2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape

2011 . 2017 UrbaNization and Cultural- Landscape

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II.TED School of Heritage Management 2 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape

International Institute on Territorial and Environmental Dynamics

School of Heritage Management

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DISCLAIMER

Published in 2018 by II.TED International Institute on Territorial and Environmental Dynamics.

Via Napoleone Bonaparte, 52 Florence (50135) ITALY [email protected]

© II.TED 2018

ISBN: 978-88-945025-0-3 (PDF)

Lead author and coordination: Siavash Laghai

Copyediting and proofreading: Marianna Bacci Tamburlini

Reviewers and other contributors: Alessio Re, Angioletta Voghera, Gabriele Corsani, Jukka Jokilehto and Frédéric Vidal.

Cover photo: Stairs reaching the surface, Portimão, Portugal

Design and photo credits: Siavash Laghai

Acknowledgment

We gratefully acknowledge the partnership and support of the Italian Consulate in Tehran, in particular Mr. MASSIMO PALOZZI and Mr. ROBERTO TARADDEI, the UNESCO Regional Bureau for Science and Culture in Europe, in particular Mr. PHILIPPE PYPAERT and Mr. LUDOVICO F. CALABI and Mr. MATTEO ROSATI. Ms. ATTILIA PEANO†, Mr. WALTER SANTAGATA†, Ms. MARIA DO ROSARIO OLIVEIRA Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Mr. GIANLUCA SIMONETTA Center for Generative Communication, Mr. Francesco Bastagli. DIST-Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning, Department of Architecture University of Florence, UNESCO Chair in Sustainable, Development and Territory Management, UNESCO Category II Research and Training Centre on cultural economics and World Heritage studies, CSS-EBLA Centro Studi Silvia Santagata, UNESCO Chair on New paradigms and instruments for the management of Cultural Landscape, SiTI-Higher Institute on Territorial Systems for Innovation, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, CRIA Centre for Research in Anthropology, Environment Research and Design Consultant, Fondazione Adriano Olivetti, Ente Turismo Alba-Bra-Langhe-Roero, Fondazione Centro Conservazione e Restauro La Venaria Reale, Association Federalberghi Torino, A2studio srl and all those who took part in the discussions and visits during the workshop sessions.

The views expressed in this publication and those of the authors do not necessarily reflect the views of II.TED International Institute on Territorial and Environmental Dynamics.

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Khaled Nabi, Iran

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Table of Contents Foreword 9

Introduction 11

Presentation 12

II.TED School of Heritage Management 13

Partners and networks 14

Aims, Topics and Frameworks 16

Methodologies and Activities 19

Experts, Scholars and Topics 21

Participants 27

Selected Papers 32

What is Territorial Management? Jukka Jokilehto (ICCROM EXPERT) 32

Landscape and Ecological Networks. Towards a New Vision of Sustainable Urban and Regional Development Angioletta Voghera, Luigi la Riccia (DIST-Politecnico di Torino) 49

Management of historic cities and WHS: the Italian contribution Alessio Re (CSS – EBLA Centro Studio Silvia Santagata) 59

Making places and shaping urbanity. The rise of tourism policies in Portugal (1910-1940) Frédéric Vidal (CRIA ISCTE-Instituto Universitário de Lisboa) 66

Conclusions 79

Short biographies 80

Annexes 82

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Foreword

The six introductory sessions of the Urbanization and Cultural Landscape developed the overarching theme of historic cities’ evolution, using the case of Florence as a main reference.

In particular, the analysis focused on the interaction between open space and urban space landscapes. These landscapes were intended, especially from the beginning of the twentieth century, as desirable guardians of community identities, and later transformed into foreign bodies, irreducible to a single homogenous character.

The main challenge is to identify, in the current situation, the structural elements to build an effective “resistance strategy” for the preservation of the mentioned identities. Such assets do not concern exclusively historic and artistic heritage: although they constitute the heart of both cities and territories -needing the most attentive care - these urban spaces, characterised by a diversity of dimensions and functions, can express an intrinsic vitality. They mainly include:

- Central urban areas where residential and crafts-related productive activities still cohabitate,

- Historic peripheral areas which were planned and historicised in their connection with the city,

- “Poor green” spots, from Gilles Clément’s “third landscapes”, to urban vegetable gardens (kitchen gardens, jardins familiaux ou jardins ouvriers, Kleine Gärten), to more recent guerrilla gardens, which together complement the spaces celebrated in gardens and parks of the past.

Damage caused by war, fire and natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods has in some cases been the base of exemplary rebirth. Namely, it happened on an urban scale in Lisbon after the 1755 earthquake, and at a smaller scale, after Chiado’s fire in 1984. Also some post World War II reconstructions are exemplary, both in terms of style - from Dresda to Varsovia- and in terms of new structures and architectures - from Rotterdam to Le Havre.

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Nowadays, we are confronted with another set of issues, originated in a “destruction” due to the physical abandonment of urban centres, and the disappearance of internal functions and their relation with territories. This implies a new and broader concept of revitalization, on which we will focus in the next Workshops.

Dr. Gabriele Corsani II.TED Deputy director

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Introduction

The first edition of the first international workshop on “Urbanization and Cultural Landscape” took place in Turin in July 2011. Now, at its 7th edition, it reveals itself as a solid international programme in the field of sustainable heritage management, and it reaches out to Florence, Lisbon and Tehran, under different names.

The aim of “Urbanization and Cultural Landscape” workshops remains focused on understanding changes and transformations of urban contexts and realities in relation with cultural and environmental values. Economic instability, conflicts, globalisation, migrations, climate change, mass tourism, diffusion of technology are rapidly transforming our cities and our living societies. In this scenario, cities are confronting and managing such changes, where culture should play a crucial role. Culture is a main factor to improve capacities which will impact on communities’ development.

Since 2011 the workshop’s objective has been to reflect these issues by sharing knowledge on sustainability, and adopting an interdisciplinary approach by involving institutions, researchers and professionals coming from different backgrounds and countries, to explore and compare case studies in different contexts.

This report presents a synthesis of the most relevant contents and results of the “Urbanization and cultural landscape” workshop until today. Additionally, it aims at contributing to the current debate on our cities’ future.

Alessio Re and Siavash Laghai

Urbanization and Cultural Landscape organisation and coordination team

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Presentation

II.TED International Institute on Territorial and Environmental Dynamics is a non- profit and non-governmental organisation based in Florence. II.TED principally aims to arise community awareness and to put emphasis on building capacities and competencies for the preservation, valorisation and promotion of heritage sites and places, towards a sustainable management.

Objectives

II.TED promotes respect for environment and landscape, bases that need to be preserved as an irreplaceable common heritage of humanity. II.TED is based on founding documents, conventions and recommendations such as the European Landscape Convention, The UNESCO World Heritage Convention, UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, the Ramsar Convention on wetlands and the UNESCO Recommendation on Historic Urban Landscape.

Actions

II.TED actions started with the promotion, conservation and sustainable development of heritage sites and places through education and training, specialising in building capacities and competencies for the valorisation and promotion of World Heritage, arts and crafts. It also raises awareness on the efficacy and adequacy of site management plans for a sustainable management.

With these actions II.TED creates the knowledge and opportunities for a social and economic development of local communities, and helps site managers, professionals and other stakeholders to manage heritage more sustainably. Such challenges are faced considering the global scale of current social dynamics, environmental and territorial phenomena, and by sharing the best practices in World Heritage management.

II.TED engages in collaborations, exchanges and partnerships with public and private organisations and universities at national and international level. Moreover, it organises meetings and cultural exchange initiatives, and follows researches on territorial basis knowledge, aimed at accompanying communities towards a conscious and strategic planning.

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II.TED School of Heritage Management

The II.TED School of Heritage Management activity is geared towards contributing to the integration of a sustainable development perspective into the processes of UNESCO World Heritage management. These educational activities are in line with the UNESCO Education for Sustainable Development programme, to support, develop and expand educational activities that focus on sustainability issues such as climate change, disaster risk reduction, water, cultural diversity, resilient cities and sustainable urbanisation. II.TED also gives consultancy for Management of Heritage Sites as a capacity-building tool for the effective management of heritage sites and places, in particular for World Heritage properties.

UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape is among the main educational activities of the II.TED School of Heritage Management. Other School of Heritage Management courses are:

• Executive Master programme on Heritage Management – Management of Complex Environments (developing)

• UNESCO Capacity Building workshop on Management Planning of World Heritage Sites in Iran, Tehran, 2015

• Landscape Assessment Planning, Lisbon, 2012

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Partners and networks

UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape is an international scientific collaboration mainly between II.TED, DIST - Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning, SiTI-Polytechnic of Turin, University of Turin, UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Development and Territory Management and CSS-EBLA Centro Studi Silvia Santagata. Since 2011 we worked with an outstanding choice of partners and professionals, from Iran, Italy, Finland and Portugal. The first workshop was developed in cooperation with the faculty of the international master course World Heritage at Work, held by University of Turin, Polytechnic of Turin, ILO, UNESCO World Heritage Centre, ICCROM and SiTI.

The workshop took place in the context of the formalisation of the Category II Research and Training Centre on cultural economics and World Heritage studies under the auspices of UNESCO, and the UNESCO Chair on New paradigms and instruments for the management of Cultural Landscape.

With the kind support of the Consulate of Italy in Tehran

And the UNESCO Regional Bureau for Science and Culture in Europe

Scientific partners:

University of Tehran - Kish International Campus [ir]

Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning - Polytechnic of Turin [it]

CSS-EBLA Centro Studi Silvia Santagata [it]

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Department of Architecture - University of Florence [it]

UNESCO Chair in Sustainable Development and Territory Management [it]

UNESCO Chair on New paradigms and instruments for the management of Cultural Landscape, SiTI- Higher Institute on Territorial Systems for Innovation [it]

Center for Generative Communication - University of Florence [it]

e-GEO - Universidade NOVA de Lisboa [pt]

CRIA - Centre for Research in Anthropology (pt)

Supporting partners:

Environment Research and Design Consultant [ir]

A2 Studio srl [it]

Fondazione per la Cultura Genova Palazzo Ducale [it]

Fondazione Adriano Olivetti [it]

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Aims, Topics and Frameworks

UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape is an unique programme of its kind and it is the main international educational programme of the II.TED School of Heritage Management. This training programme aims at the management of heritage sites with a socio-cultural anchorage. This programme converts each participant into a traveller able to learn the most from a variety of experiences in different countries. This Programme is a theoretical and practical higher international educational programme dedicated to students and professionals in the fields of heritage management, spatial planning, urban design, architecture, landscape and environmental design, geography and territorial sciences.

During 2011-2017 UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape our aim was to address issues regarding the rapid growth and changes of the urban context and aimed at exploring, investigating and understanding dynamics between urban and rural, as well as historic and modern areas, in several functions and aspects: environmental, social, cultural, economic and institutional. Landscape is in fact one of the fundamental dimensions of territory, reflecting the interaction of nature, human settlement and history. City functions and their associated networks are an important and impacting factor in the development and change of landscape. This development in several cases is managed within the metropolitan boundaries and does not include also urban-rural interactions, which need not only to be managed in an institutional framework, but also understood at the local level. In such complexity, identifying, characterising and evaluating are fundamental tools for planning and managing these interactions, which have always constituted an urgent issue at the global scale. In a broader approach, this programme attempted to give inputs to set up sustainable projects on cultural landscape management, taking into account the issues regarding globalisation, communities, resource use, economy, climate changes, natural disasters and cultural identity.

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The UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape programme is divided in two phases:

Phase 1: Workshop on Heritage Cities and Historic Urban Landscape in Florence

Phase 2: Workshop on Urbanization and Cultural Landscape in Turin

Among the main topics discussed during 2011-2017 were:

• The governance and management of urban complex environments

• Innovative concepts on urban planning and design

• Urban landscape as a social and cultural process

• Community participation in the process of planning and management

• Indicators for a sustainable urban landscape planning and monitoring

• Surveys and mapping of the city’s natural, cultural and social resources

• Policies for the conservation and management of Historic Urban Landscape

• Evaluation methodologies

• Heritage impact assessment

• Heritage Cities, Urbanisation, Social Housing and New Technologies for Cultural Heritage

• Mapping Heritage, Territorial Values and Cultural Landscape in Europe

• Sustainable tourism management

• Protection and sustainable use of natural resources

• Landscape Character and Quality Assessment methodologies

• Landscape evaluation and monitoring

• Participatory dimension of landscape management

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During these two phases we offered site visits relevant to the workshop’s topics and aims, among which:

• Venice and its Lagoon World Heritage Site

• Reggia di Venaria Reale World Heritage Site and The Centre for Conservation and Restoration

• Torino Modern Heritage and recent adaptive reuse interventions, Porta Susa train station, Renzo Piano’s skyscraper, University of Turin campus, Design Centre and Olympic Park

• Ivrea, industrial city of the 20th century

• Historic Urban Landscape of Florence and its Renaissance Gardens

• Sorgane village in Florence

• Alba, Asti, Langhe-Roero and Monferrato Cultural Landscape World Heritage Site

• Venice Biennale of Architecture

• Odivelas, urban renewal in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area

• Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, example of landscape quality in an urban context

• Cultural Landscape of Sintra

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Methodologies and Activities

The methodology of the II.TED School of Heritage Management is based on a multiple activity model including theory, practice, case studies and site visits, working groups and classroom discussions. Participants were invited to be active and involved during all these activities. At the end of the programme all participants had to develop a final work in line with the workshop’s contents and submit it in order to obtain their certificates.

The activities developed during the workshop made possible to explore and discuss, from a multidisciplinary and multicultural point of view the following emerging issues:

• The growing concentration of the population in big cities entails the issues to expand infrastructures, services and residential area in order to absorb the increasing demand; this process of development must follow an in depth assessment and planning action, considering the impact on the landscape and on the environment.

• An appropriate policy or plan for the use and the management of the landscape and its resources has to arise from policies aiming to guarantee to the future generations a decent level of life respecting the local cultural identity.

