Katedra Anglistiky a Amerikanistiky Bakalářská Diplomová Práce 2018

Home , Vita Merlini

Masarykova univerzita Filozofická fakulta

Katedra anglistiky a amerikanistiky

Bakalářská diplomová práce

Kateřina Ježová 2018 2018 Ježová Kateřina

2018 Kateřina Ježová

Hřbet

Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Kateřina Ježová

Development of Arthurian Legend and Its Characters in Medieval Literature Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A.

2018

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

…………………………………………….. Author’s signature

I would like to thank my supervisor Milada Franková for the useful comments and encouragement during the writing process. I would also like to thank my family and my boyfriend who supported me every single day.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………1

CHAPTER 2: The Origins of the Arthurian Legends …………………………………..4

Geoffrey of Monmouth……………………………………………. . . …..……..4

The History of the Kings of Britain…...... … …………….7

Sir Thomas Malory……………………………………………… . . ……… …10

Le Morte Darthur……………………………………………………….12

CHAPTER 3: Difference of the Story in the Legend………………………….. . .. …..16

Merlin……… …… ……………………………………………………………18

Arthur……………………….. ……………………………………………...…22

The Round Table……………………………………………………………….25

Mordred………………………………………………………………………...27

Morgan le Fay………………………………………………………………….30

CHAPTER 4: Conclusion…………………………………………………………...…33

Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………35

Summary……………………………………………………………………………….37

Resumé……………………………………………………………………………...…38

1 INTRODUCTION

For centuries the Arthurian legend has been part of the literature. Many people have enjoyed the legend, and the stories of King Arthur, Queen Guinevere or Sir

Lancelot have inspired many people around the world. The legend is still popular to this day as suggested by the tremendous number of books, movies, or theatre plays that are made about these characters, either directly or loosely. Therefore, it is safe to assume, that many people have heard about King Arthur and his adventures or about Merlin and his magic tricks. Many people know of their stories in one shape or form. Their stories and the legend itself has been adapted many times, and therefore, it is not surprising that the story itself has changed over the years into several different versions of the original legend. However, the fact that the different versions are made is not the question of only today, but has been happening ever since the Middle Ages as there were many different versions of the legend that influenced others.

Arthurian legend has been around since the eighth century. Since that there have been many changes in the story. Some have been as small as a minor character being absent from one version or the other. However, sometimes the changes have been significant and shaped the legend into the version that is widely known nowadays. The primary aim of this thesis is to define the differences that were made in the story of King

Arthur and his knights throughout the medieval literature.

Since my childhood, I have always been fascinated by the legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It has always been a big part of my life as the stories inspired me and left a significant impact on my understanding of the fantasy world. The stories of the knights in the shining armours, legends of their courage and bravery were what intrigued me the most. The History of the Kings of Britain and Le Morte Darthur are the two most influential works from the medieval times and went on to inspire many

1 other writers. The books and works inspired by the two authors have made their appearance on the theatre stages, on the big screen and even computer games.

This thesis has been structured into our chapters where the second chapter will provide a theoretical background based on the two primary readings while the third chapter will compare the difference between them. In the second chapter, this thesis focuses on the lives of the authors Geoffrey of Monmouth and Sir Thomas Malory. The lives of both authors are discussed and put into perspective with their respective works.

Even though there are not that many reliable records of their deeds, the most reliable sources were carefully selected to ensure that the thesis is built upon firm standing stones.

Furthermore, the storylines of both books are thoroughly described to introduce the primary readings, upon which this thesis is based on.

Chapter three’s primary focus is to contrast the differences between the two texts.

The emphasis was put on the characters of Merlin, King Arthur, Mordred and Morgan le

Fay as well as on some story elements, which are iconic and the legend without them would not have been the same. Specifically, the thesis mentions how the character of

Merlin becomes a part of the tale and depending on the respective book it describes the high points of his life. King Artur’s subchapter focuses on his life as well, however, it also discusses the critical story elements, which are connected to the character himself.

