Beykoz Glassware and Elements That Shaped It in the Nineteenth Century Murat Bengisu, Füsun Erdog˘Anlar Bengisu

Beykoz Glassware and Elements that Shaped It in the Nineteenth Century Murat Bengisu, Füsun Erdog˘anlar Bengisu

Introduction

Beykoz glassware owes its name to a region in Istanbul, Turkey Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 where glass articles were produced in glass workshops and factories during most of the nineteenth century. Although the production of Beykoz-style items continues today, the number of original nineteenth-century Beykoz glass products is relatively small. Found only in museums and in private collections, they have become precious collectors’ items that represent a cultural heritage. This article provides a short history of this particular product family and an examination of the intangible elements that shaped it. We explore the links between the cultural elements, cultural transformation, daily life, industrial developments, and design of Beykoz glassware in a historical context. Although a rich variety of Beykoz ware was created, characteristic products included laledan or tulip vases, rose water sprinklers, bird-shaped perfume containers, ewers, sherbet cups, and Venetian-style products known as çeşmibülbül (cheshmibulbul). The production of glassware was supported by the Ottoman court as part of a large-scale industrialization effort. Luxurious glass and porcelain items flooded the Ottoman capital as a new market emerged—on that resulted from the modernization efforts of the Sultans. Glass items produced at Beykoz could only partially satisfy the appetite of the elite Ottoman families and the non- Muslims leading the cultural transformation. The remaining demand was satisfied mostly by glass products imported from France and Bohemia.1

Industrial, Social, and Cultural Setting in Nineteenth-Century Istanbul The Ottoman Empire was being reshaped by political and industrial forces throughout the nineteenth century. Toward the end of the eighteenth century, while the industrial revolution was spread- 1 Although statistics about imported ing in Europe, the Ottoman industry relied on crafts and small glass in the nineteenth century are not available, most of the imported glass workshops. Important products included woven fabric, carpets, items found in Turkish museums, private leather products, metal products, weapons, jewelry, fur garments, collections, and auction catalogs come and glazed tile. Most of these products were sold in the local from France and Bohemia. © 2012 Massachusetts Institute of Technology DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 79 markets, although various types of fabric such as atlas, silk and velvet, leather goods, carpets, ornamented weapons, and silver products were also exported to Europe. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) implemented certain reforms in military and industrial fields. During his reign, important initiatives were undertaken in the production of canons, guns, gunpowder, broadcloth, and paper. Technology transfer was realized primarily by bringing in machines, specialists, and tech- nicians from France and Great Britain.2 Sultan Selim also sent a Sufi dervish named Mehmed Dede to Venice to learn glassmaking techniques. After his return, Mehmed Dede opened a workshop at Beykoz and started to manufacture glass products.3 Industrial reforms initiated by Selim III were continued by Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 Mahmud II (1808-39) and Abdülmecid (1839-61). Various factories were built between 1827 and 1836, and some older factories were modified to accommodate steam power instead of animal power. Large-scale industrial developments took place during the reign of Abdülmecid. An industrial and agricultural zone was established after 1842 on a 130-kilometer belt near the Marmara shore. This zone included a foundry and machine works in Zeytinburnu, a boatyard for small steamships, an iron works, a spinning and weaving factory in Bakırköy, and a model farm in Yeşilköy. Porce- lain and glass industries were also supported during this period.4 The modernization efforts were officially declared in 1839