• Landscapes reflect cultures and societies in their cultural evolution and also the transformations in the relationships between men and nature across the centuries. Cultural, architectural and planning dimension are aspects related each other. They change constantly according to economical and social changes. Their dynamic nature pose the need to adopt integrated tools and systems to constantly interpret and monitor their evolution.

• Historic Urban Landscape, as defined in the recent Recommendation by UNESCO (2011) is a significative approach, already tentatively applied in some urban reality worldwide, to balance the development issues with the conservation and safeguarding needs.

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• One of the essential nodes to be faced is about the identification and understanding of the legal aspects concerning the landscape protection policies and tools at the local scale and in the international regulatory framework.

• Managing urban changes requires the capability to collect and use a huge quantity of evolving data. In this sense, particular relevance has to be related to the tools on acquisition, management and elaboration of geographic and cartographic data, including Remote Sensing, Photogrammetry and Territorial Informative Systems. Such techniques could play an essential role also in preserving territories through time, even in case of presence of risk pressures or disasters events, especially in vulnerable areas and contexts.

Furthermore, the discussion by the participants gave the opportunity for the future considerations to local contexts and to possibly to investigate the following issues in a more specific inquiries:

• The opportunity towards contemporary heritage recognition and management;

• The effects of climate changes on the natural-anthropic environments, in particular the coastal areas;

• The tools to set up proper projects of urban rehabilitation, especially for the maintenance of the historic textures and to set its values;

• The need to safeguard the intangible components of the cultural heritage in relation with people and communities identity;

• The growing need to set up policies and projects to manage the economic and social values of places;

• The opportunity to work on cultural tourism as a potential resource towards local development;

• The need to document of unique places like historic cities and cultural landscapes, in order to manage them properly and in a sustainable term, to be used to prevent from potential risks.

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Experts, Scholars and Topics

During 2011-2017 UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape saw the participation of more than 47 international experts and scholars dealing with the following topics:

2011 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Experts / Affiliation Topics Alessia Mariotti Cultural Tourism and urban regeneration University of Bologna

Attilia Peano and Angioletta Voghera Nature in town and cities: yesterday and

DIST-Polytechnic of Turin tomorrow Francesco Bastagli

Former Special Representative of the UN Sustainability in a global world Secretary-General for Western Sahara Nature and landscape in the united Italy Gabriele Corsani (1861-1939). The feeling of landscape as a DIDA-University of Florence unifying factor of the newly born state Giulio Mondini, Alessio Re, Marco Valle, Cultural Landscape in UNESCO's vision and its Matteo Tabasso, Arianna Dongiovanni and Valentina Ferretti consequences for the World Natural and Cultural Heritage, focusing on Italian experiences - urban SiTI-Higher Institute on Territorial Systems changes in Turin for Innovation

Hassan A. Laghai Land degradation & unsustainable urban University of Teheran development in Iran

Jukka Jokilehto Conserving Heritage and its values: principles ICCROM and cases Lodovico Folin Calabi The Historic Urban Landscape approach UNESCO World Heritage Centre Piero Boccardo, Fabio Giulio Tonolo, Andrea Ajmar and Paolo Pasquali Techniques and tools for monitoring Changes in urban Contexts Ithaca-Polytechnic of Turin

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Roberto Gambino The European Landscape Convention / The Po

DIST-Polytechnic of Turin river fluvial national park project

Saverio Isola Turin modern heritage movement / The new

Isolarchitetti Design Centre project in Turin

Walter Santagata and Enrico Bertacchini Culture as a tool for sustainable development in

University of Turin / CSS-EBLA urban historical contexts

2012 Urbanization and cultural landscape (Landscape Quality Assessment), Portugal

Experts / Affiliation Topics

Attilia Peano and Angioletta Voghera Landscape Indicators Assessment, Evaluation DIST-Polytechnic of Turin and Monitoring

Carma Casulà What is Landscape Quality in the Perspective of a Photographer Photographer?

Francesc Muñoz Landscape in Urban Planning, Design and Autonomous University of Barcelona Regional Strategies Graça Saraiva Technical University of Lisbon Landscape Perception, Design and Sustainability Ana Lavrador Universidade Nova de Lisboa

Hassan A. Laghai The Opportunities and Constrains of Spatial University of Tehran Planning and design in the Iranian Landscape

Jukka Jokilehto Cultural Landscape Approach and Management ICCROM expert & Negotiation Process for Management

Maria Rosario Oliveira The Definition of Landscape Quality Objectives in Universidade Nova de Lisboa Spatial Planning. Landscape as a Social Process Pere Sala i Martí Landscape Assessment in Sectorial Policies Landscape Observatory of Catalunia

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2013 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Experts / Affiliation Topics

Alessandro Scotti Urban complexity and dynamics Photographer /Journalist

Alessio Re

SiTI-Higher Institute on Territorial Systems Economics of Heritage for Innovation Study visit to Alba and the Vineyard Cultural Amilcare Barbero and Roberto Cerrato Landscape of Piedmont, under nomination to the Ente Turismo Alba, Bra, Langhe Roero Unesco World Heritage List and lecture on the vineyard cultural landscape management Landscape Indicators Assessment, evaluation Attilia Peano and Angioletta Voghera and monitoring for a sustainable planning-

DIST-Polytechnic of Turin Landscape Indicators assessment, evaluation and monitoring for a sustainable planning

Fabio Giulio Tonolo S u r v e y s a n d m a p p i n g f o r p re v e n t i n g Ithaca-Polytechnic of Turin environmental and urban disasters On the importance of city life, reference to the Gabriele Corsani history of Florence and especially of Santo Spirito DIDA-University of Florence district Policies for conservation and management in the Jukka Jokilehto H i s t o r i c U r b a n L a n d s c a p e - E v a l u a t i o n University of Nova Gorica / ICCROM methodologies in the Historic Urban Landscape Katia Basili Visit to the Municipality of Venice and its Lagoon Municipality of Venice Torino Modern Heritage and recent adaptive Leyden Duran and Gabriel Garcia reuse interventions, Porta Susa train station, A2studio srl Renzo Piano’s skyscraper and the Olympic Park Marco Valle, Patrizia Borlizzi, Elisabetta Cimnaghi, Andrea Dimaggio, Arianna Dongiovanni and Cristina Monaco Case studies on landscape management SiTI-Higher Institute on Territorial Systems for Innovation

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Matteo Tabasso Innovative concepts and tools for urban and SiTI-Higher Institute on Territorial Systems territorial planning for Innovation Patrizia Bonifazio Reggia di Venaria Reale and the Centre for Polytechnic of Milan / Fondazione Adriano Conservation and Restoration Olivetti Landscape as a social and cultural process- Rosario Oliveira p a r t i c i p a t o r y l a n d s c a p e p l a n n i n g a n d e-GEO-University Nova of Lisbon management

2014 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Experts / Affiliation Topics

Alessandro Scotti Urban Photographer: Reading heritage in urban

Photographer /Journalist landscape

Alessio Re The governance of UNESCO world heritage

SiTI / CSS-EBLA system

Angioletta Voghera Landscape designing, planning and evaluation in

DIST-Polytechnic of Turin Europe (methods and approaches)

Gabriele Corsani City and gardens in Florence from the

DIDA-University of Florence Renaissance to modern times Gianluca Simonetta Augmented Reality and social-networking

Center for Generative Communication- strategies for Cultural Heritage, the generative University of Florence paradigm Hassan A. Laghai Case studies on Historic Urban Landscapes University of Tehran Tools and techniques for mapping heritage and Marco Valle territorial values. Management planning and SiTI-Higher Institute on Territorial Systems management policies in heritage sites. Evaluation for Innovation methods for supporting territorial decision making

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2015 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Experts / Affiliation Topics Tools and techniques for mapping heritage and Alessio Re territorial values. Management planning and CSS-Ebla / University of Turin management policies in heritage sites. Evaluation methods for supporting territorial decision making Urbanisation, territorial development and political- cultural interactions in case of the Florentine Gabriele Corsani and Paola Ricco social housing projects between 50s and 60s of DIDA-University of Florence / II.TED the XX Century: Isolotto and Sorgane neighbourhood

George Tatge Photographing the modern architecture: theory Photographer and practice

Gianluca Simonetta Augmented Reality and social-networking

Center for Generative Communication- strategies for Cultural Heritage, the generative University of Florence paradigm European Landscape Convention and landscape Roberto Gambino and Angioletta Voghera designing, planning and evaluation in Europe DIST-Polytechnic of Turin (methods and approaches)

2016 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Experts / Affiliation Topics Alessandro Scotti Reading heritage in urban landscape Photographer /Journalist

Alessio Re Management planning and management policies

Css-Ebla / University of Turin in heritage sites

Angioletta Voghera Ecological and landscape planning and design in

DIST-Polytechnic of Turin Europe, methods and approaches

Frédéric Vidal Making places and shaping urbanity: a historical

CRIA-Centre for Research in Anthropology reader on tourism and urban world

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Gabriele Corsani and Hassan A. Laghai Natural disasters and sustainability. Italian

DIDA-University of Florence / II.TED landslide and floods in 1966

2017 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Experts / Affiliation Topics

Alessio Re Management planning and management policies

Css-Ebla / University of Turin in heritage sites Angioletta Voghera Landscape and Biodiversity, Plans and Projects DIST-Polytechnic of Turin

Frédéric Vidal Making places and shaping urbanity: a historical

CRIA-Centre for Research in Anthropology reader on tourism and urban world

Gabriele Corsani and Hassan A. Laghai The little cities of Tuscany, historical heritage,

DIDA-University of Florence / II.TED nowadays situation, perspectives Photography of the Urban Landscape. A journey Sergio Giusti through the history of photography between Researcher / Photographer document and art

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Participants

UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape saw the involvement of 119 participants with different backgrounds, including architecture, urban design, heritage studies, landscape architecture, environmental studies, geography, civil engineering. Post-graduate students and professionals mostly from Iran applied to this programme.

2011 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Alireza Rotbeh MA student / Urban design Alireza Shabnam Supervisor of Urbanisation / Tehran Municipality Amir Jamshidi Gilani Expert / Tehran Municipality's Green Space Department Anahid Malekmarzban PhD student / Urbanism Elham Darbandi Researcher / Environmental Sciences Research Institute Giacomo Pettenati PhD student /Spatial Planning and Local Development Expert / Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicraft and Tourism Hadi Ahmadi Roini Organisation Homa Zakeri Nongi MA student / Urban Design Kataneh Behmanesh Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicraft and Tourism Organisation Urban Planning Department for the Historic City of Venice Katia Basili and its Lagoon Mahboubeh Jameifard, Expert / Tehran Municipality's Green Space Department Mahsa Malekpour Khazari Lanscape Architect Mahsa Marashizadeh PhD student / Urbanism Maryam Mohammadnejad Professor of MA in Urban Design Mehdi Kanani MA student / Urban Design Mona Loghman MA student/Urban Design Nazli Dadashzadeh Expert / Tehran Municipality’s Environmental Department Negar Ebrahimi BA student / Architecture Nobi Nakhaei Khooniki MA student / Urban Design Shahabeddin Safi Enviromental Designer Shiller Zargar MA student / Enviromental Design Shokouh Shirzadeh MA student / Landscape Architecture

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2012 Urbanization and cultural landscape (Landscape Quality Assessment), Portugal

Azadeh Azarin MA student / Urban Design Azin Fallahi MA student / Urban Design Bassem Mouad PhD student / Ecological Urbanism Carla Gonçalves MA student / Regional and Urban Planning Farbod Abed MA student / Architecture Farid Abed MA student / Urban Planning Fatemeh Kabiri MA student / Environmental Design Sara Barzegar Heidari MA student / Environmental Design Morvarid Bostanban MA student / Environmental Design Mohammad Reza Nematinassab MA student / Urban Design Seyedeh Shabnam Shivaee Architect Bahman Golchin Architect Ana Filipa Raimundo MA student / Geografia e Planeamento Regional Ernesto Possolo MA student / Territorial management, Geography Luís Grave PhD student/ Architecture Cristina Câmara PhD student / Geography Álvaro Duarte MA student / Geography João Leitão MA student / Geography Isabel Maurício MA student / Landscape architecture

2013 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Alaleh Rahimi MA student / Environmental Design Aliakbar Attarmosavi MA student / Urban Planning Amitis Javad Shahidi MA student / Environmental Design Azin Fallahi MA student / Urban Design Bahman Golchin Architect

Farbod Abed MA student / Architecture Farid Abed MA student / Urban Planning Kambiz Pirzad MA student / Urban Design

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Marjan A. Moghadas Zadeh Architect Mohammad R. Nematinassab MA student / Urban Design Mohammadreza Hosseinpour Architect Nima Zakeri Coastal Engineer Saba Alavi Urban Design Sama Azadi Urban Planning Sedigheh M. Aghajanzadeh MA student / Environmental Design Shabnam Shivaee Architect Shahab Entesari MA student / Urban Design Somayeh Shiri Graphic designer Yahya Mahini Yazdi MA student / Urban Planning Yalda Sadeghimofrad MA student / Environmental Design

Yasaman Rasteh MA student / Urban Design

2014 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Elgar Kamjou MA student / Urban Design Fatemeh Kabiri MA student / Environmental Design Hamidreza Haeri Meibodi MA student Lena Dorniani MA student / Environment Planning Lida Majidi Pour MA student / Environmental Design Maryam Pakzad MA student / Urban Design Meysam Khoshnoodi Jou MA student

Mina Amani MA student / Urban Design

2015 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Alaleh Rahimi MA Environmental Design Ameneh Salemi Khouzani MA student / Environmental Design Amirhossein Mirhosseini MA Environmental Design

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Atena Meydani MA student / Urban Design Bahar Khabazi hosseini MA student / Urban Design Bahman Golchin Architect Barzin Geravandi MA student / Agriculture Engineer Elnaz Mirzaei MA student / Urban Design Hanieh Ebrahimbanki MA Architecture / Cultural Heritage Expert Hoda Hashemi MA student / Urban Design Katauon Jahangard MA student / Urban Design Mahshid Arbabzadeh MA student Mandana Bazaz Alavi BA student / Agriculture Mehdi Tabaeiannejad MA Environmental Design Milad Vatani MA student / Urban Planning

