A Study on Libyans Living Abroad Profiling of Libyans Living Abroad to Develop a Roadmap for Strategic and Institutional Engagement

A STUDY ON LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD PROFILING OF LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD TO DEVELOP A ROADMAP FOR STRATEGIC AND INSTITUTIONAL ENGAGEMENT. A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) Gonzagagasse 1 1010 Vienna, Austria

ICMPD Office in Tunisia Carthage Centre, Block A Rue du Lac de Constance Les Berges du Lac 1 1053 Tunis

www.icmpd.org

Written by: Martin Russell and Ramadan Sanoussi Belhaj ICMPD Team (in alphabetical order): Jihène Aissaoui, Brahim El Mouaatamid, Marcello Giordani, Emelie Glad, Sabiha Jouini-Marzouki, Theodora Korkas, Dr. Mohamed Kriaa Design and Layout: Moez Akkari Suggested Citation: ICMPD (2020), A Study on Libyans Living Abroad, Vienna: ICMPD.

This publication was produced in the framework of the EU-funded project “Strategic and institutional management of migration in Libya”.

© European Union, 2020 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission of the copyright owners. The information and views set out in this study are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the European Union institutions and bodies nor any person acting on their behalf may be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained there.

NOTE FROM AUTHORS: All views expressed in this research are the views of the co-authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Centre for Migration Policy Development. The research remains independent in its findings and any errors/omissions in the research are the sole responsibility of the authors of the research. Furthermore, the research team would like to express special gratitude for the assistance and expertise provided by Mustapha Kaaniche throughout the research project.

2 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

CONTENTS

Executive Summary 04

Introduction 17 Methodology 20 Primary Tools: Survey, Interview Guide and Workshops 20 Local, Regional and Global Context 21

Profile of Libyans Living Abroad 23 Historiography 24 A Note of Framing and Terminology 25 Constituencies and Characteristics 26 Phase One: The Early Phase 26 Phase Two: The Emigrant & Exclusionary/Exile Phase 27 Phase Three: The Engagement Phase – Events of 2011 34 Phase Four: The Existing Phase – Transition and Unrest 39 Density and Demographics 41 Profile Consultations 44

Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework 61 Setting an institutional and policy framework – From Mandate to Mechanism 63 Governance and Mechanism to Facilitate Engagement 66 Layers of the Organogram: A Short Synopsis 70 Organizational and Operational Culture 72 Organizational Culture 72 Operational Culture 73 Engagement Behaviour/Implementation 73

Roadmap: Recommendations for Policy Engaging Libyans Living Abroad 75 Roadmap: Early Activities 76 Market Readiness to Engagement: Risk-Management & Engagement Activities 79 Visualizing the Roadmap 81

Conclusion 83 Annex – Bibliography 84

3 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

TABLES AND FIGURES

TABLES Table i. Distribution (%) of Libyans Living Abroad by Level of Development 08 and Income of Countries of Destination for Various Years, 2017-1990 Table ii. Ranking by Libyans Living Abroad of the Importance of Libyan 10 Actors for Engagement Table 1. Distribution (%) of Libyans Living Abroad by Level of Development 44 and Income of Countries of Destination for Various Years, 2017-1990 Table 2. Distribution (%) of Survey Respondents by Year of Birth 47 Table 3. Distribution (%) of Survey Respondents by Year Left Libya 47 Table 4. Length of Stay (Years) of Survey Respondents in Country of 48 Destination Table 5. Ranking by Libyans Living Abroad of the Importance of Libyan 52 Actors for Engagement

FIGURES Figure i. Constituencies and Characteristics of Libyans Living Abroad 08 Figure ii. Institutional Tiers of Proposed Model of Engagement Governance 11 Figure iii. Road Map for Market Readiness for Engagement of Libyans 14 Living Abroad Figure iv. Policy Road Map for Engagement of Libyans Living Abroad 15 Figure 1. Key Deliverables of Methodology 23 Figure 2. Estimated Number of Libyans Abroad (in thousands) for Various 43 Years, 1990 to 2017 Figure 3. Estimated Libyan Population by Destination Region for Libyans for 46 Various Years, 2017-1990 Figure 4. Educational Profile of Survey Respondents 49 Figure 5. Type of Future Relationship with Libya of Interest to Libyans Living 51 Abroad Figure 6. Synopsis of Findings from London Focus Group 53 Figure 7. Overview of Aims/Needs Expressed by London Focus Group 54 Figure 8. Synopsis of Findings from Tunis Focus Group 56 Figure 9. Overview of Aims/Needs Expressed by Tunis Focus Group 57 Figure 10. Synopsis of Findings from Sfax Focus Group 59 Figure 11. Overview of Aims/Needs Expressed by Sfax Focus Group 60

4 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 12. Primary and Supplementary Apparatus in Proposed Institutional 66 Road Map Figure 13. Mandate of Department of Expatriate Affairs 67 Figure 14. Phases of Governance of Proposed Institutional Road Map 68 Figure 15. Proposed Tiered Governance Structure for Engagement of 69 Libyans Living Abroad Figure 16. Institutional Tiers of Proposed Model of Engagement Governance 70 Figure 17. Options for Structure of Tier 2 of Proposed Governance Structure 71 Figure 18. Road Map for Market Readiness for Engagement of Libyans 79 Living Abroad Figure 19. Engagements as Verification of Market Readiness 81 Figure 20. Policy Road Map for Engagement of Libyans Living Abroad 83

5 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The following executive summary provides a nent source material. This includes relevant synopsis of the key chapters, findings, and government data and institutional mandates recommendations of the Study on Libyans along with external documentation such as Living Abroad research project commis- academic and policy-orientated research. sioned by the International Centre for Migra- This desk-review will be supplemented by tion Policy Development (ICMPD). A series of direct in-market consultations with Libyan annex materials accompanying this research stakeholders and Libyans living abroad. paper are outlined in the Table of Contents. It is a phased methodological approach INTRODUCTION in line with normative standards of policy The Study on Libyans Living Abroad is de- orientated research. An Inception Report was signed to be a flagship study to enhance developed and approved with ICMPD collea- the institutional and strategic manage- gues. The methodology was then verified ment of the engagement of Libyans living through participation at a regional confe- abroad. The study is based upon a reco- rence on migration and development which gnition of the emerging and innovative aca- resulted in the operationalization of the me- demic treatment of Libyans living abroad. thodology. This culminated in the production The aim is to supplement this knowledge of consultations and the V1 draft of the re- through a preliminary scoping of Libyans li- search. The final phase of the methodology ving abroad and the institutional apparatus focused on the final drafting of the research for effective engagement of these commu- along with the delivery of a capacity deve- nities. In doing so, the research concludes lopment workshop agenda in line with fin- by advancing a series of recommendations dings of the research. and roadmap for the strategic engagement of Libyans living abroad. The study is de- LOCAL, REGIONAL AND signed to function as a bridge between GLOBAL CONTEXTS academia and policy. This research paper is reflective of a growing local, regional and global interest in enga- METHODOLOGY gement of communities abroad. The enga- The methodology of the study is inter-disci- gement of communities living abroad is ad- plinary and delivered through a mixed-me- vancing as a policy of choice to deliver the thod approach. It entails the engagement developmental vision for many countries. Re- of primary and secondary source material gionally, there has been a progressive growth through an extensive desk review of perti- in the number of engagement strategies and

6 Executive Summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

policies in the sector. This research aims to HISTORIOGRAPHY enhance Libya’s compatibility and competi- Through this historiography, the research tiveness in these contexts. uncovers the realities of the current situation of Libyans living abroad – addressing the The prominence of such engagement to challenges, histories, memories and oppor- global policy dialogues and developmental tunities for engagement – spanning across agenda has strengthened significantly over the diverse identities at play within Libyans the past few years. The potential impact living abroad. This diversity is to be em- of communities abroad to the Sustainable braced and individual strategies can be de- Development Goals (SDGs) is beginning to signed to negotiate and support the varied feature within global development agenda, expectations of the Libyans living abroad on particularly in the context of Goal 10 of the their relationship with home. SDGs. Target 10.7 of the SDGs aims to “facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible The historiography follows the standardized migration and mobility of people, including academic categorizations and chronology through the implementation of planned and of Libyan migration – the period of Gaddafi well-managed migration policies.” rule, role of Libyans living abroad during the events of 2011, and their role within transi- PROFILES OF LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD tion in Libya. In line with the feedback from This section of the research provides an surveys, the research adds an early period to analytical scoping of Libyans living abroad. this chronology to include migration directly This is rooted in a deep historiography which prior to the Gaddafi era. The survey indicates draws on analyses from the academic dis- that there is still a presence of such indivi- courses on Libyans living abroad. This is duals within the community abroad. layered through findings from the direct in-market consultations such as the Libyans CONSTITUENCIES AND Living Abroad Consultation Survey and a set CHARACTERISTICS of focus groups held for the research. Due The historiography untangled the complex to the ongoing methodological difficulty in yet rich academic assessment of Libyan accessing realistic datasets on communities migration flows and correlating creation of living abroad, this profiling is designed as in- communities abroad by determining a set of dicative rather than exhaustive with a lens to constituencies and characteristics that help exploring the sentiments of the community shape the profiling of the community abroad. abroad on the road ahead for engaging them. These serve as an illustration of the evolving

7 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

The Early Phase dynamism of the community and its close Constituencies: linkages to the cultural, economic, social and • Elitist. political contexts of Libyan history. For exa- Characteristics: mple, its move from a phase of elitist driven • Exclusivity. emigration to one driven by political ideo- The Emigrant & logies during the Gaddafi era. The commu- Exclusionary Phase nities abroad then experience a period of Constituencies: re-awakening with the events of 2011 culmi- • Emigrant/Exclusionary & Exile. nating in the current status of a strong wil- Characteristics: lingness to support Libya but a lack of clarity • Emigrant (Community of Loyalists, Next-Generation, Business). and trust on how to proceed. • Exclusionary & Exile (Political, Isolation, Silence, Memory, The layers of constituencies and characte- Familial). ristics identified here are the rooted reali- The Engagement Phase ties of the community today. It also conveys that the community is matured with complex Constituences: • Distant, Mobilized, and Active. layers that will require targeted engagement Characteristics: mechanisms. The strategic engagement of • Distant (Status Quo, Loyalists). Libyans living abroad will need to reflect • Mobilized (Advocacy, Communica- these historical realities and put in place a tions, Technology, Relationships, Symobolism). system to de-politicize engagement. The • Active (Participatory, Political, focus should be on community rather than Return). politics. The Existing Phase - Transition and Unrest DENSITY AND DEMOGRAPHICS Constituencies Beyond understanding the constituencies • Distant, Active, Mobilized. and characteristics of Libyans living abroad Characteristics: through the historiography, it is essentially • Same as previous phase but with added uncertainty on how to collec- to provide preliminary scoping of the geo- tively influence. graphical density and demographics of the Figure i. Constituencies and Characteristics community. of Libyans Living Abroad Authors’ illustration based on historiography conducted by authors (see Chapter “Profile of Libyans Living Abroad”)

Table i. Distribution (%) of Libyans Living Abroad by Level of Development and Income of Countries of Destination for Various Years, 1990-2017

Most Less High Income Middle Income Low Income Year Developed (%) Developed (%) Countries (%) Countries (%) Countries (%) 1990 33.11 66.89 57.82 40.60 1.57 1995 36.49 63.51 61.40 36.90 1.70 2000 41.39 58.61 65.14 33.04 1.82 2005 56.21 43.79 73.62 25.32 1.05 2010 63.35 36.65 75.95 22.96 1.09 2015 54.75 45.25 65.42 33.50 1.08 2017 55.55 44.45 65.64 33.34 1.02

Source: UN DESA (2017)

8 Executive Summary

The necessity of this research is based in Overview of Survey Findings the fact that migration of Libyan nationals is a growing industry. Given that, from a defi- • 96.77% of respondents identify as Libyan nitional perspective, the scope for our de- (including respondents born abroad); finition of Libyans living abroad can extend beyond Libyan born migrants to those with • 82.75% of respondents left Libya since ancestral or affinity-based links to Libya, 2000; then the potential of this sector for Libya is noteworthy. For example, in 1990, it was esti- • 46.15% hold a Bachelor Degree, 30.777% mated that the population of Libyans abroad hold a Master’s Degree, 15.38% hold a PhD; was 76,071. This remained relatively stagnant through the 1990s to an estimate in 2000 of • 74.19% of respondents had not lived in 78,811. However, an expansion occurred with another country of destination; growth to 98,964 (2005), 127,168 (2010), 154,534 (2015) and 158,798 (2017). • 74.20% of respondents were married & 80% were married to other Libyans; The maturing of the community abroad has simultaneously resulted in a stronger pre- • 42.28% are in a household of 1-5 people; sence of Libyans living abroad in most deve- 37.93% in a household of 6-10 people, and loped countries and high-income countries. 13.79% in a household of 10+ people; This indicates that there are strong capacities within Libyans living abroad to be engaged • Majority of respondents do not define for the betterment of Libya. The challenge is themselves as frequent visitors to Libya (im- now to channel their propensity to engage. pacted by security situation); Libyans living abroad will also be valuable repositories of social remittances, political and • 41.96% of respondents left for educational social cultures along with potential partner development; countries for Libya on the road to security and stability. This centres engagement of Libyans • 56.62% do not sense a strong community living abroad as a potential key contributor in network amongst Libyan living abroad; the short, mid and long-term future of Libya. • 86.36% are not part of any formal commu- PROFILE CONSULTATIONS nity network or organization of Libyans living This section of the research focuses on the abroad; survey and focus group findings. The Libyans Living Abroad Consultation Survey was dis- • 52.63% are willing to participate in profes- tributed digitally and facilitated through sional activities to advance Libya; community gatekeepers within Libyans living abroad. It was available in both Arabic and • 95% do not regularly remit to Libya; English with all survey input provided anonymously. The survey was limited in reach due • 89.47% have not invested in Libya; to ongoing issues of trust from Libyans living abroad, but it does provide an interesting • Social (45%), Professional (25%) and Eco- snapshot on the sentiment and profile of the nomic (25%) pillars are the preferred type of community abroad. Also, the survey provides future relationship with Libya. instrumental analysis on the structuring of engagement from the perspective of Libyans Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019) living abroad.

9 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Whilst the research paper divulges greater Focus Group Synopsis analysis on other profiling and sentiments of There were 3 focus groups held as part of the community abroad including the identi- the research process in London, Tunis and fication of regional variations in the findings, Sfax. These were identified as they provi- the survey provides a compelling overview of ded access to a representative sample of who the community abroad sees as key to the community abroad focusing on both the systematic design and management of the successful and vulnerable members of engagement. This is an early marker in the the community abroad. Whilst the research step from the academic to applied research paper provides more in-depth analysis, the focus of the project. The table below illus- executive summary outlines common themes trates the feedback from the survey. identified in each focus group. The aims of the focus group were to derive insight in 3 Table ii. Ranking by Libyans Living Abroad of the core areas: current situation, aims/needs, Importance of Libyan Actors for Engagement and priorities of Libyans living abroad. This Ranking of Agency/Grouping was designed with a view to the aim of the Importance research to enhance the institutional and Libyans Living Abroad 1 strategic management of engagement of Li- byans living abroad. Civil Society 2 Organizations Within the current situation, key themes International Agencies/ 3a emerged such as a lack of community in- Donors frastructure, sporadic engagement, isolation Ministry of Education 3b from support structures, and the presence of Ministry of Foreign Affairs 3c a deep connection to Libya. In many ways, these are the building blocks from which to Ministry of Cultural Affairs 4 begin engagement. In terms of aims/needs Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019). of the community, consensus emerged on 1= Highest importance topics such as community building (for exa- The above table is an indicative composi- mple, spaces to meet for cultural events), tion of actors deemed instrumental to bring de-politicizing engagement, enhanced engagement forward. It illustrates a desire consular/embassy services, and support in from communities abroad to be positioned creating networks for Libyans living abroad. as partners in the design and creation of In terms of priorities, there were slight varia- their engagement roadmap. There is a need tions depending on the composition of the to build a partnership-based governance audience (successful and vulnerable com- framework that reflects the sentiments of the munities) with strong consensus on focusing community. engagement on: Business; Cultural Heritage; Education; Health; Networking (inter-com- Libyans living abroad see themselves as a munity collaboration between different seminal constituency in the engagement countries of destinations with Libyans living journey. The heightened focus on civil so- abroad); and Training (on how to build effec- ciety emphasizes the need for honest bro- tive community infrastructure). kers in the engagement process. Essentially, these indications tell us that if the engage- Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework ment process is solely governmentally led This section of the research paper assesses then it will not succeed. the existing policy and institutional apparatus within Libya for pursing engagement of Libyans living abroad. The ongoing fragility

10 Executive Summary of Libya’s institutional apparatus limits the GOVERNANCE AND MECHANISM depth and scope of research possible, but TO FACILITATE ENGAGEMENT this chapter serves as an illustrative guide on The governance roadmap is designed as an the necessary inter-institutional collabora- incremental process to simultaneously in- tion for engaging communities living abroad. crease the capacity of Libyan stakeholders whilst nurturing community abroad confi- SETTING AN INSTITUTIONAL AND dence to work towards market readiness for POLICY FRAMEWORK – FROM engagement. The governance process is one MANDATE TO MECHANISM of creation, consolidation and curation. This section of the research outlines the primary and secondary institutional apparatus The creation phase is reflective that a new that can enhance the strategic engagement of governance system needs to be established Libyans living abroad. This was based upon for the engagement of Libyans living abroad. an assessment of the institutional mandates This should be operationalized within ongoing provided by ICMPD to the research team. plans around a national level coordination body on migration management as to not di- The institutional apparatus – centred through lute or duplicate efforts and ensuring policy the work of the Department of Expatriate Af- coherence across the migration portfolio in fairs within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – Libya. The consolidation phase is the period were categorized as follows: of market testing of the system of governance and the curation phase is the exit strategy Primary Institutional Apparatus: Ministry of towards a new frame of governance if the ini- Foreign Affairs (particularly Department of tial system proves impacts.The research do- Expatriate Affairs and Department of Consu- cument provides detailed analysis on how to lar Affairs) and Ministry of State for Migrants work through these transitions. These phases and the Displaced. are based upon a two-tier governance structure: Tier 1 (T1) – Executive Leadership, Tier 2 Secondary Institutional Apparatus: The De- (T2) – Operational Leadership. These are ins- partment of Civil Society Organizations, The titutionalized via the organogram below: Department of International Organizations, The executive tier is the internal inter-insti- The Department of European Affairs, and The Department of International Cooperation.

At an institutional level, these apparatus and entities reflect the nuanced sectors required for engagement of Libyans living abroad and echo the governance findings from the survey. The next barrier is to embed a governance structure that can support a policy or strategy framework for engagement of Libyans living abroad given the Figure ii. Institutional Tiers of Proposed research findings to date. Model of Engagement Governance Authors’ illustration

11 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad tutional apparatus to be built in Libya. It will The composition of the various entities wit- focus on identifying the core organizational hin the organogram at Tier 2 level will need culture and collaboration to design enga- to be determined by the key stakeholders gement. Given the early stage of the enga- through consultation. However, the creation gement process, this will also be centred of a technical committee and representative upon identifying the required capacity de- body of Libyans living abroad will deepen the velopment of relevant institutions in Libya culture of connectivity and communication to shape impact through engagement of Li- needed for effective engagement. The role byans abroad. of ICMPD and the Donor Relationship Ma- nagement entity is in direct response to the The operational leadership tier is an assess- findings of the research and they will have ment of the required technical capacity and an instrumental role in the accountability and partners to enact engagement given the transparency of the engagement process. attitudinal and structural barriers outlined The role of Libyan stakeholders in this model in the historiography and profiling of the is one of facilitator, not implementer. community abroad. Given the institutional landscape in Libya and the current situation However, at a top-tier minimum, Tier 2 it of the communities abroad, Libyan stakehol- should develop an auditory body that will: ders will need to adopt a multi-stakeholder partnership to effectively scale engagement • Be led by a management council of of Libyans living abroad. 7-10 representatives with an elected chairperson and vice-chairperson; LAYERS OF THE ORGANOGRAM: A SHORT SYNOPSIS • Consist of executive level leadership This section of the research outlines a short within their respective entities/organi- overview of each layer of the organizational zations; structure. • Include high-level members of the Li- Tier 1 would be embedded via the Migration byans living abroad; Reflect the stated Governance Coordination Body which would cultures outlined later in this research be responsible for coordinating the interven- particularly on areas of diversity, equality tion of all Libyan public institutions in charge and inclusivity of the migration issue. This will necessarily involve the establishment of inter-institu- • Act as a formal and informal “ambas- tional agreements that would regulate and sador” for the engagement with Libyans systematize all the interactions between the living abroad; different institutions. • Advocate for financial support through In bridging from the executive to technical partnership with donors to support the layers of the governance framework, it is es- aims/activities of engagement. sential to allocate a core Libyan institution to provide that brokerage. It is recommended ORGANIZATIONAL AND that the Department of Expatriate Affairs wit- OPERATIONAL CULTURE hin the Ministry of Foreign Affairs execute In designing a governance roadmap and an this role. Their mandate is mostly centralized organogram to operationalize such a vision, on the aims and expectations of future enga- it is imperative to outline a core code of good gements from the perspectives of both Libya practice to guide these operations. and its communities abroad.