2 İnkılap Alibeyov, “Sanayi Devrimi by the Rose Garden Reform Decree, also known as Tanzimat Döneminde Osmanlı Zanaatının Durumu Fermanı, which aimed to reorganize the whole Ottoman Empire. Üzerine,” [“On Ottoman Crafts During the Although these reforms are beyond the scope of this article, we Industrial Revolution”] in XI. Türk Tarih examine some of their industrial and social implications. In gen- Kongresi (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1994), 1493-98; Stanford J. Shaw, eral, modernization for rulers such as Selim III, Mahmud II, and Sultan III. Selim (İstanbul: Kapı Yayınları, Abdülmecid meant adopting European political, military, and 2008), 185-90; Önder Küçükerman, industrial systems, including certain customs. For example, at the Feshane, Defterdar Fabrikası: Türk Giyim Sanayii Tarihindeki Ünlü Fabrika time of Mahmud II, concerts, balls, and ballets were organized, [Feshane, Defterdar Factory: the Famous and learning French, wearing European style costumes, and listen- Factory in Turkish Clothing Industry] ing to European music came into fashion. Even consumption of (Ankara:Sümerbank, 1988), 150-51. wine during official visits was permitted by the Sultan. All of 3 Nureddin Rüştü Büngül, Eski Eserler Ansiklopedisi [Encyclopedia of these changes affected the traditional Ottoman ways, customs, and Antiquities] (İstanbul: Tercuman related material culture.5 Publications, date unavailable), 59-60. 4 Edward C. Clark, “The Ottoman Industrial Beykoz-Style Products: A Fusion of East and West Revolution,” Int. J. Middle East Stud., 5 (1974), 65-76. Throughout the nineteenth century, various glass and porcelain 5 Douglas A. Howard, History of Turkey factories were established in Beykoz and Paşabahçe, along the Asi- (Westport CT: Greenword Publishing atic side of the Bosphorus. Some of these factories were private Group, 2001), 60; İlbeyi Özer, Osmanlı’dan ventures founded by special permission from the Sultan. The Cumhuriyet’e Yaşam ve Moda [Life and Fashion from Ottomans to the Republic] remaining ones, called the Fabrika-i Hümayun (Imperial Factory), (İstanbul: Truva Yayınları, 2009), 18, 34; belonged to the Imperial Government. Ahmet Fethi Paşa, one of Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: the brothers-in-law of Sultan Abdülmecid and the Commander of Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire (London: I.B. Tauris, 2010), the Imperial Artillery, invested in a porcelain and glass factory 155-56. near İncirköy (a village in Beykoz) in 1844. According to an 1847

80 DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 Table 1 | Chronology of İncirköy Glass and Crystal Factory Based on Ottoman Archives

Date of Document Subject

04.13.1846 Purchase of the İncir Glass and Crystal Factory from Bursa Governor Mustafa Nuri Paşa by the State Treasury

—.—.1846 Assignment of Tahir Bey, director of the Imperial Mint, as manager of the Glass Factory

03.18.1846 Placement of Austrian employees in the glass factory

12.27.1846 Presentation to the Sultan of çeşmibülbül samples manufactured at the Glass Factory

12.28.1846 Thank you note for the samples presented to high-ranking officials

10.17.1848 Request for payment by Todori, who sold wood to the Glass Factory but was not paid

01.20.1855 Record of the debt of Höce Sozba, translator of the Glass Factory, to Nahid Bey, bookkeeper of the Imperial Mint Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 and manager of the Glass Factory

02.15.1855 Assignment of two officers to the Kavak Dock for wood to be provided for the Glass Factory

01.06.1857 Assignment of Zeki Efendi, former bookkeeper of the Imperial Treasury, as bookkeeper of the Glass Factory

04.02.1858 Transformation of the Glass and Crystal Factory to the Spermaceti Candle Factory

09.26.1858 Payment of the remaining part of the salary to the Austrian, Esiçerbir Gark

report written by MacFarlane, who personally visited this establishment, it was composed of two separate factories: the glass factory belonging to Ahmet Fethi Paşa and the porcelain factory belonging to the Sultan and his mother. At the time of his visit that summer, 14 German workmen and an old English foreman worked at the glass factory. However, the employee profile changed con- stantly, with French, Italian, or German workers and Turkish or Armenian administrators replacing one another. Products such as ornamented tumblers, water jugs, drinking cups, coffee cups, ewers, basins, scent bottles, vases, and inkstands were produced at this factory. MacFarlane reported that administrative problems and a lack of a continuous coal supply resulted in excessive costs and low manufacturing efficiency. Although no other known doc-