Mohammadreza Nemitanasab MA student / Architecture Morvarid Bostanban MA Environmental Design Najmeh Alipouryani MA student Nasim Mousavi MA student / Urban Design Sevda Tarrahi BA student Shabnam Shivaee Architect Shahrooz Masoumi MA student / Urban Design Shahrzad Behnamnia MA Architecture - Cultural Heritage Expert Shima Aliporyani MA student / Urban Planning Shima Yazdanmehr MA Environmental Design Shiva Ghorbani Saravani MA student / Urban Design Zahra Chehreghan BA student / Agriculture

Zeinab Chehreghan MA student / Physics

2016 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Ahmadreza Dourandish Elka wood design Kish Alireza Vali Apadana architecture and real estate consulting Bahar Khabbazi Hosseini MA student / Urban Design

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Expert / Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicraft and Tourism Elham Eriss Organisation Ladan Tamaddon MA student / Urban Planning Mahdieh Akhondzadeh MA student / Environmental Design Mehrzad Vali Yousefi MA student / Urban Design Niloofar Radpour MBA student

Sadegh Solymanipour Kish Island Regional Administration

2017 Urbanization and cultural landscape, Italy

Amin Hassani Nalosi Remote Sensing Engineer Kish Island Regional Admin./Deputy of Architecture and Arash Nikfarjam Savejbolaghi Urban Development Atena Meydani Graintec Iran/Architect Baran Mohammadi Moghadam Paydar Mehraz Co./Architect Barzin Geravandi Kish Azad University / Architecture Department Elnaz Nasiri PhD candidate / Private Law Mohammad Khalifeh Khalifeh Real State/Managing Director Mohammad Amin Zare Pasargad Brush Co./CNC wood and interior designer Mohammad Mahdi Safaiee Tehran Azad University/Professor Rezvan Nezami Movazaf Kish Island Regional Admin. / Admin Expert Sara Hassani Nalosi PhD candidate / Architecture

Zahra Etminan BA student / Architecture

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Selected Papers

1 WHAT IS TERRITORIAL MANAGEMENT?

Jukka Jokilehto (Iccrom Expert)

In one of his lectures at ICCROM, Prof. Guglielmo De Angelis d’Ossat of the University of Rome summarised the history of the recognition of something as heritage. The first interest regarded individual monuments. Subsequently, monuments began being appreciated within their context, progressively territories were considered together with monuments and finally historicised territories were included as a whole. Consequently, dealing with historic cities, integrated urban conservation dealt with the entire city, understanding different types of structures as elements of the whole city. Here we analyse the morphology and typology of urban fabric. At another level, we can speak of architectural conservation, which deals with the individual structures making the necessary interventions within the guidelines provided by the urban conservation plan. These two levels of activity are the ingredients for identifying the required action and treatments, and the responsible institutions and stakeholders. The scope of the present paper is to examine this process and identify some of the key issues to be taken into account. Starting from the concept of integrated conservation, the paper introduces some recent examples of implementation in the case of cultural landscapes and historic urban areas. Particular attention is given to the significance of the context of heritage areas.

From Monument to Territory

From the 19th century, and even until after the Second World War, attention was given to monuments of great importance. However, at the same time, there was already a beginning of appreciation of historic areas that were of interest for the coherence and quality of their architecture. In the next phase, while major attention was still given to monuments, there was increasing appreciation of their context. In the 1920s Gustavo

1 August 2016

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Giovannoni spoke of ‘minor architecture’ and, much later, article 1 of the 1964 Venice Charter stated:

‘The Concept of an historic monument embraces not only the single architectural work but also the urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence of a particular civilisation, a significant development or an historic event. This applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest works of the past which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time.’

From the 1960s to the 1970s, there was further development in the recognition of the importance of historic urban fabric, a context within which one could identify important buildings as landmarks. It became fashionable to identify the artistic-architectural and historic values of important buildings and classify them in categories, e.g. category 1, category 2, and category 2 star, like in the UK. In the 1960s, there also started listing specified areas for protection. In the UK, local planning authorities were invited to designate as conservation areas any parts of their territory considered of special architectural or historic interest. The first legislation of the 1967 Civic Amenities Act was superseded by the 1990 Planning Act. In 2012 there were already some 9600 designated conservation areas in England.

In the 1970s, new international policies established a major paradigm with the introduction of the strategy of integrated urban conservation, adopted by the Council of Europe in 1975. The European Charter of the Architectural Heritage, adopted in September 1975, states:

‘Today it is recognised that entire groups of buildings, even if they do not include any example of outstanding merit, may have an atmosphere that gives them the quality of works of art, welding different periods and styles into a harmonious whole. Such groups should also be preserved.’

A major emphasis was now given to the community and the social and economic aspects of historic urban areas. The conservation of deteriorated areas must be undertaken in a spirit of social justice, choosing correct techniques and appropriate functions. The notion of "integrated conservation" was taken to mean ‘the whole range of measures aimed at ensuring the perpetuation of that heritage, its maintenance as part of an appropriate

II.TED School of Heritage Management 33 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape environment, whether man made or natural, its utilisation and its adaptation to the needs 2 of society.' The result was a gradual shift from the architectural protection of individual structures for their architectural or historic merits, as it had been earlier, into the realm of urban conservation. As part of this shift, UNESCO adopted, on 26 November 1976, the international Recommendation concerning the Safeguarding and Contemporary Role of Historic Areas, which stated:

‘Every historic area and its surroundings should be considered in their totality as a coherent whole whose balance and specific nature depend on the fusion of the parts of which it is composed and which include human activities as much as the buildings, the spatial organisation and the surroundings. All valid elements, including human activities, however modest, thus have a significance in relation to the whole which must not be disregarded.’

It was recommended that laws concerning town and regional or local measures should be reviewed and adapted accordingly. In particular it was necessary to establish a system that would provide necessary services and maintenance, as well as taking into account the requirements that would be applicable in town planning, redevelopment and rural land management. Consequently, it has been necessary to verify and review the methodologies that are necessary, including even redefining terminology. Furthermore, it has involved training and capacity building, communication and collaboration between different stakeholders, the community, authorities and professionals to be involved in the process.

Cultural Significance and Values

The 1979 Australian ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance, the Burra Charter, introduces the concept of ‘place’ to replace the Venice 3 Charter reference for ‘monuments and sites’. The idea of the Burra Charter was introduced by James Semple Kerr after his studies at the Advanced Architectural Studies of the University of York, UK. The charter was adopted by an Australian ICOMOS

2 Committee of European Ministers: Resolution (76) 28, concerning the adaptation of laws and regulations to the requirements of integrated conservation of the architectural heritage, adopted on 14 April 1976

3 The Burra Charter has been revised several times, minor changes in 1981, 1988, and more substantial in 1999. The most recent edition dates from 2013

II.TED School of Heritage Management 34 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape conference in Burra. The idea of place was to broaden the heritage concept to include aboriginal sites, where the significance was basically founded on the association of meanings and memories with particular parts or features of the environment. Place therefore was taken to mean ‘site, area, building or other work, group of buildings or other works of cultural significance together with pertinent contents and surroundings. This includes structures, ruins and archaeological sites and areas.’ Furthermore, instead of speaking of values, the charter introduces the notion of ‘cultural significance’, meaning ‘aesthetic, historic, scientific or social value for past, present or future generations’. In the 2013 version of the Burra Charter, it is noted that the term cultural significance is synonymous with cultural heritage significance and cultural heritage value.

The Burra Charter introduced a process, which can be seen to start from understanding the place and its history. It then moves to the identification of the significance, and indeed the layers of significance, providing the justification for the protection of the place, and understanding the involvement of the community and other stakeholders? It is necessary to understand the vulnerability of the place and to establish a system of monitoring the forces of change and mitigation of risks. The Charter insists that ‘The policy for managing a place must be based on an understanding of its cultural significance.’ (Burra Charter 1999, art. 6.2) In 1992, the World Heritage Committee decided to introduce the notion of ‘cultural landscape’ as a new category of cultural heritage. The Tongariro National Park of New Zealand, already inscribed in the World Heritage List on natural criteria, was now also inscribed as the first cultural landscape under cultural criterion (vi): ‘The mountains at the heart of the park have cultural and religious significance for the Maori people and symbolize the spiritual links between this community and its environment.’

Noting the frequent emphasis in privileging artistic values in heritage areas, the Getty Conservation Institute, GCI, having gained experience of archaeological site management in various countries, wanted to take a more holistic, methodological and values-based approach. The aim was not to limit observations to the most obvious qualities or characteristics of a site, associated with aesthetic or artistic value, but to also take into account other qualities and features that formed the entire context of the place. In the 1990s, this evolved into the so-called Agora Project, which emphasised ‘values-based management’. The aim was ‘to explore the many values and benefits of cultural heritage conservation, including new ways of looking at economic value. This was a seminal

II.TED School of Heritage Management 35 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape research for the profession and was important for instilling a deeper understanding of 4 values-based planning in our practice’. In 2014, the Nara+20 Conference in Japan still reflected the ideas introduced by the Getty, and the notion of cultural value was defined as consisting of: ‘The meanings, functions, or benefits ascribed by various communities to something they designate as heritage, and which create the cultural significance of the 5 object.’ This implies that different stakeholders would appreciate different aspects of a place. Therefore, also the heritage assessments would differ. The GCI concludes that the combination of the diverse value judgements contributes to the overall significance of the place.

Defining Heritage

The guidelines of the Burra Charter for management based on cultural significance and the GCI approach to values-based management have become fashionable, and are often referred to in practice. However, we also know that words can be interpreted differently for different purposes. In the case of the Burra Charter, it is noted that cultural significance and cultural values can be taken as synonyms - even though significance is given as the leading term. In the case of GCI, it is recognised that a site can be associated with diverse values, and that the overall cultural significance would be the sum of all these value judgements. Consequently, cultural values can be associated with meanings, functions, or benefits. It is however also possible to try to clarify the meanings more specifically, as has been done in international recommendations, in order to contribute to the methodology of conservation of historic areas and of individual buildings.

The 1972 World Heritage Convention defines outstanding universal value as the main requirement for inscribing cultural or natural properties in the World Heritage List. It is noted that cultural heritage is here defined as monuments, groups of buildings, or sites, which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science, or also aesthetics, ethnology or anthropology in the case of sites. We are talking about major achievements of humanity, master pieces of human creative genius, and

4 Martha Demas and Thomas Roby, ‘Conservation and management of archaeological sites’, Conservation Perspectives, The GCI Newsletter, 30.2 (fall 2015)

5 Recommendation adopted by the Nara+20 expert conference in Nara, in October 2014: Nara+20: on Heritage Practices, Cultural Value, and the Concept of Authenticity.

II.TED School of Heritage Management 36 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape outstanding examples of human creativity. The World Heritage Global Strategy meeting in Amsterdam in 1998 gave a slightly different point of view, defining the requirement of outstanding universal value as an outstanding response to issues of universal nature: ‘The requirement of outstanding universal value characterising cultural and natural heritage should be interpreted as an outstanding response to issues of universal nature common to or addressed by all human cultures. In relation to natural heritage, such issues are seen in bio-geographical diversity; in relation to culture in human creativity and resulting cultural 6 diversity.’ This definition can also be understood in the more general sense outside the World Heritage context, proposing that cultural expressions created by humanity are a response to issues or needs of society. Consequently, in order to appreciate the meaning of something, it is necessary to understand the issues or functions that have motivated its production.

The issues of universal nature, as indicated above, have been identified by ICOMOS under six main subheadings: 1) expressions in society, 2) creative responses and continuity, 3) spiritual responses, 4) utilising natural resources, 5) movements of peoples, 7 and 6) developing technologies. Therefore, the matter is no more only about great works of art, but relates to recognising issues of universal nature that can be understood as a human cultural expression. The 2005 UNESCO Convention on Diversity of Cultural Expressions notes that: ‘Cultural diversity” refers to the manifold ways in which the cultures of groups and societies find expression. These expressions are passed on within and among groups and societies. Cultural diversity is made manifest not only through the varied ways in which the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed, augmented and transmitted through the variety of cultural expressions, but also through diverse modes of artistic creation, production, dissemination, distribution and enjoyment, whatever the means and technologies used’. Cultural expressions are a human creative response to the needs and requirements of society, including practical needs, such as providing nutrition, protection and shelter, but also systems of communication, such as language and spiritual and symbolic needs, proposing to comprehend and explain the forces and laws of nature and indeed the universe.

6 v. Droste, et al. 1998, Linking Nature and Culture, The Netherlands

7 ICOMOS Monuments and Sites XII, 2005, The World Heritage List: Filling the Gaps – an Action Plan for the Future, an ICOMOS study compiled by J. Jokilehto with contributions by Henry Cleere, Susan Denyer and Michael Petzet, Munich, Germany

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Similarly, the 2005 European Faro Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society proposes that: ‘cultural heritage is a group of resources inherited from the past which people identify, independently of ownership, as a reflection and expression of their constantly evolving values, beliefs, knowledge and traditions. It includes all aspects of the environment resulting from the interaction between people and places through time.’ Indeed, anything can be heritage if it is recognised as such. It includes goods created by humanity and others resulting from natural processes. It can be intangible, such as culture itself, or tangible, movable or immovable, resulting from interactions with materials. It can also be a result, as often is the case, of an interaction between society and nature. When human beings touch materials they associate meaning to them and these become an expression of a particular culture, a cultural expression that never consists exclusively of a material object. As a cultural expression, its idea, its real meaning, is represented by its ‘intangible’ dimension. Therefore, a cultural expression is always associated with the human culture that gives it meaning. When dealing with the modern concept of heritage, understanding the meaning or significance of a place is not obvious, but the result of a process through which the layers of significance associated with it are recognised.

Industrial cultural landscape

The Council of Europe has defined cultural landscape areas as ‘specific topographically delimited parts of the landscape, formed by various combinations of human and natural agencies, which illustrate the evolution of human society, its settlement and character in time and space, and which have acquired socially and culturally recognised values at various territorial levels, because of the presence of physical remains reflecting past land use and activities, skills or distinctive traditions, or depiction in literary and artistic works, 8 or the fact that historic events took place there’.