12 Executive Summary

Given the specificities of the Libyan context to promote their co-operation with and histories, the engagement of Libyans counterparts in Libya (government and living abroad is now entering a key “va- non-governmental); lues-driven” phase. These values are stated in the following sections. • To promote digitalization and innovation in the engagement process when ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE possible; The organizational culture of engagement of Libyans living abroad is based on the • To adhere to world-class standards on standardized principles of engagement of accountability and transparency to en- communities abroad informed by ICMPD’s sure trustworthiness of the engagement approach and global best practice. It should process. be the stated aim to undertake engagement of Libyans living abroad in an accountable The potential of such commitments is that manner. they are a set of values and commitments. They are free; and would signify an impor- OPERATIONAL CULTURE tant recognition from Libyan stakeholders The institutional roadmap identified above on how Libyans living abroad want to be en- has instilled a system of accountability to gaged by Libya. protect donor and community confidence in the transparency of the operational culture. ROADMAP: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PO- Contextualizing both those components is a LICY ENGAGING LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD stated commitment by Libyan stakeholders This chapter collates the findings outlined to ensure sustainability both in terms of sour- above along with the core guiding principles cing support and its operational output for to answer a simple yet challenging research engagement of the community abroad. Fur- question: thermore, there is a commitment to ensure that the operational output works to the sus- What are the policy recommendations to tainability of the communities it serves, res- enhance the institutional and strategic ma- pective partners and Libyans living abroad. nagement of engagement of Libyans living abroad? ENGAGEMENT BEHAVIOUR/ IMPLEMENTATION The harsh reality is that issues of discord and By embedding these organizational and distrust mean that the job at hand is now to operational cultures, we can now outline a develop market readiness for engagement robust baseline of behaviour commitments of Libyans living abroad. Whilst there are from Libyan stakeholders. These are: clear attitudinal, behavioural and structural barriers to engagement, immediate recom- • To adhere to an accessible and agile mendations must focus on building blocks of model of engagement that is based on engagement. This envisages a dual process diversity, equality and inclusivity; of internal and external development in the first phase of the roadmap. Without these • To work towards ensuring that the as- building blocks in place, it would be illogical pirations of Libyans living abroad are to advance any systematic engagement acti- heard and considered; vities as the infrastructure will not be strong enough to sustain such engagements. • To focus on ensuring community integration for Libyans living abroad and

13 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Internal External Market Development Development Readiness

• Institutional Development • Network Infrastructure • Setting the Agenda • Leadership • Cross-Community • Focus Group Findings Development/Upskilling Collaboration • Pragmatism of Staff • Listening • Building the System • Policy Infrastructure • Governance • Accessing Global • DRM Best Practice

Figure iii. Road Map for Market Readiness for Engagement of Libyans Living Abroad Authors’ illustration

ROADMAP: EARLY ACTIVITIES engagement, stakeholders in Libya and its The internal and external development nee- partners should ensure to curate a culture of ded for the first phase of the roadmap is out- engagement that scales through systematic lined below in more detail: process. There are a series of risk management techniques that can be built within Internally, there will need to be significant- the engagement cycle to achieve this scale ly invest in capacity development processes in process. and trainings along with upgrading research and development on issues of engaging The risk management of the roadmap can communities abroad for Libyan stakehol- also be guided by international best practice ders. Externally, with a lens to the commu- on engagement of communities abroad and nity abroad and the findings of the research, through an ongoing central role for ICMPD. Libyan stakeholders can initially begin to Three key elements of risk management can answer some of the aims, needs and priorities be categorized as communications, trust and outlined in earlier sections. The governance scale. The communication need is the huma- system of the previous chapter becomes a nistic endeavour to build connectivity and focal point in this period. These internal and relationships between Libyan stakeholders external steps are essentially designed to get and Libyans living abroad. A subset of this the market ready for engagement of Libyans is the issue of trust. Trust is not an event; it living abroad. must be earned, so Libyan stakeholders now need to enact engagements to build trust. MARKET READINESS TO Finally, scale is the testing moment of the ENGAGEMENT: RISK-MANAGEMENT market readiness process. It is simply a pro- In building the above system to ensure mar- cess to verify the earlier roadmap activities ket readiness, a phased implementation by testing engagement in softer areas of en- programme should then be built through a gagement to see whether it will work or not. robust legislative and policy standing for It is the application of the theory. engagement of communities abroad. When shifting towards the operationalization of Some of the key facets within these elements

14 Executive Summary that will work as risk management (to verify if sualized below: the engagement process is working towards scale) and that can guide Libyan stakehol- This roadmap caters for the findings drawn ders are: across the various chapters of the research. It allows for respecting the histories of the • Communication: Governance Partnership, Libyans living abroad in line with their tes- Role of Civil Society/International Agencies timonies that shaped earlier chapters of the & Transparency; Ongoing Consultations - research. It sets in motion a process-driven Local Ownership to Libyans living abroad. approach to ensure that the aims, concerns, and needs of both Libyan stakeholders and • Trust: Promotion of Dialogue/Forums; Ad- Libyans living abroad can be met in a mea- vancing an Ethics of Care; Promoting Skills ningful way. Transfer. Strand 1 works on the creation of the ne- • Scale: Involve Libyans living abroad in ad- cessary institutional apparatus within Libya vocacy programmes; promote social de- and the community abroad. It then enacts velopment partnerships between Libyan the governance framework; this requires stakeholders and Libyans living abroad; budget and expertise. This will see signifi- develop a culture of philanthropy within Li- cant upskilling of the stakeholders in Libya byans living abroad. necessary to enact engagement – governmental and non-governmental. VISUALIZING THE ROADMAP The overall assessment of this research pa- Strand 2 focuses on supporting the Libyans per is that there needs to be a systematic living abroad. It caters for the communication and community-based needs identified through the research project. It will act as a Strand proof of commitment by Libyan stakeholders Institutional and Leadership to the engagement process. It gives to Li- Development Supporting byans living abroad before asking them to Libyans Living Abroad give. Strand Strand Strand 3 focuses on the facilitation of human capital exchange from Libyans living abroad M&E back to Libya. These interventions are low Libyans Living risk and can nurture the critical trust to scale Abroad later engagements in line with the analysis of Human Strand Strand Capital the previous section. Libyans Living Abroad Strand 4 envisions transition projects from Ecomonic Capital human capital to economic development programmes. The role of Libyans living abroad in the economic development of Li- Figure iv. Policy Road Map for Engagement of Libyans Living Abroad bya will not happen instantaneously. Given the expectations on expenditure of donor Authors’ illustration and public funds, the roadmap should have design of a multi-year roadmap for engage- a stand-alone strand on monitoring and ment of Libyans living abroad. This roadmap evaluation. This should execute world-class is cyclic and cumulative in nature. This is vi- compliance with issues of accountability, re-

15 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad porting and transparency as noted earlier.

CONCLUSION This research paper has, at its core, an aim to contribute to the growing academic and practitioner assessments of Libyans living abroad. The communities of Libyans living abroad are a complex tapestry that are shaped by the many histories, memories and stories that have sparked their creation.

The research has worked to reflect the voices and realities of Libyans living abroad. It has strived to put in place recommendations that are achievable and realistic for all involved. Through building relationships of meaning rather than transactions, then this research recommends that Libya can set in motion a spirit of partnership and trust that can bring a new emphasis for engagement of Libyans living abroad. This will require honesty and patience from all involved. It is achievable together.

16 Executive Summary

17 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

18 INTRODUCTION

19 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

20 Introduction

INTRODUCTION

“The Libyan diaspora, a repository of enormous talent, remains largely untapped. While a few have returned, little can be done until the warring sides decide they want to share the country.“1

The observation in the Financial Times edi- The work ahead – including this research torial that the Libyan diaspora represents - should remain focused on tackling the a repository of enormous talent pinpoints “marginalization of the Libyan diaspora.”12 the necessity of this study along with future The question therefore now is a simple one knowledge creation relating to Libyans living – where do we begin to narrow this margina- abroad. However, the challenge remains in lization? This study begins with understan- designing and shaping a research field that ding the unique historical and political evo- can shift beyond the complex analytic base lutions within Libya that have come to define of academic treatise to a more operationally how Libyans living abroad came into being. bound research endgame. Through our methodology, the study then The purpose of such an endgame should be provides some proprietary scoping on the to provide the necessary capacity and op- current situation of Libyans living abroad. portunity for Libyan stakeholders and their Given ongoing sensitivities among Libyans communities abroad to build meaningful living abroad, stemming from these histori- mechanisms for collaboration. This research cal and political precursors of its community is designed to initiate that process and pro- formations, this scoping is indicative rather vide a guide on the road ahead for engage- than exhaustive. The aim of this research is ment of Libyans living abroad. to look internally in Libya and externally from the perspective of its communities abroad The validity and value of the academic treat- and identify an achievable body of work to ment of Libyans living abroad is still in its in- incubate engagement. fancy but is displaying signs of increased significance. Therefore, the endeavour to link academic to applied research in the context of 1 ‘Libya needs help to step back from the brink.’ Libyans living abroad is a rich source of new Financial Times, January 19, 2015. analytical enquiry. To merge the theoretical 2 Peter Seeberg. “Transnationalism and excep- methodologies underpinning such academic tional transition processes. The role of the Libyan work with an operational research agenda can diaspora from Qadhafi’s Jamahiriyya to post-re- be a powerful aggregator and contributor to volutionary civil war and state collapse.” British channelling new resources to stakeholders in Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, e-publication Libya and its communities abroad to create a (print forthcoming). new paradigm of engagement.

21 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

The research remains acutely aware of the This desk-review was supplemented by di- sensitivities of the subject matter of this rect in-market consultations with Libyan study. In response to these sensitivities, the stakeholders and Libyans living abroad. research will work towards making robust Through collating the findings of the desk assertions on the core constituencies and review and consultation sessions, the study characteristics of the community abroad. developed a robust baseline assessment that This works to include the voices of the com- enabled the production of achievable recom- munity abroad. mendations for enhancing the strategic and institutional management of engagement of The study then shifts towards assessing an Libyans living abroad. ever fluid institutional landscape in Libya for engagement of communities abroad. The re- PRIMARY TOOLS: SURVEY, INTERVIEW search concludes with an assessment of some GUIDE AND WORKSHOPS of the core organizational and operational The core analytical tools utilized for the steps that can be taken to bring engagement study reflect the tools best matched to the forward. This process will be contingent on a methodology outlined earlier. They included process of listening to Libyans living abroad closed and structured questionnaires, perso- and understanding their aims, concerns, and nal interviews and workshops. hopes for their relationship with home. Final- ly, the study provides a strategic roadmap to The survey was structured to garner indi- bring engagement to market in a cyclic, in- cative insight into the expected knowledge cremental process. outcomes of the study including the establishment of profile indicators on Libyans living METHODOLOGY abroad, assessment of the current institu- As noted in the Terms of Reference (ToRs) tional and policy instruments to better en- for this research project, the research “will gage Libyans living abroad, and garnering mainly be of qualitative nature” due “to the recommendations on potential mechanisms scarcity of data” available.23 This study is in to engage Libyans abroad. It was made avai- direct response to such data, knowledge lable in Arabic and English. The survey was and operational gaps. The methodology of- delivered digitally through key distribution the study is inter-disciplinary and delivered channels via partners such as ICMPD and key through a mixed-method approach. The me- community gatekeepers within Libyans living thodology had 3 core phases outlined below. abroad. (Figure 1) The validity of the analysis and insights gar- The methodology entailed the engagement nered here was safeguarded through a com- of primary and secondary source material mitment of anonymity for the respondent. through an extensive desk review of pertinent The added value of this study for ICMPD and source material. This includes relevant go- stakeholders is rooted in its ability to be in- vernment data and institutional frameworks dependent. The methodology ensured this along with external documentation such as independence. academic and policy-orientated research. Established and verified sources of data re- The focus group tool was designed to en- lating to migration were also engaged. sure interactive approaches and provide a hybrid of analytical tools to build robustness into the drafting mechanism for the study. It again ensured anonymity of all input. The 3 ICMPD. “Study on Libyans Living Abroad: Terms focus groups were based upon a triangu- of Reference.” Tunis, 2019.

22 Introduction lated model of presentations, groupwork and its communities abroad are embedded into roundtable discussions. this growth. At the global level, the engagement of communities abroad has never been A methodological note of significance is that in a stronger position. The prominence of such consultation should continue beyond such engagement to global policy dialogues the life cycle of this research project. It was and the developmental agenda has stren- clear from the outreach process that there gthened significantly over the past few years. remains significant credibility and trust is- Key signature gatherings such as Global Fo- sues among Libyans living abroad in sharing rum on Migration and Development, Global their data and insights with official stakehol- Diaspora Forum, and High-Level Dialogue on ders in Libya. Addressing such issues will Migration and Development have all identi- take time and must be rooted in processes fied this form of engagement as a key contri- of continued dialogue. butor to effective development. Similarly, the potential impact of communities abroad to LOCAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBAL the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) CONTEXT is beginning to feature within global deve- This research paper is reflective of a growing lopment agenda, particularly in the context local, regional and global interest in enga- of Goal 10 of the SDGs. Target 10.7 of the gement of communities abroad. The enga- SDGs aims to: gement of communities living abroad is advancing as a policy of choice to deliver the “Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and developmental vision for many countries. responsible migration and mobility of people, Regionally, there has been a progressive including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration growth in the number of engagement strate- policies.”34 gies and policies in the sector. This research project is designed to ensure that Libya and

• Lead Influencers: • Lead Influencers: National/International Expert National/International V1 Draft + Final • Facilitator: ICMPD provided Inception Expert. Report Draft of Report logistical support including • Facilitator: ICMPD to access to relevant stakehol- provide revisions. ders/networks, hosting of consultations and admin/ travel support. Figure 1. Key Deliverables of Methodology Authors’ illustration

• Lead Influencers: Capacity National/International Development Expert Workshop • Facilitator: provided logistical support as necessary.

4 United Nations. 2030 Agenda for sustainable Development. New York. The Global Indicator Framework for the SDGs was adopted in 2017.

23 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

24 PROFILE PROFILE OF LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD

25 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

PROFILE OF LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD

This chapter is focused upon extrapolating opportunities for engagement – spanning key insights and trends on the profile of Li- across the diverse identities at play within byans living abroad. Due to the ongoing me- Libyans living abroad. This diversity is to be thodological difficulty in accessing realistic embraced and individual strategies can be datasets on communities living abroad, this designed to negotiate and support the varied profiling is designed as indicative rather than expectations of the Libyans living abroad on exhaustive. As noted earlier, the engagement their relationship with home. of Libyans living abroad will require substantive continuation of consultations and liste- Concessions and negotiations will need to be ning exercises with the community abroad. nurtured but the indications are that there is It will also require a deepening of the com- an emergent and vibrant sense of Libya-ness munity infrastructure of organizations within at work within the Libyans living abroad. As countries of destination to acquire a more Baser and Halperin note: robust understanding of the community. “Without doubt, diasporas are heterogeneous In this section of the research, the study entities. Various groups within a diaspora contributes to existing understanding on the community might have different needs, ex- subject matter by providing a deep histori- perience and agendas about future actions. cal analysis which can unearth characteris- Therefore, within a diaspora community one tics and constituencies within Libyans living can observe diverse organizational patterns, abroad. This layering of knowledge will en- interests and identity formations. Their mo- able Libyan stakeholders and communities bilization patterns and diasporic agenda is abroad to design segmented interventions also very much dependent on the political, for engagement. social and economic opportunity structures that they encounter in their country of resi- HISTORIOGRAPHY dence.“1 This historiography of Libyans living abroad is designed to explore elementary insight on Libya’s recent history means that this cultu- the constituencies and characteristics of Li- ral, identity and societal bond is strengthe- byans living abroad. These insights will in- ning. It means that the for engagement of the form an improved system of institutionaliza- Libyans living abroad is now.” tion at home and abroad led both for and by Libyans living abroad.

1 Bahar Baser & Amira Halperin. “Diasporas from Through this historiography, the study works the Middle East: Displacement, Transnational Iden- to uncover the realities of the current situa- tities and Homeland Politics.” British Journal of tion of Libyans living abroad – addressing Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 46, Issue 2, 2019. the challenges, histories, memories and

26 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

This density of the communal binds has sightful appreciation of the various binaries been described as “crystallized in a sense of that drive diaspora studies also brings us to groupness based on a powerfully imagined a harsh reality for this study.5 and strongly felt commonality and relational connectedness.”2 In the Libyan frame, howe- Binaries will not suffice in untangling the ver, research must move slowly through the complex constituencies and characteristics complexity of how these communities were that comprise the communities of Libyans formed. This historiography is rooted in the living abroad. It has been noted that there infancy of interest in the subject matter. As is “a highly complex historical evolution of one recent analysis noted, the historical un- long-distance nationalism among Libyans derstanding of Libyans living abroad is a “a abroad.”6 This brings us to important consi- subject so far remained unexplored.”3 derations on framing and terminology that inform this research. Therefore, this research is adding new knowledge to the emerging discourses on A NOTE OF FRAMING AND Libyans living abroad. It is offered as an ope- TERMINOLOGY rationally focused addition to the landscape Within the emerging discourses on the his- as our vision beyond this work is to enact tories of Libyans living abroad, there is a lo- engagement rather than adopt a discursive gical consensus on the historical framing to or descriptive approach to the topic. The analyse the subject matter. The pre-eminent contextual and data grounding that these framing has been to determine the chrono- combined sources offer will enable us to logy within 3 phases – the period of Gaddafi narrow the dominant pitfall of diaspora stu- rule, role of Libyans living abroad during the dies and diaspora engagement as described events of 2011, and their role within transi- by Toloyan in his pre-eminent framing of the tion in Libya. past, present and promise of diaspora studies. He argues: This provides a logical base for this historiography also as it will enable us to enrich our “homeland governments and international research through the relative sourcing within organizations such as the World Bank and the academic field. This study adds a short the IMF have quite clumsily sought to deve- analysis on the immediate pre-Gaddafi era as lop means to attract more investment and the seeds of the Libyan communities abroad remittances, sell bonds to the diaspora, and – however limited in numbers – were sown generally direct the political and economic here and Libyans born in that era remain re- capital of diasporas.“4 presented in our survey dataset.

Put simply, this study needs to set the basis A more complicated issue remains with ter- to avoid accusations of clumsiness. His in- minology. This study adopts a more diver- gent approach from the consensus due to a variety of factors. Within the existing li-

2 Alice Alunni. “Long-distance nationalism and belonging in the Libyan diaspora (1969–2011).” Bri- tish Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 46, 5 Tololyan outlines a series of binaries that lack the Issue 2, 2019. nuances to fully achieve the promise of diaspora 3 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” engagement. For more information, see Tololyan, 4 Khachig Tololyan. Diaspora Studies: Past, Pre- Diaspora Studies. sent and Promise. IMI, Oxford, 2012. 6 Baser and Halperin. “Diasporas from the Middle East.”

27 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad terature, the use of diaspora as the central mic considerations.7 These considerations concept makes sense as it positions the contain an important currency within the research within a specific set of inter-dis- academic realm and greatly enrich our un- ciplinary fields including humanities, hu- derstanding of the subject matter. However, man geography, international relations and within the scope of this research, the study political science. However, with our lens on will need to simplify the framing to make it functional research, we adopt the termino- actionable. logy of “Libyans living abroad” as a mechanism to de-sensitive the terminology and The historiographical literature pinpoints a strive towards a diverse, equal and inclusive nuanced diversity within the Libyan commu- framing. This also recognizes the historical nities abroad due to the varied contexts of complexities and connotations that diaspora its creation. The study, therefore, aligns with has within certain geo-political contexts. Mandaville and Lyon’s approach of disaggre- gating communities abroad to explore these For example, in any engagement activities, nuances.8 In establishing constituencies of no one person’s sense of Libya-ness should Libyans living abroad, the study then looks overcome another’s. The power of these at the characteristics of each constituency forms of engagements quite often comes through the prism of assessing how these through de-politicising the engagement characteristics (how they functioned, evol- process. As seen in later sections of this ved and now stand) may be able to guide on research, this process of de-politicising is enhancing the strategic and institutional ma- a core recommendation from Libyans living nagement of engaging Libyans living abroad. abroad. In later sections of this historiography, the use of diaspora will be limited to the CONSTITUENCIES AND direct usage of the term within the relevant CHARACTERISTICS and referenced literature. The deep history of Libya is too expansive for this study to consider given its focus on Another note of de-sensitizing the discourse potential engagement mechanisms. As noted comes around the predominant descriptive above, the study identifies 4 key phases of Li- framing of the events in 2011. This research, byan history relative to the current standing of with its focus on operationally bound out- Libyans living abroad. In assessing the consti- comes, strategically refers to the events of tuencies and characteristics of the commu- 2011 instead of embedding these events as nity abroad during these phases, the study a revolution or uprising. The use of the latter accesses instructive profile indicators via a terminology will only be utilised when direc- situational analysis of Libyans living abroad. tly adopted from referenced material. The operational aims in designing profiles and PHASE ONE: THE EARLY PHASE roadmaps is to remain independent. The constituencies and characteristics of this

Similarly, the analytical and conceptual bases driving much of the academic literature will 7 The aim of this study is to not engage in the aca- have less significance in an operational re- demic complexities of diaspora studies. It is more search scope. For example, much of the exis- applied in focus but a fuller bibliography on dias- ting literature pivots through concepts such pora studies can be provided if requested. as constructivism, globalization, transnatio- 8 Terence Lyons and Peter Mandaville. Diasporas nalism and a vast array of complex acade- in Global Politics. George Mason University, Centre for Global Studies, Policy Brief, 2010.