Mordred’s and Morgan’s subchapters might be a little bit shorter, but nevertheless, capture the essence of the differences between Geoffrey of Monmouth’s version and the one of Sir Thomas Malory.

Because I have always been interested in the story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, I have been pleasantly surprised about the amount of things I have yet to learn about my favourite characters whom I thought I knew well. Analysing the

2 story from a scholarly perspective has been a valuable experience, and I hope that my enthusiasm and hard work will be seen on the following pages.

2 THE ORIGINS OF THE ARTHURIAN LEGENDS

As with many other legends and tales, the legend of King Arthur and his knights was spread orally. Luckily, this particular legend was also written down, and therefore, the future generations are able to enjoy its magnificence while the world will forever remember names like Sir Lancelot and Sir Galahad. Furthermore, there have been several versions of the legend, each with its strengths and weaknesses. Many pages have been dedicated to the adventures of King Arthur and his loyal companions during the

Middle Ages, although probably the most important and influential texts from this era are Geoffrey of Monmouth’s The History of the Kings of Britain and Sir Thomas

Malory’s Le Morte Darthur. While these two books are the primary sources of the legend from the Middle Ages, in today’s time it could be argued that these two historically significant works have been an inspiration for many other versions and interpretations of the legend. These texts then have gone on to stimulate the mind of other writers to come up with their versions of the tale. However, before the thesis mentions the texts itself, it would be proper to introduce the authors, their works and learn something about their life as it often has a great influence on their work

Geoffrey of Monmouth

When it comes to the Arthurian legends, Geoffrey of Monmouth must be considered one of the most influential figures and an all-round expert on the topic. Siân

Echard often mentions his prowess and expertise on the subject matter in her book The

Arthur of Medieval Latin Literature: The Development and Dissemination of the

Arthurian Legend in Medieval Latin:

Today, Geoffrey’s contribution to the Arthurian tradition is usually measured in

terms of his presence at the beginning of a coherent literary tradition; along with

Chrétien de Troyes in the vernacular realm, he is credited as a founder of the

enduring Arthurian story. It is Geoffrey who tells us of Arthur’s conception;

Geoffrey who connects Merlin to that story; Geoffrey who takes Arthur to war

with Rome, in the company of knights such as Gawain, Kay and Bedevere; and

Geoffrey who tells us of Arthur’s death in his final battle with Mordred. (Echard

45)

As Echard promptly notes in her work, it is Geoffrey of Monmouth who “[…] provides

[the readers with] the first consecutive Arthurian narrative” (Echard 45) and therefore is credited to be the founder and the creator of the Arthurian legend. It is because of him and his tales that people know about Arthur’s origin, the story of how the great Merlin came to be on the king’s court as well as about Arthur’s war with the Romanian Empire.

Furthermore, he introduces the readers to some of the lesser known knights who are present in the Arthurian legend such as Gawain, Kay and Bedevere. He also does not omit

Arthur’s final battle with Mordred and briefly touches on the topic of Arthur’s travel to

Avalon to be healed.

It is believed that Geoffrey of Monmouth was born around 1100 in the region of

Monmouth, which is located in the South-Eastern part of Wales. Unfortunately, not much is known about his early years – there are not many accounts about his childhood or early adulthood until around the year 1129. However, there is one thing that is known almost for certain, and that is his father’s name, which was Arthur. Both his and his father’s name were somewhat rare or perhaps unusual in Wales at that time. However, they were not so uncommon in Brittany (or Bretagne in French), which is nowadays known as a cultural region in the northwest of France. Therefore, some scholars have suggested that he may have been of Breton descent or at least that some of his ancestors have some relation to

5 the region. That would mean that his forefathers were part of Celtic ethnic group which was located in the region.