In 1980, the mining town of Røros, built in timber in the mountain region of northern Norway, was nominated to the World Heritage List. It was justified as a unique mining environment that combined ‘impulses’ from various neighbouring districts, and contained ‘much of the finest of the Norwegian tradition, which has at the same time become

8 Council of Europe Committee of Ministers, Recommendation N. R (95)9, on the Integrated Conservation of Cultural Landscape Areas as Part of Landscape Policies.

II.TED School of Heritage Management 38 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape something very special in our land on the industrial, social and cultural places as well as 9 on the architectural’. While reference was made to copper mining that required a settlement as a residence for workers, Røros was mainly nominated for its architectural merits. Indeed, in the early years of the World Heritage List, this was the case with nearly all World Heritage nominations. In reference to the gradual development of policies and the introduction of cultural landscape as a possible World Heritage category, the Norwegian authorities decided to re-nominate Røros, re-inscribed in 2010. This time, focus was given to the industrial cultural landscape: ‘Røros Mining Town and the Circumference’. The scope was to identify the elements that contributed to the social and functional integrity of the territory. Rather than focusing only on wooden architecture, the emphasis was now laid on the development of mining processes, the systems of communication, the supporting social structure and farming. The circumference with 50km radius corresponded with the allocation of the lands to the mining company in the 17th century. This now became the buffer zone for the nominated property, and the identification of the World Heritage property was based on representative elements reflecting the industrial and social processes over more than 300 years.

Apart from the wooden town and its fine church building, none of the elements were selected due to specific value judgements. Rather, the question was about their role in functional processes, including mines, provisional wooden huts built for the purpose of processes, and simple log buildings for the workers. The elements also consisted of water ways and almost invisible traces of winter roads for transport, as well as farm lands for local population to provide sustenance for miners. In a cultural landscape, such as Røros, the elements that justified nomination would thus be identified on the basis of the social-functional integrity of the territory reflecting a particular theme of universal nature. In this case, universality would refer to ‘utilising natural resources’, such as mining, quarrying, farming and food production. While this example is taken from the World Heritage context, the same logic would refer to any areas identified as heritage. Indeed, an increasing number of industrial landscapes are being protected at the national or even local levels, and the number of World Heritage nominations is increasing.

To clarify the process of identification and recognition of the significance of a place, it is useful to make reference to Semantics, i.e. the Sign Theory, to which the Swiss linguist

9 The historic town of Röros was nominated as number 55, and inscribed in 1980 under criteria (iii), (iv) and (v).

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Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) gave a major input. In this theory, a ‘sign’ is defined as any information-carrying entity, including not only linguistics but also maps, road signs, etc. In a territory, such as an industrial cultural landscape in our above example, the elements that characterise the functions and social processes can be defined as ‘signs’, i.e. entities that ‘carry information’ in reference to processes that are relevant to the chosen theme. In an industrial landscape, these elements together come to signify the industrial processes. In the World Heritage context, the notion of ‘outstanding universal value’ was taken to mean ‘cultural and/or natural significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national boundaries and to be of common importance for present and future 10 generations of all humanity’. In the first years of the List, inscribed properties were justified on a ‘Statement of Significance’. Later this has been called ‘Statement of Outstanding Universal Value’ in reference to the Convention.

It is worth noting that sometimes properties that are proposed for nomination may not have been given particular attention prior to identifying their potentiality in meeting the World Heritage requirements. This is particularly the case with large territories, such as cultural landscapes. It is thus necessary to identify a potential theme, and search for all significant elements in reference to this theme that together would satisfy the requirement of integrity in view of the universal significance of the property. It is only then that the nominated property would enter into the evaluation process. For this purpose, one needs to identify a ‘thematic framework’ in reference to the chosen theme, and to compare the property with others corresponding to the same qualities or having comparable qualities, while taking into account the criteria and other requirements for justification.

Integrated urban conservation

Taking the example of an historic city, we can examine the case of Shiraz, capital of the Fars Province in central Iran. This region is at the heart of Ancient Persia, Pârsâ, and it also contains Persepolis, the symbolic capital of the Persian Empire from the 6th century BC. Shiraz has been known for its poets and literature (Hafez, Saadi Shirazi), as well as its gardens, flowers and wine. As a result of Iran’s modernisation after the Second World War, the city grew rapidly; while the quality of life was downgrading, the original families of

10 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, 2015 edition, art. 49ff.

II.TED School of Heritage Management 40 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape the historic town started moving out, and they were replaced by immigrants and refugees. The infrastructures were not renovated, and parts of the city fell in ruins. At the same time, religious compounds expanded as a result of pilgrimage to renowned sanctuaries, which resulted in the partial demolition of old buildings and the introduction of modern facilities to receive and accommodate pilgrims. Since the 1970s, there have been several urban master plans, proposing to find solutions to the old town. The planners who studied the history and character of the city, proposed to identify architecturally and historically valuable buildings to be protected. In addition to public buildings, such as the old bazaar, the sanctuaries and a large fort, there are some fabulous private residences with Persian gardens and water works. The methods for the safeguard of the historic town were based on architectural conservation and restoration of individual buildings. Since the 1990s, some of these buildings were acquired by the State authority responsible for heritage; others were bought by private people in order to turn them into hotels or other facilities. The widening of streets was proposed to facilitate car traffic, and much of the historic housing was to be demolished. At the same time, the city continued expanding outwards with occasional tall buildings in critical areas.

As a result of the new administration in Iran since 2013, efforts have been made to correct planning approaches not only in Shiraz but also in other historic cities. In 2016, the historic city of Yazd has been nominated for inscription in the UNESCO List. The aim of the new administration is to introduce the integrated urban conservation methodology recommended internationally and already tested in various countries. In Shiraz, in 2016, this has meant that urban planning should no more ignore the particular qualities of historic urban areas but rather be based on the detailed survey of the historic city in its urban form and building typology. A planning office should maintain a close collaboration between the local community, the different ministries and the conservation authority and, when needed, be guided by consultants. A communication system needs to inform the inhabitants, and involve them in the process of conservation and rehabilitation of the old town as part of the larger urban area. In the case of Shiraz, in 2016, at the technical level, the morphology and typology of the historic urban fabric are being surveyed as the fundamental basis for the conservation plan. The field surveys are undertaken by teams of professionals and post-graduate students in architecture, in order to analyse the extent to which the traditional building typology has been preserved, what has been changed as a

II.TED School of Heritage Management 41 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape result of planning in the late 20th century, and what is the social and physical condition of the city. In Shiraz, one of the difficulties has been to generate proper collaboration between the different stakeholders. It has also not been easy to find updated and exact maps and other documentation of the historic city. The scope of urban conservation methodology is not just to conserve the urban fabric but also to improve infrastructures, to provide the inhabitants with proper services, and to reorganise traffic taking into account the carrying capacity of the old city.

When urban areas have been built according to urban master plans, both building typology and urban morphology can be understood by analysing the historic master plans. For example, Asmara (Eritrea) was designed by Italian architects as the colonial capital for their East-African territories in the first half of the 20th century. Here, all master plans and building permits are still well preserved in the city archive. Consequently, a reference for urban conservation can be found in the master plans, according to which the city has been built. In this context, field surveys are necessary to verify the condition of the buildings and to plan the required interventions.

In ancient cities such as Shiraz, instead, the detailed field survey and analysis of buildings becomes even more important as a fundamental part of the process of understanding and reading the city’s fabric. Here, the urban morphology and the building types developed over centuries as a response to the needs and requirements of the community. The concept of typology can be understood as an intrinsic traditional guideline, offering a creative response to the community’s needs. Morphology, instead, refers to the form of the city and the mutual relationships of its elements, i.e. buildings and other structures, systems of communication, public and private areas, etc. In the World Heritage context, morphology can be referred to the concept of integrity.

The built fabric and building typologies have continued to develop over the centuries responding to the evolving needs of society. At the same time, the traditional identity of a particular locality is consolidated, remaining the inherited guideline for the current functions. Indeed, the issue of how to meet the present-day requirements of modern life without losing the qualities of the traditional typology and morphology of historic towns constitutes the challenge in safeguarding historic urban areas or cultural landscapes. We can see this problem at two levels. One concerns the urban planning level, which implies adapting modern urban planning instruments to the requirements of the traditional urban

II.TED School of Heritage Management 42 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape fabric. This includes identifying and analysing urban morphology and building typologies. Here the question is not to classify buildings according to their individual values, but to conserve and provide the guidelines for different types of interventions, from conservative restoration to eventual replacement or even reconstruction. The other level concerns architectural projects, which would be based on the guidelines and regulations provided by the planning phase. Having understood the meaning and signification of all the elements of an historic area, it is possible to plan for its safeguarding and eventual regeneration. The scope of regeneration, however, should not be the introduction of out- of-scale shopping centres or other facilities, fashionable in contemporary architecture. It is necessary to maintain the traditional integrity and character of urban morphology, its spatial structure and building typologies.

Importance of Context

In October 2005, the 15th General Assembly of ICOMOS adopted the so-called Xi’an Declaration on the Conservation of the Setting of Heritage Structures, Sites and Areas. The Declaration introduced five principles regarding the setting of areas recognised as heritage:

A. Acknowledge the contribution of setting to the significance of heritage monuments and sites

B. Understand, document and interpret the settings in diverse contexts

C. Develop planning tools and practices to conserve and manage settings

D. Monitor and manage change affecting settings

E. Work with local, interdisciplinary and international communities for co- operation and awareness in conserving and managing settings

The key idea of the declaration is that the significance of heritage structures depends on the context or setting, which is defined as the environment that is part of, or contributes to, its significance and distinctive character. It is further stated:

Heritage structures, sites or areas of various scales, including historic cities, landscapes, seascapes, cultural routes and archaeological sites, derive their

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significance and distinctive character from their perceived social and spiritual, historic, artistic, aesthetic, natural, scientific, or other cultural values. They also derive their significance and distinctive character from their meaningful relationships with their physical, visual, spiritual and other cultural context and settings. (article 2)

It is particularly important to recognise the context as a reference for understanding the significance of a monument or site. This idea is consistent with the concept of the diversity of cultural expressions, resulting from human creativity. In order to understand the meaning of human creation it is necessary to understand its context, whether cultural, historical, or environmental. Thus, the same type of object may have a different meaning when it is found in a different context. This is obvious in the archaeological context, where the significance of a particular find is often dated on the basis of the stratigraphic context 11 where it is found. The context also helps to verify a particular artefact as an original and genuine product of a particular community in a particular period of time. In fact, it is not possible to verify the authenticity of something without understanding its meaning. In this regard, also the 1994 Nara Document on Authenticity states:

All judgements about values attributed to cultural properties as well as the credibility of related information sources may differ from culture to culture, and even within the same culture. It is thus not possible to base judgements of values and authenticity within fixed criteria. On the contrary, the respect due to all cultures requires that heritage properties must be considered and judged within the cultural contexts to which they belong. (article 11)

Consequently, when developing safeguarding measures to historic structures or areas, it is necessary to understand them in their context. This has become clear particularly in the World Heritage context, due to various problems facing protected areas. In 2001, we already had the problem of Vienna; subsequently, many other sites have been facing similar challenges. In 2016, even Liverpool is being developed without proper understanding or respect for the inscribed World Heritage area. After the inscription of Vienna in 2001, it became obvious that the local authority did not want to review a high- rise development in the area of Wien Mitte, right on the margin of the proposed World Heritage area. Finally, it seemed that a solution was found, and in 2005 the Governor of

11 See also: Troy Lovata, 2008. Inauthentic Archaeologies: Public Uses and Abuses of the Past, Left Coast Press, USA

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Vienna invited an expert conference to discuss the introduction of modern architecture into historic contexts. In this conference, we observe the emergence of the notion of Historic Urban Landscape, which was later elaborated, resulting in a new international recommendation in 2011. The idea was not to expand protection indefinitely, but rather to guarantee the proper management of the context of protected areas. Indeed, it was a further elaboration of the 2005 ICOMOS Xi’an Declaration regarding the setting of heritage areas. The 2011 Recommendation speaks about the ‘historic urban landscape approach’, intending that – rather than more protection - the main scope of the recommendation is the management of heritage resources within their context.

The historic urban landscape approach aims at preserving the quality of the human environment, enhancing the productive and sustainable use of urban spaces while recognizing their dynamic character, and promoting social and functional diversity. It integrates the goals of urban heritage conservation and those of social and economic development. It is rooted in a balanced and sustainable relationship between the urban and natural environment, between the needs of present and future generations and the legacy from the past. (article 12)

It is recommended that a range of instruments need to be adopted, which are suitable for monitoring, control and management of local contexts. Such instruments should also include civic engagement tools as an integral part of the urban governance processes. It is important for the community to understand the significance of their inheritance and agree to sustain its safeguarding and culturally sustainable development. Other tools regard generation of knowledge of heritage significance and introducing appropriate planning methods that take into account the character and requirements of protected areas within their context. Indeed, one of the major problems in historic urban areas is their inconsiderate modernisation, resulting in the loss of their historical integrity and authenticity. It is necessary to verify the regulatory systems, as well as to guarantee a system of financial support for the required projects.

In the World Heritage context, the condition of integrity was initially only applied to natural heritage. Since 2005, however, it is also required for the assessment of the condition of cultural heritage. As has been discussed above, it is particularly important when defining the protected areas, such as cultural landscapes and historic urban areas. It is important

II.TED School of Heritage Management 45 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape as part of the methodology of protection and management of heritage sites. There is one particular aspect of integrity that has caused much discussion: the condition of visual integrity. The recognition of the visual integrity in a particular territory is not only a question of aesthetics, but rather of understanding the layers of significance in the historic evolution of a place. We can consider visual integrity as the result of the design, growth and development of a settlement within its environmental context. In many heritage sites, whether World Heritage or not, visual integrity is often challenged due to uncontrolled or misguided developments within the heritage area itself, and particularly in the surroundings. Indeed, the purpose of the Historic Urban Landscape concept is to bring attention to this both in urban planning processes and in monitoring and managing the setting or context.

