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Sino-Tibetan Relations 1990-2000: the Internationalisation of the Tibetan Issue Sino-Tibetan Relations 1990-2000: the Internationalisation of the Tibetan Issue Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung des Grades eines Doktors der Philosophie dem Fachbereich Gesellschaftswissenschaften und Philosophie der Philipps-Universität Marburg vorgelegt von Tsetan Dolkar aus Dharamsala, Indien 29 Februar 2008 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Dirk Berg-Schlosser Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Wilfried von Bredow Sino-Tibetan Relations 1990-2000: the Internationalisation of the Tibetan Issue Submitted by Tsetan Dolkar Political Science Department, Philipps University First Advisor: Professor Dr. Dirk Berg-Schlosser Second Advisor: Professor Dr. Wilfried von Bredow A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Social Sciences and Philosophy of Philipps University in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science Philipps University, Marburg 29 February 2008 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement vi Maps viii List of Abbreviations xi PART I A GLIMPSE INTO TIBET’S PAST Chapter 1 Tibet: A Brief Historical Background 1 1.1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.2 Brief Historical Background 4 1.1.2.1 Tibetan Kings (624-842 AD) and Tang China (618-756 AD) 4 1.1.2.2 The Buddhist Revolution in Tibet (842-1247) and the Song Dynasty (960-1126) 8 1.1.2.3 The Sakya Lamas of Tibet (1244-1358) and the Mongol Empire (1207-1368) 10 1.1.2.4 The Post-Sakya Tibet (1337-1565) and the Ming China (1368-1644) 11 1.1.2.5 The Gelugpa’s Rule (1642-1950) and the Manchu Empire (1662-1912) 13 1.1.2.6 Tibet in the Twentieth Century 19 1.1.2.7 Simla Convention 25 Chapter 2 Tibet: 1950-1959 31 1.2.1 The “Peaceful Liberation” or the Invasion of Tibet 31 1.2.2 The PLA Attacks: China’s Imposition of Terms on Tibet 34 1.2.3 Sino-Tibetan Agreement: Incorporation of China’s Term 36 1.2.4 Revolt in Central Tibet 37 Chapter 3 Tibet: Post 1959 40 1.3.1 Tibet at the United Nations: Three Resolutions 40 1.3.2 Post-Mao Era 43 PART II TIBET ISSUE IN THE LAST DECADE Chapter 4 Sino –Tibetan Relations from 1990-2000: Internationalisation of the Tibetan Issue 48 2.4.1 Collapse of Beijing-Dharamsala Dialogue and its Consequences 49 iii 2.4.2 China’s New Tibet Policy: From Reforms to Economic Integration 70 2.4.2.1 West to East Gas Transfer 75 2.4.2.2 West to East Power Transfer 81 2.4.2.3 China’s Mega-Water-Diversion Projects 87 2.4.2.4 Qinghai-Tibet Railway Project 93 2.4.3 Dalai Lama’s Guidelines for Future Tibet Polity 100 2.4.4 Referendum in the Exile Tibetan Community: Independence or Autonomy? 104 2.4.5 Panchen Lama Controversy 113 2.4.6 Flight of the Karmapa Lama in Exile 121 Chapter 5 Tibet in the International Arena 129 2.5.1 International Response to the Dalai Lama’s Future Tibet’s Policy 129 2.5.1.1 Responses in the United States 130 2.5.1.2 Responses in the European Community 137 2.5.1.3 Other Nations 142 2.5.1.4 World Wide Tibet Support Groups 144 2.5.2 Beijing, Taiwan and the Tibet Question: The Politics of Internal Differentiation 147 2.5.3 Tibet Factor in Sino-Indian Relations 156 PART III SITUATION INSIDE TIBET Chapter 6 Autonomy in the Tibet Autonomous Region 168 3.6.1 Human Rights in Tibet: UN and China’s Obligation 168 3.6.2 The PRC’s Constitution and Internal Law 171 3.6.3 The PRC Government’s White Papers: 1991 to 2005 176 3.6.4 Current Reality inside Tibet 179 3.6.4.1 The Real Power Wielder in the TAR 179 3.6.4.2 Religious Rights in the TAR 182 3.6.4.3 Population Transfer 186 3.6.4.4 Civil and Political Rights 190 Chapter 7 Economic Reforms and its Impacts 196 3.7.1 Impacts of China’s Reform Policies in Tibet: Modernisation or Marginalisation 196 3.7.1.1 Population Control Policy in Tibet 198 3.7.1.2 Education Policy 204 3.7.1.3 Social and Cultural Policies 210 3.7.2 Environmental Impacts and Population Influx 214 iv 3.7.2.1 Population Transfer and Impact on Tibet’s Ecosystem 218 3.7.2.2 Agriculture and Pastoral Grasslands 218 3.7.2.3 Forestry and Wild Life Population 220 3.7.2.4 Water Resources 222 3.7.3 Nuclear Wastes 224 3.7.4 Mining 226 3.7.5 Chinese Development Plans Threaten Peace in Asia 230 3.7.5.1 Early Infrastructural Developments: Major Trunk Roads in Tibet 232 st 3.7.5.2 21 Century: An Era of Railways in Tibet 234 3.7.5.3 Sino-Indian Relations: Tensions and Bilateral Efforts 239 3.7.5.4 Tibet Constant in the Sino-Indian Equation 244 PART IV. SELF-DETERMINATION Chapter 8 Self-Determination: Legitimate Right of the Tibetan People 247 4.8.1 Evolution of Self-Determination 248 4.8.2 Self-Determination in the United Nations 255 4.8.3 Self Determination in the Communist States: Russia and China 265 4.8.3.1 Right of Self-Determination in Russia 265 4.8.3.2 Right of Self-Determination in China 270 4.8.4 Chinese Dissident Intellectuals and Pro-Democracy Supporters’ Views on Tibet’s Self-Determination 278 4.8.4.1 Dissidents’ Views on Tibet’s Past 283 4.8.4.2 Dissidents’ Views on Tibet’s Future 288 4.8.5 Self-Determination: Legitimate Right of the Tibetan People 295 4.8.5.1 Self-Determination: The Right Option to Resolve Tibet’s Issue 295 4.8.5.2 Is China Legally Bound to Bestow the Right to Self-Determination? 