28 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad era are a minor influencer given the unique the domain of elites and exiles where “in composition of Libyan migration in the era. the 1960s (…) the [Arab] diasporic and mi- It was noted by a partner on this research grant mobilizations were organized by par- that the desire to emigrate in Libya is not too ty elites.”13 This composition brought some common.9 This is confirmed from various his- early indication of the characteristics that torical analyses of emigration from Libya as would come to define later phases of the being determined by drivers of migration such Libyans living abroad. The politicization of as elitism or “persecution.”10 The data – out- the process, the exclusionary position of the lined in the concluding sections of this report community and the associated complexities – indicates this. Therefore, the era preceding of this existence all lay the foundation for the Gaddafi era is marked by an “early Libyan the creation and function of Libyans living diaspora consisting of the remnants of the abroad in the next phase. monarchy and the elite around it.”11 PHASE TWO: THE EMIGRANT & Constituencies EXCLUSIONARY/EXILE PHASE The early phase is determined through a The analysis of phase one is contextual and pattern of moving abroad that was exclu- introductory. Communities of Libyans living sive and elitist tied into the monarchical abroad came to experience a fundamentally leadership at the time. The constituency of realigned existence during the Gaddafi era. this era was formed of “the growing Libyan Within the literature, this era is positioned as diaspora (…) of officers from the army, who the precursor to explaining how the Libyans during the revolution might have been close living abroad negotiated various affinities, to Qadhafi and participated in the revolt agency, and authenticities. against the monarchy, but later were out- manoeuvred by Qadhafi.”12 This shaped the There is an emerging analytical base that constituency as a hybrid mix of elites and of- explores key issues of contest within the Li- ficers which lay the basis of the community byans living abroad such as isolation, memo- abroad. This witnessed a myriad of influxes ry and silence. Within this historiography, it in the next phases due to the aggressive po- is important to probe at these characteris- licies of the Gaddafi era. tics to give understanding of the longevity of these issues and how they will influence the Characteristics road ahead for engagement. The early phase characteristics echoed its constituencies. Emigration was primarily Furthermore, the literature has entered the discourse into fresh conceptual frames to define this era. Moss’ work on transnational repression is a prime example of this and will 9 Input from Stakeholder Consultation. be discussed in more detail later.14 There- 10 The theme of exile and persecution runs across fore, the study can identify a certain series many of the academic analyses of early Libyan migration trends including the work of Alunni, See- berg and others. 11 Dirk Vandewalle. A history of modern Libya. 13 Claire Beaugrand and Vincent Geisser. “Social Cambridge/New York, 2006. Quoted in Seeberg, Mobilization and Political Participation in the Dias- “Transnationalism and exceptional transition pro- pora During the “Arab Spring”. Journal of Immi- cesses.” grant & Refugee Studies, Volume 14, Issue 3, 2016. 12 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional 14 Dana M. Moss. “Transnational Repression, Dias- transition processes.” pora Mobilization and the Case of the Arab Spring.” Social Problems, Volume 63, Issue 4, 2016.

29 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad of constituencies within this phase that lead emergence of the exclusionary and exile fra- to a foundational set of characteristics that ming above. retain influence on the profile of the community today. The presence of a community of loyalists abroad is also signposted in the work of Alun- Constituencies ni who astutely conveys the constituencies at The Gaddafi era can be broadly defined work within Libyans living abroad in deter- as a period where Libyans living abroad mining that her “article does not address the consisted of three constituencies. Firstly, the community of loyalists in the diaspora before mainstream emigrant population constituted or after 2011 or that of economic migrants loyalists of the Gaddafi regime – usually po- per se but rather focuses on the active dias- sitioned in official posts abroad, next-gene- pora participants who engaged at some level ration Libyans living abroad (particularly stu- with politics or civil society before and during dents and children of Libyans living abroad), 2011.”16 In this description, the layering of the and businessmen. community abroad emerges into focus.

These constituencies were supplemented During the 1970s, Gaddafi’s imposition of a by those Libyans living abroad who were in “political, economic and cultural revolution” exile and living – in part – an exclusionary resulted in a significant reworking of the existence in terms of their relationships with communities of Libyans living abroad. The Libya. The constituencies combined develop Libyans living abroad consisted of “political a suite of characteristics that still exert in- dissidents across the entire political spec- fluence on the composition and operations trum and citizens from different socio-eco- of Libyans living abroad today. nomic backgrounds such as students in higher education, businessmen and profes- Before engaging in a deeper analysis of sionals.”17 At the end of the 1970s, “around these characteristics, it is important to pro- 100,000 Libyans well educated and with de- vide a short historical narrative of key events grees from western universities had left the during this period that come to verify these country out of a population of about three categorizations of constituencies. The narra- million.”18 tive offered here is not exhaustive and the academic literature (illustrated in accom- These estimates may be below the actual fi- panying bibliography) provides a more de- gures with local stakeholders indicating that tailed assessment. during this period; much larger numbers of government scholarships were also offered.19 The rise to power of Gaddafi and subsequent actions came to define this phase of Libyans The emergence of oil revenues in the early living abroad. As one commentator notes, “The Libyan diaspora in its pre-2011 confi- guration emerged from the political, econo- 16 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” mic and cultural revolution imposed on the 17 Vandewalle. A history of modern Libya. Cam- Libyan people by the regime of Muammar bridge/New York, 2006. Quoted in Alunni, “Long Gaddafi.”15 The imposition framework uti- Distance Nationalism.” lized in this assessment quickly conveys the 18 Vandewalle. A history of modern Libya, quoted along with World Bank Population data in Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” 15 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” 19 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

30 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

1970s had also resulted in the ability to family members at home.24 As she notes, “at “eliminate” the private sector meaning that least 25 assassinations of exiled Libyans were “several businessmen and doctors relocated ordered between 1980 and 1987, 10 of which to Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Jordan, Europe were carried out in the UK in 1984–85.”25 and the USA.”20 The economic sanctions of the 1980s along with an aggressive potential The experiential nature of such transnational and reality of reprisal for dissent brought repression opens important considerations new contestations within the Libyans living on the real and lasting communal impacts abroad. The sanctions “led to reluctance from that emanates from such a process. With a the side of international investors to work in lens towards engagement, these lived reali- Libya and added to the marginalization of the ties will need to be discussed, embraced and Libyan diaspora by making it more difficult negotiated. Of importance here is the issue for the exiles to maintain their economic of memory – particularly the collective me- interests in their home country.”21 mory – of Libyans living abroad. It can be projected that a softer public diplomacy will Given that the communities abroad were need to occur to nurture trust with Libyans borne out of exclusion and exile with a com- living abroad. ponent of emigrant constituencies, the community began to turn inward. Moss’ perspec- Moving into the early 2000s and with move- tive on transnational repression is a useful ments from Gaddafi to open a more embra- descriptor of the 1980s and 1990s within the cing relationship with the West, emanating Libyans living abroad. from a reduction in sanctions due to co-operation with key legacy issues such as the Moss describes transnational repression Lockerbie bombing, Libyans living abroad as referring to “political processes under begin to unearth organic and constructed Qadhafi where a diaspora population cannot developments. The organic developments escape the authoritarian character of their began to emerge through the second and home country.”22 Key features include “fear third generation of the communities abroad. of return, but also for instance fear of repri- It is noted that isolated, “small networks of sals against relatives left behind in Libya.”23 second-generation exiled youths worked to She also advances the notion of proxy pu- reinvigorate anti-regime opposition in the nishment where regimes punish or threaten mid- to late-2000s.”26

The more constructed avenues of engagement came from an attempt to formalize outreach to Libyans living abroad through a son of Gaddafi. Given the complex contesta- 20 Azza Maghur. Highly-skilled Migration (Libya)— tions of ideology and nationalism at play wit- Legal aspects. CARIM Analytic and Synthetic Notes hin the communities abroad, along with the 2010/31, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, European University Institute, quoted in Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” 21 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and 24 Moss, “Transnational Repression, Diaspora exceptional transition processes.” Mobilization.” 22 Moss, “Transnational Repression, 25 Moss, “Transnational Repression, Diaspora Diaspora Mobilization.” Mobilization.” 23 Moss, “Transnational Repression, 26 Moss, “Transnational Repression, Diaspora Diaspora Mobilization.” Mobilization.”

31 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad lack of strategic focus for the outreach from composition (exclusion/exile) along with ad- Libyan stakeholders, this engagement lacked ditional layers such as academic, business the capacity to succeed. and next-generation segments within the community. The analysis has initiated dis- The ongoing vacuum of trust in Libyan com- cussion on the communal impact framings munities abroad derived from the processes such as dissent had on the community where that created the communities arguably re- a game of zero-sum tribalism came to define mained a powerful deterrent to engagement the landscape with competing ideologies at efforts. The implementation of such enga- work. gement and attempts of reconciliation is best evaluated through the delivery of a go- The research can now deepen the analysis vernment scholarship programme. It was as- to explore the impacts of these issues into sessed that “the young Libyans who did take how the communities abroad functioned advantage of a newly instituted government and what Libyan stakeholders may have to scholarship programme for overseas study in keep in mind for future engagement activi- the mid-2000s were often children of regime ties. By doing so, the research can begin to loyalists.”27 Put simply, the heterogeneity of scope out some of the formal and informal Libyan communities abroad was now a reality. dynamics within the profile of community abroad and its impact on their relationship By the end of the 2000s, deep-rooted with Libya. It would be too difficult to ascribe constituencies were formed within the Li- a chronological order to these features to byans living abroad. It was a period mar- match the historical developments of Libya ked with dissent, discord and disputation. as many of these features are fluid. They are The next phase of the story – the events of situated within the complex theories on how 2011 – earmarked a transformative moment emigrant communities’ function in a global for Libyans living abroad where they came to context whether rooted in trans-nationalist redefine their role at home and abroad. Be- or other conceptual frames. fore assessing this period, we can build upon the preliminary characteristics outlined in This phase brought to the fore a characteris- the preceding analysis to develop insight on tic that remains a determinant in any future the characteristics that would simultaneously likelihood of success in engaging Libyans deter and empower the role of Libyans living living abroad. Gaddafi’s authoritarian lea- abroad in Libya from 2011 onwards. dership hindered the development of a re- liable and robust institutional apparatus in Li- Characteristics bya. Recent work has begun to create such a In the previous analysis on constituencies, framework and this research concludes with the study has laid the roadmap to some of a roadmap to further institutionalize engage- the core characteristics within Libyans living ment through a strategic process. abroad during this phase of Libya’s history. It has identified features such as community Moving from such systems with the influence of exile and exclusion, Libyans living abroad repeatedly struggled to create a viable institutional apparatus abroad to empower po- 27 Mieczysław P. Boduszynski. “The external di- tential involvement back home. As Seeberg mension of Libya’s troubled transition: the inter- asserts, “these realities also contributed to national community and ‘democratic knowledge’ limited success in establishing a network transfer.” The Journal of North African Studies, and/or organisations within the diaspora – Volume 20, Issue 5, 2015. in combination with the earlier mentioned

32 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad attempts at keeping a low profile while in with the political opposition.”31 Whilst useful exile.”28 precursors, this research will need to work beyond such binaries to compose a mosaic This “low-profile” or isolation posited certain of community activities to develop realistic long-lasting characteristics upon the com- engagement platforms. This will be centred munity such as isolation and silence. The on active segmentation of the community isolationist tendencies of the communities abroad to match the right people with the abroad resulted in a specific set of commu- right purpose.32 nity formations. It is here that the literature reverts to binaries – determined as a pro- It has been argued that “the lack of a political blematic framework for assessment earlier – culture attached to functioning state institu- such as “political and apolitical” along with tions also had consequences for the possibi- “the other between first generation migrants lities of the diaspora attempting to influence and 1.5/second generation migrants,” to how the Libyan state and society should de- explore the community abroad.29 Examples velop after the fall of Qadhafi.”33 This was are provided of how communities of “poli- another characteristic stemming from the tical exiles tended to be small in size, geo- exclusionary nature of exile. When coupled graphically concentrated around few main with the ideological basis of many attempts cities—for example, London, Manchester at communal organization abroad during this and Lexington (Kentucky, USA)—and mostly period, the lack of a community infrastruc- isolated from the a-political communities(...) ture at an institutional level remains a barrier Unable to return but always longing to re- to progress in engagement. In later sections turn, members of the political opposition in of the study, the testimonies of Libyans living exile and their families tended to congregate abroad echo this point. among themselves and to build closed communities with minimal interaction beyond the However, in the latter stages of this phase, trusted political networks.”30 there seems to be a promising development within the landscapes of civil society It is argued that, apolitical communities – and next-generation involvement in the po- “composed of individuals who left Libya in tential to develop a community institutional search of better education and work oppor- infrastructure. One commentator contends tunities” – leveraged different forms of as- that the decade of 2000s, “left a legacy of sociational approaches relying on “networks political and civil society networks within the around family and friendships previously es- diaspora, between the diaspora and the civil tablished in Libya with minimal interactions rights movement in Libya, as well as online,

28 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional 31 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” transition processes.” 32 Kingsley Aikins and Martin Russell. The Networ- 29 Asher and Emerson Case. “A generation in tran- king Institute’s Diaspora Engagement Training Pro- sition: A study of the usage and attitudes toward gramme. Dublin, 2019. For a more detailed over- public libraries by generation 1.5 composition view see, Kingsley Aikins and Nicola, White. Global students.” Reference & User Services Quarterly, Diaspora Strategies Toolkit. The Networking Insti- Volume 47, No. 3, 2008, quoted in Alunni, “Long tute, Dublin, 2011. Distance Nationalism.” 33 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional 30 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” transition processes.”

33 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad that were mobilized in 2011.”34 Others note more easily and freely(...)“36 that this phase ended with the creation of an “incipient civil society.”35 The cultural negotiation of identity particularly through children and off-spring of Li- This promising growth is a unique opportunity byans living abroad may indicate a useful for engagement through this research and template for such spaces. In an emotive ana- beyond. The negotiations of various forms lysis, Barley and Merchant provide a com- of Libya-ness and its associated nuances of pelling assessment of how identity amongst authenticities, legacies and memories will children in Libyan communities abroad ope- need to rely on key interlocutors such as ci- rated in public spaces. They contend that vil society to bring Libyan stakeholders and “more attention needs to be paid to the di- Libyans living abroad together. It is also im- verse social and cultural issues that pattern portant to invest in this as a long-term pro- childhood and the communication economy cess where key enablers of engagement such in which they are embedded,” and in, “new as listening, and networking, can be curated and emerging patterns of migration, coupled to create a sense of collaboration, ownership with the increased diversity and availability and trust between the main agents involved. of new media, challenge existing definitions of community.”37 An additional stream of support may be emerging through the cycle of next-genera- The issue during this phase was that Libyans tion ties emerging towards the end of this living abroad worked in “closed” communities phase of the historiography. Utilizing Alun- relying on family mostly for such networks.38 ni’s concept of a “diasporic public space” The onset of new media in this phase of the these early changemakers within Libyans historiography led to a partial re-awakening living abroad point towards the potential of of Libyans living abroad where next genera- embedding a more inclusive approach to the tion members of Libyans living abroad em- concept. She notes that this phase was mar- braced a new appetite for risk. This would ked by “mistrust and suspiciousness among become a defining feature of the next phase Libyans abroad” resulting in: of the historiography and opens new scope for potential engagement. The lack of such “(...) relatively isolated and small networks tools contributed to the limited community of people tied by political ideology and/or building earlier in this phase. Old media tools kinship. This prevented the establishment of such as “a radio programme and bi-monthly a diasporic public space where all Libyans newspaper remained limited in their ability could come together in the host countries to to reach Libyans across the world and inside openly and freely ‘imagine’ their nation and the country,” during this phase.39 discuss its characters collectively, something that should be facilitated by the experience In the mid-2000s, the National Conference of migration and the ability to communicate

36 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” 34 Claudia Gazzini. “Talking back: Exiled Libyans 37 Ruth Barley and Guy Merchant. “‘The naughty use the Web to push for change.” Arab Media & person’: Exploring dynamic aspects of identity and Society, March 2, 2007, quoted in Alunni, “Long children’s discourses before and during the Libyan Distance Nationalism.” Uprising.” Childhood, Volume 23, Issue 4, 2016. 35 Boduszynski, “The external dimension of Li- 38 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” bya’s troubled transition.” 39 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.”

34 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad for the Libyan Opposition in London brought “It is not surprising that increasingly many to the fore how new media technologies states are seeking to secure a political ad- could either enrich engagement or entrench vantage by engaging with or managing ‘their’ divides developed within the communities diaspora. In a globalized world, this gives abroad. The conference was described as “a states an additional source of power and good combination of smart use of old dias- a sphere of influence that extends beyond poric non-Islamist political networks, new the physical borders of the nation. Once technologies, the media and the regime’s shunned or ignored by policy makers, many inability to entirely control those,” to develop diasporas are now viewed by state actors as new narratives on the future of Libya at the potential sources of revenue and investment, time.40 A quiet battle remains within Libyans as lobby groups for promoting state interests living abroad on who should lead the narra- abroad, or as ambassadors that can facilitate tive on Libya’s future. bilateral trading relationships.”43

The centrality of smart power to such en- This phase ended with an entrenched limi- deavours provides a useful reference tation within the communities abroad along framework for future engagement capaci- with a few sparks of renewed creativity and ties for Libyan stakeholders. Smart power is energy as showcased above. Overall, it can defined as “people to people” power and is be positioned that despite the rich commer- an evolution from the leading work of Nye in cial, cultural and educational tapestry within areas of soft power and diplomatic capital. the community abroad, Gaddafi’s era had di- Another central innovator of smart power is minished the potential to develop a commu- Anne-Marie Slaughter who argues that we nity network to let it flourish. are now living in the networked age where “the measure of your power is your connec- Despite the diminished potential, several ef- tedness.”41 forts in key destination countries such as the UK and US were seen to develop community This is important in creating the agency to entities. Whilst communal division and lack enact future engagement and safeguard its of organizational capacity resulted in limited relevance within Libya. With the mandating impact, there is scope for this research to of the Department of Expatriate Affairs, there re-invigorate such efforts. This will be an is now an opportunity to position engage- elementary first step in ensuring market rea- ment of Libyans living abroad as a key pil- diness for strategic engagement of Libyans lar of Libyan foreign policy. This will endear living abroad. Effectively engaging com- such foreign policy to evolving connotations munities living abroad is dependent on the of smart power.42 presence of a strong community network of those living abroad. Otherwise, engagement This form of policy is low-cost foreign policy becomes ad hoc and sporadic. and on the rise. As Adamson notes: The community was described as “weak and incoherent” where “mistrust and the persecution of the diaspora by agents from the 40 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” 41 Joseph S. Nye Jnr. “Smart Power. ” The Huf- fington Post, November 29, 2007. 42 Anne-Marie Slaughter. “America’s Edge: Power 43 Fiona B. Adamson. “The Growing Importance in the Networked Century.” Foreign Affairs, Jan/ of Diaspora Politics.” Current History, November, Feb, Vol 88, Issue 1, 2009. 2016.

35 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Libyan regime can at least partly explain the tershed moment for Libyans living abroad. It missing transnational network between the culminated in a series of emotive, philoso- different diasporic communities, resulting in phical and psychological decisions for many a lack of frequent communication, a limited of those living abroad. Whilst the previous number of diasporic organizations, media, era was defined by isolation and silence, this etc.”44 However, the historiography was to period brought a new paradigm for potential be influenced by a phase that brought a true engagement. This paradigm was embraced revitalization of Libyans living abroad – with on various levels by Libyans living abroad. various consequences. Some struggled to operate beyond the nor- With the fall of Gaddafi, the “revolution de facto malized frame of isolation and remained brought to the forefront of Libyan politics the distant. Others embraced the moment to Libyan diaspora raising questions about its encourage a period of mobilization. Whilst, role, nature and the processes through which finally, a certain cohort became actual and it came into being before 2011.”45 Or as Brand active determinants in the immediate future articulately posits: of Libya. As one analyst notes, “The year 2011 became a year in which the diaspora “The fall or overthrow of authoritarian leaders gained influence on the political develop- has opened up institutional and identity ho- ment in Libya. With the Libyan revolution, rizons that have previously been blocked or the political conditions changed and made it circumscribed. In this context, a range of civil possible for the Libyan diaspora to influence society actors, both in-country and abroad, and directly take part in the changes in the at times encouraged or supported by exter- Libyan polity.”48 These three constituencies nal actors, has taken the initiative to further inform a great deal on the current prevailing expand the practices of citizenship and the profile and realities for engagement of Li- institutionalized boundaries of national iden- byans living abroad. tity.“46 The historical narrative of the role of Li- PHASE THREE: THE ENGAGEMENT byans living abroad in this era validate the PHASE – EVENTS OF 2011 constituencies being categorized in these Around the world, the Libyan diaspora took pillars. The period brought an incremental, to the streets to call for Gaddafi’s downfall. if somewhat quickened, process of potential For many, this was the first form of political mobilization of Libyans living abroad. Howe- protest that they had taken part in.47 ver, the conditioning impact of the Gaddafi era ensured that issues of mistrust and si- The events of 2011 in Libya marked a wa- lence remained as significant attitudinal and structural barriers for many Libyans living abroad.