The method of environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been practiced since the 1960s as a result of increasing challenges in protected areas. In the USA, EIA obtained formal status in 1969 with the enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act. Even though this method has occasionally been applied in the case of cultural heritage, it is only in the 2000s that this was given more attention. In January 2011, ICOMOS published a booklet: Guidance on Heritage Impact Assessments for Cultural World Heritage Properties, where it is noted that in many countries environmental impact assessment or heritage impact assessment are not included in the ordinary management processes. Due to various undesired developments in the surroundings of many World Heritage properties, including for example Liverpool or Baku, HIA has become a recommended practice. In 2013, a UNESCO expert meeting in Agra (India) also discussed the problem of negative impacts from proposed changes in the surroundings on the visual integrity of protected World Heritage properties.

In order to determine authenticity and/or integrity it is necessary to clearly define the criteria and values for which the property is being nominated and then define the attributes that carry those values. The qualities (including visual and others) of those attributes related to the values should then be clearly stated. Limits or rules should then be included in the management system for the property to ensure the protection of the attributes of OUV, and monitoring 12 should take place over time to ensure the protection.

12 Report of the International Expert Meeting on Visual Integrity, Agra, India, 6-9 March 2013

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Some words to conclude

All what has been said above is closely associated with the development of capacity building strategies. We can here recall the ‘Principles for Capacity Building through Education and Training in Safeguarding and Integrated Conservation of Cultural Heritage’, drafted by the ICOMOS International Training Committee, in 2013. This document states (art. 7):

Capacity-Building in relation to the conservation and management of heritage resources needs to take into account a number of key areas of understanding, knowledge and skills in order to build up the required competence for each target audience. It should involve the planning and implementation of culturally and environmentally sustainable management of recognised heritage resources. This needs to take into account the social and economic requirements of the community, as well as the protection of the natural environment. It requires understanding the significance of the heritage resource as an often complex system of historical layering within its territorial and socio- economic setting. This demands sound judgement based on recognised international doctrine, and an ability to establish meaningful collaboration with a wide range of stakeholders, according to the roles and responsibilities of each.

While one of the fashionable slogans in recent years has emphasised the people-centred approach, and quite rightly so, this does not mean that the conservation expertise should be ignored. Indeed, the question is rather about emphasising the importance of collaboration and communication, which are the fundamental ingredients of any successful conservation plan. The question is about dealing with something that already exists, which is different from the scope of ordinary modern master plans that are dealing with something that does not exist. This is the reason why such emphasis is given to knowing the historic territory and recognising its social and cultural significance. It has been often said that there is one conservation theory. However, such theory would refer to a common methodology. Each case needs to be looked upon in its own right. For example, in territorial management, the first phase action should be focused on defining the urban area in its integrity and in its component parts (morphology/typology); the second phase would then deal with the conservation of the historic structures. This is also

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13 consistent with Cesare Brandi’s theory of restoration. Also John Ruskin in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, recalls that human creativity is present even in modest works, but it is important that every time you build something you make an effort, a sacrifice, to make it as good as you can. Such creative effort will make your building historical and durable as an inheritance for future generations. ‘And if indeed there be any profit in our knowledge of the past, or any joy in the thought of being remembered hereafter, which can give strength to present exertion, or patience to present endurance, there are two duties respecting national architecture whose importance it is impossible to overrate: the first, to render the architecture of the day, historical; and, the second, to preserve, as the 14 most precious of inheritances, that of past ages.’ (‘Lamp of Memory’)

13 Cesare Brandi, 2005, Theory of Restoration, Istituto Centrale per il Restauro, Nardini Editore, Florence

14 John Ruskin, 1849, The Seven Lamps of Architecture,, George Allen (1889)

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LANDSCAPE AND ECOLOGICAL NETWORKS. TOWARDS A NEW VISION OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Angioletta Voghera, Luigi La Riccia (DIST-Politecnico di Torino)

Abstract The ecological network can be considered in different ways: as a strictly interrelated system of habitats, as a network of parks and protected areas, as a multi-purpose ecosystemic scenario, as a sequence of natural, rural and open landscapes. Nevertheless, all the interpretations of natural landscapes not always have been considered in the lexicon of urban and regional planning, relegating natural and rural areas to an “inessential” role (and generically defining them as “in state of pre-Urbanization”). The research proposal, starting from the recently finalised research “Guidelines for the Green System of PTC2: Ecological Network, Mitigations and Compensations” (Research conducted with the Metropolitan City of Turin and Polytechnic of Turin, 2014-2015), aims to investigate the ecological meaning of landscape, and therefore its primary ecosystemic role, introducing a review proposal of the current programs and planning paradigms, highlighting its importance in the economic, entrepreneurial and policy debates in Europe. The main objective of the contribution is to promote new clear and specific local planning regulations, aimed at the project of new ecological corridors, with a more useful consideration of the binominal value “landscape-biodiversity”, and in general of the “natural-rural-urban” correlation, as an essential condition for defining a new vision of sustainable urban and regional development.

New Urbanisations, infrastructural networks and intensive agriculture have increased nature’s fragmentation process, with the resulting reduction of natural environments and the loss of habitats able to sustain wild species and their migrations.

Despite the Protected Areas and Natura 2000 sites are now considered the “backbone” of the European policy for biodiversity, at the local level they come with a clear difficulty within the urban policies and plans. The policies for the improvement of ecological networks are in fact necessary to overcome the fragmentation of habitats and natural areas, which is the main cause of biodiversity loss in Europe. From this point of view the Natura 2000 network, now implemented in 28 Member States, is considered at Community level as the exclusive policy for the conservation of biodiversity values. Such

II.TED School of Heritage Management 49 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape network is covering a total of 18.36% of the member states’ surface and includes a set of sites of Community interest, with an extension of about 60 million hectares. Secondly, there is a considerable overlap of these with the surface of Protected Areas, which corresponds to approximately 22% of the surface of Member States (Data: EEA 2013 and CED PPN 2014). Considering these data, in recent years we have seen an exponential growth of urban land use towards more natural spaces: external urban areas (uncultivated land, abandoned cultivated land, burnt areas, degraded forests) are often been confined to a “inessential” position and sometimes simply considered as “waiting for a new Urbanisation”. Too often, this is due to poor operability of local plans to lead an urban development that is coherent with the preservation of natural areas and ecological connectivity. We can identify the consequences of these processes in 6 significant phenomena [1]:

1. the substantial loss of natural areas: urban development has led in recent years, a reduction of natural areas (in the world, in the years 2000- 2010, the rate of decline amounted to about 16 million hectares lost each year);

2. the fragmentation of natural areas: a process that determines a breakdown of structural areas of ecological networks into smaller patches, and consequently more isolated from the point of view of connectivity;

3. the degradation of wetlands, which have always played an important ecological function for the control of water flows, due to the ability to block sediments, to the support of plant and animal species (stepping stones function) and finally, to the ability to provide nutrients for ecosystems;

4. the inability of ecosystems to respond to change and find a new ecological balance: that is to say, a significantly reduced resilience;

5. the loss of ecosystem services: natural systems have important “services”, such as the control of water, the filter functions for pollutants, the preservation of the climatic risks;

6. the increased costs for public services, due to the response to natural disasters as a result of humans’ ecological footprint.

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In Italy, the need to think lucidly about the ecological networks of protected areas and the green infrastructure, which has stimulated important studies and research projects since the early 90’s [3]. However, although many results have been achieved in the field of governance of soil use at national and regional normative level, at the urban level we still lack a clear perspective from the operational point of view [4]: local plans tend, generally, to transfer landscape planning guidelines without any further investigation, which is necessary to identify a specific ecological network design adapted to the local context. In addition, local plans rarely identify a system of areas for biodiversity conservation, accompanied by actions and specific management rules.

Just in some cases plans and projects have shown they can really seize the interconnectivity between urban and extra-urban areas and green infrastructures for the economic and touristic development of the territory. The environmental function, from an interconnected habitat system, becomes the scenario to guide local planning to reorganize the territory in terms of form and functionally: the ecological network can in fact contribute to the regeneration and redevelopment of functional and landscape matrices.

In this context, as described below, several interesting experiences regarding ecological networks have been launched in the Piedmont Region, with the aim to improve the overall ecological quality of the natural and landscape areas and identify the operational procedures to avoid ecological fragmentation.

Methodology and experimentation for the development of the ecological network in Ivrea (Italy)

Defining a form of connectivity to ensure the exchange of matter and energy between different environmental systems is crucial to improve the level of territorial biodiversity. Between 2014 and 2015 we have conducted the research “The Guidelines for the Green System of PTC2” (convention between Metropolitan City of Turin, ENEA and Polytechnic of Turin), with the objective of defining a proposal for implementation of the ecological network at the local level in two municipalities of Turin (Ivrea and Bollengo). The approach, which has provided as starting point the specification of the Guidelines for the Green

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System of the Province of Turin (2) (now Metropolitan City of Turin), considered an extensive network for the concerned territories.

Fig.1 - Maps of Ivrea territory according to the considered five indicators (Processing ENEA 2014)

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In this experience, the approach proposed by ENEA was reconsidered to guide governments with specific measures to limit anthropogenic land use and, where possible, orient and qualify the conservation of ecosystem services. Habitats, natural areas and landscape were not interpreted exclusively with an ecological point of view (a mosaic of ecosystems), but also considering a broader perspective that embraces cultural, social and economic aspects of the Ivrea area. The proposed methodology identifies the ecological character of the territory and defines the criteria for the evaluation of different types of land use: in the Ivrea area 97 types of use were identified according to Corine Land Cover database. Subsequently, we applied five key indicators for assessing the ecological status (see Fig. 1):

• Naturalness: the types of land use are classified into 5 levels of naturalness, considering the closeness to the formations that would be present in the absence of disturbance (climax). Therefore, natural levels ranged from the first, which included all natural formations, to the fourth, which considered the types of land use characterised by total anthropic determinism, but not artificial (like almost all croplands), and the fifth level, which includes the types of land use corresponding to artificial areas.

• Relevance for conservation: the types of land use are classified on four levels of relevance based on the relevance/suitability of land use for biodiversity conservation, considering at the same time the importance for habitats and species. It introduces the concept of interest habitats for species of the Natura 2000 network, including not only the habitats of Community interest but also the complex habitats whose conservation is necessary for the protection of species of the Natura 2000 Network.

• Fragility: the types of land use are classified in terms of intrinsic fragility due to pressures such as pollution, entry of exotic and invasive species and human disturbance in general. The first level includes types of land use that define both natural environments with very low resilience such as rock fields or glaciers as semi- natural areas and significant anthropic determinism but easily fragile for both types of land use and poor resilience such as artificial water reservoirs or areas with sparse vegetation.

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• Extroversion: types of land use are classified on the basis of the potential “capacity” to produce pressure, compared to the neighbouring patches. We have considered the pressures in an integrated way that goes from pollution of productions to the spread of invasive alien species. It ranges from first level, which includes types of land use that coincide with the areas with the highest human settlement and ability to exert pressure, to the fifth level, containing natural types of land use and types of use of the natural ground.

• Irreversibility: the types of land use are classified on the basis of the potential possibilities of change in the intended use. The 1st level includes all artificial types of land use totally characterised by an irreversible intended use (for example: urban, commercial industrial zones).

The combination of the patches characterised by different levels of Naturalness and Relevance for conservation made it possible to define a zoning of the territory in terms of reticular and ecological function value, considering four types of areas:

• High ecological value areas (optimal ecological suitability)

• Moderate ecological value areas (limited ecological suitability)

• Residual ecological value areas (poor ecological suitability)

• No ecological value areas (no ecological suitability)

The so-called “Structural map of the ecological network” has been obtained from the integration of the results of different indicators (Fig. 2). This map shows the elements of the Local Ecological Network system, chosen on the basis of the levels of naturalness, ecological functionality, geographical continuity, and consists of three main elements:

• Structural elements of the network (primary ecological network), namely the areas of high and moderate ecological functions, as well as areas that host specific conservation emergencies, i.e. of natural and significant importance for the conservation of biodiversity.

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• Priority Network Expansion areas, namely residual ecological function areas where priority action is needed to increase the functionality of the primary ecological network and for which the implementation of protection measures is necessary for the maintenance of the primary ecological network. These areas are further divided into: Connection areas and Contiguous portions to the structural elements.

• Possible expansion of the network areas, i.e. areas at residual ecological functionality, but on which it is possible to implement new interventions aimed at increasing naturalness, useful to protect the habitat and species of interest for the conservation of biodiversity.

Fig.2 - Map of the ecological structurality of Ivrea territory. The picture shows the three components of ecological structurality and the relationship with the urban expansion areas (processing: PolytechnicofTurin 2015 on ENEA data).

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Construction of the ecological network at the local level and urban planning rules

Attributing ecological significance and therefore an ecosystem role, not necessarily secondary, to territory implies considering a general renovation of urban planning paradigms, considering the importance of productive, business and policy interests. Therefore, there is a clear need to define objectives that avoid “territorial schemes” of new ecological corridors, which may be excellent in aesthetic terms, but may lack meaning from the point of view of biodiversity. For this reason it is important to continue analysing the state of naturalness and diversity at different scales. However, it is necessary to go further to give priority to the pursuit of ecological coherence of the whole territory: that is to say, to link the network with the impacts deriving from human activities and, more generally, to define a framework for urban planning operability.

In the considered case study, an analytical process (framing of the territorial ecological system and public consultation through negotiating tables) was followed by the drafting of rules, directly integrated with the urban plans. This process included provisions for implementation tools, such as spatial equalisation measures, compensation and mitigation of impacts and provisions for urban green management.

These implementation mechanisms are designed to intervene where projects and actions included in the urban plan could lead to changes at the level of the local ecological functionality. The procedure for the definition of the compensatory measures for unmitigated impacts includes an analytical phase, an assessment phase, a phase of planning/design, an implementation phase and a phase of management and monitoring:

1. recognition and evaluation of the ecological relevance of the compensatory areas, through the evaluation of the urban-environmental state;

2. definition of possible measures for improvement and protection of the ecological and landscape value, for each area identified for compensation;

3. setting priorities for action, in order to increase biodiversity and the sustainable use of the territory;

4. choice of compensatory measures;

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5. design of compensatory measures, based on the characteristics of each chosen lot;

6. updating the natural value of the areas subject to compensation.

