Van Der Steen, Martijn, Van Schelven, Rogier, Van Deventer, Peter
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Citation: van der Steen, Martijn, van Schelven, Rogier, Van Deventer, Peter, Van Twist, Mark and Kotter, Richard (2015) Policy strategies for an emergent technology: lessons from the analysis of EV-policy in 8 North-European countries. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 7 (4). pp. 710-721. ISSN 2032-6653 Published by: World Electric Vehicle Association URL: https://www.evs24.org/wevajournal/php/download.php... <https://www.evs24.org/wevajournal/php/download.php?f=vol7/WEVJ7-4-078.pdf> This version was downloaded from Northumbria Research Link: http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/34346/ Northumbria University has developed Northumbria Research Link (NRL) to enable users to access the University’s research output. Copyright © and moral rights for items on NRL are retained by the individual author(s) and/or other copyright owners. 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World Electric Vehicle Journal Vol. 7 - ISSN 2032-6653 - ©2015 WEVA Page WEVJ7-0710 EVS28 KINTEX, Korea, May 3-6, 2015 Policy strategies for an emergent technology: lessons from the analysis of EV-policy in 8 North- European countries Dr. Martijn van der Steen1 R.M. van Schelven2 Dr. P. Van Deventer MPA3 Prof. Dr. M. Van Twist4 R. Kotter M.A.5 Abstract This paper presents data from a comparative study of EV-policies in 8 different North-European countries, that maps out all of the policies of these countries (and a range of regions and cities) that target passenger vehicles (PHEV and BEV), chargers (home, private, public; level 1-3), and policies that target the e- mobility eco-system or supporting network, in time-period 2012-2014. The main findings are that 1) there is wide variance of policies put out by the different countries, 2) these policies are hardly part of a coherent policy-strategy, and 3) mainly address the introduction of e-mobility as an issue of "piling up" enough in- centives to overcome early market problems (e.g. high costs, reticent customers, slow adaptation of regula- tion). Most countries we studied were able to meet short-term policy-ambitions, and some have even sur- passed those ambitions; Netherlands and Norway for instance are ahead of their targets, both in numbers of vehicles and chargers. However, if we compare the currently applied policies to the medium- and longer term ambitions, these policies are hardly viable. Therefore, argue for alternative policy strategies that do not "pile up" incentives, but look at "mixes" of policies that instigate a self-reinforcing loop in the adoption to EV's. Keywords: Public Policy, Policy Strategy, Governance, Comparative study, Complexity 1 Corresponding Author: Netherlands School of Public Administration (NSOB), [email protected]. 2 KWINK Group Consultants [email protected]. 3 Governor’s Office of Planning and Research, State of California & Province of North-Holland, The Netherlands [email protected]. 4 Erasmus University Rotterdam, [email protected] 5 R. Kotter, M.A., Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, [email protected] EVS28 International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition 1 World Electric Vehicle Journal Vol. 7 - ISSN 2032-6653 - ©2015 WEVA Page WEVJ7-0711 are also many different theories about what to 1. Introduction choose for [7,8,9]. All over the world, governments attempt to support the transition to e-mobility. The intro- Furthermore, some studies reflect on the “best” duction of electric driving is a complex and scale of governance for EV-policy (see e.g. unpredictable process that is not likely to occur [10,11]). For some, and especially in an EU all by itself. The incumbent market structure level, the notion of subsidiarity comes in: “the benefits continuation of regular cars, and con- sharing, not shedding, responsibility in the sumers are not yet familiar with e-mobility. context of a multi-level policy where the poli- Furthermore, EV’s require a substantial in- cy process straddles supra-national, national, vestment by consumers. Due to expensive regional and local levels” [12:22]. Hierarchi- battery packs sales-price of EVs are higher cally, there is the level of global agreements, than those of comparable regular cars. Also, e.g. through the International Energy Agency the residual value and life cycle of the batteries (IEA), which can drive innovation, collabora- is uncertain, as are benefits to be gained from tion and dissemination [13,14]. There is then vehicle to Grid applications. All this makes the level of integrated markets, e.g. with