44 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional In the early days of the events of 2011, the transition processes.” historical analyses strongly relay how the 45 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” fear of the previous decades led many Li- 46 Laurie A. Brand. “Arab Uprisings and the changing frontiers of transnational citizenship: Voting from Abroad in political transitions.” Political Geo- graphy, Volume 41, 2014. 48 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional 47 Barley and Merchant. “‘The naughty person’: transition processes.” Exploring dynamic aspects of identity.”

36 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad byans living abroad, particularly those with lier was transformed with the 2011 events. in-person experience of Libya, to adopt a Libyans living abroad, through the move for risk-averse strategy. There are several fasci- change, become visible influencers within the nating narrations of how familial hierarchies public domain. The closed clusters of fami- within Libyans living abroad were coming lial and social networks that had defined the into conflict with parents keen to retain a previous era became conduits of mobilization distance whilst their offspring embracing a and action. It has been argued that “a sense more open and risk aggressive condemna- of commonality and connectedness allowed tion of the Gaddafi regime.49 for an emotional sense of belonging to Libya to emerge which can help contextualize the Another subsidiary of this distant frame was involvement of the diaspora in the 2011 revo- the fact that the period also brought a new lution.”52 This awakening marks an informative layer to Libyans living abroad with the influx opportunity for future engagements. of individuals who were loyal or had close connections to the Gaddafi regime. It is es- It signposted the shift from a dormant exis- timated that, “during 2011 and particularly tence to a potentiality of engagement for after the fall of the regime, a significant nu- the betterment of Libya and its communi- mber of Libyans having had different types ties abroad. The subsequent years brought of work relations and/or political affiliations challenges to this landscape, but it cannot with the former regime fled to neighbouring be undervalued as a moment of growth for countries. Many of them, fearing reprisals Libyans living abroad. Of course, there re- from new leaders and the militias, settled in mains nuances to be negotiated but there is Egypt or Tunisia.”50 In this instance, there is an emergent new spectrum for engagement. a diversification of the destination countries This is further denoted by the emergence of of Libyans living abroad as will be explored new community organizations and the deve- later in data section of this research. Their lopment of civil society outlined earlier. propensity to retain isolation and silence for survivalist tendencies entrench it as an on- A testimony to convey these new reali- going reality of Libyans living abroad. ties came from the founders of the Libyan American Organization in 2012. The foun- However, the distant framing emerged as a ders remain convinced that the “initiative minority within this phase given the velocity would not have been possible before the of violence that came to define the spread revolution,“ as the “diasporas’ coming out of discord in Libya. This period was marked signifies a transition from subjecthood to by one analysis as Libya’s “moment of en- citizenship, the process by which groups thusiasm.”51 This translated to the consti- transcend the shackles of authoritarianism tuencies being predominantly focused on and embrace civic participation as a means mobilization and active participation. The of social change remains a promising topic lack of a diaspora public space outlined ear- of inquiry.”53 There are several examples of such mobilization with protests at embassies in the US and UK during the time along with an emerging digital based advocacy through 49 This is a consistent theme across much of the next-generation Libyans living abroad. literature. For in-depth analyses, see bibliography. 50 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional transition processes.” 51 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional 52 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.” transition processes.” 53 Moss, “Transnational Repression,

37 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

However, direct involvement of Libyans living longevity of isolation means that creating abroad in the events of 2011 also came to engagements that develop softer commu- define this phase. It is noted that “approa- nity development activities will be critical in ching a post-Qadhafi scenario, the exiled years ahead. There will be historical tensions and well-known parties or movements re- within the community where engagement turned home in order to gain influence on will need to de-politicise relationships and the new Libya.”54 Many formed new political promote an inclusive sense of Libya-ness or parties to become “active parts of the trans- inclusive diasporic public spaces. The power formation processes,” in Libya.55 of convening and culture will be upholding tools in this regard. This period of return also signposts the need to ensure synergy between the domestic Within the mobilized framework, the study community and returnees. Across the lite- unearths key criteria that inform our unders- rature, there is substantive analysis of how tanding of Libyans living abroad. The clearest disconnects between these communities re- characteristic within this constituency is that sulted in credibility issues. the engagement landscape has been transformed – particularly due to communication Later sections of this research will assess the and technological advancements. During this audience costs of domestic politics on such phase, the historiography is littered with exa- communal binds. It will be essential to en- mples of how these advancements ruptured sure that the image, perception and reality traditional communal structures and brought of the aims/visions of Libyans living abroad new portals of engagement. for their involvement in the development of Libya is articulated to the domestic audience. Communities living abroad now “use online Co-operation, dialogue and trust will need to platforms to make their voice heard, for po- be built between those who stayed and those litical mobilization and empowerment. They who left. use websites, blogs, social media and smart phone applications to disseminate their pe- Therefore, through these constituencies, the sonal stories to global audiences.”56 During study can extract a series of profile charac- the events of 2011, Libyans living abroad had teristics that enhance our understanding on new audiences and ways to tell their stories. Libyans living abroad. Given the closer histo- Compelling and evocative testimonies from rical proximity to the current situation, these activities within Libyans living abroad are characteristics can be intrinsic in helping us strong exemplars in this progression. to scope out potential engagement activities today. As one activist noted, their openness to sharing their identity came from witnessing Characteristics the willingness of people in Libya to shed As noted earlier, the distant constituency re- anonymity to fight for change.57 If the stu- mained a minority in this phase but the influx of new Libyans living abroad, and the

56 Baser and Halperin. “Diasporas from the Middle East.” 54 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional 57 Dana M. Moss. “Diaspora Mobilization for Wes- transition processes.” tern Military Intervention During the Arab Spring”. 55 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, Volume transition processes.” 14, Issue 3, 2016.

38 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad dy prescribes to the founding assertion of for example had brought an “initial scepti- Gabriel Sheffer of diaspora politics being cism” for Western involvement within Libyans about “being at home abroad”, then the living abroad.60 However, with the escalation onset of communication and technology ad- of violence, a push for advocacy on involve- vancements enable this assertion like never ment rather than intervention was the focus before.58 These advancements are not always for Libyans living abroad. positive however which we will see in the analysis of the next phase where the digital Several mechanisms emerged to push this landscape provided a platform for scepticism advocacy. Members of the communities and criticism of the role of Libyans living abroad “launched protests and formed or- abroad in Libya’s transition. ganizations dedicated to lobbying the U.S. and British governments on behalf of the Evaluating the positive impact of commu- revolutions, including the Washington, DC– nications and technology must also assess based Libyan Emergency Task Force, the the instrumental impact it had on traditio- Libyan-British Relations Council.”61 This mo- nal structures of community within Libyans bilization reflected a harsh reality of enga- living abroad. The enhanced digital proxi- ging communities abroad – often the glue of mity to the events of 2011 in Libya did have engagement is crisis. disruptive impact on familial hierarchies as noted earlier. Next-generation Libyans living In time, Libyan stakeholders need to shift the abroad adopted an emboldened strategy mindset from a reactive to a proactive set- of risk to support their counterparts back ting. Again, the power of media and com- home. This led to tensions within the familial munications are important features of how system on whether to build advocacy or not. community mobilization crystallizes in mo- These tensions were reduced given the vio- ments of crisis. In the Libyan context, it was lence of the events in 2011 and indeed, the noted that due to “satellite images,” it be- ties of family were often a spark for advo- came clear that “if they [diaspora] didn’t act, cacy. As one article contends, “the transna- a million people may die in Benghazi.”62 tional ties of first- and second-generation immigrants to family members who were at The prominence of imagery showcases the risk of regime violence weighed heavily in final characteristic of note within the mobi- their decisions over whether or not to mobilization constituency. This phase became a lize publicly against home-country regimes battlefield of symbolism also within Libyans from abroad.”59 Within the mobilized framing living abroad. Such symbolism retains a of this phase, the power of advocacy is the powerful currency in shaping identity and lasting legacy. affiliations abroad. Again, Barley and Mer- chant’s real-time analysis of how Libyan The distinguishing between advocacy for children living abroad shaped their identities involvement and advocacy for intervention during this period provides a compelling sy- should be noted within this historiography. The role of US and UK involvement in Iraq

60 Moss, “Diaspora Mobilization for Western Mili- tary Intervention.” 58 Gabriel Sheffer. Diaspora Politics: At Home 61 Moss, “Diaspora Mobilization for Western Mili- Abroad. Cambridge, 2006. tary Intervention.” 59 Moss, “Diaspora Mobilization for Western Mili- 62 Moss, “Diaspora Mobilization for Western Mili- tary Intervention.” tary Intervention.”

39 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad nopsis of this currency. They explain that: The sincerity of the mobilization phase co- “(...) children’s identities were performative, mes to be complicated by the active and situated and dialectical, as they used lin- direct influence sought by many Libyans li- guistic and semiotic resources drawn from ving abroad during the events of 2011. This their home, school and media lives, reflec- re-inserts an inherently political agenda to ting a complex interweaving of translocal the engagement scope. Through direct re- discourses. The work suggests that identity turn and participation in political process, can be viewed as in a continual state of be- it offered Libyans living abroad with a new coming (Hall, 2000). Consequently, social form of capital. It pushed advocacy towards situations such as the Libyan Uprising are participation and brought forward issues that dynamic agents in the fluid performance of came to define the next phase of the histo- identity.”63 riography.

In designing a roadmap for engagement, it The legacies of the previous era played an will be important to explore and understand important contextual influence in this regard. these currencies of advocacy and symbolism Returnees were returning to a different Libya with a view to determining the feasibility of where their memories may not have matched such engagements and to provide a holistic the reality of the situation on the ground. It engagement portfolio. This, in time, will be a has been argued that the political involve- key influencer of the public and cultural di- ment of returnees was weakened since they plomacy that will inform engagement of Li- “were less familiar with present realities in Li- byans living abroad as it earmarks such com- bya and they lack strong ties to the country’s munities as important conduits of diplomatic new power brokers.”65 capital for Libya and positions Libyans living abroad as a non-state actor of influence for There is a quiet subtext to this when shaped the future of Libya. against global best practice on engagement of communities abroad. Quite often there is Moss’ triangulation of assessing diaspora a fascination in getting your communities mobilization in the Libyan context may be a abroad to return. Impact, however, for the helpful starting point in this regard. She as- betterment and development of the home sesses that such mobilization should be un- country often comes when your constituen- derstood by: cies stay abroad. Libyans living abroad can arguably do more for Libya in Washington (a) the character of the crises motivating D.C. or London than in Tripoli. Another le- their interventionist mobilizations, gacy impact was the variation of ideologies (b) their networked relations with those at work within the political agenda. As astute in the home-country, and assessment outlines that “reconciling the (c) the rise of the “responsibility to pro- different thick ideologies present inside the tect” that promotes multilateral interven- country and abroad, as well as the demands tion in cases of mass atrocities.64 of the ethnic groups (...) is not a political project of easy realization.”66

63 Barley and Merchant, “’The naughty person’: 65 Christopher S. Chivvis and Jeremy Martin. Libya Exploring Dynamic Aspects of Identity.” after Qaddafi: Lessons and Implications for the Future. 64 Moss, “Diaspora Mobilization for Western Mili- RAND Corporation, 2014, quoted in Seeberg, “Trans- tary Intervention.” nationalism and exceptional transition processes.” 66 Alunni, “Long Distance Nationalism.”

40 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

This participatory moment stemmed not only Constituencies from the direct involvement of returnees in A signature decision in determining the type politics. Efforts were made to include voting of communities and relationships that de- for Libyan citizens overseas in the 2012 elec- fined Libyans living abroad during this phase tion. In her comparative analysis of overseas was the Political Isolation Law. voting in the region, Brand asserts that this was “unsuccessful” as “limited institutional The law banned Gaddafi-era officials from capacity and a short time frame constituted holding office for a period of time.68 This an important reason for the low participa- led to a “a tendency to leave the country,” tion of the exiles.”67 The limited institutional gaining “strength among Libyan politicians, capacity illustrates the legacy issues of the businesspeople, academics.”69 The law had Gaddafi era where engagement will need to significant impact for Libyans living abroad be built slowly to close institutional, informa- in weakening “their possibilities of exer- tional and implementation gaps for effective ting influence on the political development engagement of Libyans living abroad. in Libya. The ability of contributing to a constructive transition became reduced as This phase of this historiography, rooted in lack of functioning institutions and unrest the events of 2011, indicated that Libyans spread in Libya.”70 living abroad were finding their voice. It marked a moment of connectivity and com- The influx of more arrivals into the commu- munity which shows that engagement of the nities of Libyans living abroad from the Law communities abroad can be achieved. This brought further tensions to bear in the com- moment of enthusiasm remains unfulfilled – munity. This period of retreat and exit stifled partially due to the onset of civil unrest that many of the potentials pushed forward by came to determine the final phase of the his- the mobilized community abroad. toriography. With the rise of civil unrest, there was also an PHASE FOUR: THE EXISTING emerging scepticism on the role of Libyans PHASE TRANSITION AND UNREST living abroad by the domestic audience in Li- Beyond 2011 and entering a post-Gadda- bya. Echoing some of the analysis of Baum’s fi era, the constituencies of distant, mobi- audience cost of domestic politics on foreign lized and active still retain pertinence as a policy creation, these scepticisms will need framework for the constituencies within Li- to be discussed in ongoing engagement.71 byans living abroad. There were a series of The aggregator tools of new media played key events that began to build polarizations between the domestic community in Libya, the returnees aiming to shape transition, and 68 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional Libyans living abroad. These complicated transition processes.” the realities of Libya’s moment of enthusiasm 69 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional and illustrate characteristics that pinpoint the transition processes.” significance of the role organizations such as 70 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exceptional ICMPD can play in bringing new energies to transition processes.” engagement of Libyan’s living abroad. 71 M.A. Baum. “Going Private: Public Opinion, Pre- sidential Rhetoric, and the Domestic Politics of Au- dience Costs in U.S. Foreign Policy Crises.” Jour- 67 Brand, “Arab Uprisings and the changing fron- nal of Conflict Resolution, Volume 48, Issue 5, tiers of transnational citizenship.” 2004.

41 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad an important role in nurturing these tensions. tendency to position the role of Libyans li- As one commentator notes, “social media is ving abroad in systematic framings of in- full of conspiracy theories about Western ternational relations and political science is motives. Postings have blamed Libyans from detrimental to engagement. It is overtly po- the diaspora for derailing the transition.”72 litical and limits the potentiality of engagement areas. Libyans living abroad were also operating in a domestic setting that may not have been The characteristics of this phase tell us conducive to engagement. It is argued that, that we need to build connectivity and to- “in spite of the large reservoir of goodwill getherness for Libyans living abroad. This will resulting from Western support for the revo- mean tough discussions on the past and the lution, Libyans were wary and even hostile memories or legacies inherent in this past. It to outside interference in their transition.”73 will be slow work, and patience will be the The continued lack of institutionalisation to victor. It is in these insights that the role of build meaningful transition again returned to agencies such as ICMPD play an integrative the fore. role. They can bridge the complexities of the historiography and its treatment of Libyans Characteristics living abroad to the realities of engagement. The constituencies displayed similar charac- The engagement process needs both skill- teristics to the previous phase with one key sets. addition. The role of Libyans living abroad in the events of 2011 and transition showcased The literature does showcase this. For exa- that engagement was now a possibility. mple, in showcasing the marginal role of Li- byans living abroad in the development of a Deeper philosophical questions now need to National Dialogue by the UN in 2015, See- be asked to shape our engagement moving berg argues that “members of the diaspo- forward. These are the true characteristics of ra become part of a social space in which this phase. multidimensional and autonomous fields struggle to obtain dominant positions, and So, let’s explore these questions. We must only rarely do they possess the necessary begin with politics. Should the endeavour of resources, solidarities and organizations for Libyans living abroad be political? The power strong mobilization and collective action.”74 of advocacy has greatly outweighed the impact of the active constituency. There are key These “resources, solidarities and organiza- lessons here. Political influence often best tions” are the opportunities for ICMPD, Li- arrives through de-politicised engagements. byan stakeholders and like-minded partners The immediate future of engagement is com- for the years ahead in Libya. The opportunity munity-orientated not political. is to negate a “lack of coherence” within Li- byans living abroad.75 Initial progress by the It is in this light that the study returns to our inclusion of input from Libyans living abroad issues of terminology as outlined earlier. This in the Libyan National Conference Report in 2018 by the Centre for Humanitarian Dia-

72 Boduszynski, “The external dimension of Li- bya’s troubled transition.” 74 Seeberg, “Transnationalism and exception tran- 73 Boduszynski, “The external dimension of Li- sition processes.” bya’s troubled transition.” 75 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

42 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

logue with support of the UN is a positive both sets of analysis, the research will then step-change.76 shift from the historical and contextual to the operationally bound focus of its research This brief historiography creates a newer un- purpose. derstanding of the constituencies and characteristics of Libyans living abroad along The initial datasets indicate a relatively small with why these features have been created. It cohort of Libyan born migrants living abroad informs us to some of the foundational fea- within the UN data estimates. It is important tures of the profile of Libyans living abroad to note here the definitional parameters uti- at a communal level. To leverage this towar- lized within the UN dataset. It focuses on Li- ds engagement of Libyans living abroad, the byan citizens whilst our definition and histo- study provides with a short synopsis on what riographical analysis has included additional the initial dataset on Libyans living abroad datasets such as next-generation Libyans li- can tell us. This data is from UN Department ving abroad. The conditioning impacts of the of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) In- historiography can also be estimated to have ternational Migrant Stock data.77 had an impact on the willingness of Libyans living abroad to be visible. DENSITY AND DEMOGRAPHICS This section outlines some relevant profile Similarly, the historiography showcased indicator from existing datasets. These will an openness to work with the West par- be supplemented by analysis of the consul- ticularly sparking into life in the 2000s af- tation processes with Libyans living abroad ter the removal of sanctions. This seems to enacted through our methodology. Blending bear through in the dataset. For example, in

2017

2015

2010

2005

2000

1995

1990

20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 180000

Figure 2. Estimated Number of Libyans Abroad (in thousands) for Various Years, 1990 to 2017. Source: UNDESA (2019)

76 Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. The Libyan National Conference Process. Tunis, 2018. 77 United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs. International Migrant Stock Data. Geneva.

43 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

1990, it was estimated that the population of the community of Libyans living abroad Libyans abroad was 76,071. This remained was projected to be 4,608 with incremen- relatively stagnant through the 1990s to an tal growth to 14,989 in 201778. Again, the estimate in 2000 of 78,811. However, an definitional parameters associated with our expansion occurred with growth to 98,964 framing of Libyans living abroad will in- (2005), 127,168 (2010), 154,534 (2015) and clude cultural and generational ties implying 158,798 (2017). that the density of the community in North America that can be engaged is deeper than This growth indicates a maturing of the com- these figures. The density of communities in munity abroad and conveys the potential for other geographies is assessed in the coming engagement if the agenda and agency is set sections of this research. correctly as discussed in the historiography. Exploring this potential can also be deepe- The challenge is now to channel their pro- ned through an assessment of the locales of pensity to engage. Furthermore, these trends destination of Libyans living abroad. Again, provide useful insight into the type of enga- the reference framework is per UN defini- gements that can occur. For example, the

Table 1. Distribution (%) of Libyans Living Abroad by Level of Development and Income of Countries of Destination for Various Years, 1990-2017

Most Less High Income Middle Income Low Income Year Developed (%) Developed (%) Countries (%) Countries (%) Countries (%)

1990 33.11 66.89 57.82 40.60 1.57

1995 36.49 63.51 61.40 36.90 1.70

2000 41.39 58.61 65.14 33.04 1.82

2005 56.21 43.79 73.62 25.32 1.05

2010 63.35 36.65 75.95 22.96 1.09

2015 54.75 45.25 65.42 33.50 1.08

2017 55.55 44.45 65.64 33.34 1.02

Source: UNDESA (2019) tions. This can be broken down as follows: most developed categorizations would indi- The maturing of the community abroad has cate that these countries of destination would simultaneously resulted in a stronger presence of Libyans living abroad in most developed countries and high-income countries. 78 United Nations Department of Social and Eco- This indicates that there are strong capacities nomic Affairs. International Migrant Stock Data. within Libyans living abroad to be engaged. Geneva. The incremental growth across the time- For example, according to UNDESA data, frame was as follows: 6,271 (1995), 7,981 (2000), the community in North America witnessed 10,211 (2005), 11,918 (2010), 14,476 (2015). strong growth during this period. In 1990,

44 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad have a relatively stable domestic climate the opening to the West partially accounts upon which to build networks of Libyans li- for the exponential growth in Europe from ving abroad. They will also be valuable re- 2000 (23,211) to 2017 (69,984). positories of social remittances, political and social cultures along with potential partner Other key influencers here are the migration countries for Libya on the road to security flows to Italy due to civil unrest. Italy emerges and stability. This centres engagement of Li- from 2010 as a key destination country. Gi- byans living abroad as a potential key contri- ven the nature of such migration, it is also li- butor in the short, mid and long-term future kely to ensure that issues of vulnerability are of Libya. A snapshot of the key regions of- embedded into any engagement of Libyans destination also enables the study to pinpoint living abroad. The migratory process is of- where Libyan stakeholders may build an in- ten one of struggle from success to signifi- cremental focus to engagement of Libyans cance – many often do not make it out of the living abroad. This is a relatively new policy struggle phase. Libya will have a duty of care field for Libyan stakeholders so a phased im- to its people abroad who may be vulnerable, plementation approach will enable a struc- and this should be a key feature of any enga- tured risk management to the engagement gement strategy, policy or roadmap.