Some rules are introduced for the urban green areas: the idea is that urban green spaces can contribute, with the green development of the rural environment, to the landscape quality of the territory. The defined parameters for integrated green management (i.e. in the case of the City of Ivrea), include the list of plant species adapted to the general urban conditions (climate and soil), as well as the conditions imposed by the urban environment, such as the resistance to pollution and pests. In the selection of plant species it is suggested to consider: at least 50% of native species or particularly suitable to the urban environment and less than 25% of non-native species or naturalised (hence excluding the weeds or plant with relevant on-going diseases).

Conclusions

Ecological networks, without an appropriate urban plan, lose feasibility and integration in the context of territory preservation and transformation. However, ecological networks refer to an open system of relationships and cannot be enclosed within the administrative limits and therefore require necessary integration between different levels and types of planning (regional, provincial, parks, landscaping, basin, contracts rivers, etc.).

Finally, we have identified five key passages through which to build this integration:

1. transpose the ecological network elements at regional level and verify the implementation and expansion at local level (the network project must become an integral part of the territorial vision).

2. define the appropriate modalities for intervention favouring the natural use for the areas included in the network.

3. develop the local ecological network also through the institution of urban and territorial equalisation, giving priority to the protection of river areas and public lands.

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4. Ensure the correct inclusion of allowed building work and the prohibition of definitive elimination of tree and shrub formations, including rows, hedgerows, etc.

5. define compensation and mitigation measures of impacts deriving from urban transformations, consistent with the goals of enhancing local ecological networks and landscape quality.

References

[1] Benedict, M. A., McMahon, E.T. (2002), “Green Infrastructure: Smart Conservation for the 21st Century”, Sprawl Watch Clearinghouse Monograph Series, Washington D.C, 2002.

[2] Provincia of Turin, “Linee guida per il sistema del verde”, Allegato 3bis al PTC2, Turin, 2011. [3] CED PPN, Polytechnic e University of Turin, “Nuove frontiere per le politiche of conservazione. Un sondaggio a livello internazionale”, Conferenza internazionale Per il rilancio dei parchi, Gruppo of San Rossore, ETS Edizioni, Firenze-Pisa, 28 febbraio 2011.

[4] La Riccia, L., “Nature Conservation in the Urban Landscape Planning”, in R. Gambino, A. Peano (eds.), “Nature Policies and Landscape Policies. Towards an Alliance”, Springer, Dordrecht, 2015.

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MANAGEMENT OF HISTORIC CITIES AND WHS: THE ITALIAN CONTRIBUTION

Alessio Re (CSS – EBLA Centro Studio Silvia Santagata)

Background

The conservation of monuments and sites has a long tradition in Europe, dating back to late 19th century. However, it was only by mid 20th century that historic centres’ protection became an issue and urban conservation legislation was introduced. On these grounds UNESCO and ICOMOS developed in more recent times their Charts and Recommendations.

Urban heritage protection, dealing initially with the physical conservation of historic sites, was extended in the 1980s to functional conservation, with the aim to counteract gentrification. Since the 1990s it is focusing principally on the protection of the social and cultural characteristics of places endangered by mass tourism and the disneylandisation of heritage. This phenomena is getting more and more evident, and hazardous, for places having high touristic visibility, like those ones recognised as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO convention for the protection of world natural and cultural heritage (1972).

In this context, the monitoring of conservation interventions and policies regarding the impact of mass tourism in heritage sites have become major tools for a sustainable conservation and development.

This paper intends to approach and develop those topics on the basis of two major Italian approaches on the subject of monitoring the on-going management practices and experiences in heritage cities. On one hand, some recent efforts in evaluating the monitoring of World Heritage Sites and the same value of the World Heritage status, and, on the other hand, the “Preserving Places” approach elaborated by the ICVBC for evaluating tourist impact flows in historic centres.

Both these approaches, partially already experimented also in the Chinese context, may be further developed on a comparative Chinese-Italian basis and be eventually considered for future possible applications in Chinese World Heritage Sites.

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World heritage status: benefits and risks

The World Heritage Convention is, probably, the most important and diffused instrument to protect heritage at a global scale, and is receiving an increasing attention by analysts and scholars. However, many important issues related to its functioning and its potential are still not adequately addressed. The World Heritage “status” shows its capacity to influence relevantly territories in relation -above all- to two main phenomena. The first is the one known as cultural tourism, absolving a function of attractive brand and guaranteeing the unique qualities of single sites. In the second one, UNESCO’s recognition functions as a catalyst of attention, and may be referred in particular to the sites under pressure or at risk, for instance those included in the World heritage list in danger, or the Reactive monitoring procedures.

At the present state of the art, managing World Heritage sites implies facing many questions and challenges, including the functioning of organisation structures, the mitigation of pressures and threats on sites, the necessity to drive programs and policies towards generating positive and durable social and economic impacts for the communities living in and around the same sites. Given the complexity of this framework, there are still many open questions regarding the proper management of world heritage properties, especially when we are in presence of urban settlements, cultural landscapes or territorial sites.

We may observe a quite evident gap, for instance, in relation to the setting up of effective tools for measuring and evaluating the management impacts on local economic systems, especially in relation to the additional pressures caused on enlisted sites, posed by their augmented visibility.

In 2002, to emphasise the importance of a proper management of heritage, the World Heritage Committee adopted, during its 26th session, the "Budapest Declaration", calling on all partners to support the preservation of World Heritage through key strategic objectives, trying to secure a proper balance between conservation, sustainability and development.

At the national level, some single nations have taken various initiatives to respond to the specific need for sites inscribed on the World Heritage List to have a management plan.

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Such plan focuses on the programming of measures to maintain the integrity of the values of sites, in order to properly preserve them for future generations.

There are already a consistent literature and research experiences on the above mentioned issue, due to the growing worldwide interest around the concept of world heritage and its implications.

Among the most recent contributions on these subjects, it is worth to recall the text by Leask and Yeoman (2004), Harrison and Hitchcock (2005), van der Aa (2005), Cleere, (2006), Leask and Fyall (2006), Frey and Pamini (2009, 2010). In particular the main aspects studied until now included those related to the nomination process, stakeholder participation, the impacts of the inscriptions on tourism (Tunney, 2005; Cochrane and Tapper, 2006); visitor management (McKercher and Cros, 2001; Shackley, 2006); and the identification of the conditions in which the World Heritage List brings benefits and, on the contrary, when it may cause risks and threats (Frey e Stainer, 2010). In addition, there are many case studies on single sites (for Hadrian’s Wall De La Torre, 2003; Stonehenge, Mason and Kuo, 2006; Machu Picchu Regalado-Pezúa and Arias-Valencia, 2006; the Yellow Mountain in China Li Fung and Sofield, 2006; Assisi Borchi, 2008; for Hanoi in Vietnam, UNESCO, 2008; the puppets district of San Gregorio Armeno in Naples Santagata, De Caro e Marrelli, 2008; Jurassic coast, 2009; Shirakawa-Mura in Japan, Jimuara, 2010. And more: for the English sites, DCMS, 2007; for the Scottish sites, The Scottish natural heritage/Hambrey consulting study, 2007; for some case studies in Italy, Santagata, 2011); for comparative international studies: a Price water house Coopers LLP, 2007, Prud’homme et al., 2008; WH Status, 2009.

Available data clearly show how the sites branded by UNESCO are recognised as absolute valuable icons. Not to be included in the World Heritage List represents a relevant gap, for instance if the aim is to promote a place as a cultural tourism destination. Donors are much more motivated to finance projects, for instance in recovering dangers, on sites that can guarantee a worldwide return in terms of visibility. Many countries have set up policies and financial programs to sustain their world heritage sites. Such effects are also measurable in terms of generation of positive externalities, of attention received by the media and policy makers and in terms of comparison with other sites that are not listed (Peacock and Rizzo, 2008).

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Despite this picture, as mentioned above, properly managing world heritage still represents a big issue to be faced. A large part of the mentioned potential is completely underestimated in management policies and projects. If we take a look to the studies carried on for defining indicators for the evaluation of management efficiency, they are mainly focusing on the project’s implementation, without exploring the impacts and effects generated by their execution. On this regard, experiences were made at the international level through some trials in the field of natural sites registered in the World Heritage List. Among these, probably the most relevant is the research published in 2008 by the IUCN WH Paper # 23, Enhancing our Heritage (EOH project). The issue related to the monitoring of cultural sites and evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of management, in terms of performance/ impact results, still remains largely open.

It is worth mentioning two other recent initiatives by UNESCO in this frame.

The first one is represented by the Recommendation on Historic Urban Landscape (2011), aiming at reconciling urban development with heritage values preservation, through the definition of proper cooperative schemes allowing to support culture driven development in urban contexts. Some encouraging pilot experiences have been already conducted in this regard in some cities worldwide (WHITRAP, 2016). The second initiative, specifically related to tourism management, is represented by the UNESCO’s World Heritage Sustainable Tourism Programme, aimed at developing capacity building tools for World Heritage site managers and other key stakeholders in the destination management, in order to balance economic development with sites conservation issues.

Italian world heritage properties, main phenomena

A recent analysis on management instruments of some selected Italian world heritage places (Re, 2011) allowed to draft a picture of the situation and of the main phenomena concerning Italian world heritage cities.

Referring to human pressures, they are evidently more present and complex in the historical centres of bigger cities, where the impact of human population is more evident and strong and where it is more difficult to identify and assess single pressures.

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In Genoa and Naples, for example, human pressures are mainly due to the high density of population of the central neighbourhoods, which produces traffic and, in some case, urban blight. The latter in some areas is mainly related to nightlife, while in other areas it is due to marginalisation and poverty of the local population, which sometimes lead to social problems and lower degrees of recognition and of awareness of the values of the living context.

Of course, these pressures should be managed and their effects on cultural and historic heritage reduced. However, it is important to be aware that in a certain measure they constitute evidence that these historical neighbourhoods still are the centres of local life. This increases the cultural value of buildings and monuments, adding a non material value that should be maintained in order to avoid the transformation of city centres from places of daily life to tourism oriented “non-places”.

Car traffic is one of the main pressures of urban sites, such as Florence, Genoa, Naples. It is common, however, also in the non urban areas hosting World Heritage Sites. In these places it is harder to manage this issue, because of the weakness of public transportation systems in rural areas. Sometimes, the proposed solutions to the problem of car traffic, usually new infrastructures, are worse than the problem itself and threaten the integrity of the properties, like in the case of the new tramway line of Florence, running beside the Duomo.

Road congestion is not the only negative effect of car traffic. It also produces air pollution, which threatens the integrity of some World Heritage Sites, lowering the quality of life around them and, above all, corroding and deteriorating buildings and monuments.

The increase of tourist flows is one of the main goals of management and valorisation of a World Heritage Site, but at the same time it is also one of the main pressures on monitored sites. The negative effects of tourism appear when it is not strategically managed, and not used as an engine for a comprehensive local development. Among its negative impacts, there are the increase of traffic, a simplification of the local economic system and the excessive use of public facilities by tourists, without corresponding monetary input.

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Further developments

According to the aforementioned questions, some specific aspects appear as particularly sensitive for further research developments in this field:

• Investing in the production of knowledge in order to create innovative models for monitoring the management plans and tools for world heritage sites;

• Establishing an innovative model for monitoring and assessing the impacts of management of the cultural sites, in relation to development and tourism;

• Definition of a checklist of indicators useful for the periodic verification of the impacts of the management of cultural sites, also applicable to situations other than those involving UNESCO recognitions;

• Provision of methods to develop virtuous processes of management, protection and promotion of cultural heritage.

References

DCMS (2007),The Costs and benefits of WH Site Status in UK, 2007;

Feilden B., Jokilehto J. (1998), Management guidelines for world cultural heritage sites, ICCROM, Rome;

ICOMOS/ WTO (1993), Tourism at World Heritage Sites: The Site’s Managers Handbook. 2nd ed. Paris / Madrid

IUCN, The World Conservation Union (2006), Protected Areas Programme, Parks Vol.16 No 2, The Visitor Experience Challenge;

Pricewaterhouse Coopers LLP (2007), The costs and benefits of UK world heritage status;

Prud’homme et al. (2008),Les impacts socio economiques de l’inscription d’un site sur la liste du patrimoine mondial: trois etudes;

Re A. (2011), Valutare la gestione dei siti UNESCO, Celid, Turin;

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Tisdell C., Wilson C. (2002), World Heritage Listing of Australian Natural Sites: Tourism Stimulus and its Economic Value. In Economic Analysis and Policy, 32,pp.27-49;

UNESCO (1972) World Heritage Centre, Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris;

UNESCO WHC (2008), World Heritage Papers 23, Enhancing our heritage;

UNESCO WHC (2010) World Heritage Papers n. 27, Managing historic cities;

UNESCO WHC (2011), Reccomendation on Historic Urban Landscape;

WHITRAP (2016), HUL Guidebook.

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MAKING PLACES AND SHAPING URBANITY. THE RISE OF TOURISM POLICIES IN PORTUGAL (1910-1940) Frédéric Vidal (CRIA ISCTE-Instituto Universitário De Lisboa)

Abstract

Traditionally, the history of tourism was conceived as part of cultural history. It addresses the transformation in social habits and sensibilities of the aristocratic class and bourgeoisie, at specific times and in specific places. However, at the beginning of the 20th century, tourism was also considered as a policy issue. Recent studies have been focusing on the ideological use of tourism (for example, in the context of dictatorships in Southern Europe) and on the technical dimension of tourism policies (the making of tourist places and the relationship between tourism and urban planning policies). In Portugal, the First Republic (1910-1926) contributed to the institutionalisation of tourism policies by setting up a specific administration and developing rules for tourism industry and practices. Not only were leading politicians interested in tourism and tourism policies, but a network of technicians and experts was also developed at this time. The first Portuguese national tourism congress in 1936 was an important event which covered all aspects of tourism policies, providing a rich discussion about how tourism shaped urban spaces and their uses in a good and/or bad way. The aim of this paper is to discuss the influence of tourism issues on the rise of urban planning policies in Portugal and, more generally, on the perception of urbanity that goes beyond the tension between traditional and modern perspectives. In a transnational context, the making of tourist places was considered as a form of urbanisation resulting from the standardisation of spatial forms and patterns – particularly visible in the modification of urban landscape and the introduction of new ornamental objects, e.g. flower pots, benches, pergola, etc. Some experts or technicians were critical of these transformations as they believed that tourists valorised the "authentic", the "different" and the "typical". Estado Novo policies expanded this perspective and rejected modernity patterns due to economic and ideological interests. At the end of 1930’s, the touristic representations of Portugal were clearly based on the valorisation of rural and local traditions.