307 4.8.5.3 International Recognition for Tibet’s Right to Self-Determination 309 Conclusion 316 Bibliography 322 List of Interviewees 358 Appendices 361 Declaration in lieu of Oath 383 v Acknowledgement The successful completion of my studies at Philipps University depended on numerous people's direct and indirect support. My foremost and deepest gratitude naturally goes to my teachers, particularly my advisors Prof. Dirk Berg-Schlosser and Prof. Wilfried von Bredrow from Political Science Department, who have with extreme patience and understanding provided me with measureless support, constant guidance and insightful inspirations. Without their advice and mentorship my intellectual journey would have been highly arduous, particularly given that there is a shortage of research materials on the chosen topic at my university and universities around it. I am especially thankful for Prof. Dirk Berg-Schlosser for providing much needed emotional support and encouragements during an emotionally draining period - which I now refer to as the “bureaucratic headache phase” of my studies - that saw me running hither and thither to acquire stay permit and other pertinent documents. I still remember the day I went to his office to inform him about the bureaucratic restrictions that were preventing me from acquiring stay permit to continue my study in Germany. I was filled with frustrations and a deep sense of futility. After listening to my outburst, Prof. Dirk Berg-Schlosser gently but firmly replied, “Toi toi toi, wir schaffen es.” (“Knock, knock, knock, we will overcome it.”) This simple sentence that he uttered with deep concern and conviction bolstered my confidence and gave me hope. I also realized how important it is to have a kind, compassionate and caring advisor. I feel very fortunate to have him as my advisor and shall forever feel grateful for his supports. I also want to thank Prof. Theo Schiller who despite his hectic schedule and short notice agreed to sit on the committee and be the third gutachter. Sino-Tibet relationship is a highly complex, little studied and much contested field of study. The complexities and contestations of the field call for a rigorous study of ground realities and relevant documents. However, the Chinese official documents and to some degree that of Tibetan Government-in-Exile are beyond the reaches of a PhD student. Yet I consulted works of a decent number of scholars, whose thoughts have influenced my own understanding of this convoluted issue. It would be ignoble not to appreciate their contributions in my research even though I cannot mention all their names. But I especially want to thank three scholars who have over the course of my research become almost like my unofficial advisors and to whom I often turn for information, advice and guidance. They are Dr. Robert Barnett, Senior Research Scholar and Lecture at Columbia University, Tashi Tsering, a renowned Tibetan vi historian and the Director of Amnye Machen Institute, and Lobsang Shastri, the Senior Scholar at the Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. The bureaucratic challenges I mentioned above arise largely because of who I am - a stateless refugee studying in a foreign country. It would have been very difficult for me to come to Germany to study without the generous support of two kind souls, Karl and Gertrud Walter, who placed their trust and confidence in me and agreed to become my German guarantor. My two German parents have extended their continuous support throughout my study period for which I am deeply grateful. Last but not the least; I want to thank my family for their unconditional love. My parents, Khyunglho Dakpa Namgyal and Nyima Lhamo, have done everything, in their limited capacity, to make my academic venture as smooth as possible and have always remained a bottomless pit of love, care and trust.
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