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2017

Afirca Asia Europe North America

Figure 3. Estimated Libyan Population by Destination Region for Libyans for Various Years, 1990-2017 Source: UNDESA (2019) process. This geographical focus within the Other emerging countries of destination in- data can be broken into 4 key regions: clude the United Kingdom and United States The strong stability of Africa as a destination which may reflect the community confidence region confirms the ongoing regional emi- borne from mobilization phase outlined ear- gration of recent years as countries such as lier. From the beginning of the dataset in Egypt and Tunisia reside within this catego- 1990, both countries more than doubled in rization. The later growth in Asia also illus- the size of the community base of Libyans trates the diversification of emigration trends living there. The community in the UK grew suggested within the historiography. Again, from 6,468 (1990) to 14,499 (2017) with

45 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad the US growing from 4,037 (1990) to 9,520 the relationship between Libya and Libyans (2017). Again, given the wider definitional living abroad. The emphasis on community approach to engagement of Libyans living gatekeepers and the independent nature of abroad, it can safely be estimated that those the research through ICMPD conveys a com- who identify as Libyan will outstrip these pelling lesson for future iterations of such estimates. The indicative data findings and consultations. The willingness of a commu- trends will enable any engagement to take a nity abroad to share their data will be de- tailored and incremental approach. This will pendent on such actors or honest brokers. help donors, policymakers and practitioners to truly gauge the variations existing within The survey findings, whilst limited in scale, the communities of Libyans living abroad. It with 17 respondents to the English Version is these nuances that the wider research pro- and 14 to the Arabic version, are offered here ject aims to explore. By being a first-mover in as a scoping of the sentiment of the commu- this regard in terms of engagement, the stu- nity abroad. Later sections of this research dy adds an influential knowledge set for the will position this sentiment into a more sys- future engagement of Libyans living abroad. tematic roadmap where the robustness and validity of the findings can be further tested PROFILE CONSULTATIONS before market entry of any engagement ini- The direct in-market consultations empower tiatives. the research to move from data to application. They provide a real-time snapshot These sentiments are real and must be re- and synopsis of the communities abroad. corded. Furthermore, the reticence from the The scope of outreach was limited due to community abroad to engage with the survey the reach and timeframe of the project but in scale is also a telling contribution. Their the sample borne out of this research can silence is indicative of the challenges ahead be respected as a guide given the diversity for engagement. It must be based on au- of communities engaged. It adheres to the thenticity, credibility and trust. Indeed, micro emerging engagement model of choice for trends of responses within the survey also engaging communities abroad in accessing point to further silences. Some respondents successful and vulnerable members of the refrained from answering certain questions community abroad. due to their sensitivities. Therefore, the analysis that follows are representative of the Survey Synopsis applicable answers to those issues – certain The Libyans Living Abroad Consultation Sur- questions have outliers of silence. vey was distributed digitally and facilitated through community gatekeepers within Li- The researchers would like to place on record byans living abroad. It was available in both thanks to all survey respondents and key Arabic and English with all survey input pro- community gatekeepers who helped to share vided anonymously. Whilst limited due to the the survey. It is clear from the process of the timing of the research project, it is recom- survey that an early deliverable of any strate- mended that such a consultation survey be gic and institutional management of engage- enacted annually as it will provide a base ment of Libyans living abroad will need to metric on the growth of engagement from focus on establishing research partnerships Libyans living abroad. to deepen understanding of the community. Within this, strict guidelines on issues of data The uptake of the survey was conditioned by production, protection and management will the historiography outlined earlier along with need to be outlined to build confidence from the ongoing credibility and trust issues in the community abroad to engagement more

46 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad systematically in such research. This data echoes the historiography not only in terms of the composition of the commu- The following sections provide an overview nity abroad but also in terms of the newer of the sentiments of the community abroad. generations of migrants working beyond It is designed as indicative rather than ex- traditionalist framings to be more visible in haustive and follows the 4 sections of the their outreach. The fact that over 80% of res- survey. These were: Demographic Informa- pondents left Libya since 2000 identifies that tion, Educational and Professional Profile, there is a new potential to engage a commu- Community Networks and Organizations nity more willing to be visible. of Libyans Living Abroad, and Future Rela- tionship with Libya. When contextualized within other indicators from the demographic information section of Demographic Information the survey, it unearths some potential early The indicators drawn from the survey pro- stage engagement areas with Libyans living vide preliminary scoping for the strategic abroad. For example, the predominant rea- roadmap to follow in the conclusion of the son for leaving Libya was educational de- study. In terms of demographic information, velopment (41.96%), with other influencing the findings closely align with the characte- factors being economic advancement, family ristics identified through the historiography. and safety. Most of the respondents (74.20%) In terms of age, the respondents reflect the were married. layered and maturing composition of the community abroad outlined in the historio- Within measurable respondents, 80% were graphy as illustrated in the table below: married to other Libyans and the demographic breakdown of children within the Table 2. Distribution (%) of Survey Respondents community spread across all ages and both by Year of Birth genders. The breakdown of household size indicates ongoing deepening of familial Year of Birth % of respondents bonds abroad with 48.28% in a household of 1-5 people, 37.93% in a household of 6-10 1990s 25.81 people, and 13.79% in a household of 10+ 1980s 32.26 people. The majority of respondents noted 1970s 16.13 that their children have visited Libya, but the 1960s 9.68 ongoing instability has hindered more recent visits. This is signposted by the fact that 1950s 6.45 most of the respondents do not define them- 1940s 9.68 selves as frequent visitors to Libya. Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019)

Table 3. Distribution (%) of Survey Respondents Whilst this data is a holistic overview, there by Year Left Libya* were some slight variations on data between the Arabic and English version of the survey. Year Left Libya % of Respondents The Arabic version, which we can project 2010s 51.72 was submitted by respondents represen- 2000s 31.03 ting regional migrants from Libya, may then 1990s 10.34 help Libyan stakeholders to gauge variations of engagement needed across diffe- 1980s 6.90 rent geographies of destination of Libyans Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019) living abroad. For example, within the Arabic *Two respondents did not answer the question survey, the issue of gendered migration and on the year they left Libya

47 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad stronger gendered profiles of the community of destination prior to the one they are in abroad due to a heightened presence of fa- now. The breakdown of length of stay in their milial re-unification is an interesting finding. adopted homelands also supporst this indication. The breakdown is as follows: This will ensure that gender mainstreaming is a must across the roadmap but more invest- Table 4. Length of Stay (Years) of Survey Respondents in Country of Destination ment may be needed regionally, especially if regional migrants also consist of vulnerable Length of Stay in % of applicable members of the Libyans living abroad. Country of Destination respondents 0 – 5 years 25.81 The sense of belonging to Libya remains ro- 6 – 10 years 38.71 bust. 96.77% identify as Libyan and a majority expressed a desire to return to Libya in 11 – 15 years 12.90 the future. Coupling this with the deepening +15 years 22.58 of familial bonds, this would indicate that Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019) designed engagements of care and culture will be integral to safeguarding connections This shows the layering of the community as between Libya and Libyans living abroad. indicated in the historiography. With the re- There will be layers of Libya-ness at work duced frequency of visits to Libya (admitte- across generations and geographies where dly tied to the security situation) and the cultural and public diplomacy engagements trend to establish roots in their country of can strengthen these bonds. These enga- destinations, this is a telling insight for the gements can be instrumentalized to create road ahead. dialogue and trust with a lens towards direct developmental engagements in areas such This indicates a need to invest in the in- as economic and human capital transfer. frastructure of communities abroad as they are likely to remain situated in their country The fact that the majority of respondents of destinations. This should not be defined identify as Libyan is a powerful connection as a deterrent to engagement; quite the op- to Libya that should not go unrecognized. posite. Engagement of communities abroad The community is clearly passionate about has long been undermined by the “return” their heritage with responses also focusing myth; where governments and international on the need to envision “Libya as home” agencies thought that the physical return of rather than a contested ideological or poli- the community abroad was a necessary in- tical space. A large majority of respondents gredient for success. noted the lack of ideological and political consensus as a barrier to engagement. This Through our engagement roadmap, it will be strength of connection is a feature that will imperative to design interventions of digital be explored more in the assessment of focus and remote connectivity given the reduced groups and reaffirms the commitment to de- frequency of visits to Libya. This, coupled politicized engagement. This has important with the infrastructural investment noted, implications at a governance level. will onset a process of mutual relationships between Libyan stakeholders and Libyans Strengthening this finding, away from fami- living abroad that can act as pathway pro- lial trends, there is an indication that Libyans jects to more transformative developmental living abroad invest in putting down roots asks (such as economic development). The in their adopted homelands. 74.19% of res- centrality of familial bonds and children, as pondents had not lived in another country noted, can provide powerful engagement

48 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad points through cultural diplomacy for Libyan Given this indicative base from respondents’ stakeholders. This can have substantive im- inputs, it can be deduced that the commu- pact on the nation branding of Libya through nity of Libyans living abroad remains the such diplomatic portfolios. repository of talent outlined in the Financial Times article that opened this research. With Interestingly, within the demographic infor- 46.15 % of respondents holding a bachelor’s mation, all respondents identified as Libyan degree, 30.77% holding a master’s degree and the respondent pool included respon- respectively, and 15.38% holding a PhD, the dents born outside Libya. This has important community has the potential to be a highly implications on the definitional parameters influential advocate for Libya across many set on our understanding of Libyans living sectors and portfolios. The respondents to abroad. It will be imperative, in time, to deve- the survey drew expertise in areas such as lop an ancestral and affinity-based definition academic, aeronautical industries, architec- to fully realize the potential of engagement. ture, commerce, dentistry, ICT, law, medi- cine, professional services, and veterinarian These demographics can help Libyan science. stakeholders understand that it will need to design engagements across the spectrum Again, slight variations in the dataset from of the community abroad. For example, the respective versions of the survey may in- pertinence of digital engagement, next ge- dicated variations in the engagement port- neration engagement and gendered engage- folio across countries of destinations. With ment are all signposted in the above indica- the Arabic survey, the slight increase within tors. Furthermore, a body of work remains the bachelor’s degree categorization in this on the historical legacies of migration with survey indicates that targeted engagements a view to tackling the silences of the survey around access to employment services, edu- and empowering the community abroad to cational advancement, or wider career de- trust the process of engagement. velopment services may be suitable within regional geographies of recent arrivals of Educational and Professional Profile Libyans living abroad. Beyond demographics, the educational and professional profiles of the respondents were Reflecting on the historiography, there is a impressive. All respondents were professio- slight disconnect between the type of pro- nal and highly educated with the profile vi- fessional development being undertaken. sualized below:

High School Diploma

Bachelor’s Degree

Master’s Degree

PhD

Other

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 4. Educational Profile of Survey Respondents Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019)

49 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Whilst historical migration trends indicated housing, and other supports); the centrality of government scholarships to • Integration Support (including rise educational development abroad, 89.47% of of anti-immigrant sentiment); applicable respondents indicated that they • Transferability of Qualifications; did not receive a government scholarship in • Community and Cultural Support. this survey. This may signpost the development of an independent community abroad The need for a holistic support offering and a move away from an eagerness to en- from Libyan stakeholders is imperative to gage in official government programmes. the strategic engagement of the community Further exploration will be needed in time abroad. Sustaining the engagement of Li- on this issue to shape engagement, yet there byans living abroad is based on reciprocity remains a simple question from this section and respondents indicated that newer ar- of the survey: rivals may not have the same level of educational or professional background. This The community of Libyans living abroad re- heightens the need for such supports and mains a source of connections, expertise and positions the strategic roadmap in line with talent – are they engaging back home? global best practice on engagement of communities abroad; it should focus on engaging The challenge remains cultivating and the successful and vulnerable members of networking this talent as only three respon- Libyans living abroad. dents indicated that they have participated in any form of knowledge transfer back to Community Networks/Organizations of Libya. It will be imperative to engagement of Libyan Living Abroad & Relationship with Libyans living abroad to create networks of Libya interest where peer to peer networks bring The concluding sections of the survey are impact for the development of the commu- most compelling in the shift towards appli- nity and Libya alike. There is a strong record cation of engagement that will determine the of sector specific networks bringing impact final sections of this research. Whilst earlier through networks of professional and perso- indicators scope out potentialities of en- nal development for communities abroad. A gagement, the survey sections on existing prime example of this is ASCINA, which is a networks within Libyans living abroad and network of Austrian scientists globally. The the respondent’s ongoing/future relationship Annex material accompanying this research with Libya can inform us on the reality of the provides more examples. situation as it stands today.

Despite the highly educated and professional 56.62% of respondents do not sense a profile of the community, the respondents strong community network amongst Libyans displayed an acute awareness to the migra- living abroad in their country of destina- tory difficulties that Libyan communities face tion. 86.36% of applicable respondents in- when moving into their adopted homelands. dicated that they are not part of any com- Whilst difficult to ascertain a specific focus munity network or organization of Libyans on support services from the dataset, some living abroad in their country of destination. recurring themes did emerge in the survey Of those who are, the focus is social purpo- on potential areas of support to Libyans li- ses; and, no organization was indicated to be ving abroad, namely: more than 20 people in size. This is a significant opportunity for Libyan stakeholders. • Access to employment; • Access to resources (financial,

50 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

This enhances the recommendation on a focus tion of Libyan culture/heritage. In fact, the on building the community infrastructure of Li- ranking of key barriers to engagement is as byans living abroad. Such a step will become follows: lack of Communication; lack of ef- an integral part of the architecture for engage- ficiency (administrative and organizational); ment and help ease process of communication and lack of resources. and outreach. A key early stage of the roadmap must be the formalization of engagement By embedding engagements to narrow such structures, both within and outside Libya. barriers into the roadmap, we can support Libyans living abroad to organize to be ready The story of this survey echoes these fin- for engagement when stability in Libya is dings; distribution of the survey was difficult achieved. Indeed, the respondents also arti- due to the sporadic nature of the community. culate the need to enhance data on the com- Building the community network infrastruc- munity abroad as it is a barrier to their own ture of Libyans living abroad will position Li- integration and community development. byan stakeholders in the role of facilitator to support the communities abroad in building In terms of ongoing and future relationship this infrastructure. with Libya, the issues of trust come back to the fore. For example, 95% of respondents The necessity of this step for such engage- do not remit funds regularly to Libya and ment is outlined by the basic research ques- 89.47% of applicable respondents indicated tions that drive this type of engagement – that they have not invested in Libya. The who are the Libyans Living Abroad, where investor sentiment does remain positive are they, and what are they doing. It is illogi- however if stability is achieved. Several res- cal to conceive that Libyan stakeholders can pondents linked stability and a conducive access this information alone. By investing investor climate as key precursors for in- in community infrastructure, it can create a vestment. Others indicated innovative ap- cluster of connections that can advance the proaches to bridge Libyans living abroad in- research question. vestors with the official investment agencies of country of destinations investing in Libya. The survey respondents’ ideas on how to The survey also scoped out the framework of improve community networks indicate as interest in the type of future relationship that such. Their asks are quite simple – enhanced respondents would like to have with Libya. In communication, hosting events, and promo- the graph below, there are fascinating shifts

Political % of Respondents Professional

Economic

Social

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Figure 5. Type of Future Relationship with Libya of Interest to Libyans Living Abroad Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019)

51 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad occurring within the community to guide the and operational perspective. This will have framework of engagement. intrinsic value in the designing of a suitable governance framework in later sections of The dilution of political aspirations for a fu- Table 5. Ranking by Libyans Living Abroad of the ture relationship with Libya is a timely oppor- Importance of Libyan Actors for Engagement tunity to embed the communities of Libyans living abroad with a mission to help achieve Agency/Grouping Ranking of peace in the country. There is a specific fa- Importance tigue and concern on how Libya is being de- Libyans Living Abroad 1 picted globally. This purpose can be a glue Civil Society Organizations 2 for the communities abroad. It also may de- International Agencies/ 3a note an evolution within the community from Donors the historiography where politics was a core constituency and characteristic of the com- Ministry of Education 3b munity. There is now a need to depoliticize Ministry of Foreign Affairs 3c engagement of the community abroad. Ministry of Cultural Affairs 4

Source: Survey conducted by authors (2019). The sentiment indicates that the investment Ranking; 1= Highest importance aspect of engaging Libyans living abroad is towards the latter stages of any roadmap cy- the research. The ranking of key agencies cle, but it remains achievable in time. As dis- offered for assessment in the survey was as played above, this is a clear sentiment guide follows: on where to focus engagements across the lifecycle of the strategic roadmap. This is en- The above table is an indicative composi- hanced by the response to a direct question tion of actors deemed instrumental to bring on what types of activities did the respon- engagement forward. It illustrates a desire dents want to engage with for the betterment from communities abroad to be positioned of Libya. 52.63% indicated a willingness to as partners in the design and creation of participate in professional activities. their engagement roadmap. It pinpoints the need for a layered and partnership-based The preeminent position of social engage- governance roadmap. This has integral im- ments followed by professional and eco- pact on the roadmap that follows as it means nomic engagement gives us a baseline of a that these systems of partnership and gover- cyclic roadmap developed in later sections nance require construction prior to engage- of the report. At its core, the importance of ment outreach. social engagement and relationship with Li- bya marks the presence of a founding fea- In terms of initializing engagement, the sur- ture of engagement of communities living vey also scoped out priorities of engagement. abroad; communities living abroad like to These were identified and ranked as follows: engage back home and with their counter- support initiatives/projects of Libyans living parts abroad because they care about both abroad; engage community leaders amongst constituencies. Libyans living abroad on designing policies; and support cultural and schooling activities Whilst sentiment is indicative, the survey also within communities of Libyans living abroad. scopes out the institutional apparatus and system needed to execute such engagement. It can be asserted that Libyans living abroad The responses drew fascinating considera- see themselves as a seminal constituency tions for this system from an organizational in the engagement journey. The heightened

52 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad focus on civil society again emphasizes the lization of a new roadmap for engagement role of honest brokers in the engagement based on such analytical insight, applied re- process. Essentially, these indications inform search and, most importantly, the voices of that if the engagement process is solely go- Libyans living abroad. vernmentally led then it will not succeed. Focus Group Synopsis The governance prerequisite will be to de- The study held 3 focus groups with one held sign a framework that operates upon a in London in the summer of 2019 and two partnership-based model that embeds all the in Tunisia (Tunis and Sfax) in the autumn relevant actors. These actors will need to have of 2019. These focus groups were an ins- a seat at the leadership table for engagement trumental feature of the mixed-method ap- to ensure that it is fit for purpose. This again proach. They reflected the ongoing commit- positions Libyan stakeholders in a facilitative ment of the research to embed Libyans living framework. By designing and adopting such abroad as an active voice in the research a governance framework, Libyan stakehol- process. All the following input is in line with ders can make a statement of commitment commitments on anonymity and represent a to their community abroad by ensuring that reflection on the applied engagements that they are working in partnership rather than will need to be catered for in the strategic parallel. If effectively implemented, this will and institutional engagement of Libyans li- open opportunities to revisit the governance ving abroad. framework as engagement matures and trust develops. London Focus Group

The following section outlines the focus “There needs to be a commitment to respect group input. This, coupled with the deep his- of law, respect of human rights and respect toriography of previous chapters and survey of democratization. Do not politicize enga- overview, provides a solid analytical base gement of Libyans living abroad and we can upon which to build the organizational and move forward. It will not happen quick but operational frameworks to enhance the insti- will take time.”79 tutional and strategic engagement of Libyans living abroad. This concludes with the visua- The focus group held in London convened a

Current Situation Aims/Needs Priorities • Vehicle for Vision & Coherence. • Nation Branding. • Segmented Community. • Community Infrastructure. • Training. • Confusion of • Role of Media/New Media. • Business. Communication. • Convening Points • Inter-community • Mistrust & Corruption (Physical). collaboration. • Depoliticizing engagement. • Education/Schooling. • Reform as social/ethical necessity.

Figure 6. Synopsis of Findings from London Focus Group Source: Focus group conducted by authors in London (2019)

79 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 53 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad cohort of Libyan professionals working and tives of this focus group clearly displayed a living in the United Kingdom. Their insights fatigue with an ongoing culture of insincerity and testimonies provide compelling analysis in efforts to engage with them. Future work on the complexities they face in negotia- will need to tackle this culture. The current ting their complex sense of identity in their situation could be defined as three-fold, with country of destination. They open compel- the community in the UK displaying significant ling indicators for the future of engagement correlation with the historiography. The com- for Libyans living abroad, along with the ins- munity, whilst passionate about Libya, is seg- titutional apparatus needed to make this a mented. Delegates noted that: pragmatic, realistic engagement. • the community pre-2011 was a politi- The forwardness and openness of dele- cal orientated with a movement towar- gates at the focus group deserves recogni- ds working on community unison post- tion. These insights provide the landscape 2011.80 Efforts to establish a Libyan on which Libyan stakeholders are trying to scientific network and school infrastruc- establish a roadmap of activity. There will ture were signature steps in this regard. be a need for a systematic commitment to However, both were ultimately under- an organizational and operational culture to mined by a lack of funding and aware- pre-empt such a roadmap. The representa- ness on how best to integrate with fun-

Vehicle for Vision & Coherence Focus Group Participants Noted: Potential to develop a vehicle to channel their vision for Libya. Entities such as EU and ICMPD have a critical role to play in this. Community Infrastucture Focus Group Participants Noted: Need for help in building their community infrastructure. This will help to develop small scale but successful projects within the community. Role of Media/New Media Focus Group Participants Noted: Opportunity to tackle negative connotations of Libya in digital and mainstream media. These depictions are being "accepted as truth" and communities abroad can help change this narrative. Convening Points (Physical) Focus Group Participants Noted: Strong need to provide conveing spaces for the community. There is a "need to meet in person and unite the vision." Depoliticizing Engagement Focus Group Participants Noted: Opportunity to ensure engagement is done through systems rather than social contracts with folks back in Libya. Systems and processes needed to depoliticize and tackle corruption. Reform as social/ethical necessity Focus Group Participants Noted: Need to ensure a governance system to advance reform as an ethical/social necessity for the development of Libya.