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Tourism as a policy issue

In 1936, the first national tourism congress was held in Lisbon. It was attended by 179 delegates: representatives from various local tourism committees, professional associations (hotels, transport, restaurants), technical experts (engineers, interpreter- guides), and companies investing in the tourism sector. In the 1930s, all attention was focused on the golden triangle of Portuguese tourism: the region between the towns of Sintra, Cascais and Lisbon. One of the most famous participants in the congress was Fausto de Figueiredo from the Estoril Sol Company. He was responsible for the transformation of Estoril from a small settlement into a resort on the outskirts of Lisbon. In the previous decade, Estoril had completely changed due to its luxury hotels, walks and casino. It was one of the finest achievements of Portuguese tourism of the era.

This congress took place in a specific political and ideological context: the beginning of the Estado Novo three years earlier. Although the country was in the hands of a single corporatist and conservative party headed by Salazar, this did not seem to influence the debates. There were occasional tributes to the dictator, but the discussion focused primarily on the practical conditions for establishing a tourism policy: which were the most urgent measures? Which policies had been adopted by other European countries? How could tourism be used to improve local development? Engineers were strongly represented at the congress with 17 speakers. This professional group was known for its positions in favour of the modernisation of the country: improvements in technology and facilities (building roads, railways, bridges, etc.). Although the congress was not an isolated event and had been preceded by a series of somewhat disorganised initiatives, I consider it to be a key point in the rise of tourism policies in Portugal. The proceedings of this congress, published that same year, offered a wealth of information on the outline of tourism policies which gradually developed in Portugal.

Until now, the ideological dimension has usually been stressed when interpreting the period preceding the rise of mass tourism in the 1960s. Policies have generally been described as tools for disseminating a national rural and traditional identity, as systematised under the Estado Novo. The concrete effects of the development of tourism on the national territory were considered insignificant and therefore secondary. These effects were however at the heart of a political project that could be supported by traditional symbolic constructions.

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In the early twentieth century, tourism activity was underdeveloped in Portugal, apart from a few spas and luxury hotels for foreign guests. The Portuguese case is particularly interesting. The economy was still dominated by traditional sectors: agriculture and textiles, among others. During the second half of the 19th century, industrialisation was still weak and highly polarised in space. There were few medium-sized cities and the structure of the urban network - dominated by Lisbon and, to a lesser extent, Porto - was very imbalanced. However, at this time, tourism became a major political, economic and cultural issue. The theme appears in numerous debates that focus on management policies and territorial developments, transport matters, local economic development, preservation and improvement of heritage, but also health and safety. More than a restricted phenomenon, the development of tourism and tourism practices appear as the confluence of a number of issues related to the idea of the desired or necessary modernisation of Portuguese contemporary society: technical modernisation as well as a change in life style, with the adoption of transnational cultural and social models that were 15 linked to the idea of urbanity. The tourism economy was growing and spreading into many sectors: hotels, trade, handicrafts, construction. It produced new spaces, often designed in part by technicians (engineers, architects and later town planners) who had gained recognition for skills and know-how in the construction of roads, development of sites and resorts. On the other hand, the administrative power, sometimes substituted by national or local tourism associations, tried to control these activities, impose models, define the rules for the use of public (streets, beaches) or private (hotels) spaces and monitor the diffusion of technology (automobiles, electricity). In other words, the development of tourism can also be seen as a vehicle for disseminating the idea of modernisation, which was gradually transformed into a project that could be planned and implemented.

In this paper, I want to analyse political projects, i.e. texts that formulate opinions, discuss findings, or indicate objectives. At that time, the implementation of these policies was very irregular. Only monographic studies - limited to a particular territory - would teach more about the local impact of these beginnings of tourism policy. However, when we approach this subject through words – “ce parti pris des mots” to use a Françoise Choay expression – it reveals significant changes in the perception of the national territory. This

15 Catherine Cocks, Doing The Town. The rise of tourism in the United States, 1850-1915, University of California Press, 2001

II.TED School of Heritage Management 68 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape relationship with space is the theme of the paper. The study of how political discourses were produced suggests the interplay of interests that lay behind ideological justifications. Tourism policies led to a reflection on the possible uses of the national space and on how to encourage or regulate the distribution of socio-spatial models that were considered modern.

The network of tourism actors

The first question that must be asked is: which actors were involved in this policy? The 1936 congress was the result of a movement which started in the early 20th century, on the eve of the instauration of the First Portuguese Republic on 5 October 1910. In fact, a tourism policy emerged in Portugal at this time. These ‘public policies’ were in no way systematic or directed. They were primarily the work of multiple actors, often not strictly organised, and their competences and fields of action frequently overlapped. The institutionalisation process was slow. The central government had limited influence until the 1930s and the instauration of the Estado Novo, although it benefitted from a growing international context. In May 1911 the very new First Portuguese Republic solemnly hosted the 4th International Tourism Congress. This period also saw the setting up of the first institutions in charge of implementing a national tourism policy, an administrative body – the Repartição do Turismo (Tourism Department) – and an advisory committee consisting of experts, representatives of different organisations (customs, transport, the hotel industry) and associations promoting tourism. However, the scope of these 16 institutions was severely limited by a lack of funds.

In spite of governmental instability and the tendency towards an authoritarian regime in the late 1920s, tourism was never completely erased from the political agenda. During the first years of the Republic, the Tourism Department managed to publish an annual report describing the most important plans and main initiatives already underway. The Department was relatively well established and was headed by José de Ataide, who was appointed by the Republicans in 1911. Ataide had started out in law and advertising before becoming a technician specializing in tourism development policies. His

16 I Congresso Nacional de Turismo, “Organização do turismo em Portugal - Tese Apresentada pelo Engº Carlos Manitto Torres”, Lisboa, 1936.

II.TED School of Heritage Management 69 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape competence was undisputed and he remained at the helm of the Tourism Department until his death in 1942, nine years after the instauration of the Estado Novo.

Meanwhile, the Salazar regime set up new institutions in charge of developing a national cultural policy, notably the Secretariado de Propaganda Nacional in 1933 and renamed Secretariado Nacional da Informação, Cultura Popular e Turismo in 1944. The promotion and development of official tourism became one of the tools for disseminating Portuguese «good taste» and «style». It was at the heart of the project of re-establishing the national identity in accordance with the archetypes of the Estado Novo. Tourism’s newly acquired place in the cultural policy of the Estado Novo was confirmed by the 1936 congress, which received strong support from the new regime

From the beginning of the century, these different administrative bodies worked in close cooperation with associations and in particular with the Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal, established in 1906. From the 1920s, the Automóvel Clube de Portugal became another major player in the development of tourism. The Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal gradually extended its influence to the regional level thanks to its local delegations. This network of associations was the first seed of a local Portuguese tourism organisation that was soon taken over by official bodies. Finally, in 1921, tourism initiative committees were formed in places which were henceforth officially classified as 17 « touristic».

This network of organisations consisted of both associations and administrative bodies. It had no clear scope and often depended on the dynamism of its directors, who sometimes bowed to diverging interests. However, it allowed a network of actors to emerge and was sustained by one discourse and one ambition. The list of participants to the 1936 congress gives a good idea of the nature of this network.

Tourism was usually seen as an area of action governed by moderate choices and social 18 policies. In contrast, tourism in Portugal was often defended by strong personalities in the political arena. This is symbolised by the following two public figures. At the beginning of the century Magalhães de Lima, a Republican and Grand Master of the Portuguese Masons, was a founding member of the Sociedade de Propaganda Portuguesa and

17 Lei nº1.152, 23 de Abril de 1921.

18 See Catherine Bertho Lavenir’s study on the French case. Catherine Bertho Lavenir, La Roue et le stylo. Comment nous sommes touristes, Paris, Odile Jacob, 1999.

II.TED School of Heritage Management 70 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape chaired the first Tourism Board in 1911. In the 1930s, António Ferro became the director of the Sociedade de Propaganda National and was the main designer of the national tourism policy. A great admirer of Salazar, he placed tourism at the service of propaganda for the Estado Novo.

Tourism was clearly used in the first half of the 20th century for political and ideological purposes and this is what Portuguese historians largely remember. However, there was great continuity between the Republic and the Estado Novo. The initiatives to promote and develop tourist places were part of the same project to transform the uses of places and areas that were to be developed and modernised. Paradoxically, these initiatives could refer to different ideological models, for example linking tourism and education under the Republic or tourism and conservation of traditions under the Estado Novo. This can be confirmed by analysing how the perception of the national territory evolved.

The discovery of the territory

From the late 19th century onwards, the development of tourism was closely linked to the 19 process of constructing national and regional identities. This is a classic theme in the historiography of tourism. One of the roles of the central government, through the various associations, was to design and market a promotional discourse of the touristic value of the country or of selected places. «The Tourist Gaze» (John Urry) weaves links between landscapes or cultural features (food, handicrafts, architectural styles, etc.) and an identity discourse, which emphasizes specific natural or historical characteristics. Thus, Portugal’s image as a tourist destination gradually took shape through the publication of brochures, guides and posters. The focus was on natural and human qualities: a sunny country where life was good, with varied landscapes, a historical heritage, friendly people, local cuisine and traditions, etc. These texts and images can be seen as the many identity markings of a country that was becoming aware of itself while exposing itself to the outside world.

This promotional discourse was essentially directed towards the outside, but was accompanied by an inward reflection. At the turn of the century, the development of

19 Marguerite S. Schaffer, See America First. Tourism and National Identity, 1880-1940, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London, 2001; Stephen L. Harp, Marketing Michelin. Advertising and Cultural Identity in Twentieth-Century France, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001

II.TED School of Heritage Management 71 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape tourism practices drew attention to regional diversities and particularities, stimulating desire and curiosity. Wealthy Lisboetas (Lisbon residents) began to discover the national territory. A reflection emerged on how these spaces, which had acquired a specific status thanks to tourism, should be used, developed and promoted.

The Portuguese Republicans followed the example of their American and French counterparts in their particular sensitivity to the educational aspect of tourism. «National tourism» (Marguerite Shaffer) took a central place in the long process of building citizenship. Republicans believed that being a good citizen entailed in-depth knowledge of one’s country, regions and traditions. Tourism was a source of «good» and «healthy» experiences (according to Magalhães de Lima). The discovery of the national territory became a ritual, a rite of passage, with journeys by train and later by car, even though the transport infrastructure was often criticised.

This approach was broadly adopted by the Portuguese Republicans but was part of an older tradition that had its heroes. In 1921, the Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal inaugurated a stone bench in the Serra de Gerez in the North of Portugal in memory of 20 the writer Ramalho Ortigão, who had been an opponent of the Republicans and a tireless walker along the paths of Gerez in the late 19th century. The Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal honoured this «intelligent tourist» and his adventurous spirit. Ortigão had meticulously recorded his travel impressions, incidents, and encounters, enthusiastic or ironic descriptions of popular traditional fairs in the regions he visited. He had also been a keen observer of the first developments of sea-bathing habits, on which he wrote a wonderful account in his chronicle «Beaches of Portugal » (1876).

Physical effort and a thirst for knowledge were required to be a good citizen. This was the dimension of tourism promoted by the Republican leaders. Tourism of this kind often took the shape of group travel or organised excursions, but according to personal tastes and objectives. Tourists sometimes recruited an erudite local as a guide - a new profession which became recognised and regulated at this time. First and foremost, the tourist had to be a traveller who was looking for a unique and personal experience.

Accounts of these tourist excursions were often written and published in specialised magazines (Boletim da Sociedade de Propaganda de Portugal, Revista de Turismo). The

20 Revista de Turismo, nº110, 1921

II.TED School of Heritage Management 72 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape choice of destinations built a new territory determined by the “tourist gaze”, with a certain sensitivity and specific tastes. This phase of discovering the national territory in fact emphasizes the Northern regions of the country: the Minho, Gerez, the Douro valley, the Ribatejo, Estremadura (Alcobaça, Batalha) and the two main urban centres: Lisbon and Porto. The South remains an area to be discovered. In the early 1920s the Revista do 21 Turismo published a series of articles dedicated to «a trip to the Algarve». Here we find the account of the crossing of the Alentejo: an epic 16-hour long journey through «arid» landscapes and stops in dark restaurants infested with «flies». Alentejo is portrayed as a land with no past and without any direct link to the rest of the country. In contrast, the Algarve landscapes are described as «surprising» and «original». They were also witness to important moments in national history. These texts allude to the period of the end of the Reconquista in the XIIIth century. Algarve would become the main tourist destination in Portugal in the 1960s, but the process was already set in motion at the end of the First Republic. Memories of historical landmarks also contributed to the valorisation of tourist destinations.

During the Republican period, this kind of spatial description involved more than just accounts of regional specificities. The texts also demonstrate the emergence of a particular concept of a territory which had to build and see itself on a national scale. Economic, technical and social considerations were combined with observations about the beauty or the touristic interests of the places visited. The texts elaborate on the most convenient means of transport, the duration of the trip, unpleasant surprises thanks to lack of comfort (electricity and above all running water). Portugal comes across as a country under construction, not yet completely under control or dominated. Observers often told their story from a Lisbon point of view: Lisbon was their starting point and the place where policies and decisions were ultimately made. The issue hovering in the background is that of the unity of this territory, with its precarious transport network, regional contrasts and the persistent inequality between Lisbon and the isolated inland provinces.