6 Önder Küçükerman, İstanbul’da 500 uments have been found that relate to this factory, a collection of yıllık Sanayi Yarışı, Türk Cam Sanayi Beykoz glassware produced there is still owned by the grandson of ve Şişecam [500 Years of Industrial Ahmet Fethi Paşa, and the types of items in that collection fit the Competition, Turkish Glass Industry description given by MacFarlane.6 and Şişecam] (İstanbul: Şişecam, 1998), 122-220; Robert Ellis, Great Exhibition In 1845, a second glass and crystal factory had been estab- of the Works of Industry of All Nations, lished by Mustafa Nuri Paşa, also at İncirköy. Because of financial Official Descriptive and Illustrated difficulties, this factory was purchased by the state in 1846, upon Catalogue, vol. 3, Foreign States (London: his request. In the Ottoman archives, this factory is referred to as Spicer Brothers, 1851), 1396-97. 7 Based on abstracts provided online İncir (or İncirköy) Glass and Crystal Factory, and sometimes as the by the Turkish Prime Ministry, General Imperial Crystal Factory. Because this factory was owned by the Management of Government Archives, state, several documents related to financial and administrative Ottoman Archive Catalogs available from: http://www.devletarsivleri.gov.tr/ matters can be found in the Ottoman archives. A chronology of 7 katalog/ (accessed June 27, 2011). significant events based on the archives is given in Table 1.

DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 81 Based on the archives and the chronology given in Table 1, we can infer that the factory started production in 1846 and lasted for only 12 years, that it was managed by Ottoman officials from the Imperial Treasury and the Imperial Mint, and that Austrians (and probably other Europeans), assisted by a translator, were also employed in the factory. Good-quality çeşmibülbül samples were presented to high-ranking officials and the Sultan. Such products were appreciated, praised, and sent to international exhibitions, including the 1851 London and 1856 Paris exhibitions. Several glass products manufactured at the İncirköy Glass and Crystal Factory were exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London.8 The official catalog of the exhibition lists the following items: “Glass porringers, with saucers and covers, glass cups, nar- Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 guilé glasses and plates, glass jugs, glass hash-ab, or sherbet bowls, with covers and saucers, crystal decanter and glass–Manufactured at the Imperial Glass House of Indgir-keny, Constantinople.”9 In addition to these glass products, the catalog also lists many China

8 Önder Küçükerman, İstanbul’da 500 items that were “Manufactured at Fethi Pasha’s Pottery of Indg- yıllık Sanayi Yarışı, Türk Cam Sanayi irkeny-Constantinople.” A book written toward the end of the ve Şişecam [500 Years of Industrial London exhibition comments on products found at the Crystal Competition, Turkish Glass Industry Palace and mentions, among other products from Turkey, some and Şişecam] (İstanbul: Şişecam, 1998), 122-220; Robert Ellis, Great Exhibition gilded sherbet cups manufactured at İncirköy. Some of the of the Works of Industry of All Nations, çeşmibülbül products (listed as Venetian glass in the catalog) were Official Descriptive and Illustrated rewarded honorable mention during the exhibition.10 Catalogue, vol. 3, Foreign States (London: Spicer Brothers, 1851), 1396-97. Beykoz glassware fell into two main categories: traditional 9 The name of the village, İncirköy, can be products and new products. Traditional products maintained encountered as Incirkeuy (which is the forms that were centuries old. Among them were rose water sprin- pronunciation respelling of this word) in klers, laledans (tulip vases), ewers, and suspended oil lamps. Rose some historical documents. However, it was misspelled in the catalog. water sprinklers were popular in most Islamic cultures, with their 10 Author unknown, The Crystal Palace characteristic pear-like base and long neck and dating back to the and Its Contents (London: W. M. Clark, fourteenth-century Mamluk Dynasty. Such forms were perpetu- 1851), 183-84; Authority of the Royal ated in the Ottoman culture by the Ehl-i Hiref and by individual Commission, Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, Reports by the artisans who were typically members of loncas or trade guilds. Juries vol.1Introductory, Awards, Reports, Ehl-i Hiref was the name given to skilled artisans who were spe- Classes I to IV (London: Spicer Brothers, cially selected to work for the Ottoman Palace. Artisans of this 1852), clxxxii. 11 Süleyman Kırımtayıf, 15. ve 19. Yüzyıllar organization included weapons makers, watchmakers, jewelers, Arasında Osmanlı Saray Sanatı Teşkilatı, tailors, glass makers, and many others. When the demand for [Ottoman Court Artisan Organization products exceeded the capacity of the Ehl-i Hiref, works were pro- Between the 15th and 19th Centuries] duced by state-owned workshops outside the Palace whose arti- (PhD thesis, Istanbul Technical University, 1996); Nevra Ertürk, 19. Yüzyıl Osmanlı sans were members of loncas. The forms and ornaments of a Sanayi Hareketleri İçinde Fabrika-i majority of products manufactured by workshops both inside and Hümayunlar [Ottoman Imperial Factories outside the Palace were designed by the Ehl-i Hiref and other arti- Within 19th Century Ottoman Industrial sans working in the Palace. However, Ehl-i Hiref had lost their Movements] (PhD thesis, Yıldız Technical University, 2008); Bahattin Yaman and importance even before the modernization and industrialization Sadık Akdemir, “The Ottoman Palace efforts of the nineteenth century.11 Artisans in Ehl-i Hiref Register, Dated 1796,” Review of the Faculty of Divinity- University of Süleyman Demirel 13 (2004), 850-1110.

