ORIGINAL ARTICLE European Journal of Biology and Biotechnology www.ejbio.org

A Survey of Ticks Infestation on Some Domestic Animals in Mubi, Adamawa State,

Wahedi J. Alexander, Ande A. Taiwo, Pukuma S. Micah, David Comfort, Danladi Thomas, and Adokwe J. Bawa

ABSTRACT

Published Online: May 26, 2020 Infestation of domestic animals with ticks constitutes both a major health ISSN: 2684-5199 and economic problem in livestock production. The study was conducted to identify the species of ticks infesting domestic animals such DOI : 10.24018/ejbio.2020.1.3.25 as cattle, sheep and goats in Mubi cattle market, Adamawa State. Ten J. A. Wahedi* (10) each of cattle, sheep and goat were randomly selected at Mubi Cattle Department of Zoology, Faculty of Market at every collection date, and were examined for tick infestation. Science, Adamawa State University, Ticks were collected from different predilection sites. Ticks collected Mubi, Nigeria. were transferred to Safe-Lock Eppendorf tubes containing 70% ethanol. (e-mail: wahedijasini010 @gmail.com ) The specimens were identified to species level using hand lens and A. T. Ande dissecting microscope. A total of 232 adult ticks (17 male, 215 females) Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life were collected. 8 species of ticks were identified across three genera Sciences, , Nigeria. (e-mail: andeolu @yahoo.com ) namely Ripicephalus microplus (79.74%) was the most prevalent, S. M. Pukuma followed by Ripicephalus decoloratus (9.05%), Amblyomma variegatum Department of Zoology, School of Life (4.31%), Rhipicephalus simus (3.02%), Hyalomma dromedarii (2.16%), Sciences, Modibbo Adama University of Amblyomma habraeum and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (0.86%), Technology, Yola, Nigeria. respectively, and the least was Hyalomma truncatum (0.43%). Cattle (e-mail: [email protected]) were the most heavily infested (44.8%), followed by sheep (33.6%) and C. David goat (21.6%). The study revealed that livestock in Mubi were infested by Department of Zoology, Faculty of varieties of ticks especially Ripicephalus microplus which was the highest Science, Adamawa State University, Mubi. and found on all the animals examined. (e-mail: comfortdavid26 @gmail.com ) T. Danladi Department of Zoology, Faculty of Keywords: Cattle, Goat, Sheep, Ticks. Science, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Nigeria. (e-mail: thomasdanladi9 @gmail.com ) J. B. Adokwe Department of Environmental Quality Control, National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency, Nigeria. (e-mail: jonadokwe @yahoo.com )

*Corresponding Author ([email protected])

11.5 million were found in pastoral systems, while the I. INTRODUCTION remaining 2.4 million were found in villages [4]. However, Ticks are obligate ectoparasites of variety of vertebrates the production and productivity have been hugely affected and are distributed worldwide [1]. Ticks are grouped in to by low or poor husbandry practices, inadequate feed supply three families, of which two genera are of economic and disease constraints particularly ectoparasite infestations, importance to domestic animals. The family Argasidae is thereby limiting the protein supply by the livestock [5]. made of the genera Argas (Ornithodoros, and Otobius) Ticks remain one of the most economically important known as the soft ticks because their outer body surfaces parasites of domestic animals in tropical and subtropical lack hard plates [2]. The family Ixodidae known as the hard countries [2]. ticks contains 14 genera namely Amblyomma, Dermacentor, The warm climate in the tropical and subtropical Haemaphysalis, Hyalomma, Ixodes, Margaropus, and countries is of enormous importance to ticks of domestic Rhipicephalus. Also, the important boophilid ticks, formerly animals, as it enables them to flourish [1]. Also, the large of the genus Boophilus, are now classified as a subgenus populations of wild animals in warm countries provide a within the genus Rhipicephalus [3]. reservoir of ticks and infective microbes that spread to In Nigeria, livestock population was estimated at 34.5 domestic animals [2]. The medical and economic million goats, 22.1 million sheep and 13.9 million cattle importance of ticks has been recognized worldwide and populations [4]. Of the 13.9 million heads of cattle, about their ability to transmit diseases to humans and animals.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejbio.2020.1.3.25 Vol 1 | Issue 3 | M ay 2020 1