man- EVs an expensive and risky purchase, even datory standards around emissions for vehicles. though the total cost of ownership is probably Then there is the regional (e.g. Electric mobili- competitive to that of a regular car. Moreover, ty pilot regions), and not least there is the local EVs produce uncertainty for drivers. The lim- level, which again has extra policies. EV- ited battery range and the uncertain availability policy is a multi-level policy game, whereas of chargers make “carefree” driving difficult. policy-makers continuously have to take into These are all problems that will eventually be account and operate within frameworks and solved, but nonetheless pose barriers to con- actions set elsewhere. Governance is nested, sumer take-up (for an overview of EV barriers which is to say that the UK or German or see [1]). There is some momentum for EVs, Dutch national level cannot be seen separate but it remains a fragile and uncertain venture; from the EU level (e.g. see negotiations in the the emerging market of EV’s can still break Council of Ministers and the European parlia- down. ment over emission standards of vehicles), nor can the regional level be seen as disconnected Governmental action is one of the possibilities from the national / Federal or international one to overcome the problems of an emerging in terms of investment, competition, standards market. There is a wide array of policy-options (including for charging infrastructure), nor can available to government to support the intro- the local one (e.g. air pollution from the EU duction of EVs and charging infrastructure. one). Nested means there is a variance of poli- Therefore, governmental intervention requires cy measures for a variety of reasons and mo- choice; governments wonder which policy to tives, and one should learn from each other, choose, which group or sector to target, what whilst being in the same overall framework the most effective size and scope of interven- which influences what one has to address and tions should be, and what timing best accom- to some extent the rules of doing so. modates the emerging process of the market. Research into the influence of financial incen- There is a growing literature on EV policy at tives and other socio-economic factors on elec- national, and to some extent regional and local tric vehicle adoption is currently ongoing (see level, and now also supra-national level [15,16, for instance [2]), and there is research into 17]. However, only some is of a comparative particular countries (e.g. [3] on the US and [4] nature, and other than project reports (e.g. for Brazil). Critical studies attack the subsidi- [18]) or commissioned consultancy studies zation of EVs in the short and medium term (e.g. [19]). There is comparative work that with tax-payers money [5] whilst other authors contrasts two or three cases; e.g. [20, 21, 22]. calculate differently with social / societal life- This paper adds to this literature by exploring time (e.g. public health and atmospheric pollu- the policy-options for governments that want tion) costs and come to more favorable results, to support the further introduction of EVs, and depending also on the internalization of the by doing so from a multi-country case-set. costs by government regulation [6]. Not only are there many options to choose from, there World Electric Vehicle Journal Vol. 7 - ISSN 2032-6653 - ©2015 WEVA Page WEVJ7-0712 Scope, Methods, and Limitations to correct their document and send them links This research focuses purely on passenger to relevant documents not yet included in the vehiclesi and multipurpose passenger vehiclesii. study. We analyzed this second set of docu- Furthermore, the present study focuses solely ments and improved their country-analysis on on a specific type of electrified drive trains; of the basis of the feedback from the local col- the most commonly used categories - hybrid leagues. After that, we finalized our findings in electric vehicles (HEVs)iii, plug-in hybrid elec- a draft-report. During 2013 we kept collecting tric vehicles (PHEVs)iv and battery electric new documents, in order to be able to keep the vehicles (BEVs)v – we take into consideration database up to date with new policies and new only policies concerning PHEVs and BEVs. data about performances. Policy for HEVs is not part of the research. Also, we did not look at other possible options As a third round, we presented and discussed for clean mobility, such as bio-fuels, hydrogen, the draft-report in four feedback sessions or the substitution of cars for public transport where expert representatives of the participat- [23].