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1 2 3

Figure 1 Another traditional product was the laledan. A miniature Beykoz-style smelling salt bottle, gilt clear from the seventeenth century, from Topkapı Palace Museum, cut glass, approx. 10 cm x 1.3 cm (from the private collection of Nusret Aktan, with shows a scene where the Sultan is being entertained. In the middle kind permission). of this miniature, three vases are sitting on a low table and have flowers in them. One of the vases, which appears to be of porce- Figure 2 lain, has a wide neck and many carnations are in it. The other two Large medicine bottle, 28 cm. The inscription seem to be filigrana vases with seven tulips in each one. Beykoz- in the Ottoman script reads “Mehmed—1220 style laledans have similar forms to the filigrana vases depicted in Islamic calendar” (which corresponds to 1805 or 1806 in the Gregorian calendar). this miniature, the main difference being a pedestal added below the round body.12

Figure 3 Glass products new to the Ottoman culture and produced Çeşmibülbül pipe, opaque white and opaque by Beykoz workshops or factories borrowed their forms from purple blue spiral threads embedded in European products. Boxes, smelling salt bottles (Figure 1), pistol- colorless glass, max. dia., 5.5 cm (Şişecam shaped scent bottles, candy dishes [bonbonnière], medicine bottles Collection). (Figure 2), pipes (Figure 3), and large plates were created. However, these products were usually decorated in the same style as other Beykoz objects. Decoration techniques included cutting, gilding, 12 Fuat Bayramo˘glu, Türk Cam Sanatı ve and enameling (Figure 4). Cutting was typically applied to color- Beykoz İşleri [Turkish Glass Art and less crystal and sometimes to colored transparent glass objects. Beykoz Ware] (Ankara: Türkiye İş Bankası, 1996), 16. Gilding and enameling were applied to all types of Beykoz glass- 13 Üzlifat Canav, Ancient Glass Collection ware, except for çeşmibülbül. Çeşmibülbül objects were not deco- (İstanbul: Türkiye Şişe ve Cam Fabrikaları, rated any further. Decorative motifs included flowers and foliage 1985), 97-98; Küçükerman, Beykoz patterns, as well as crescent, star, and heart symbols (Figure 5).13 Camları, 110. 14 Jarmila Brožová, Margarete Gräfin Even some production centers in Bohemia manufactured von Buquoy, and Walter Spiegl, Das glass products for the Ottoman market using the same forms Böhmische Glas 1700-1950 Band II and decoration. The Bohemian workshops of Franz Anton Zahn Empire, Biedermeier, Zweites Rokoko [Bohemian Glass 1700-1950 Vol. II and Franz Vogel in Steinschönau were two of the largest exporters Empire, Biedermeier, Second Rokoko] to the Ottoman Empire and to the Orient. A well-preserved rose (Passau: Verlag Rotel-Tours, 1995), water sprinkler (Figure 6), manufactured by the firm Franz Vogel 28, 37. around 1818 for the Turkish market, is displayed today at the 15 M. Şükrü Hanio˘glu, A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire (Princeton, NJ: Glass Museum in Passau, Germany. The striking similarity of this Princeton University Press, 2008), 27-33.