ORIGINAL ARTICLE European Journal of Biology and Biotechnology www.ejbio.org

This is attributed to their blood feeding habit [3, 6]. Tick and recorded on predesigned form. infestation in cattle can cause anaemia, stress, reduction in D. Identification of Ticks weight gain and milk yields, depreciation of hide value, hypersensitivity, toxicosis and predispose animals to Tick samples were transported to the Zoology Laboratory, secondary infections [7]. According to Kumar et al. [8], Adamawa State University for morphological identification. The specimens were identified to species level using a hand cattle that graze in pastures and forest, are exposed to lens and dissecting microscope, with the aid of identification infestation by varieties of ticks. More than 80% of the world keys described by Walker et al. [11]. domestic animal population is infested with ticks which cause harm to animals through blood loss, general stress and E. Data Analysis irritation, suppression of immune function, damages to hides Data generated were subjected to descriptive statistics and skins [1]. Although, economic losses due to ticks are such as percentages, table format to explain the incidence of mainly due to the diseases which they transmit, financial tick distribution on domestic animals in the study area. losses associated with nagging irritation and depreciation of the value of skins and hides (up to 20–30%) are also III. RESULTS significant [4]. It has been observed however, that animal, If A total of 232 adult ticks (17 male, 215 females) were infected with ticks reduce their feed intake compare to collected (Table 1) from 3 genera of ticks (Amblyomma, animal, not exposed to ticks [9].These effect cause losses of Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus). 8 species of ticks were several billions of dollars in the global livestock economy. identified namely, Rhipicephalus microplus, Amblyomma The losses due to ticks and tick-borne diseases around the variegatum, Rhipicephalus simus, Amblyomma hebraeum, globe were put at US$ 13.9 to US$ 18.7 billion annually [2]. Hyalomma dromedarii and Rhipicephalus decoloratus. Therefore, the high losses due to disease, damage to the skin Ripicephalus microplus was the most prevalent species and death of animals as a result of tick infestation on (79.74%), followed by Ripicephalus decoloratus (9.05%), domestic animals necessitate the need for this study. and the least was Hyalomma truncatum (0.43%). Identification of the types of ticks infesting domestic All the species of ticks identified were found on sheep animals could contribute a vital role in designing cost (Table 2). The results showed that Rhipicephalus microplus effective control measures for the ticks. (70.51%) was the most reoccurring ticks on sheep in Mubi, followed by Amblyomma variegatum and Rhipicephalus simus with 07(8.97%) . Male ticks of Amblyomma hebraeum, Hyalomma dromedarii and Rhipicephalus II. MATERIALS AND METHODS decoloratus were not recorded on sheep in Mubi. However, A. Study Area majority (88.46%) of the ticks found on sheep was females Mubi in Adamawa State, Nigeria. is located on latitude and few (11.54%) were males. 10.27’ N and longitude 13.27’ E, situated at 592 meters Three (3) species of ticks were identified on goats above sea level. It has tropical climate located within the namely, Rhipicephalus microplus (68.0%), Rhipicephalus Sudan savanna zone. It has average temperature of about decoloratus (28.0%) and Amblyomma variegatum 32˚C, with a minimum of 15.2ºC between December and (4.0%).The female were also dominant (92.00%) compared January. The area has an average relative humidity of 28 to to male (8.00%), as shown in Table 3. 45% and annual rainfall of about 1050 mm. The rainy In Table 4, Showed 6 different species of ticks were season is between May to October, while the dry season is recorded on cattle in Mubi. Rhipicephalus microplus between November to April [10]. exhibited high preponderance (92.31%). No male ticks of Hylomma dromedarii, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and B. Selection of Domestic Animals for Tick Collection Amblyomma variegatum were recorded in cattle in Mubi. Animals used for the study were Cattle, Sheep and Goat. However, majority of the ticks found on cattle were females Ten (10) each of three selected animals were randomly (96.16%) with few males (3.85%). selected at Mubi Cattle Market at every collection date, and Table 5, shows the distribution of different species of were examined for tick infestation. Sample collections were ticks on cattle, sheep and goat in Mubi. The results revealed performed four (4) times, between October and November, the absence of Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus 2019 at two (2) weeks interval. simus species on both Cattle and goat. Meanwhile, C. Collection and Preservation of Ticks Ambyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus decoloratus and Rhipicephalus microplus were found on all the domestic The informed consent of the animal owners was first animals examined, but Rhipicephalus microplus was higher obtained before inspection and collection from each of the selected animal. The predilection sites examined for ticks with 185 (79.74%) of the total population.. were, ears, brisket (dewlap in the case of cattle); withers; TABLE 1: Cumulative counts, number of males and females, and male: knees; and udder in the case of females, and testes in males female ratio of ticks identified in Mubi. along with the perineum region; and tail. Ticks were Species of ticks Total (%) Males Females Male: collected from predilection sites using a forceps, hand glove, Female beaker and dissecting tray. A blunt steel forceps were used Ratio for large sized ticks. Collected ticks were transferred to Amblyomma hebraeum 2 (0.86) 0 2 0:2 Safe-Lock Eppendorf tubes containing 70% ethanol. Each Amblyomma variegatum 10 (4.31) 7 3 2.3:1 specimen bottle was assigned a reference identification Hylomma dromedarii 5 (2.16) 0 5 0:5 Hylomma truncatum 1 (0.43) 1 0 1:0 number for each animal. Information regarding each Rhipicephalus 2 (0.86) 1 1 1:1 specimen and host related factors such as gender were noted appendiculatus