Around 1129, which is the earliest reliable record which can be found about him, he is one of the witnesses of the foundation charter of Osney Abbey in Oxford. It was during the years 1129 and 1151 when he wrote his works for which he is known for and which has become his legacy (Cadwell and Parby 73). Then a couple of years later around

1136, he began his writing of History of the Kings of Britain. Although he claims that his work is merely a translation of a very ancient book in the British language which had been given to him by his associate Walter of Oxford, scholars have proven that particular source to be spurious. The claim that the authority belonged to some previous source was a widespread trope among medieval writers, and it was often used to mask brash originality. The book was translated to various other languages from its original (which was in Latin as it was widely popular in his days) and until the 16th century it was considered a reliable source of historical accounts. However, that is not the case anymore, for quite some time it was suspected to contain several historical errors, and nowadays it is known that the work is inaccurate and undependable.

Later in his life, he was elected bishop of St. Asaphs, consecrated by Archbishop

Theobald at Lambeth Palace in February 1152. His aristocratic patrons rewarded him with the bishopric of St. Asaph's in North Wales, though he seems never to have occupied his seat due to the unrest among the Welsh. Later during the course of his life, Geoffrey of

Monmouth returned in his writings to the character of Merlin, whose origin and prophecies he had explored in the History of the Kings of Britain and composed a long poem entirely in Latin hexameters called The Vita Merlini, which can be translated into

English as The Life of Merlin.

The Life of Merlin is a significant work which indisputably deserves to be mentioned in this thesis. It reveals Geoffrey's further studies of Welsh lore, and particularly of Welsh prophetic traditions and within its lines, Geoffrey describes a retirement of the old and tired Merlin from the world after a traumatic battle. He also writes about Merlin’s madness, the estrangement from his wife Guendoloena and his final withdrawal to a woodland retreat. Merlin is accompanied only by two of his prophesying associates – the Welsh poet and scholar Taliesin and Merlin’s sister Ganieda.

Unfortunately, Geoffrey of Monmouth died soon after he enriched the Arthurian legends with the character of Merlin in 1155.

The History of The Kings of Britain

As stated before, The History of the Kings of Britain is a fictional and factually imprecise story. During the Middle Ages it was believed to be as accurate as any other chronicle, however, nowadays this fact has been repeatedly disproven and the work is considered to be historically inaccurate, created by Geoffrey of Monmouth himself and not the true accounts of the history at all. Even though the errors can be traced with relative ease, it was not so during the Middle Ages and maybe even because of this fact the stories from The History of the Kings of Britain were quite popular.

However, what deserves the focus here is the story itself. It all begins on a settlement in Britain with the main character Brutus, who happens to be the great- grandson of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, and Corineus who is the eponymous founder of

Cornwall. Moreover, he was the one who exterminated all the giants who were inhibiting Britain and brought peace to its lands once again. The text then follows the reigns of several early kings of Britain down to the Romanian conquest. However, the

7 most important and the most relevant part of the book for this thesis starts after the

Saxon infiltration, from here the book focuses on the Arthurian.

After King Vortigern becomes the king, he invites the Saxons to fight for him as his mercenaries. However, they rise against him and Vortigern loses a significant part of his land. After Aurelius defeats Vortigern, he becomes the king, and the rightful line is restored to the throne. His reign is followed by the reign of his brother, Uther

Pendragon. That leads up to the account of Arthur’s conquest.

In the book seven, the author pauses his retelling of the history and instead puts in a series of prophecies which are attributed to Merlin. In the first one, Merlin talks to

Vortigern about the two dragons that are found at the bottom of the pond. He says:

Woe to the red dragon, for his banishment hasteneth on. His lurking holes shall

be seized by the white dragon, which signifies the Saxons whom you invited

over; but the red denotes the British nation, which shall be oppressed by the

white. (Monmouth 71)

The red dragon is meant to signify the British, while the white dragon represents the

Saxons and according to his prophecy, the Saxons will be victorious. However, that is not the only information that is hidden inside Merlin’s prophecies as some of these prophecies act as an epitome of upcoming chapters in the book. For example, Merlin says in his prophecies: “For a boar of Cornwall shall give his assistance, and trample their necks under his feet.” (Monmouth 71). That refers to Arthur who will drive the invading Saxons out of Britain and the Brits will be victorious.