Figure 7. Overview of Aims/Needs Expressed by London Focus Group Source: Focus group conducted by authors in London (2019)

80 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

54 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

ding sources in the UK. This is a service The key priorities were: that can be provided to the community 1. Training: Provision of training and capacity through a roadmap for engagement. building for the Libyan community in the UK to develop their community infrastructure, • There is confusion on who to commu- fundraising and networking. Also, to provide nicate with in terms of accessing diplo- guidance on how the work effectively with matic services. One delegate noted that UK counterparts. “we do not know who to deal with”81 Si- milarly, with the historic events of 2011, 2. Business: Development of a mechanism to they also noted that this brought a com- build reform on business process in Libya to munication culture shock on who should make the market conducive to engagement lead the communication process. of Libyans living abroad. The disconnect in standards of business culture in UK and Libya • The current situation is embedded by could be a form of social remittance to em- mistrust and corruption. There is a tan- bed back to Libya. gible sense of mistrust built within the community and normalizing community 3. Education/Schooling: Support can be networks will be important in this regard. provided to help establish a schooling sys- Also, the issue of corruption back in Li- tem in the UK to preserve cultural heritage bya acts as a barrier to entry for many to of Libyan children and strengthen a sense of be willing to engage in the development community. of Libya. 4. Inter-community collaboration: Eagerness The aims/needs of the community are inex- and keenness to ensure that there are poten- tricably linked to the current situation as de- tial contacts between Libyans living abroad tailed in Figure 7. in different countries. For example, UK focus group participants were particularly inte- Within these aims/needs, despite their fa- rested in connecting with other focus groups tigue, the community remains ready to help planned in other locales. Libya if the right systems are built. Their focus on embedding external partners is an 5. Nation-Branding: A key priority should be important note. It builds a tiered process of changing public and political perceptions of work in terms of the institutional and policy Libya as it can act as a deterrent of all the apparatus to engage Libyans living abroad. other priority areas identified. It also denotes an important feature for the next sections of this research. The neces- The important message from the above sary support systems to enact engagement analysis remains the ongoing willingness to are not only needed in Libya; the community engage from the community abroad. Along abroad also needs direct intervention to en- with this, their asks are not substantive and sure they are capacitated to deliver on their can be key predictors for the planned road potentials. This is emphasised in terms of the map at a strategic and institutional level to prioritization of focus advanced by the Lon- follow later in this research. Their eagerness don focus group. for systems and due process opens considerations for the institutional apparatus to be designed later.

The inputs from this focus group can now be situated within the other focus groups 81 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

55 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad with a vision to extract consistent messaging community abroad. In this sense, it deepe- on the roadmap. If the research can pres- ned our understanding of this cohort from cribe consistency in the current situations, the focus group in London. aims/needs, and priorities of the community abroad in different countries of destinations The focus group provides invaluable map- and socio-economic backgrounds, then this ping of the core outline of the current situa- is a sound profile base upon which to build tion, aims/needs for engagement by Libyan the roadmap. To achieve this, the study as- stakeholders and the priority areas for the sesses two additional focus groups held as roadmap outlined later. In terms of the cur- part of this research project.` rent situation, participants provided four key considerations: Tunis Focus Group • Sporadic and Informal Engagement: The “The Libyan diaspora in Tunis represents current situation, derived further from the an effective tool at the disposal of the historiography, is one of sporadic and infor- Libyan government to ensure networking, mal engagement. Focus group participants innovation, fundraising and also the displayed varying levels of ongoing enga- promotion of industries.”82 gement with members of the community abroad displaying “an unconditional com- Current Situation mitment to the development of Libya, and to • Sporadic, Informal Engagement. the Libyan diaspora in Tunisia.”83 • Next Generation Engagement. • Lack of Institututional/Infrastructural Support. Interestingly, this strength of linkage was also • Continuing Integration. articulated by younger members of the focus group. This indicates that there is poten- tially a vibrant sense of community among Aims/Needs for Engagement younger members of the community abroad • Sectored networks (for example, business). that can be engaged strategically through • Advocacy. mechanisms aligned with their community • Institutional Recognition. • Role of Civil Society. behaviour – for example, digital diplomacy. • Convening Opportunity. Other stakeholders noted the pertinence of Priorities personal networks to their engagement with 84 • Business - Feasible engagement/Data. Libya. Tackling this informality is a key de- • Networking. liverable for the roadmap ahead. There is an • Cultural Heritage. organic ethics of care building across the en- • Education. gagement of communities living abroad that Figure 8. Synopsis of Findings from Tunis Focus remains unfurnished in Libya due to a lack Group of institutional frameworks for engagement. Source: Focus group conducted by authors in Tunis (2019) • Next Generation Engagement: Echoing the This focus group, held in Tunis, consisted of analysis of the historiography, the readiness a gathering of Libyans living abroad that fall of the next generation to engage is a com- within the professional categorization of the

83 Mustapha Kaaniche. “Report: Tunis Focus 82 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. Group, 15/11/2019.” ICMPD Tunis, 2019. 84 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

56 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad pelling insight. One participant, for example, previous attempts to formalize community within this bracket has advanced numerous networks in key sectors have been weakened engagement points – including with leading due to this shortcoming.85 institutions such as the BBC and UN. This points toward the potential ambassadorial • Continuing Integration: The ability to en- role for next generation engagement and the gage effectively with the community abroad need to mainstream such engagement in the will be determined by building affinity and roadmap. belonging for development of Libya. It was noted that “most Tunisians are welcoming • Lack of Institutional/Infrastructural Sup- and kind, and integration into Tunisian so- port: Across the cohort at the focus group, ciety has been easy.”86 Evolving legislative there was a consistent thread on the need restrictions, such as the three-month resi- to embed further institutional/infrastructural dence permit, along with increasing waves support for such engagement. This will work of new arrivals in Tunisia, are deepening the across the migration management portfolio community. It is, however, bringing tensions rather than specifically for engagement of in the integration journey in areas such as Libyans living abroad with key services from rent. There is a diplomatic challenge in the Embassies and Consulates needing upgra- offing for Libyan stakeholders in safeguarding. For example, delegates noted that ding the welfare of their people abroad. This

Sectored Networks

Focus Group Participants Noted: Potential for Libyan stakholders to design targeted business, educational and socio-cultural action programmes aligned to real needs.

Advocacy

Focus Group Participants Noted: Need for Libyan stakeholders to advocate/consult with Tunisia (e.g. bilateral conventions) to safeguard rights of Libyans in Tunisia.

Institutional Recognition

Focus Group Participants Noted: Potential for Libyan elites and successes to be given special attention by Libyans institutions.

Role of Civil Society

Focus Group Participants Noted: Potential to anchor the principles and values of civil society and the encouragement of participatory, citizen, associative initiatives of Libyans abroad.

Convening Opportunity

Focus Group Participants Noted: Potential for Libyan Embassy in Tunis to organize each year a Libyan Businessmen’s Forum in Tunisia, an event that provides a workshop space for networking, information on promising niches, exchange and conclusion of partnership agreements with their counterparts in Libya

Figure 9. Overview of Aims/Needs Expressed by Tunis Focus Group Source: Focus group conducted by authors in Tunis (2019)

85 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 86 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

57 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad should be a key focus for the roadmap on the younger generation while taking into ac- engaging Libyans living abroad. count living conditions in Tunisia; Organize community rich programs as regards cultu- The aims/needs of the engagement road ral, leisure and training events.89 re-emphasize some of the above points along with providing key additional insight 4. Education: Provide Libyan students with for the roadmap. The aims/needs for enga- almost free training in French; Support the gement along with stakeholder input can be creation of Libyan schools in Tunisia.90 categorized as detailed in Figure 9. These aims, combined with survey material It was recommended that the mains gaps and other focus group insights, pinpoint the can be summarized as a dual need of ins- early implementation activities to be deve- titutional and non-governmental needs. The loped from the roadmap. To formalize prio- institutional needs focused on “creation of rity, stakeholders outlined a list of priority structures to implement the Libyan govern- engagement areas where the roadmap can ment’s migration policy.”91 The non-govern- focus. mental needs focused on the values of civil society and the encouragement of participa- The key priorities were: tory, citizen, associative initiatives of Libyans 1. Business environment: Encourage, guide abroad. and inform Libyans to invest and launch projects in Libya; Present Libyans abroad with Focus Group Sfax ideas for feasible projects and grant them the main tax and financial advantages; List “I think every day of Libya from north to Libyan businessmen in Tunisia in order to south from east to west, I try to call my family invite them to actively participate in events every day, my friends and all those I know in Libya to hear from them and also about aimed at them.87 the situation in Libya on all levels (security, social, economic,...), in addition to phone 2. Networking process: List Libyan expertise calls, we also organize live calls on Skype and support their influence by organizing with friends and we spend a whole evening scientific or technological events; the Libyan together as if we were in Libya.“92 authorities must implement its programmes of activities both within the country and in The focus group in Sfax was arguably the the host countries, relying in particular on most compelling focus group held as it di- a decentralized administrative and techni- rectly engaged more vulnerable members cal network; to motivate the associative ini- of the community abroad. As such, and to tiatives of Libyans abroad and in particular ensure transparency of input, a more discur- those aimed at young people and families in sive approach was taken to the focus group. the sense of citizenship and social and cultu- In engaging more vulnerable members of a ral integration.88 community abroad, it is integral to remain respectful to their realities and make them 3. Cultural heritage: the implementation of feel comfortable to share their sensitivities. targeted educational and socio-cultural action programmes based on the real needs of

89 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 90 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 87 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 91 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 88 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 92 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations.

58 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

Given the composition of the focus group ganised by personal means“ and that they participants, the research will reflect their “received no support from the consulate and words and realities rather than assert an in- embassy as well as Libyan asspciations.”95 terpretative tone for this section of the study. Enhancing such support can be a low-cost, As a research team, this step is taken as re- early success for Libyans stakeholders in en- cognition of their voices and realities. Their gaging their communities abroad. input and ideas will then be embedded into This distance also fed from their “mistrust the roadmap of activities identified later. In especially towards the associations that terms of the current situation, there is a deep have already contacted them, and did no- and emotive connection to Libya. Stakehol- thing for them, except for the organization ders noted that the link to Libya “is essen- of a few conferences, which they still be- tial and indispensable,” and they “try with all lieve do not provide anything concrete and available means to keep this strong connec- do not change their vulnerable situations. In tion.”93 It was noted that they “monitor the addition, these organizations have used their situation in Libya on a daily basis through personal data for purposes other than social the media, social networks and also through assistance, and this without their consent.”96 their personal relationships.”94 This mistrust is real and tangible for such layers of the community abroad and brea- Current Situation king down such attitudinal barriers in an ear- • Deep and Emotive Connection. ly challenge for the forthcoming roadmap. Isolated from Support Structures. • Mistrust. In relation to the aims/needs of engagement • Data Violations. for this community, they can be categorized as as detailed in Figure 11 : Aims/Needs for

• Next Generation Support. These insights help to design any formal en- • Creation of Associative Body. gagement plan for engagement of Libyans • Need for Political/Security Stability. living abroad. The first purpose for Libyan • Enhanced Embassy/Consulate Services. stakeholders is a duty of care for its people abroad. Throughout this focus group, the im- Priorities portance of diplomatic support was central. • Health. Consideration was given to issues such as: • Networking. • Cultural Heritage. • The renewal of circulation permits for • Education. cars in Tunisia and procedures for renewal; Figure 10. Synopsis of Findings from Sfax Focus Group • Obstacles in financial transactions with Tunisian banks; Source: Focus group conducted by authors in Sfax (2019) • Difficulties over residence permits; They remain, however, distant from institu- Lack of communication from Embassy/ tional support structures as all participants noted that their connection to home “as or-

95 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 93 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 96 Mustapha Kaaniche. “Report: Sfax Focus Group, 94 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. 08/11/2019.” ICMPD Tunis, 2019.

59 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Next Generation Support Focus Group Participants Noted: Their children share the same feelings of belonging to their country, and wish to visit Libya regularly. Also, they expressed dissatisfaction and claimed a lack of support and assistance for their children’s schooling. Creation of Associative Body Focus Group Participants Noted: A need to set up an official or associative body so that they could better communicate with the Libyan authorities, and benefit from the necessary social and economic support, and at the same time contribute to the development of their country. Need for Political/Social Security in Libya Focus Group Participants Noted: Libya cannot develop without political and security stability; and their situation abroad is directly tied to such security.

Enhanced Embassy/Consulate Services

Focuse Group Participants Noted: Solutions for Libyans residing abroad can only be found through structural policies that focus on good governance of migration, but they do not hide their immediate needs, which can be met through short-term measures, such as improving services in consulates and embassies, especially in the social field and essentially covering care costs.

Figure 11. Overview of Aims/Needs Expressed by Sfax Focus Group Source: Focus group conducted by authors in Sfax (2019)

• Consulate and resources within those were: Health, Networking, Cultural Heri- institutions; tage and Education. The reduced prominence of business was expected given the • Lack of adequate support in areas such composition of the community. as education, healthcare, and housing; As the focus group report notes, “Networ- • Lack of community infrastructure es- king, health and education present the priority pecially in terms of networking between areas for most participants, this is justified them, through the organization of activi- given the vulnerable situation of most parties, conferences, etc. ticipants”.97 According to the participants, “networking, between peers for example, will These concerns are, in fact, an opportunity allow them to build relationships, and subse- for Libyan stakeholders to enact a meaning- quently a network of connections that could ful step-change in its diplomatic care to Li- be homogeneous in terms of concerns, which byans living abroad. It will signpost that they will further facilitate communication with the are being taken seriously and that their is- various Libyan or Tunisian stakeholders.”98 sues matter.

The prioritization tool was again used to focus a phased implementation model for 97 Mustapha Kaaniche. “Report: Sfax Focus the roadmap. Although participants pres- Group, 08/11/2019.” ICMPD Tunis, 2019. cribed varying level of importance to key 98 Insight from Stakeholder Consultations. issues, the 4 most common priorities areas

60 Profile of Libyans Living Abroad

Given the analysis offered within this section, the study must now address how to bring such engagement models that cater for the needs of Libyan stakeholders and Libyans living abroad from potential to policy to practice. The next sections of this research outline optimal institutional and engagement roadmaps to ensure that the next phases of this journey are impactful. They are designed to be simple, informative and based in the realities of the current profile and situation of Libyans living abroad.

61 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

62 LIBYAN LIBYAN INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK

63 64 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

LIBYAN INSTITUTIONAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK

This section of the study assesses the exis- • Ensuring a representative role for Li- ting policy and institutional apparatus within byans living abroad in the operationali- Libya for pursing engagement of Libyans li- zing of engagement activities. ving abroad. The ongoing fragility of Libya’s institutional apparatus limits the depth and SETTING AN INSTITUTIONAL AND scope of research possible, but this chapter POLICY FRAMEWORK – FROM serves as an illustrative guide on the neces- MANDATE TO MECHANISM sary inter-institutional collaboration for such This section provides a synopsis of the key engagement. institutional apparatus with a mandate that positions such institutions as a core contribu- Engaging the Libyan communities abroad tor to engagement of Libyans living abroad. will cut across several ministerial or institu- The ongoing fluidity of institutionalization that tional portfolios and a core set of recom- informs Libyan policy landscapes given the mended policy practices can attribute early ongoing migratory sensitivities in the region impact for such engagement. At a minimum, means that such mandates may be open to Libyan stakeholders can commit to: change. This equates to the need to ensure an agile governance framework for our roadmap. • Ensuring, when possible, high-level political support to the issue of engagement It is not the aim of this research to assert on of Libyans living abroad the validity of such mandates but to assess the institutional apparatus working on the to- • Ensuring collaborative inter-institutional pic with a view to developing recommenda- engagement tions on how best to develop a mechanism for engagement of Libyans living abroad at • Ensuring acknowledgement of engage- an institutional level. This mechanism should ment of Libyans living abroad in all re- be designed to also include external partners levant institutional framework/policy do- such as ICMPD, international partners and Li- cuments byans living abroad themselves. It is through this collaborative lens, that the research iden- • Ensuring development of an optimal or- tifies the relevant institutions below. ganizational and operational culture for engagement of Libyans living abroad

65 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

From a scoping of the relevant institutional engagement of Libyans living abroad include: apparatus currently operating within Libya, Developing plans and programs that are de- we can identify the following leading and signed to strengthen the political and econo- supplementary apparatus for engagement of mic relations between Libya and other coun- Libyans living abroad1: tries; Holding oversight over the diplomatic functions of the Libyan State; and Housing of Social Attaches within certain embassies in order to provide data and information about Leading Apparatus displaced Libyans in those countries (mainly Egypt and Tunisia).

• Ministry of Foreign Affairs Given that the Department of Expatriate Af- (in particular): fairs is part of this Ministry, the wider portfo- • Department of Expatriate Affairs lio of the Ministry situates it as a key agen- • Department of Consular Affairs cy in the roadmap. It is uniquely positioned • Ministry of State for Migrants and the Displaced to address issues such as the education of children, medical insurance, residence and/ or visas that have emerged as common problems for Libyans abroad. Supplementary Apparatus The Social Attaches report back to the MFA and sometimes directly the Ministry of State • Department of Civil for Migrants and the Displaced (MoSMD). Society Organizations However, recently the MoSMD set up an on- • Department of line service where displaced Libyans/forced International Organizations Libyan migrants can apply online for assis- • Department of tance and do not need to visit an embassy. International Cooperation • Department of European Affairs The aim of the roadmap, in part, should be to regularize these support engagements whilst also providing engagement opportunities for overachievers within Libyan communities li- Figure 12. Primary and Supplementary Apparatus ving abroad. This duality of engaging the in Proposed Institutional Road Map successful and supporting the vulnerable will Source: Authors’ illustration address the findings of the research to date.

PRIMARY APPARATUS Department of Expatriate Affairs The Department of Expatriate Affairs has a Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) role in emigration, particularly in terms of The relevant aspects of the mandate of the looking after Libyan expatriates, as demons- Ministry of Foreign Affairs pertinent to the trated in the mandate that is presented below. This mandate positions this department as the core apparatus of implementation for the roadmap as outlined in Figure 13. 1 ICMPD. Information on Institutional Aspects of Policies on Libyans Living Abroad (Internal Do- The supplementary apparatus will bring cument). Tunis, 2019. The institutions identified context-specific expertise to enact enga- in this section of the analysis were based on this gement pertinent to their areas of work. It institutional scoping. will be essential in the roadmap to ensure

66 Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework

The mandate of the Department of Expatriate Affairs is set out in article (18) of Cabinet Decree No. (214) of 2012: 1. Preparation of a list of data and information on Libyans residing abroad. 2.Definition of expatriate contributions at home and abroad. 3.To connect the expatriates to their mother country Libya and to benefit from their experiences and experiences, care and lose their conditions and solve their problems. 4.To assist those who wish to return to the homeland and enable them to work, education and engage in three state institutions 5. Facilitate the procedures needed by the expatriate inside and outside the country. 6.Work to provide moral guidance and assistance to those who have been negatively affected by the cultures of others. 7. To connect and communicate between the Western society and the Libyan society to transfer the culture and practices that are consistent with our Islamic culture.