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4a 4b 5a

5b 6a 6b

Figure 4a sample to others produced at Beykoz workshops indicates that a Pilgrim flask, 19 cm, cut and gilt colorless common design language was already used at the beginning of the glass, max. dia. 15.5 cm. nineteenth century.14 Figure 4b Ewer with three horizontal rows of gilt partitions containing enameled flowers, white Beykoz Glassware Within a Cultural Context opaline glass, 15.9 cm high, max. dia. 6.6 cm A strong relationship linked the culture of nineteenth century ş (Şi ecam Collection). Istanbul and the products manufactured there. Such a relationship can be analyzed from three different cultural perspectives: activi- Figure 5a ties in daily life, including daily rituals and ceremonies; European Ewer with ten horizontal rows of floral decorations and two heart motifs with gilt interiors influences and the transformation of the society, including the on each side, white opaline glass, 26 cm high, desire for luxury goods; and religious influences. max. dia. 12 cm. Before mass production and the emergence of press adver- Figure 5b tisements, middle-class and lower–middle-class residents of Istan- Mug decorated with star and crescent motifs in three medallions and foliage pattern, purple bul owned only a few personal items, simple clothing, and basic blue opaline glass, 9 cm high, max. dia. 11 furniture. Most items in Muslim households were related to Islamic cm. (Şişecam Collection).

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7a 7b

Figure 6a rituals, such as prayer rugs, ewers, and bowls for ablution, as well Rose-water sprinkler decorated with five hori- as watches, quadrants, and hourglasses for timekeeping. Browsing zontal rows of enameled flowers, 25 cm high, through the lists of ten estate inventories between 1750 and 1801, (photograph taken by authors at the Passau Museum of Glass, with their kind permission). we also see a few glass items, including a glass frame, glass plates, 15 Figure 6b and a glass lantern. Beykoz-made rose-water sprinkler with five Some engravings and paintings depicting Istanbul’s daily horizontal rows of enameled flowers in gilt life in the nineteenth-century show how various glass objects were partitions, bluish-white opaline glass, 25.5 cm high, max. dia. 7.7 cm (Şişecam Collection). used for different purposes. For example, an engraving from 1854 shows a petitioner with a glass vase on his table, while another

Figure 7a from 1855 shows a candy shop with glass jars and bottles storing Engraving of a Nineteenth Century Petitioner the candy (Figure 7). A painting by Mıgırdıç Civanyan, titled “A (anonymous). Coffehouse in Tophane,” shows many glass objects used in a Figure 7b central coffeehouse during the nineteenth century. Here we can Candy seller engraving (A. Bayot). identify many hookah bottles, vases, ewers, and cups—all made of clear or translucent glass (Figure 8).

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Figure 8a “A Coffehouse in Tophane.” Figure 8b Detail showing various glass objects used in the nineteenth century (photograph taken by authors with kind permission from Pera Museum).

86 DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 Figure 9a Engraving by Melling showing a wedding procession in Istanbul (circa 1800-1803) from Voyage Pittoresque de Constantinople et des Rives du Bosphore. Figure 9b Detail showing glass vases on trays. Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021

An impressive engraving created by Melling (Figure 9) shows many details about a wedding procession. Melling worked as an architect for Selim III between 1790 and 1798. Between 1800 and 1803 he worked for Napoleon Bonaparte and prepared a collection of drawings depicting panoramic views, architecture, 16 Necla Arslan Sevin, Gravürlerde and ceremonies in Istanbul. The details of these drawings are Yaşayan Osmanlı [Ottomans Kept Alive in Engraving] (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlı˘gı, described in a book by Melling, published in 1819, which also 2006), 447-50; Antoine-Ignace Melling, mentions the use of glass vases: “…Then come two men who carry Voyage pittoresque de Constantinople on their heads big trays filled with many flowers…” The illustra- et des rives du Bosphore [Picturesque Promenades in and near Constantinople, tion shows one of the interesting uses of vases with narrow necks, and on the Waters of the Bosphorus] designed to hold one or a few tulips or other flowers, such as (Brussels: Aug. Wahlen, 1826), 151-55. hyacinths as shown in Figure 9.16

DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 87 10a 10b

Figure 10a Flowers had a special place in the Ottoman culture. The Bird-shaped Beykoz perfume container, period between 1718 and 1730 was later coined the tulip era because 18.1 cm in length, bluish white, seven vertical Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 gilt-contoured partitions from chest to tail of the tulip craze among the Ottoman elite. During the time of with pink enameled flowers. Sultan Ahmed III (1703-1730), Ottoman Turkey became the center Figure 10b of flower farming of the western world. Tulips had priority among Bird-shaped Beykoz perfume container, all other flowers in the gardens of the elite. Tulips were so impor- 19.8 cm in length, purple blue, gilt-contoured tant that anyone who cultivated their bulbs enjoyed a privileged partitions with white and red enameled flowers (Şişecam Collection). place in the society—no matter what his socioeconomic status or education. Other than tulips, florists’ flowers were limited to roses, carnations, hyacinths, daffodils, jonquils, and cyclamens. In the eighteenth century, enthusiasts cultivated various flowers in their gardens in all seasons. These flowers were placed in porcelain vases or “bottles with long necks.”17 Similar to tulips, roses were also very important in Ottoman culture. Rose water and frankincense were common in the daily lives and ceremonies of Ottoman people; it was offered to guests when receiving them or when bidding them goodbye. It was sprin- kled on hands, handkerchiefs, and beards of guests in religious gatherings. Rose water was used in various desserts, in sherbets, and in lotions and potions. One custom called for sprinkling rose water on the hands after meals. It was held in containers and sprinklers of many different forms. Beykoz glassware showed the largest variety and creativity in these containers. Although the 17 John H. Harvey, “Turkey as a Source of most common form was the one with a pear-like base and a long Garden Plants,” Garden History 4 (1976): 21-42; M. de M. D’Ohsson, 18. Yüzyıl neck (as already discussed), Beykoz-style rose water containers Türkiyesinde Örf ve Adetler [Traditions were also produced in the form of ewers, pistols, birds, and bar- and Customs in the 18th Century Turkey] rels. Bird-shaped containers were technically some of the most (İstanbul: Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser, complex products among Beykoz glasswares (Figure 10). However, date unavailable), 154; İlber Ortaylı, Mekanlar ve Olaylarıyla Topkapı Sarayı rose water started to lose its popularity with the import of Euro- [Topkapı Palace, Milestones in Ottoman pean perfumes and eau de cologne during the Abdulhamid period History] (İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, (1876-1909).18 2007), 180-81. 18 D’Ohsson, 32 idem; Hande Topal, Koku Kullanım Kültürü ve Türkiye’de Kolonya Glassware for Dining Ambalajı (Master’s thesis, Istanbul Glassware was not common in conventional dining in the Otto- Technical University, 2007), 17-21; man culture until the nineteenth century. Before modernized Marianna Yerasimos, 500 Yıllık Osmanlı Mutfa˘gı [500 Years of Ottoman Cuisine] dining customs, food was eaten around a wooden or metal tray (İstanbul: Boyut Yayın Grubu, 2005) 42. placed on a piece of cloth on the floor. Food was commonly served

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11 12

Figure 11 on brass plates, although porcelain plates were used by the upper Nineteenth century çeşmibülbül snow holder class and in the Sultan’s palace. A few glass items were used infre- from the Topkapı Palace collection, 39 cm high, brass ring at the opening for snow, quently by the upper class in the 18th century. European-style fur- opaque white and opaque purple-blue threads niture and eating customs were adapted by non-Muslims in Galata embedded in colorless glass (with kind and Pera, and by Sultan Abdulmecid, who abandoned Topkapı permission from Topkapı Palace Museum). Palace in favor of the Western-style furnishings at Dolmabahçe Palace in 1856. According to an American traveler’s account, the Figure 12 use of forks and knives was already spread to customers of eating Snowholder for daily use, early twentieth 19 century (from the private collection of Özkan places in Istanbul by the 1890s. Arıkantürk, with kind permission). Before the availability of refrigerators, food and drinks were cooled using ice and snow that remained from the winter or was brought from the mountains. In the summer, ice was cut and car- ried in felt wrappings to Topkapı Palace from the reservoirs in Uludağ Mountain near Bursa and Katırlı Mountain near Gemlik. Ice and snow was kept in ice wells in Istanbul. An interesting decanter, called a karlık (snow holder), was invented to keep the contents cool without the risk of contaminating them using ice or snow bought from ice shops. Figure 11 shows a çeşmibülbül snow