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejbio.2020.1.3.25 Vol 1 | Issue 3 | M ay 2020 2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE European Journal of Biology and Biotechnology www.ejbio.org

Rhipicephalus 21 (9.05) 1 20 1:20 (Fabricius, 1794); Hylomma dromedarii (Koch, 1844); decoloratus Hylomma truncatum (Koch, 1844); Rhipicephalus Rhipicephalus microplus 185 7 178 1:25.4 appendiculatus (Neumann, 1901); Rhipicephalus (79.74) (Boophilus) decoloratus (Koch, 1844); Rhipicephalus Rhipicephalus simus 7 (3.02) 1 6 1:6 (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1888) and Rhipicephalus Total 232 17 215 1:7.4 simus (Koch, 1844).

TABLE 2: Prevalence of ticks on sheep in Mubi Amblyomma variegatum and Hyalomma species have long mouthpart, and because of the possession of long Species of ticks Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) mouthpart, they can inflict serious skin damage to their Rhipicephalus microplus 3 (5.45) 52 (94.54) 55 (70.50) hosts, especially cattle, and may seriously hinder the Amblyoma variegatum 5 (71.42) 2 (28.57) 07 (8.97) suckling of calves [13, 14]. Damage can occur without any Rhipicephalus simus 1 (14.28) 6 (85.71) 07 (8.97) Amblyomma hebraeum 0 (0.00) 2 (100) 02 (2.56) pathogen or parasite being transmitted by the ticks [11]. Hylomma dromedarii 0 (0.00) 3 (100) 03 (3.85) Rhipicephalus microplus was the most prevalent tick Rhipicephalus 0 (0.00) 4 (100) 04 (5.13) species, which was found on all the domestic animals decoloratus examined (79.74%). This finding is in tandem with that of Total 9 (11.54) 69(88.46) 78 Irshad et al. [15] who recorded same in Pakistan, where there was a clear abundance of R. microplus on sheep and TABLE 3: Prevalence of ticks on goats in Mubi goats. The distribution and abundance of R. microplus Species of ticks Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) within a geographical range is associated with water Rhipicephalus microplus 2 (5.88) 32 (94.12) 34 (68.00) retention capacity of the soil as well as high relative Rhipicephalus decoloratus 0 (0) 14 (100) 14 (28.00) humidity [16]. This could be the reason for the Amblyomma variegatum 2 (100) 0 (0) 02 (4.00) preponderance of R. microplus in Mubi. This is because Total 4 (8.00) 46 (92.00) 50 Mubi is characterized by high relative humidity [10]. In addition to that Rhipicephalus microplus has been associated TABLE 4: Prevalence of ticks on cattle in Mubi with the transmission of protozoans, Babesia bovis and Babesia. bigemina, causing babesiosis in cattle, as well as Species of ticks Male (%) Female (%) Total (%) Anaplasma marginale causing anaplasmosis [11]. This Rhipicephalus microplus 2 (2.08) 94 (97.92) 96 (92.31) shows that most domestic animals in Mubi are at the high Hylomma dromedarii 0 (0) 2 (100) 02 (1.92) risk of contracting this tick borne infection. Rhipicephalus 0 (0) 1 (100) 01 (0.96) appendiculatus Rhipicephalus decoloratus, is the second most prevalent Rhipicephalus decoloratus 1 (33.33) 2 (66.67) 03 (2.88) species of ticks in Mubi (9.05%), and are mostly found on Hylomma truncatum 1 (100) 0 (0) 01 (0.96) goats (66.7%). However, R. decoloratus was reported as the Amblyomma