8. Transfer of knowledge and technology and the formation of strong relations in the field of education and scientific research. Encourage people with experience and skills, and identify and push them to take leadership positions and contribute to the service of the homeland, as well as encouraging the owners of capital to invest in the homeland

Figure 13. Mandate of Department of Expatriate Affairs Source: Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Article (10) of Cabinet Decree No. (214) of 2012 that these supplementary entities formalize Ministry of State for Migrants and the the importance of engaging Libyans living Displaced (MoSMD) abroad within their own internal portfolios The mandate of the Ministry of State for Mi- and strategic plans. This will safeguard the grants and Displaced is not established by importance of the topic at an institutional le- law. Rather, it has been established by an in- vel and enable the roadmap to build a tiered ternal decision. The MoSMD only works with governance structure that can deliver execu- displaced Libyans (internal or external) and tive and technical expertise to the engage- forced Libyan migrants. Its main function is ment process. This is outlined in more detail to facilitate their return home or to other safe in the next section of the research. places of safe refuge within Libya. This ministry has an important role to play in enga- Department of Consular Affairs ging more vulnerable layers of the commu- The Department of Consular Affairs plays a nity abroad. broad role in emigration and mainly in terms of serving Libyans abroad for their consular SUPPLEMENTARY APPARATUS needs (passports, documents, assistance, civil status, certifying documents, amongst Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) other issues). Reflecting on the findings of previous sections, a central motif was on Department of Civil Society Organisations the need to improve capacity and services While the Department of Civil Society Orga- within consulates and embassies. The role nisations does not have any direct mandate of this department will be integral to further for migration management, it does have a listening on these improvements along with mandate to work with civil society. Given the providing scope to instrumentalize the en- insights derived from the profile of Libyans hancements. living abroad and consultation processes, ci-

67 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad vil society entities are key actors in the road Therefore, this department will play a key ahead. role in accessing the globality of the community. Whilst this may take time to achieve, it They will be enablers of engagement by will be imperative to embed this department providing bridging services between Libyan from the early stages of engagement in order stakeholders and its people abroad. They to ensure they are informed of the roadmap can be the honest brokers to build meaning- and planned activities. ful relationships across the spectrum of engagement. The study can now begin to focus on how to most effectively blend the mandate driven Department of International institutional apparatus with the community Organisations driven feedback of earlier sections. The The Department of International Organisa- first challenge is to enter a design concept tions does not have any direct mandate for phase where the study designs an optimal migration management, but it does have a governance framework to bring engagement mandate to work with international organi- forward. This framework must be designed sations. For the same reasons that apply to to be reflective of the evolving marketplace the Department of Civil Society Organiza- of engagement of communities living abroad tions, this department will be an important along with being driven by a set of values contextual influencer for the roadmap and driven purpose. institutionalization of engagement. Such international organizations are repositories of GOVERNANCE AND MECHANISM capacity to develop the engagement model. TO FACILITATE ENGAGEMENT They are key partners in this journey.

The Department of European Affairs 1 Creation The Department of European Affairs under the MFA is responsible for all dealings with European countries. Given the fact that mi- Consolidation gration from Libya is generally destined for 2 Europe, this department plays a significant role in migration management. The importance of this department relays to the diplo- 03 Curation matic capital it can channel for our roadmap.

The Department of International Cooperation Figure 14. Phases of Governance of Proposed Institutional Road Map The Department of International Cooperation plays a similar role to the Department for Eu- Authors’ illustration ropean Affairs, however for a broader region Given the findings of the profile research and than just Europe. This department will be im- community consultations of this research, it portant as we advance the research and de- is clear that a phased governance procedure velopment on Libyans living abroad. As the needs to be enacted to safeguard engage- data trends outlined earlier, globality is now ment of Libyans living abroad. The attitudi- emerging as the norm in terms of countries nal, behavioural, institutional and structural of destinations for Libyans living abroad. barriers to such engagement means that the The globality of the community will result in governance framework should be one built the need to develop international co-opera- incrementally with a clear focus on risk mi- tion within many international jurisdictions. tigation.

68 Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework

This research advocates for the application profiling of the community abroad. Given of the governance system based on creation, the institutional landscape in Libya and the consolidation and curation. This will enable current situation of the communities abroad, Libyan stakeholders to develop their internal Libyan stakeholders will need to adopt a capacities before enacting substantive enga- multi-stakeholder partnership to effectively gement activities. This will provide opportu- scale engagement of Libyans living abroad. nities to reduce the barriers outlined early by embedding the community abroad as a key The research findings have indicated that constituent in designing the roadmap for ac- there will be the need for a systematic process tivities also. of community building and trust-building to be enacted. The historical complexities that Furthermore, the projected implementation informed the creation of communities of Li- culture of partnership engagement posits byans living abroad along with the ongoing certain governance needs to ensure donor potential of engagement cannot solely be a and market confidence to deliver strategic government-to-community-led process. If engagement. such a model was to be enacted, then there would be initial but unsustainable impact. Governance Structure There is a prerequisite for engagement to ensure that all pertinent stakeholders – civil society, communities abroad, governmental Tier 1 Tier 2 Multi- institutional apparatus, international agen- Executive Operational stakeholder cies, and the private sector – are built into a Leadership Leadership Partnership system of partnership to safeguard engagement. Furthermore, the sensitivity of the current situation in Libya heightens this need. Figure 15. Proposed Tiered Governance Structure The operational tier is focused on bringing for Engagement of Libyans Living Abroad those partners to the table to enhance the Authors’ illustration capacity of Libyan stakeholders. This is the creation phase. The juxtaposition of internal and external governance can be simplified to the process of Furthermore, the communities of Libyans li- developing an executive and operational tier ving abroad should also be viewed as an inte- to the governance framework. The executive gral partner in this tier. It is important to give tier is the internal inter-institutional appara- Libyans living abroad a sense of ownership tus to be built in Libya. It will focus on iden- in this journey. The visualization below is an tifying the core organizational culture and indicative top-tier organogram to execute collaboration to design engagement. Given such governance in action. the early stage of the engagement process, this will also be centred upon identifying the The below organogram displays the agency required capacity development of relevant within the tiered structure. The executive lea- institutions in Libya to shape impact through dership of the governance framework should engagement of Libyans living abroad. be embedded into the ongoing work towards the creation of a national migratory system The operational leadership tier is an assess- for Libya. Previous assessments undertaken ment of the required technical capacity and by ICMPD showed that Libya does not yet partners to enact engagement given the have a clear institutional coordination plat- barriers outlined in the historiography and form for migration governance at a national

69 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Technical Committee (TC) Department of Expatriate Affairs (T2) Migration Representative Governance Body of Coordina- Community tion Body Abroad (T1) ICMPD/Donor Relationship Management (T2) Prospect Index

Figure 16. Institutional Tiers of Proposed Model of Engagement Governance Authors’ illustration level. As long as no intra-Libyan inter-insti- Tier 2 brings an array of operational models tutional coordination mechanism (“migration for its implementation. Given the projected governance system”) exists, Libya does not partnership model of engagement, the num- have a platform to define its strategy and ber of active participants within the tier in- priorities to inform its international coopera- creases. The core challenge then reverts to tion and thus ensure its sustainability. an issue of co-ordination. Given the contexts and findings through the research thus far, The establishment of such a system is im- the governance roadmap must assess as to perative for the executive competencies to where the core responsible agency for im- drive engagement of Libyans living abroad. plementation should be. This is the consoli- This form of engagement will flux across dation phase. institutional apparatus and the need for an intra-Libyan inter-institutional coordination For example, should it be a government-led mechanism is imperative. Many of the fai- process or a community-led process? lures in engagement of communities abroad Should it be a blended process that embeds by different governments is rooted in their a mutuality of involvement across the active inability to build such a mechanism. participants? Should it be a civil society led process? Should it be local, regional or glo- It is noted in ongoing dialogues that the bally situated? These all have various imple- intermediary of a «Migration Governance mentation models, but the research findings Coordination Body» (MG-CB) would ensure lend towards two viable options. These are inter-institutional coordination among all visualized below: stakeholders in the field of migration management regardless of their sector and area of Given the ongoing work to increase the ins- intervention. This co-ordination and conve- titutional capacity of Libyan stakeholders ning role positions such a body as the natural then there is a potential to situate the Mi- executive body of the governance framework nistry of Foreign Affairs specifically through of engagement of Libyans living abroad. the Department of Expatriate Affairs as the

70 Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework co-ordinating mechanism to embed the ration phase where Libyan stakeholders will other key stakeholders. This will align with have the necessary capacities to execute a the recommendation to ensure ongoing ins- firmer leadership role in engagement of Li- titutional capacity development. However, byans living abroad. when assessed in the context of the research

Tier Tier

Model A Model B

ICMPD/ TC/ MoFA (Core Donors/TC/ MoFA/ Representative co-ordinating Representative ICMPD/ Body of Unit) Body of Donors Libyans Living Libyans Living Abroad Abroad

Figure 17. Options for Structure of Tier 2 of Proposed Governance Structure Authors’ illustration findings, this model may need to be the de- This ensures that all participants and liverable of the next stage of work. There are stakeholders have equal buy-in and sense of significant findings in terms of the barriers ownership to the process. An added value of to engagement that indicate that such a mo- the model is also that it is based on an agile del is not market ready. In line with the plans model of governance where small teams in around a national intra-Libyan inter-institu- disparate geographies can relate to their tional governance system, budget may also common purpose and vision. It is this agile be a significant barrier to market entry for this connectivity that makes it an optimal model model. It is imperative, therefore, to consider for engagement of Libyans living abroad gi- Model B as a pathway model towards Mo- ven the current profile and situation of the del A. This model is developed through a community. networked agency model to avoid hierarchi- cal approaches to implementation structure. For example, in the operational leadership This adopts “a team of teams” approach that tier of the governance framework, the geo- is shaping optimal implementation models in graphical spread of influencers would be a the public and private sector. The “team of challenge in a different model. The role of teams” approach is a decentralized model the Department of Expatriate Affairs and that is based on mutual accountability for the the Technical Committee will be based in successful implementation of the engage- Libya, the role of ICMPD and their engagement process. By transitioning to Model A at ment of Donor Relationship Management the end of the roadmap, this will be the cu- will be across geographies, as will the role

71 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad of the Representative Body of Libyans Living that the Department of Expatriate Affairs wit- Abroad. This “team of teams” approach will hin the Ministry of Foreign Affairs execute set out specific terms of reference for each this role. Their mandate is mostly centralized entity and enable collaboration through digi- on the aims and expectations of future enga- tal and in-person connectivity. The “team of gements from the perspectives of both Libya teams” approach ensures that all who should and its communities abroad. have a voice, can have a voice. It also works to ensure equality and inclusivity; thus, de- This layer of governance – as per Model livering the organizational culture outlined B outlined earlier – also embeds a simul- later in this research. taneous presence for external partners to work in collaboration with this department. At a practical level, it offsets budgetary and This will bring the capacities provided by logistical pressure from the MoFA but posi- such external partners into direct support tioning it within a triangulated model of im- of the core implementation agency. This is plementation partnership. It will open access a risk mitigation tool to ensure that the ne- to sources of budgetary and capacity know- cessary capacity to deliver engagement is how along with providing ongoing engage- afforded to Libyan stakeholders. ment with key partners that can support its evolution towards sole lead implementation As noted earlier, this model will bring a subs- agency. The next section of the research tantive repository of budgetary, capacity identifies how each layer of the organogram expertise and know-how to help engage- is shaped and operationalized. ment of Libyans living abroad. Furthermore, it is intrinsic for issues of accountability and LAYERS OF THE ORGANOGRAM: transparency – echoed through input from A SHORT SYNOPSIS Libyans living abroad through this research This section outlines a short overview of each – that the governance mechanism embeds layer of the organizational structure. The Mi- audit partners to nurture early stage enga- gration Governance Coordination Body, as gement. The tier will, at a minimum: outlined in documents on possible institutional reforms, would be responsible for coor- • Be led by a management council of dinating the intervention of all Libyan public 7-10 representatives with an elected institutions in charge of the migration issue. chairperson and vice-chairperson This will necessarily involve the establishment of inter-institutional agreements that • Consist of executive level leadership would regulate and systematize all the inte- within their respective entities/organi- ractions between the different institutions. zations Moreover, it can play either only a coordinating role without decision-making leadership • Include high-level members of the (an inter-ministerial commission under the community of Libyans living abroad aegis of the Presidential council), or a joint coordinating and leadership role (e.g. being • Reflect the stated cultures outlined in a ministry or a state secretariat) or a third this research particularly on areas of di- format to be agreed later. versity, equality and inclusivity

In bridging from the executive to technical • Act as a formal and informal “ambas- layers of the governance framework, it is es- sador” for the engagement with Libyans sential to allocate a core Libyan institution living abroad to provide that brokerage. It is recommended

72 Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework

• Advocate for financial support through composed by 11 Board Members, including partnership with donors to support the the President of the Board, with a diverse aims/activities of engagement. (A Pros- range of experience and background. The pect Index will be needed to source such Board meets at least four times a year.”3 participants). It will be important to further create a tech- It is imperative that the governance design is nical committee of government staff who will not solely governmental led so embedding be responsible for the core day to day mana- key constituencies from the communities gement of engagement. Linking this techni- living abroad can be developed to support cal committee with a representative body of this work. Similar entities have brought im- Libyans Living Abroad will enable a deeper pact in other countries on engagement of connection between Libya and its people communities living abroad, for example Ire- abroad. The Portuguese model outlined land, Mexico and Portugal. above is one option and the annex material accompanying this research provides a re- For example, the “Portuguese Diaspora presentative sample of global best practices. Council is a non-profit private association, This is smart power foreign policy in prac- founded in 26th December 2012, with the tice; people to people power.4 high patronage of the President of the Portu- guese Republic.”2 The work of the council is These steps also have a subsidiary impact for driven through a World Portuguese Network. the community living abroad. There is a strong The governance of the council is based upon need to begin to develop a culture of connec- roles of Honorary Presidency, General As- tivity and convening between Libyans living sembly and a Board of Directors. These roles abroad. Such a representative body of Libyans are allocated as follows: living abroad will act as a pathway to such a culture. It will remain intrinsically difficult to The Honorary Presidency: is composed engage Libyans living abroad if they remain by the President of the Portuguese Republic disconnected to each other in their countries and the Minister of the Foreign Affairs of destination. This inter-community networking is a necessity for engagement. The General Assembly: is “the supreme body that decides on the policies to follow, com- There will be a need to embed monitoring posed by all members of the association that and evaluation in line with projected public represents the universality of the associates. and donor expenditure in this model. During The Bureau of the Diaspora Council is com- these evaluative points, this implementa- posed by one President, one Vice-President tion framework can be assessed for market and one statutory auditor (non-member of compatibility. As engagement of Libyans li- the Council). The Diaspora Council meets ving abroad matures, the implementation once a year.” framework may take on a more complex footing. This will require a fresh re-imagining of The Board of Directors: is “the decision-ma- the implementation framework at that stage. king body of our association who determines the strategic positioning and vision. It is

3 For more information, see https://www.diaspo- raportuguesa.org/board-of-directors/?lang=en. 2 For more information, see https://www.diaspo- 4 See footnote 44 regarding the work of Joseph raportuguesa.org/board-of-directors/?lang=en. Nye on smart power.

73 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

ORGANIZATIONAL AND OPERATIONAL “the complexities of migration challenges CULTURE can only be met by working in partnership Given the specificities of the Libyan context with governments, research institutes, in- and histories, the engagement of Libyans ternational organisations, intergovernmen- living abroad is now entering a key “va- tal institutions and civil society. The work of lues-driven” phase. Whilst the energies and ICMPD is based on a three-pillar approach: interests of the communities abroad to en- Policy & Research, Migration Dialogues and gage back home are clear, there is now a Capacity Building.“5 need to embed a systematic organizational and operational culture to such engage- This research advocates that engagement of ments. These cultures are a stated commit- Libyans living abroad – owing to the compo- ment to act as a code of good practice and sitive constituencies of successful and vulne- baseline expectation to increase market trust rable communities abroad – be based upon a for such engagements. spirit of ethos, ethics and empathy. The ethos should be based upon togetherness and re- The relevance of asserting a stated com- ciprocity. It views Libyans living abroad as mitment on how the engagement process co-creators of Libya’s development.6 will act is focused on the attitudinal, behavioural and structural barriers identified The operational culture is first and foremost in the stakeholder consultations. Libyans driven through an ethics of care prior to ethi- living abroad are acutely aware of why Li- cal engagement.7 It should be the stated aim byan stakeholders want to engage them, of Libyan stakeholders and their partners to particularly the successful members of the contribute to its vulnerable people abroad community. Yet, there is a fatigue as several whilst also ensuring ethical engagement of engagements have been deemed insincere its successful members living abroad. This is by Libyans living abroad. based upon a culture of empathy. Empathy is an important belief system in engagement By establishing a short section in the study of communities living abroad. An empathe- on organizational and operational cultures, tic organizational culture will ensure listening they act as a promise to the community across the spectrum of engagement. abroad and the partners for engagement on how the engagement process will proceed in OPERATIONAL CULTURE terms of behaviour from Libyan stakeholders. It should be the stated aim to undertake en- This is critical for engagement and can also be instrumental in sourcing external support for the roadmap ahead. In terms of engaging 5 For more information see: https://www.icmpd. international partners, ensuring compliance org/our-work/. with their ethos and values is emerging as a 6 The concept of co-creation has been advanced key determinant in donor decision making. in several emerging examples of good practice in diaspora engagement. See annex material for ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE more information. The organizational culture of engagement 7 The ethics of care concept in diaspora strate- of Libyans living abroad are based on the gies was initially advanced by the collaborative standardized principles of engagement of work of Prof. Mark Boyle, Dr. Elaine Lynn Ee Ho communities abroad informed by ICMPD’s and colleagues. For a formative overview, see approach and global best practice. ICM- Elaine L.E Ho, Mark Boyle, and Brenda S.A Yeoh. PD’s working philosophy is based upon the “Recasting Diaspora Strategies through Feminist conviction that: Care Ethics.” Geoforum, Vol 59, 2015.

74 Libyan Institutional and Policy Framework gagement of Libyans living abroad in an ac- By working along these commitments, the countable manner. The institutional roadmap research is recommending a vital step- identified above has instilled a system of ac- change in the culture of engagement along countability to protect donor and community the lines of input from our research findings. confidence in the transparency of the opera- The potential of such commitments is that tional culture. they are a set of values and commitment. They are free; and would signify an important Contextualizing both those components is a development in how Libyans living abroad stated commitment by Libyan stakeholders to want to be engaged from Libya. ensure sustainability both in terms of sourcing support and its operational output for engagement of the community abroad. Fur- thermore, there is a commitment to ensure that the operational output works to the sustainability of the communities it serves – respective partners and Libyans living abroad.

ENGAGEMENT BEHAVIOUR/ IMPLEMENTATION By embedding these organizational and operational cultures, the study outlines a robust baseline of behaviour commitments from Li- byan stakeholders. These are:

• To adhere to an accessible and agile model of engagement that is based on diversity, equality and inclusivity

• To work towards ensuring the aspirations of Libyans living abroad are heard and considered

• To focus on ensuring community integration for Libyans living abroad and to promote their co-operation with counterparts in Libya (government and non-governmental)

• To promote digitalization and innovation in the engagement process when possible

• To adhere to world-class standards on accountability and transparency to ensure trustworthiness of the engagement process.

75 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

76 ROADMAP: ROADMAP: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY LIBYANS ENGAGING LIVING ABROAD

77 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

ROADMAP: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR POLICY ENGAGING LIBYANS LIVING ABROAD

This chapter collates the analysis and findings mends a simultaneous process of internal outlined above along with the core guiding and external development in the first phase principles to answer a simple yet challenging of the roadmap. Without these building research question: What are the policy recom- blocks in place, it would be illogical to ad- mendations that can enhance the strategic vance any systematic engagement activi- and institutional management of engaging Li- ties as the infrastructure will not be strong byans living abroad? The answer to this needs enough to sustain such engagements. to be rooted in realism and can be reimagined to a more basic consideration below: ROADMAP: EARLY ACTIVITIES The above roadmap provides an achievable How can we get the strategic and institutio- process of activity that can enhance the mar- nal market ready for engagement of Libyans ket readiness for engagement of Libyans li- living abroad? The harsh reality is that issues ving abroad. It develops internal and external of discord and distrust means that the job capacities whilst setting in place a procedure at hand now is to develop market readiness that can be road-tested via direct market infor engagement of Libyans living abroad. terventions. Contextually within this body of work, the research must be driven by a desire to ensure In terms of direct internal capacity building, sustainability to our engagement. Within this, there is a need to enact the governance fra- the research must answer the fundamental ming outlined in the earlier chapter. This will question of why we are engaging Libyans li- enable key interlocutors to assess capacity ving abroad? And then, assess whether the needs of key Libyan institutions in more de- motivations of Libyan stakeholders reflect tail and design long-term projects to shape the motivations of Libyans living abroad. such capacity support. Some other key Consensus is the deliverable. steps in this regard include investment in the upskilling of key staff and institutions. En- Whilst there are clear attitudinal and struc- gagement of communities abroad remains a tural barriers to engagement, immediate diplomatic skillset so there is an opportunity recommendations must focus on building to invest in the training of such staff and ins- blocks of engagement. The study recom- titutional representatives.