When Aurelius Ambrosius defeats Vortigern, he becomes the one to rule the kingdom, however, Britain remains in a state of war. They are both aided by Merlin the wizard. At one point during the endless number of battles, Ambrosius becomes ill and it is Uther who must lead the army instead of him. That allows an enemy assassin to

8 pretend to be a physician and manages to poison Ambrosius. When the king dies, a comet appears in the night sky which takes the form of a dragon’s head. Merlin interprets it as a sign that Ambrosius is dead and that Uther will be victorious and succeeds him. Therefore, after defeating all of his latest enemies, Uther adds the word

“Pendragon” to his name, and he is then crowned the king.

However, another enemy strikes. That forces Uther to start the war all over again. He is temporarily defeated, but the final victory belongs to him, although only with the help of Duke Gorlois of Cornwall. While celebrating the victory, he falls in love with the duke’s wife Igerna (nowadays she is known as Igraine). That leads to the war between Uther Pendragon and Duke Gorlois of Cornwall, during which Uther secretly lies with Igerna with the help of Merlin’s magic which gives himself the exact likeness of Gorlois. It is that night when Arthur is conceived. Later, Gorlois is killed, and Uther marries Igerna, however, he must fight against the Saxons once again. Even though Uther triumphs, he dies after drinking water from a spring which was poisoned by the Saxons.

Arthur then assumes the throne and defeats the Saxons. The Saxons ceased to be a threat until after Arthur’s death. During his reign, Arthur conquers most of the northern Europe and ushers in a period of peace and prosperity. That lasts until the

Roman emperor Lucius Tiberius demands that Britain once again pay tribute to Rome.

Arthur defeats Lucius in Gaul, however, in Arthur’s absence, his nephew Mordred seduces and marries Guinevere, Arthur’s wife, and seizes the throne for himself. Then

King Arthur returns and fights Mordred at the Battle of Camlann and kills him, but unfortunately, he is also mortally wounded. In the following moments, he is carried to the Isle of Avalon and he hands the kingdom over to Constantine, the son of Cador,

Duke of Cornwall. The Saxons returned after Arthur’s death, however, they would not

9 end the line of the British kings until the death of Cadwallader, which finishes the story of the book.

Sir Thomas Malory

However, Geoffrey of Monmouth is not the only one who had a significant influence on the development of the Arthurian legend in the medieval times. The other significant figure is considered to be Sir Thomas Malory. As Helen Moore notes in her introduction to Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur:

The precise identity of the Sir Thomas Malory […] has always been shrouded in

mystery, and has provoked much speculation. […] This comes at the end of the

book, when the author reveals that he is a knight and that he completed his work

in ‘the ninth year of the reign of King Edward the Fourth’ […], that is, sometime

between 4 March 1469 and 3 March 1470. The leading candidate for identification

as the author of Le Morte Darthur is Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revel in

Warwickshire. (Moore V)

Not much is known about the identity of Thomas Malory, however, there had been many speculations regarding his character. It is believed that Sir Thomas Malory was born around 1416 and his father was John Malory, a landowner in Warwickshire,

Leicestershire, and Northamptonshire. John Malory married Philippa Chetwynd, and they had several daughters and one son, Thomas.

Only a few facts are certain about his life. Moore continues: “The first reference to Thomas as a knight comes in 1441, so he must have been knighted at some point in the intervening years.” (Moore V). As said before, not much is known about Malory’s early life. The first real reference appears in 1441, which is considered to be the date around which he was knighted. During Malory’s later years he lived within the period

10 of English history which is more commonly known as the “War of the Roses” between the years 1455 and 1485. During that time two noble families of Lancaster and York conflicted the monarchy, however, the records show that Malory’s personal life was just as wild as the times he lived in. In the period between 1440 and 1451, he was elected a member of the Parliament for Warwickshire. Moreover, there is also a possibility that he was in the military service overseas in Gascony, which is now part of France.