With the Estado Novo, the perception of the national space was limited to the local scale and was firmly based on a series of well-known clichés: typical villages, local traditions, handicrafts, folklore.... These representations have often been given ideological

21 Revista de Turismo, nº106, 107, 108 and nº112; April, May, June and October 1921

II.TED School of Heritage Management 73 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape interpretations. What I wish to underline here is that the development of these accounts, which blend tourism and national identity, cannot be understood without referring to the transformation of the practice of tourism itself. With the publication of written travel guides, tourist circuits started to be standardised. The curiosity of travellers diminished and they now contented themselves with repeating a standard experience, looking for images or situations that they knew to be typical or traditional.

Tourism policies developed under the Estado Novo became increasingly hegemonic as they responded to the market and were linked to the actual transformation of tourism practices. In this context, the promotion of popular traditions enhanced the promotional and marketing efforts of local identities. These discourses, which had been placed at the service of economic interests, reflected an enchanted relationship with the social world, to use Pierre Bourdieu's words, and emerged as symbolic constructions where the denial of 22 the market principle enhanced their development. This kind of discourse was soon apparent during the First Republic. Although a Tourism Department report had already advocated the development of the «industry of curiosities», i.e. local handicrafts in 1912, it was mainly in the 1930s that the local tourism industry tried to embrace handicrafts and culinary traditions. In Sintra, the manufacturing of «queijadas» - small cakes made with fresh cheese – made great strides. The number of family owned bakeries increased rapidly in this charming little town near Lisbon. This local economy adapted itself perfectly to the kind of tourism at the time: tourists passing through or day trippers who liked to 23 stop for a bite to eat before moving on.

22 Bertrand Réau, Franck Poupeau, « L’enchantement du monde touristique », Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales, 2007/5, nº 170: 4-13.

23 Raquel Moreira, «Queijadas de Sintra. Turismo e identidade local» in Maria Cardeira da Silva (cord.), Outros Trópico. Novos destinos turísticos. Novos Terrenos da Antropologia, Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 2004: 171-179.

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Urbanity and urbanphobia

The last part of my paper analyses the relationship with the city in more detail. From the 1930s, the discourse of the Portuguese tourism policy makers was dominated by the «anti-urban» theme. It would be interesting to find the source of this «urbanphobia» that was quite prevalent in Europe.

At the 1936 congress, the criticism of the role of the initiative committees prompted a re- definition of the priorities in local tourism policies. Until then, the 83 committees had used most of their limited resources to make sporadic improvements in public spaces: the construction of parks, pergolas and fashionable street-lamps... The prevalence of these urban ornaments was thought to be a response to an «international» or «modern» way of life and this small-scale transformation of the environment in tourist destinations was soon criticised. Although the importance of technical modernisation and increasing travellers’ comfort (roads, electricity, running water) was recognised, the models said to have been inherited from the big city were rejected. This transformation was deemed to be 24 unnecessary; one participant at the 1936 congress argued that «tourists» were looking mainly for «small items with no comparison» that «localism so often kills and destroys» because they wanted to «play at big cities». In support of his argument, he quotes the example of two French tourists who were enchanted by small picturesque details (old windmills, an unforgettable dinner) on their visit to Portugal rather than by «displays of chic». Paradoxically, this anti-modernist approach is placed at the service of a relatively innovative and inventive local economic development policy. The decision to defend the conservation of a cultural heritage is also justified as a strategic option. It aims to respond to the tastes and needs of a clearly defined market: international tourism.

However, the promotion and development of places as tourist destinations went hand in hand with some form of urbanisation. There was a physical transformation in the territory, but the extent and pace of the changes varied considerably: the construction of roads, of buildings, of hotels... Gradually, that small seaside village was transformed into a seaside resort; then, if the urban functions became sufficiently diversified, it could be called a

24 « Organização do turismo em Portugal », tese apresentada pelo Eng. Carlos Manitto Torres, Ie Congresso do Turismo em Portugal, Lisboa, 1936.

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25 «tourist village». The history of these places can be written by tracking this process, 26 which was often harsh and sometimes full of conflicts.

But the urbanisation process also involved the transformation of the use of space, of the ways of inhabiting, i.e. the social and affective occupation of spaces. Tourism contributed to the dissemination of the way of life and attitudes of the middle classes in the city. Tourist destinations had to adapt to demand: the need for the «urbanity» (in the sense of «civility») of touristic places justified the demands made for local communities to improve roads, electricity networks and especially running water. New standards of hygiene and comfort also prevailed and the growing number of comfortable but not necessarily luxury hotels was accompanied by an increasing preference for individual bathrooms or quality bed linen.

In general, tourism’s uses of space were often copied from urban use, namely those gradually developed in the big cities in the 19th century. Tourism produces standards and standardised behaviour. Tourist space was extremely regulated and controlled. The 20th century saw a veritable avalanche of laws and regulations: not only were categories of spaces (an attempt to list tourist spaces) defined by law, but also categories for their use, giving certain public spaces specific functions: a clear definition was gradually given to the use of beaches or the seaside, of avenues or terraces in town. On a different scale, we also see the first development plans drawn up for tourist areas such as the development plan for the area between Lisbon, Estoril and Cascais which was awarded to the French architect and urban planner Alfred Agache in 1936.

In the early 20th century, efforts were focused largely on the road infrastructure. During the 1936 congress, at least 12 communications directly addressed the issue of the condition of roads and transport routes throughout the country. Improvements in the connections between the main urban centres were the top priority. Tourism would therefore contribute to accelerating the development of certain parts of the network. A project to create the «tourist route» category with the State (through the Junta Autónoma

25 Mathis Stock, « Brighton and Hove : station touristique ou ville touristique ? Etude théorico-empirique », Géocarrefour, vol. 76, 2/2001 : 127-131

26 Johan Vincent, L’intrusion balnéaire. Les populations littorales bretonnes et vendéennes face au tourisme (1800-1945), Rennes, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2007.

II.TED School of Heritage Management 76 2011-2017 Urbanization and Cultural Landscape das Estradas) taking responsibility for its construction and maintenance was already 27 discussed during the 1936 congress.

The layout of the roads also introduced gradual changes in the perception of the national territory. Legislation was introduced to change the landscape alongside the roads. In 1931 a decree prohibited owners of land along the roads around Lisbon (the Sintra and Cascais regions) to leave their fields uncultivated. Forests and agricultural land had to develop barren land within three years. Although these laws were not systematically enforced and some land owners refused to comply, roadsides gradually became standardised. This is illustrated by the orderly and persistent planting of trees along tourist 28 routes.

The landscape or the tourist places were gradually constructed thanks to these regulations and the various ways in which they were implemented and resisted. These landscapes were not only the result of a rhetorical development but also of practices which were part of a social environment, structured by economic relationships and 29 interests.

Conclusions

Tourism became an important issue in Portugal in the 1960s due to its significance for the economy. This phase was characterised by new forms of tourism (mass tourism), by new political interventions (with the management of large scale urbanisation) and also by a new geography in which the Algarve beaches became the main tourist destination in Portugal. The policies introduced in the early 20th century had a limited effect but they gave way to the creation of new socio-spatial practices and perspectives. Tourism clearly became a privileged area of expertise in the management of territories which took on a new function. Although still a marginal economic sector, tourism influenced Portuguese society. Its values and references were spreading, as were its images and discourses, as

27 Engº José Miguel de Melo Veloso Salgado, “Estradas de Turismo”, Memória Apresentada ao Primeiro Congresso Nacional de Turismo, 1936

28 Dr. Domingos Pepulim, “Estradas, Hotéis e Hospedarias. Arborização de Estradas”, Memória Apresentada ao Primeiro Congresso Nacional de Turismo, 1936

29 Angelo Torre, « Un “tournant spatial” en histoire? Paysages, regards, ressources », Annales. HSS, 2008/5 : 1127-114.

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30 well as its spaces. Tourism particularly raised the issue of technical and cultural modernisation of society. Besides the ideological matrices and the political uses of tourism, Portugal is an example of the extent to which these tourism policies can ultimately become flexible, diverse and inventive practices. The trend was towards a standardised use that constantly upheld the idea of tradition. But it was also the process of learning about otherness and the spatial relationship with the world resulting from these policies.

30 Michel Lussault, « Le tourisme, un genre commun », in Philipe Duhamel, Rémy Knafou, Mondes urbains du tourisme, Paris, Belin, 2007

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Conclusions

On the basis of all the issues mentioned in this report:

• In line with the UNESCO Education for Sustainable Development and aim to contribute towards Target 4.7 of Sustainable Development Goal on quality education which focuses on cultural diversity and Education for Sustainable Development; aim to contribute towards Target 17.9 of Sustainable Development Goal on partnership for sustainable development; and aim towards target 11.3 and 11.4 of Sustainable Development Goal on sustainable cities and communities which focuses on making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

• In line with the principles, guidelines, charts and recommendations concerning the management of Cultural Heritage and Cultural Landscapes, their contents, aims and principles;

• On the basis of the cooperation experience between different countries and international institutions and, more in specific, all the subjects that took part to the realisation of the workshop;

We convene and confirm the importance of affirming and working on the following sectors:

• Invest in Education and Training for younger generations, especially to promote and to sustain the capacity building and to increase the public awareness on the maintenance and use of landscape, urban and heritage values;

• Produce operative and pilot projects towards sustainable development, including environmental, social, economic and cultural components, with the aim to generate positive outcomes on the local contexts and community;

• Work towards internationalisation and the involvement of institutional partnerships to facilitate and create occasions to share and exchange best practices developed in different cultural and geographical contexts.

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Short biographies

The main body of II.TED members and teaching team short biographies:

• Alessio Re, arch. PhD, is an expert in cultural heritage management. He worked for the Centro Studi Silvia Santagata-EBLA. Since 2018 he is Secretary General at “Fondazione Santagata for the Economics of Culture”. He is visiting professor at the UniTo, member of the UNESCO Chair in “Sustainable Development and Territory Management”, associate researcher at the Institute for the Conservation and Valorisation of Cultural Heritage at CNR-ICVBC (Rome), and consultant at the ITC-ILO. He is faculty member of: masters in "World Heritage and cultural projects for development"; and "World Natural Heritage Management". He has several experiences in management plans for WH sites and other UNESCO designations. He worked as consultant for UNESCO in Greece, Iran, Italy, Montenegro, Serbia. Other professional activities include consulting for the Governments of Azerbaijan; Mauritius; Montenegro. Serbia; Seychelles.

• Angioletta Voghera, is Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, Interuniversity Department of Urban and Regional Studies and Planning (DIST), Politecnico of Torino. She is the Coordinator of the National Community on Landscape and Biodiversity of the National Institute of Urban Planning (INU) since 2014. She is a member of the International Association Recycling Cities – RECNET. Her main research activities are in the field of Regional and Landscape Planning, and Urban Design focusing on analysis, evaluation, planning and design of sensible environments, such as natural and landscape protected areas, fluvial and rural landscapes.

• Gabriele Corsani, is the deputy director of II.TED. He was the coordinator of the PhD programme in Urban, landscape and territorial planning and design and in the University of Florence (DUPT). He also teaches the Urban Planning and history of modern urbanism at the same department. He is a member of the editorial staff of "Contesti", journal of DUPT. He is a member of the Board of writing of the History of the Urbanism of the Association of City History (ASC), additionally he is also a member of the Advisory Board of "Medicine and History- Journal of the history of medicine and health" (Florence).

• Giulio Mondini, is a professor in Estimative Evaluations at the Polytechnic of Turin (Land, Environment and Geo-engineering Department), he is the director of the Interuniversity Department of Urban and Regional Studies and Planning DIST-

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Politecnico of Torino. His research activity, developed at both a theoretical and an applicative level, has broached the main factors of compatibility and sustainability assessment of territory transformation projects at all levels (nature, environment, built environment). Formerly he was the director of the non-profit organisation SiTI–Higher Institute on Innovation Territorial Systems.

• Hassanali Laghai, is the director of II.TED. He was the head of the department of Urban Planning at Kish International Campus of the University of Tehran and an associated professor in Urban Planning and Design in the University of Tehran. He is also the head of the department of the Environmental Design in Azad University and a member of the Architect’s Excellency Association of Iran. He was an executive member of the National Sustainable Development Committee between 2004 and 2007. He studied Architecture in Florence and Urban planning technics in the Polytechnic of Milan.

• Jukka Jokilehto, is a professor at Nova Gorica University, he is a senior programme advisor to ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property) where he has spent over 25 years working on all aspects of architectural conservation. He is also the President of the International Training Committee of ICOMOS, and was previously active with UNESCO and the World Heritage Convention. He studied architecture in Helsinki, and received his D. Phil. in conservation from the University of York, England.

• Siavash Laghai, is a founding member and secretary general of II.TED. After his early photography studies at the University of Tehran in 2000, he graduated in Journalism from University of Florence. In 2009 he studied at the International Training Centre of the ITCILO Turin, a Master’s programme in Economics and Management organised jointly by the UNESCO WHC, Polytechnic of Torino and University of Torino. He is a PhD candidate in Urban Studies at the ISCTE-University Institute of Lisbon, with emphasis on Urban transformation and monitoring public spaces. His artistic works focus mostly on landscape and the use of photography to monitor urban transformation. He coordinates and liaises for the II.TED School of Heritage Management, which actively organises series of international scientific cooperation programmes in collaboration with set of institutional bodies. He worked as consultant for UNESCO in Iran and Pakistan. He collaborates with the Iranian Cultural Heritage, Handicraft and Tourism Organization and with DIST-Politecnico of Torino.

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Annexes

A selection of pictures and posters of the UCL Urbanization and Cultural Landscape during years 2011-2017.

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Executive Programme in Management of Complex Environments

Photo credit: Siavash Laghai F L O R E N C E. V E N I C E . T U R I N.

.

02-12 September 2014 http://goo.gl/IESNBC

urbanization.landscape[at]gmail.com

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5°INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON URBANIZATION AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPE 17-31/07/2016 FLORENCE-TURIN

IITED SCHOOL OF HERITAGE

MANAGEMENT

Scientific Partners Polytechnic of Lublin DIST-Polytechnic of Turin

Photo credit: Siavash Laghai

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The present document is distributed in pdf format for information purposes only

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International Institute on Territorial and Environmental Dynamics Florence-Italy

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