19 Özer, Osmanlı’dan Cumhuriyet’e Yaşam holder from the Topkapı Palace collection. The snow was placed in ve Moda, 18; Francis Marion Crawford, the pouch to cool water, sorbet, or other drinks. Snow holders 1890’larda İstanbul [Old Constantinople] made from ordinary glass were also used in the Aegean region for (İstanbul: Türkiye İş Bankası, 2006), similar purposes. Figure 12 shows an example from İzmir from the 50; Yerasimos, 500 Yıllık Osmanlı 20 Mutfa˘gı, 42. beginning of the twentieth century. 20 Murat Bardakçı, “Eşkıya Buz Da˘glarını Beykoz glass products of many different forms and func- Basınca Sarayda Pişen Yemekler Koktu,” tions were produced for dining purposes. Well-preserved exam- [“When Bandits Occupied the Ice ples of decanters, mugs, bowls, plates, salt shakers, coffee cups, Mountains, Food Made in the Palace Turned Rotten”] Hürriyet Yaşam October bottles, boza jugs, and egg cups remain in private collections or 8, 2005; the snow holder from Izmir museums. Boza, a drink widely consumed by the Ottoman people belongs to the private collection of Özkan in winter time, was a thick, viscous drink, and the boza jug, likely Arıkantürk, personal communication (İzmir, 2011).

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13a 13b

Figure 13a designed for the specific necessities of this drink, had no beak Boza jug (painting by Nevin Bengisu from a (Figure 13a), although other decanters used for water or sorbet photograph in an auction catalog). did (Figure 13b).21 The existence of specific products, such as salt Figure 13b Çeşmibülbül jug used for sorbet or water shakers, egg cups, and boza jugs, suggests that they were pro- (Şişecam Collection). duced for their intended functions. However, we have no evidence showing that Beykoz glassware was actually used in daily life, even by the wealthy.

Glassware as Luxury Goods As mentioned, the number of glass objects used in a common household in Istanbul was relatively limited. However, Beykoz and imported glass products were luxury goods among the elite. Luxury goods and products of Western origin were used as indica- tors of social status. The use of Western-style products for interior decoration and home furnishings increased rapidly in the nineteenth century, especially among pro-Western upper- and middle- class families. A painting by Şefik, depicting a dining table in Yıldız Palace in the 1890s, shows a table arranged in European style; on the table are many drinking glasses of various sizes, plus 21 Bayramo˘glu, Türk Cam Sanatı, 35; Ari decanters. The painting provides a good example of the impor- İstanbulluo˘glu and Şennur Şentürk, Beykoz Glass (İstanbul: Yapı Kredi tance of luxurious tableware during this period. The consumption Yayınları, 1997), 27; Canav, Ancient Glass of imported goods was further encouraged by the 1838 Baltalimanı Collection, 134-35; Ahmet Nezihi Turan, free trade agreement signed between the Ottomans and Great Brit- ed., Acısıyla Tatlısıyla Boza [Boza with all its Pros and Cons] (Ankara: Kültür ve ain, and by subsequent agreements with other European countries. Turizm Bakanlı˘gı, 2007), 59-87. Beykoz glassware, including large, decorated bowls and plates,

90 DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021

14a 14b

Figure 14a European-style jewelry boxes, bonbonnières, and perfume bottles Beykoz vase with mystical motif: 12-cornered reflected the interest of the Ottoman elite in luxury goods. The use rosette at the base. of gilding and cutting for decoration further emphasized the sense Figure 14b 22 Beykoz mug with mystical motif: lid in of luxury conveyed by Beykoz products. the form of a Mevlevi tombstone (Şişecam Collection). Mystical Influences on Design The influence of mysticism on the design of Beykoz glassware is much stronger than has been recognized by earlier studies. Many motifs and forms used in Beykoz products can be traced back to shapes and symbols used by two Islamic sects prominent in the Ottoman Empire: the Alevi-Bektaşi and the Mevlevi (Sufi). For example, the 12-cornered rosette at the base of the vase in Figure 14a is most likely a representation of the Bektaşi stone of resigna- tion. The 12 corners symbolize the 12 imams of the Alevi faith. Similar decorations can be found in other Beykoz products, sometimes with a smaller number of corners (8 or 10), which may indi-