variegatum 0 (0) 1 (100) 01 (0.96) least prevalent species of ticks, when compared to study by Total 4(3.85) 100 (96.15) 104 Qadeer et al. [17], Although cattle are the main host of adult Amblyomma TABLE 5: Distribution of different species of ticks on sheep, cattle and hebraeum and Rhipicephalus simus [11], both were not goat in Mubi found the cattle and goat in Mubi (Table 5). This could be as a result of their characteristics being three-host ticks; where Species of ticks Cattle (%) Goat (%) Sheep (%) Total (%) for R. simus during the summer, adults are present on large Amblyomma - - 02 (100) 02 (0.86) hosts, larvae on rodents in autumn and winter, and nymphs hebraeum Amblyomma 01 (10) 02 (20) 07 (70) 10 (4.31) on rodents in winter and spring [11]. Amblyomma hebraeum variegatum adults are hunters, and they only scuttled along the ground Hylomma 02 (20) - 03 (60) 05 (2.16) when a suitable host is in the vicinity [11]. dromedarii Amblyomma variegatum which was recently reported in Hylomma truncatum 01 (100) - - 01 (0.43) Adamawa State infesting both sedentary and trade cattle Rhipicephalus 01 (100) - - 01 (0.43) [17], have been recorded in this study along with R. appendiculatus decoloratus and R. microplus infesting all the domestic Rhipicephalus 03 (14.2) 14 (66.7) 04 (19.1) 21 (9.05) animals examined. This could be as result of the species decoloratus abundance during the period of sampling, as adult Rhipicephalus 96 (51.9) 34 (18.4) 55 (29.7) 185 Amblyomma variegatum are most abundant between microplus (79.74) October and February [11]. Amblyomma variegatum Rhipicephalus simus - - 07 (100) 07 (3.02) Total 104 (44.8) 50 (21.6) 78 (33.6) 232 transmits Ehrlichia ruminantum [18] and Dermetophilus congolensis [19], the causative agent of heartwater and

dermatophilosis respectively in Nigeria. Amblyomma variegatum has also been incriminated in Nigeria as a vector IV. DISCUSSION of Theileria mutans [20] and Theileria velifera [21]. The prevalence of ticks and their distribution on domestic animals heavily depends on some abiotic factors such as V. CONCLUSION temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, as well as vegetation The study revealed the presence of some Ixodid ticks [12]. This study was conducted to assess species of ticks prevalent in cattle, sheep and goats in Mubi, which have a infesting some domestic animals in Mubi Cattle Market in great variety of importance, as regard to the disease which Adamawa State, Nigeria. they transmit. Ripicephalus microplus is the most prevalent The species of ticks identified were: Amblyomma and found on all the domestic animals examined shows a hebraeum (Koch, 1844); Amblyomma variegatum potential occurrence of protozoans like Babesia bovis and

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejbio.2020.1.3.25 Vol 1 | Issue 3 | M ay 2020 3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE European Journal of Biology and Biotechnology www.ejbio.org

Ba. bigemina, in domestic animals in Mubi. And so, control and Young, A.S. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers: pp 4-37, of ticks should be heavily prioritized especially by the cattle 1981. rustlers in Mubi.