78 Roadmap: Recommendations for Policy Engaging Libyans Living Abroad

Internal External Market Development Development Readiness

Figure 18. Road Map for Market Readiness for Engagement of Libyans Living Abroad Authors’ illustration

This research has informed the develop- process. ment of a capacity development workshop to be held in early 2020. This acts as a base Finally, the sharing of success stories is an scenario of elementary trainings to upskill influential aggregation of knowledge given staff. The workshop will showcase research that the engagement of communities living findings along with specific training on Re- abroad is a non-competitive sector. For exa- search and Development [R&D]; Donor En- mple, an individual who wants to help Libya gagement (Networking and Fundraising); the does not want to help Lithuania so countries 3rd Sector; and Success Stories from other can share their models of engagement. countries. Another logical internal development process The training on R&D will focus on compara- is the development of an updated strategy on tive assessment of the institutional coordi- engagement of Libyans living abroad. This nation mechanisms for engagement of com- strategy can safeguard engagement during munities abroad for Libya and the skillset to the ongoing fragile context of Libya. Such a execute these models. The networking and strategy can be a bridge towards formaliza- fundraising training will focus on the softer tion of the policy infrastructure in the deve- skills of engagement required and is linked lopment of an official policy on engagement to the training on the importance of working of Libyans living abroad. A strategy template with the 3rd sector (sectors outside govern- for Libya based on this research follows as ment and business such as civil society). the conclusion of the research. In the interim, there is strong capital in opening access for Yet, it is important to note here that the Libyan stakeholders to regional and global upskilling process should be a blend of the best practice on engagement of communi- hard and soft skills of diplomacy in 21st cen- ties living abroad. tury statecraft. This is echoed through the focus groups and providing a baseline, ac- Externally, this research has unearthed a long credited training programme in engagement process of community building that needs to of communities abroad with such a blended happen for Libyans living abroad. Enacting focus is a natural first step in the training an ethics of care means investment and sup-

79 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad port should be provided to the deepening of transactions to habitual.”1 the network infrastructure of Libyans living abroad. This will help with accessing data By linking such internal and external capa- and building consultations further. Libyans city development, Libyan stakeholders will living abroad are disconnected and provi- be able to arrive at a collaborative agenda ding connective platforms can enable grea- for engagement encapsulating the input of ter cohesion at a community level. pertinent influencers. These will be rooted in pragmatism and ensure that the early sys- In the direct interventions outlined later, we tem for engagement is built. It will ensure explore how commitment to dialogue, gover- simultaneity in the development of internal nance, and listening can be supported. Fi- stakeholders in Libya along with external nally, in terms of external capacities, there is stakeholders – namely the communities of a unique opportunity for Libya to convert on Libyans living abroad. The study now fo- the growing regional and global interest on cuses on engagement recommendations to engagement of communities abroad. There be enacted upon completion of capacity de- is a need to embed a Donor Relationship Ma- velopment to test the effectiveness of these nagement structure – as outlined in the go- steps. vernance roadmap - to ensure sustainability to the plans for engagement of communities MARKET READINESS TO ENGAGEMENT abroad. Risk-Management & Engagement Activities In building the above system of engage- Donor Relationship Management is based ment to ensure market readiness, a phased on upgrading existing international coope- implementation programme should then be ration mechanisms for Libyan stakeholders. built through a robust legislative and policy It focuses on positioning a professional and standing for engagement of communities strategic approach to fundraising and other abroad. When shifting towards the operatio- forms of cooperation. It is important in this nalization of engagement, stakeholders in Li- professionalization to invest in research and bya and its partners should ensure to curate development of the donor landscape – both a culture of engagement that scales through public and private sector – that can help systematic process. In other words, the en- build priorities and prospects for external gagement portfolio should not overreach in support. The landscape of international de- the early phases. velopment finance is shifting significantly, and this type of management is designed There are a series of risk management tech- to ensure that Libyans stakeholders engage niques that can be built within the enga- the right partner for the right purpose for the gement cycle to achieve this scale in pro- right period. cess. This research – through an indicative overview of organizational and operational Engagement of communities abroad and culture – has begun this process. These core projects within this sector often fail due to behavioural expectations are designed as the a lack of long-term finance and planning to first steps in creating such a culture of enga- attract such finance. Donor Relationship Ma- gement. nagement is designed to professionalize the planning process to adopt a long-term, relationship driven engagement of donors. It is 1 Kingsley Aikins and Martin Russell. “Why imperative that external support “moves from Diaspora Matters for Policy and Practice.” Migra Migration, Policy, Practice, Vol. 3, Issue 4, 2013.

80 Roadmap: Recommendations for Policy Engaging Libyans Living Abroad

The risk management of the roadmap can template to follow, each activity within each also be guided by international best prac- strand should also embed realistic reporting tice on engagement of communities abroad procedures in lines with normative expecta- and through an ongoing central role for IC- tions of the implementing agency. This will MPD. At its core, engagement of communi- ensure a macro and micro level of monitoring ties abroad is still a sector in development. and evaluation materials that will enhance The truth is that a lot of such engagements market confidence in the procedures deve- fail due to rushing to market too quickly. It loped for engagement. is important to study these failures to identify elements that contributed to their lack of This is based on the active inclusion of in- impact. In the context of this research, the ternational agencies and partners to enact study can categorize three key areas of en- engagement. It is also based on the active gagement recommendations to focus on to implementation of Libyans living abroad as limit the likelihood of failure. local owners of their respective engagement portfolios. It is through a robust communica- These key elements can be categorized as tion strategy to relay these partnerships and communications, trust and scale. The com- steps that market confidence will be able to munication need of this study is the huma- build on the mutuality of purpose in enga- nistic endeavour to build connectivity and ging Libyans living abroad. relationships between Libyan stakeholders and Libyans living abroad. A subset of this is the issue of trust. Trust is not an event; COMMUNICATIONS • Governance Partnership. it has to be earned, so Libyan stakeholders • International Agencies & now need to enact engagements to build Transparency. • Consultations - Local trust. Finally, scale is the testing moment of- Ownership. the market readiness process. It is simply a process to verify the earlier roadmap acti- TRUST • Dialogue/Forums. vities by testing engagement in softer areas • Ethics of Care. of engagement with Libyans living abroad to • Skills Transfer. see whether it will work or not. It is the appli- SCALE cation of the theory. • Advocacy. • Social Development. • Philanthropy. Upon completion of the organizational planning and capacity development, there will be Figure 19. Engagements as Verification a need to road-test engagement. The above of Market Readiness are a series of low-risk intervention areas for Authors’ illustration engagement of Libyans living abroad that will be able to successfully chart the effective- Similarly, engagements should be able to test ness of the procedures and planning advo- the creation of trust. Trust can and should cated earlier in this research. lead to action by Libyans living abroad. If the processes and procedures are built at a The communications pillar will establish a communal level between Libyan stakeholders process of accountability that will act as a and Libyans living abroad then the next lo- record of fact in the implementation of the gical step is to mobilize through this trust. It procedural developments. Within the gover- would be illogical to expect expansive mobi- nance structure outlined previously, there lization so segmented engagements of low should be a minimum of annual reports from risk need to be nurtured. both tiers of the structure. Within the strategy

81 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Promotion of dialogue/forums – both in tion of cultural heritage, supporting networks country of origin and residence – can be and building inter-community connections powerful convenors to see if trust can trans- are all low-cost impact areas for Libyan late to engagement. For example, the Glo- stakeholders. Furthermore, the prominence bal Irish Civic Forum is a convening of com- of professional exchange to advance Libya in munity leaders from the Irish diaspora who the survey findings indicate such exchange return to Ireland for a forum to discuss the as a natural engagement point. aims, concerns and needs of Irish diaspora – in particular, vulnerable members of the dias- The lack of community organizations within pora. Organized by the Irish Abroad Unit of the findings of the survey for example pro- the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, vide an obvious way of giving back to the the forum works across key themes and acts communities abroad. Supporting them in a pathway to real-time insight on how best their work to build such organizations can support the Irish diaspora. be a powerful commitment from Libyan stakeholders. Several countries utilize such gatherings to continue to build relationships with their Underpinning a lot of the above is a simple communities abroad. They are also design proposition: If Libyan stakeholders invest in gatherings where the engagement journey building the correct system of engaging Li- can be mapped out. They focus on iden- byans living abroad and we get the market tifying the capacities and propensities of ready – will Libyans living abroad advocate your communities abroad to engage.2 Fur- for Libya? The historiography outlined earlier thermore, such convenings should be au- indicates that Libyans living abroad are ready thentic and embed the communities abroad to stand with Libya when they are needed as the active participants and influencers in to. The focus groups powerfully articulate the design and success of the convening. It the affinity and passion that Libyans living is important to provide a balance between abroad have for Libya. This should not be un- government input and input from the com- derestimated or undervalued. The engage- munity abroad. ment of Libyans living abroad is not merely an engagement of choice for Libyan deve- Libyan stakeholders can also advance trust lopment; it is an engagement of necessity for through softer asks and mindsets. A key Libyan development. Scaling engagement mindset in creating trust is in the process will come back to providing the communities of giving to your community abroad before abroad with “asks and tasks.”3 trying to get something back from them. This will lead to engagement in areas of A soft yet powerful ask is to ask the commu- care, community and culture that provide nities of Libyans living abroad to advocate pathways to more robust developmental asks for Libya and help contribute to continuing for Libya such as skills transfer or economic to build a positive perception of Libya glo- development. bally. The intersections of communities living abroad, and nation-branding is an emerging Indeed, the survey findings posit that promo- discourse of interest for many governments as it is an early prerequisite for scalable engagement.

2 Kingsley Aikins and Martin Russell. “Why Dias- pora Matters for Policy and Practice.” Migration, Policy, Practice, Vol. 3, Issue 4, 2013. 3 Aikins and Russell, “Why Diaspora Matters.”

82 Roadmap: Recommendations for Policy Engaging Libyans Living Abroad

Evolving engagement from softer engage- This template will enhance the strategic and ments to developmental engagements of institutional management of engagement of scale will take time. Within this roadmap, it Libyans living abroad. It will enact the neces- will mean the design of engagement pro- sary internal and external procedures to de- jects aligned with the wider culture of care sign effective engagement. Strand 1 should that many communities living abroad de- focus on the institutional and leadership desire. Whilst governmental foci have centred velopment in line with the governance com- on issues of economic development through ponents of the research outlined earlier. engagement of communities abroad – to limited success – pathway projects to such It works on the creation of the necessary engagements are often overlooked. institutional apparatus within Libya and the community abroad. It then enacts the gover- It is the recommendation of this roadmap that nance framework; this requires budget and Libyan stakeholders culminate this roadmap expertise. Without this strand and the coor- through engagement activities that serve the dination apparatus it provides, engagement interest of their communities abroad. The will not be built on a solid footing. This strand simple reality is that many Libyans living should not be built quickly. The research has abroad want to engage with Libya because proven that patience is now needed to build they care about its cultural and social deve- the engagement framework. It is imperative lopment. Key interventions in areas of social to adopt a long-term vision, and this will be development and philanthropy – particularly a courageous leadership decision by Libyan given the current situation in Libya – are the stakeholders. This will see significant upskil- natural next frontiers of engagement of Li- ling of the necessary stakeholders in Libya byans living abroad. to enact engagement – governmental and non-governmental. VISUALIZING THE ROADMAP The assessment of this research paper is that Within this strand, there is also a need to there needs to be a systematic design of a deepen understanding on Libyan’s living multi-year strategic template for engage- abroad. This includes a specific research and ment of Libyans living abroad. This roadmap development component not just focused is cyclic and cumulative. This is visualized on deepening datasets on the community below: abroad but also promoting external research

Strand on the subject matter. For obvious reasons, Institutional there remains a reticence from the commu- and Leadership Development Supporting nity abroad to share their data, so such ex- Libyans Living Abroad ternal knowledge production is essential to Strand Strand inform data driven decision making in later strands of the roadmap.

M&E Libyans Strand 2 should focus on supporting the Li- Living Abroad byans living abroad. It caters for the commu- Human nication and community-based needs identi- Strand Strand Capital Libyans fied through the research project. It will act as Living Abroad a proof of commitment by Libyan stakehol- Ecomonic Capital ders to the engagement process and tackle the issue of fatigue within the community Figure 20. Policy Road Map for Engagement abroad. Activities within this strand should fo- of Libyans Living Abroad cus on cultivating the community’s eagerness Authors’ illustration

83 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad to build in their adopted homelands. It gives to them before asking them to give.

Strand 3 should focus on the facilitation of human capital exchange from Libyans living abroad back to Libya. These interventions are low risk and can nurture the critical trust to scale later engagements in line with the analysis of the previous section. Activities within these strands can focus on sector networks, peer to peer networks, emerging talent networks or institutional partnerships such as academia.

Finally, strand 4 should see transition projects from human capital to economic development programmes. The role of Libyans living abroad in the economic development will not happen instantaneously. By following these strands of the roadmap, the research can get the institutional landscape in Libya and the community belief in Libyans living abroad market ready.

Given the normative expectations on expenditure of donor and public funds, the roadmap should have a stand-alone strand on monitoring and evaluation. This should execute world-class compliance with issues of accountability, reporting and transparency as noted earlier.

84 Conclusion CONCLUSION

This study has, at its core, an aim to contri- ful aggregator moment for Libya and its bute to the growing academic and practitio- communities abroad. This research contends ner assessments of Libyans living abroad. that Libya needs to look internally and ex- The communities of Libyans living abroad ternally for the answers of its future. Libyans are a complex tapestry that are shaped by living abroad are uniquely positioned to be a the many histories, memories and stories co-creator of this future. that have shaped their creation. This research worked to remain cognizant and respectful This study has worked to reflect the voices of such historical complexity. and realities of Libyans living abroad. It has strived to put in place recommendations that Therefore, as Libya now begins to design a are achievable and realistic for all involved. more systematic approach to engagement of Through building relationships of meaning these communities with the vision of mutual rather than transactions, then this research benefit for Libya and its communities abroad, recommends that Libyan stakeholder set in it must recognize that such engagement is motion a spirit of partnership and trust that at its infancy. Engagement to date has been can bring a new emphasis for engagement ad hoc and sporadic, linked to the historical of Libyans living abroad. This will require an fortunes of Libya. Therefore, now is a mo- honesty and patience from all involved. It is ment of significant opportunity in the story achievable together. of Libya and its communities abroad.

Despite ongoing uncertainty within Libya, its communities abroad and their ties to home have reawakened through the events of 2011. Libya can now put in place the building blocks of engagement. This is a power-

85 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

ANNEX BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adamson, Fiona B. (2016). The Growing Im- of identity and children’s discourses before portance of Diaspora Politics. Current Histo- and during the Libyan Uprising. Childhood, ry, November. Volume 23, Issue 4, 477 – 491.

Anderson, B. (2006). Imagined Communi- Baser, B. & Halperin, A. (2019). Diasporas ties. New York. from the Middle East: Displacement, Transna- tional Identities and Homeland Politics. Briti- Anthias, F. (1998). Evaluating ’diaspora’: sh Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Volume beyond ethnicity. Sociology, 32(3), 557–580. 46, Issue 2, 215 – 221.

Aikins, K. & Russell, M. (2019). The Networ- Baser, B. (2015). Diasporas and Home- king Institute’s Diaspora Engagement Trai- land Conflicts: A Comparative Perspective. ning Programme. Dublin. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.

Aikins, K. & Russell, M. (2013). Why Diaspo- Baubock, R. & Faist, T. (2010). Diaspora and ra Matters for Policy and Practice. Migration, Trans-nationalism: Concepts, Theories and Policy, Practice, Vol. 3, Issue 4, 26 – 31. Methods, Amsterdam.

Aikins, K. & White, N. (2011). Global Diaspora Baum, Matthew A. (2004). Going Private: Pu- Strategies Toolkit. The Networking Institute, blic Opinion, Presidential Rhetoric, and the Dublin. Domestic Politics of Audience Costs in U.S. Foreign Policy Crises. Journal of Conflict Re- Alunni, A. (2019). Long-distance nationalism solution, Volume 48, Issue 5, 603 – 631. and belonging in the Libyan diaspora (1969– 2011). British Journal of Middle Eastern Stu- Beaugrand, C. & Geisser, V. (2016). Social dies, Volume 46, Issue 2, 242 – 258. Mobilization and Political Participation in the Diaspora During the “Arab Spring”. Journal Baldwin-Edwards, M. & Lutterbeck, D. of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, Volume 14, (2019). Coping with the Libyan Migration Issue 3, 239 – 243. Crisis. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Stu- dies, Volume 45, Issue 12, 2241 – 2257. Boduszynski, Mieczysław P. (2015). The external dimension of Libya’s troubled transi- Barley, R. & Merchant, G. (2016). ‘The tion: the international community and ‘de- naughty person’: Exploring dynamic aspects mocratic knowledge’ transfer. The Journal

86 Annex I – Bibliography of North African Studies, Volume 20, Issue 5, Financial Times. (2015). Libya needs help to 735 – 753. step back from the brink. January 19.

Brand, Laurie A. (2014). Arab Uprisings and Freitas, A. (2012). Diaspora Groups in Peace the changing frontiers of transnational ci- Processes: Lessons Learned and Potential tizenship: Voting from Abroad in political for Engagement by the EU (Africa Briefing transitions. Political Geography, Volume 41, Report). Observatoire de l’Afrique. 54 – 63. Gazzini, C. (2007). Talking back: Exiled Li- Brinkerhoff, J. (2009). Digital Diasporas: byans use the Web to push for change. Arab Identity and Transnational Engagement. Media & Society, March 2. Cambridge. Haider, H. (2014). Transnational Transitional Brinkerhoff, J.M. (2011). Diasporas and Justice and Reconciliation: The Participation conflict societies: conflict entrepreneurs, of Conflict-generated Diasporas in Addres- competing interests or contributors to sta- sing the Legacies of Mass Violence. Journal bility and development? Conflict, Security & of Refugee Studies, 27(2), 207–233. Development, 11(02), 115–143. Halbwachs, M. (1992). On Collective Memo- Brubaker, R. (2005). The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora. ry. Chicago. Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 28, Issue 1, 1-19. L.E Ho, E. & Boyle, M. & S.A Yeoh, B. (2015). Recasting Diaspora Strategies through Femi- Butler, K. (2001). Defining Diaspora, Rede- nist Care Ethics. Geoforum, Vol 59, 206 – 214. fining a Discourse. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, Vol. 10, Issue 2, 189- ICMPD. Information on Institutional Aspects 219. of Policies on Libyans Living Abroad (Internal Document). Tunis, 2019. Case, Asher & Case, Emerson. (2008). A generation in transition: A study of the usage ICMPD. “Study on Libyans Living Abroad: and attitudes toward public libraries by ge- Terms of Reference.” Tunis, 2019. neration 1.5 composition students. Refe- rence & User Services Quarterly, Volume 47, ICMPD. “Workstream I: Migration Governance No. 3, 274 – 279. Institutional Consolidation.” Tunis, 2019.

Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue. The Li- Kaaniche, M. (2019). “Report: Tunis Focus byan National Conference Process. Tunis, Group, 15/11/2019.” ICMPD, Tunis. 2018. Kaaniche, M. (2019). “Report: Sfax Focus Chivvis, Christopher S. & Martin, Jeremy. Group, 08/11/2019.” ICMPD Tunis, 2019. (2014). Libya after Qaddafi: Lessons and Im- plications for the Future. RAND Corporation. Knott, K. & McLaughlin, S. (Eds). (2010). Diasporas: Concepts, Intersections, Identi- Fazal, S. & Tsagarousianou, R. (2002). Dias- ties. New York. pora Communication: Transnational Cultural Practices and Communicative Spaces. The Olick, J.K. (2007). The Politics of Regret: On Public, Vol. 9 (2002), 1, 5-18. Collective Memory and Historical Responsi- bility. London: Routledge.

87 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

Østergaard-Nielsen, E. (2006). Diasporas Sheffer, G. (2006). Diaspora Politics: At and Conflict Resolution. Part of the Problem Home Abroad. Cambridge. or Part of the Solution? DIIS Brief. Copen- hagen, Danish Institute for International Stu- Shuval, J.T. (2000). Diaspora Migration: Defi- dies. nitional Ambiguities and a Theoretical Para- digm. International Migration, Vol. 38, Issue Lyons, T. & Mandaville, P. (2010). Diasporas 5, 41-56. in Global Politics. George Mason University, Centre for Global Studies, Policy Brief. Slaughter, Anne M. (2009). America’s Edge: Power in the Networked Century. Foreign Af- Maghur, A. (2010). Highly-skilled Migration fairs, Jan/Feb, Vol 88, Issue 1, 94 – 113. (Libya)—Legal aspects. CARIM Analytic and Synthetic Notes 2010/31, Robert Schuman Tololyan, K. (2012). Diaspora Studies: Past, Centre for Advanced Studies, European Uni- Present and Promise. IMI, Oxford. versity Institute. United Nations. 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Moss, D.M. (2016). Transnational Repression, Development. New York. Diaspora Mobilization and the Case of the Arab Spring. Social Problems, Volume 63, Is- United Nations Department of Social and sue 4, 480 – 498. Economic Affairs. International Migrant Stock Data. Geneva. Moss, D.M. (2016). Diaspora Mobilization for Western Military Intervention During the Arab Vandewalle, D. (2006). A history of modern Spring. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Stu- Libya. Cambridge/New York. dies, Volume 14, Issue 3, 277 – 297. Zanker, F. & Altrogge, J. (2019). The Political Nye Jnr, J.S. (2007). Smart Power. The Huf- Inﬂuence of Return: From Diaspora to Libyan fington Post, November 29,. Transit Returnees. International Migration, Volume 57, Issue 4, 167 – 180. Russell, M. (2019). “Report: London Focus Group, 24/08/2019.” ICMPD, Tunis.

Safran, W. (1991). Diasporas in Modern So- cieties: Myths of Homelands and Return. Diaspora: A Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 1, 83-99.

Seeberg, P. (2019). “Transnationalism and exceptional transition processes. The role of the Libyan diaspora from Qadhafi’s Jama- hiriyya to post-revolutionary civil war and state collapse.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies e-publication.

Shain, Y. & Barth, A. (2003). Diasporas and International Relations Theory. International Organization, 57(3), 449–479.

88 A Study on Libyans Living Abroad

International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) Carthage Centre, Bloc A, Rue du Lac de Constance, Berges du Lac, 1053 Tunis, Tunisia Tel: +21631342052 Fax: +21671658029 Email: [email protected] Web: https://www.icmpd.org

89 www.icmpd.org