page 125, profile 26, 40-115 cm: read: silt loam instead of: clay loam page 127, profile 38, 105-150 cm: read: clay instead of: silty loam page 127, profile 42, 14-40 cm: read: silty clay loam instead of: silt loam page 127, profile 42, 4O-6O cm: read: silt loam instead of: clay loam page 138, 16IV, texture: read: 81,5# sand, 14,4% silt instead of: 14,42! sand, 81.3% silt page 163, add: A and P values (quantimet), magnification of thin sections 105x THE ARID SOILS OF THE BALIKH BASIN (SYEIA). M.A. MULDERS, 19Ô9 page 18, Table 2: read: mm instead of: min page 80, Fig. 16: read: kaolinite instead of: kaolite page 84, Table 21 : read: Kaolinite instead of: Kaolonite page 99, line 17 from top: read: at instead of: a page 106, line 20 from bottom: read: moist instead of: most page 109t line 8 from bottom: read: recognizable instead of: recognisable page 115» Fig. 20, legend: oblique lines : topsoil, 0 - 30 cm horizontal lines : deeper subsoil, 60 - 100 cm page 159» line 6 from top: read: are instead of: is 5Y THE ARID SOILS OF THE BAUKH BASIN (SYRIA) 37? THE ARID SOILS OF THE BALIKH BASIN (SYRIA) PROEFSCHRIFT TER VERKRIJGING VAN DE GRAAD VAN DOCTOR IN DE WISKUNDE EN NATUURWETENSCHAPPEN AAN DE RIJKS- UNIVERSITEIT TE UTRECHT, OP GEZAG VAN DE RECTOR MAGNIFICUS, PROF.DR. J. LANJOUW, VOLGENS BESLUIT VAN DE SENAAT IN HET OPENBAAR TE VERDEDIGEN OP MAANDAG 31 MAART 1969 DES NAMIDDAGS TE 2.30 UUR DOOR MICHEL ADRIANUS MULDERS GEBOREN OP 21 AUGUSTUS 1941 TE BERGEN OP ZOOM Scanned from original by ISRIC - World Soil Information, as ICSU World Data Centre for Soils. The purpose is to make a safe depository for endangered documents and to make the accrued information available for consultation, following Fair Use Guidelines. Every effort is taken to respect Copyright of the materials within the archives where the identification of the Copyright holder is clear and, where feasible, to contact the originators. For questions please contact soil.isriccawur.nl indicating the item reference number concerned. 1969 DRUKKERIJ BRONDER-OFFSET N.V. ROTTERDAM PROMOTOR: PROF. DR. IR. F. A. VAN BAREN Aan de nagedachtenis van mijn vader Aan mijn moeder Aan mijn vrouw THE ARID SOILS OF THE BALIKH BASIN (SYRIA). PREFACE The Balikh Basin is situated in the Jazirah in the northern part of Syria. The location of the area and most places referred to in the text are shown on a locality map (appendix I). The area under consideration is a part of the region where the Euphrates Project under direction of the G. O. E. P. (General Organization of the Euphrates Project) is in operation. During the years 1965 and 1966, the author was a co-operator of the soil survey team carrying out a soil suitability mapping. This volume represents a study of soil forming factors and the genesis of the soils occurring in the area. For the treatment of this subject the genetic concept of soil given by Dokuchaiev in 1870 was of great influence. Quoting the "Soil classification, a comprehensive system, 7th approximation" (United States Department of Agriculture, 1960): Soil according to Dokuchaiev consists of independent natural bodies, each with a unique morphology resulting from a unique combination of climate, living matter, parent rock materials, relief and time. The morphology of each soil, as expressed in its profile reflects the combined effects of the particular set of genetic factors responsible for its development. Therefore, the factors of importance for soil formation are dealt with in detail. These are: climate, geology, morphology, hydrology, mineralogy of the soil material, flora, fauna and land use. Also sedimentological processes should be examined in detail before evaluation of soil forming dynamics. Marbut (quoted by the U.S. soil classification, see above) wrote in 1913: Important in the classification of soils is to recognize not only the character of the rock from which the material has been derived but also the agencies which have acted in the transportation and deposition of the soil material and the changes which have taken place since its deposition. The soils were classified according to the U.S. Soil classification, 7th Approximation with supplements and a soil map scale 1:50. 000 was constructed (appendices III and IV). Morphology and micromorphology were studied being of fundamental importance for evaluation of soil genetic processes. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a pleasant and proper duty for me to make personal acknowledgements to all people who were involved in my professional training at the universities of Groningen and Utrecht. Especially I like to thank Professor Dr. Ph. H. Kuenen, Professor Dr. M. G. Rutten, Professor Dr. D. J. Doeglas and Professor Dr. Ir. R.W. van Bemmelen. In particular I am extremely indebted to Dr. Ir. F. A. Van Baren, professor of soil science at the State University of Utrecht, who promoted the completion of this thesis in every way. His criticism and suggestions were of great value for this study. The author feels greatly indebted to Dr. J. J. Reynders for his help and constructive criticism which were of invaluable assistance especially at the very beginning of work. Grateful acknowledgement is due to Dr. A. Jongerius who kindly introduced me to the different methods in soil micromorphology and gave me all possible help in order to finish this section of the study. Many thanks are due to Mr. W.L.P.J. Mouthaan for his helpful suggestions in many problems. Mrs. T. Baretta-Kuipers determined plants collected in the region and Drs. J. H. de Gunst examined some chitinous skelets of soil fauna. My thanks are due to them for helping me in these specialized subjects. I feel indebted to Dr. H. Bent and Drs. H. Klunder for the introduction in measuring techniques of X-ray fluorescence and to Mr. H. Vrins BSc for his invaluable help and constructing advice in X-ray diffraction. It is a pleasure to express my gratitude to the following for their help and suggestive criticism: Dr. R.D. Crommelin, Dr. H.J. von M. Harmse, Dr; J. van Donselaar, Drs. J. Th. de Smidt, Drs. D. Creutzberg, Drs. P. G. E. F. Augustinus and Mr. P.A. Teunissen BSc. Acknowledgement is made to a team of soil surveyors working during the period February 1965 to May 1966 at the Euphrates Project in Syria: Drs. F. Bos, Drs. A. L.T.M. Commissaris, Drs. P. Petermeyer, Drs. A.F. Sanders, Drs. J.J. Scholten, Drs. W.J. Vreeken, Drs. S. Wijnhoud, Mr. H. Van Oordt BSc, Drs. H.G.A. Van Panhuys, Drs. L.A. Van Sleen and especially to Drs. M.F.W. Zijsvelt for his interesting suggestions and Mr. J. Schoute BSc for collecting plants throughout the region. Thanks are due to Mr. L. Fürste, Mr. D. Schreiber, Mr. G. Heintzberger and Mr. D. Schoonderbeek for their practical assistance in micromorphology, to Mr. G. van Omme and Mr. F. Henzen for the skill and speed with which they have prepared the illustrations and maps, and to Mr. A. Reijmerink for the making of photopraphs. I consider it a pleasant duty to express my gratitude to Mr. P. van der Kruk for correcting the English of the manuscript. The assistance of Mrs. G.H. Visser-v.d. Geest, Mrs. M. Massaro- Ketting-Olivier, Miss H.J. van Lith, Mr. G. H. de Vries and Mr. G. Kleinveld of the Institute of Soil science (Utrecht) was greatly appreciated. A special word of thanks is also due to Mr. J.H.M. Witjes, Mr. H.C. Van Den Beemt and Mr. J. F. M. Van Tienen for undertaking typing of parts of the manuscript. I am greatly obliged to the General Organization of the Euphrates Project (Damascus), Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners (London) and the Royal Tropical Institute (Amsterdam) for their valuable help which was indispensable for the completion of this thesis. I received a grant from the Ministry of Education (The Netherlands) for the multiplication of the manuscript which I gratefully accepted. In conclusion I warmly thank the co-operators of the Euphrates Project at Raqqa especially Mr. Garo Megerdikhian, Mr. Ibrahim Knetir and Mr. Abu Bechir who were my delightful company on many desert trips and made my stay enjoyable with the best memories. CONTENTS Page PREFACE 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS CHAPTER I ATMOSPHERIC CLIMATE AND SOIL CLIMATE 15 A. Atmospheric climate 15 1. General 15 a. A general picture 15 b. Syria 16 2. Precipitation 17 3. Temperature 19 4. Relative air humidity 20 5. Evaporation and evapotranspiration 21 6. Air pressure; wind direction and velocity; sand-dust storms 23 7. Sky cover and relative duration of sunshine 24 8. The aridity index of the Martonne and zonality of soils 25 9. Classification of arid climate 27 10. Palaeo-climate 28 B. Soil climate 30 1. Influence of aridity on soil properties 30 2. Soil moisture 31 3. Soil temperature 32 4. Surfacial supply and run-off of water 33 CHAPTER II GEOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY 35 A. Geology 35 1. Tectonical review 36 2. Stratigraphy and lithology 36 40 3. Geological history B. Morphology 42 1. Euphrates terraces and flood plain 45 Page a.
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