Dr. Wahedi, J. Alexander was born on Monday, REFERENCES 12th September, 1983. He holds a Ph.D. in Zoology, [1] S. Ghosh, P. Azhahianambi, and M.P. Yadav. “Upcoming and future with an option in Medical Entomology from strategies of tick control: a review,” Journal of Vector Borne University of Ilorin, Nigeria in 2018, after obtaining Diseases, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp 79–89, 2007. M.Sc. Zoology (Entomology) from the same [2] N. Sultana, A. Shamim, M. Awan, U. Ali, M. Hassan, and R. University of Ilorin, Nigeria in 2009, and B.Sc. Siddique. “First pilot study on the prevalence of tick infestation in Zoology from , Nigeria in livestock of Tehsil Hajira, Rawalakot, Azad Kashmir”. Advance 2006. Dr. Wahedi, J.A. is currently with Adamawa Animal Veterinary Science, Vol. 3, pp 430–434, 2015. State University, where he picked a job as an [3] S. C. Barker, and A. Murrell. "Systematics and evolution of ticks with Assistant Lecturer in 2010. His research interest is in a list of valid genus and species names”. Parasitology, Vol. 129, No. theAuthor area ’ofs formalMedical Entomology, especially in the area of vector control. As 7, pp 15–36, 2004. a Researcher,photo he had published several articles in the area of Entomology. [4] S. Biswas. “Role of veterinarians in the care and management during He is a member of a professional body, the Entomological Society of harvest of skin in livestock species Proc. National Seminar on Leather Nigeria (ESN). Industry in Today's Perspective”, Kolkata, India. pp 62-64, 2003. [5] F. A. Atif, M. S. Khan, H. J. Iqbal, Z. Ali, and S. Ullah. “Prevalence Professor Ande, A. Taiwo is a Professor of of cattle tick infestation in three districts of the Punjab, Pakistan”. Entomology with a prestigious University of Ilorin, Pakistan Journal of Science, Vol. 64, No. 49, pp 6, 2012. Nigeria. He obtained his B.Sc., M.Sc. and Ph.D. [6] D. T. Mourya, P. D. Yadav, V. K. Sandhya, and S. Reddy. “Spread of Zoology from the same University of Ilorin, Nigeria. Kyasanur Forest disease, Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India, 2012-2013,” Professor A.T. Ande has graduated good number of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol. 19, No. 9, pp 1540-1541, 2013. Ph.D. students and numerous M.Sc. students in the [7] A. Morka, A. Zegeye, and H. Eyob. “Prevalence of Ixodid Ticks on area of Medical Entomology. His research interest is Cattle in and Around Diga Town”. Veterinary Parasitology, Vol. 67, in the area of Medical Entomology, with preference No. 4, pp 236, 2014. in vector surveillance, resistance and disease [8] K. Kumar, N. Balakrishanan, R. Katyal, and K. S. Gill. “Prevalence transmission dynamics. of Ixodid ticks in Nilgiri District of Tamil Nadu State (India),” . Author’s formal th Journal of Communicable Diseases, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp 124-127, 2002. photo Dr. Pukuma, S. Micah. was born on 20 August, [9] Z. Bursac, C. H. Gauss, D. K. Williams, and D. W. Hosmer. 1970. He obtained his Ph.D. in Applied Entomology “Purposeful selection of variables in logistic regression.” Source Code and Parasitology in 2010, from Federal University of Biol Med, Vol. 3, pp 17, 2008. Technology, Yola, Nigeria, now called Modibbo [10] A. A. Adebayo. Mubi Region: A geographical Synthesis (1st Ed) Adama University of Technology, Yola, Nigeria. He Paraclete Publishers, Yola-Nigeria. pp 32-38, 2004. also obtained M.Sc. Applied Entomology and [11] A. R. Walker, A. Bouattour, J. L. Camicas, A. Estrada-Pena, I. G. Parasitology in 2002 from , Nigeria Horak, A. A. Latif, R. G. Pegram, and P. M. Preston.. Ticks of after obtaining B.Tech. Zoology from Federal domestic animals in Africa: A guide to identification species. University of Technology, Yola in 1997. Dr. is a Bioscience Reports, Edinburgh Scotland, U.K. pp 24-45, 2014. member of professional bodies like Nigerian Society [12] V. Lorusso, K. Picozzi, B. Mc