22 Haris Exertzoglou, “The Cultural Uses of cate the continuation of the use of this decoration by other workers Consumption: Negotiating Class, Gender, who did not know the significance of this form. Another religious and Nation in the Ottoman Urban Centers symbol found in certain Beykoz products is the heart (Figure 5a). During the 19th Century,” Int. J. Middle Although this shape is a universal symbol of love today, it was not East Stud. 35 (2003): 77-101; Mustafa Karabulut, “Tanzimat Döneminde so in the Ottoman culture. This symbol was (and still is) used by Osmanlının Yenileşme Sürecine Bir followers of the Mevlevi faith in the form of a winged heart. The Bakış,” [“A Glance at the Innovation heart is a symbol of the human heart situated between the physical Process in the Tanzimat Period”] Türk body and the spirit. The wings indicate the flight of the heart to Dünyası Araştırmaları 187 (2010): 125-38; Küçükerman, Çeşmibülbül, 72-73. higher spheres or spiritual attainment. Although as a decoration

DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013 91 on Beykoz glassware, the heart was typically used in the plain form, the winged heart symbol also made very rare appearances in some Beykoz products. Another mystical symbol, occasionally found in the caps of ewers or mugs (Figure 14b), is a form that represents the tall felt hat worn by the Mevlevi followers, which also represents their tombstone. Sultan Selim III was a member of the Mevlevi order and frequently visited the Galata dervish lodge. Given the close ties between him and the Mevlevis, his support of the Beykoz glass industry, and the influence of the Mevlevi Mehmed Dede on the establishment of the glass workshops, we can see why the Mevlevi symbols appeared on Beykoz glassware.23

Decline of the Beykoz Glass Industry Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/desi/article-pdf/29/1/79/1715115/desi_a_00198.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 After the 1850s, the Ottoman industry in general came under great pressure because of an immense influx of low-cost European products into local markets. Some factories improved their production methods and managed to cope with this pressure until the twentieth century; meanwhile, others—including the Beykoz glass factory—were forced eventually to shut down. After the Beykoz Glass Factory was closed in 1858, no large-scale glass production 23 Besim Atalay and Vedat Atila, Bektaşilik occurred until 1899. In 1899, a new glass factory was founded by ve Edebiyatı [The Bektashi Order and its Literature] (İstanbul: Ant Yayınları, Saul Modiano. It ceased operation in 1922 because Istanbul was 1991), 16; Karin Jironet, The Image of occupied and the owners of the factory had to leave the country. Spiritual Liberty in the Western Sufi This tumultuous period set the stage for the end of the Ottoman Movement Following Hazrat Inayat Khan (Belgium: Peeters Publishers, 2002), 64. Empire and the emergence of the Turkish Republic, led by Mustafa The winged heart symbol is seen on a Kemal Atatürk. The world wars, economic difficulties, the creation nineteenth century Beykoz kerosene of a new nation, and all the changes that accompanied it, including lamp sold at www.eskidji.com with the adoption of the Latin alphabet, caused part of the culture to be stock number 269396 (accessed February 27, 2012). Ömür Tufan, “Avrupa Cam abandoned or forgotten. Nevertheless, thanks to the efforts of Sanayisinde Yaşanan Yenilikler: Sultan Paşabahçe Glass Factories, Beykoz-style products were revived in III. Selim’in Osmanlı Cam Sanatına the 1970s and are still being produced in the traditional style.24 Katkıları,” [Innovations in the European Glass Industry: Contributions of Sultan Selim III to the Ottoman Glass Industry] Acknowledgements Antik& Dekor, 111 (2009): 54-65. We are grateful to Şişecam and Perihan Sekban for opening 24 Donal Quataert, “19. Yüzyıla Genel Şişecam’s antique glass collection and photo archive to us; Bakış” [“A General Look at the 19th to Özkan and İsmet Arıkantürk for providing us with valuable Century”] in Osmanlı İmparatorlu˘gu’nun Ekonomik ve Sosyal Tarihi Cilt 2, 1600- information and photographs about snow holders; to Nevin Ben- 1914 [An Economic and Social History of gisu for the illustration she provided; and to Ömür Tufan from the Ottoman Empire Vol. 2, 1600-1914], Topkapı Palace for providing information about Beykoz glassware Halil İnalcık and Donal Quataert, eds., (İstanbul: Eren Yayıncılık, 2004), 1001-02; and for the opportunity to photograph some items from the Küçükerman, Beykoz Camları, 143-50; Topkapı Palace Collection. We also thank Asst. Prof. Laurie Küçükerman, 100 Cam, 174-75, 225. Churchman and Prof. Xander van Eck for their helpful comments.

92 DesignIssues: Volume 29, Number 1 Winter 2013