de Bronsvoort, A. Majekodunmi, C. forAuthor Parasitology,’s formal and Entomological Society of Nigeria. Dr. Pukuma, S.M. Dongkum, G. Balak, G. A. Igweh, and S. C. Welbum. Ixodid ticks of has supervisedphoto over 15 postgraduate students at Moddibo Adama traditionally managed cattle in central Nigeria: where Rhipicephalus University of Technology, where he is currently working as an Associate (Boophilus) microplus does not dare (yet?). Parasite and Vectors, Vol. Professor of Applied Entomology and Parasitology. His research interest is 6, pp 171, 2013. in Medical Entomology especially in the aspect of vector control. [13] T. Bellew and A. Mekonnen. Distribution of Ixodid ticks on cattle in and around Holeta town, Ethiopia. Global Vet., Vol. 7, pp 527-531, 2011. Mrs. Comfort David is a student of the Department [14] F. Tadesse, G. Abadfaji, S. Girma, B. Kumsa, and T. Jibat. of Zoology, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Identification of tick species and their preferred site on cattle’s body Nigeria. As an undergraduate student, her passion in in and around Mizan Teferi, Southwestern Ethiopia. JVMAH, Vol. 4, research especially in the area of Medical pp 1-5, 2012. Entomology made her carried out this research on [15] N. Irshad, M. Qayyum, M. Hussain, and M. Khan. (2010). Prevalence prevalence of ticks on domestic animals in Mubi, as a of tick infestation and theileriosis in sheep and goats. Pak Vet J. Vol. basis in preparation for her postgraduate studies. 30, pp 178-180, 2010. [16] A. Rehman, A. M. Nijhof, C. Sauter-Louis, B. Schauer, C. Staubach, Mr. Danladi Thomas was th and F. J. Conraths. Distribution of ticks infesting ruminants and risk born on 18 February, 1985. factors associated with high tick prevalence in livestock farms in the HeAuthor obtained’s formal his M.Sc. Applied Parasitology semi-arid and arid agro-ecological zones of Pakistan. Parasite and from Tarabaphoto State University, Jalingo, Nigeria, in Vectors, Vol. 10, pp 190, 2017. 2017. He also obtained B.Sc. Zoology from [17] M. A. Qadeer, K. T. Usman, A. A. Bobbo, and M. Hassan. Adamawa State University, Mubi, in 2008. Mr. Comparative studies on the prevalence of Ixodid ticks on some Danladi Thomas works with Adamawa State selected sedentary farms and trade cattle in Adamawa State, Nigeria. University, Mubi since 2014. His research International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Vol. 7, interest is in the area of Parasitology and No. 9, pp 505-509, 2017. Entomology. He has published over 15 research [18] S. L. Deem, R. A. I. Norval, T. Yonow, T. F. Peter, S. M. Mahan, and articles in the area of parasitologyAuthor’s formal and entomology. M. J. Burridge. The epidemiology of heartwater: establishment and photo maintenance of endemic stability. Parasitology Today, Vol. 12, pp 402-405, 1996. th [19] E. B. Koney, A. N. Morrow, and I. D. Heeron. The association Mr. Adokwe J. Bawa was born on 4 October, 1976. between Amblyomma variegatum and dermatophilosis: epidemiology He holds an M.Sc. Applied Hygrobiology and and immunology. Trop Anim Health Prod, Vol. 28 (Suppl 2), pp 185- Fisheries, from University of Jos, Nigeria in 2017. He 255, 1996. also obtained B.Sc. Zoology from University of [20] S. N. Saidu, I. A. Abdulkadir, and O. O. Akerejola. Theileria mutans Maiduguri, Nigeria in 2007. Mr. J.B. Adokwe is infection in Nigerian cattle. Trop Anim Health Prod, Vol. 16, pp 149- currently with the Department of Environmental 152, 1984. Quality Control, National Environmental Standards [21] G. Uilenberg. Theilerial species of domestic livestock. In Advances in and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA). the Control of Theileriosis. Edited by Irvin, A.D., Cunningham, M.P. His research interest is in the area of Ecology (Aquatic Toxicology).

Author’s formal photo DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24018/ejbio.2020.1.3.25 Vol 1 | Issue 3 | M ay 2020 4