It is also known that he was arrested. His criminal charges included a wounding, theft and burglary amongst other things and was arrested in July 1451. During that time,

Malory apparently broke out of the prison and then robbed an abbey before he was recaptured. Most of the years between 1452 and 1460, Malory spent in prison, however, the case never came to a trial and around 1460 he was probably freed. However, he did not receive a general pardon which was issued by King Edward IV in 1468 nor did he received one in 1470. However, the fact that Le Morte Darthur was finished during the time he spent in prison would suggest that Malory’s second period of imprisonment lasted from about 1468 to 1470, during which time Edward IV fled into exile (Moore V

– VI).

As mentioned in the paragraph above, Malory finished writing Le Morte

Darthur around the year 1470. The book was later published by Williams Caxton in

1485, however, this print differs from Malory’s original version. He is an essential figure in English history as he was most certainly the first man who set up a printing press in England. Until 1934, Caxton’s version was the only one known, however, during that time was discovered the “Winchester Manuscript”. As Moore writes:

[The Winchester Manuscript] differs in many respects from Caxton text. It is

therefore thought that Caxton’s text and the Winchester Manuscript are different

versions of Malory’s original, which either no longer survives or has yet to be

discovered. (Moore VII)

There are several differences between the two texts. That suggests that they are not the exact copies of the Malory’s original, therefore, the two authors of these texts took some creative liberties.

Le Morte Darthur

Le Morte Darthur is a chivalric romance. The Chivalric romance is essentially a story that deals with the adventures and love affairs of a single knight or possibly a group of knights. The setting is usually foreign or even with some fantastic elements and possibly can include magical events. This genre of literature has been utmost popular during the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Love plays a significant role, women often have a central role in the story and have a considerable amount of influence over the events that unfold. However, love is not the only thing the chivalric romance is concerned with, as it is often accompanied by war. When considered that, Le Morte

Dartur is absolutely no exception.

Malory combines the excitement of an adventure with the sophistication of romance. Moore writes:

Le Morte Darthur combines the narrative excitement of an adventure story with

the relative sophistication of allegorical romance. Although constructed from

various sources, and comprising numerous storylines it can be read successfully

as a single work. (Moore XII)

The text is comprised of many different sources, and it complies many storylines, but the readers are able to read the book successfully as one single work. Malory drew inspiration and used “French prose works Suite du Merlin, the Tristan and the Lancelot”

12 as well as two English poems – “the alliterative Morte Arthure and the stanzaic Morte

Arthur.” (Moore VII). These stories provided Malory with the primary material for his book Le Morte Darthur.

The story of the book Le Morte Darthur begins with the story of how King

Arthur is brought to this world. King Uther needs an heir to his throne and is very interest in Igraine, the wife of the Duke of Cornwall. With the help of the wizard

Merlin, he manages to lay with Igraine as he is disguised as her husband and as payment for his help, Merlin asks the King to hand him the son that he conceived with Igraine.

She gives birth to a baby boy – Arthur. Merlin sends Arthur to be raised by a knight, Sir

Ector, alongside his son Kay.

Arthur takes his rightful place as a ruler of the kingdom after King Uther dies when he pulls a sword out of the stone. Although he rules wisely and is counselled by

Merlin the magician, Arthur makes many enemies of other kings and is often at war. He fights at many battles and then travels with Sir Bors and Ban to defend King

Leodegrance against King Rience. Around that time, Arthur lays with King Lot’s wife

Morgawse, who so happens to be his half-sister. With her, he conceives a child named

Mordred, of whom Merlin warns Arthur that the child will be his undoing.

Later Arthur marries Guinevere, and her father gives Arthur the Round Table around which can sit hundred and fifty men. Guinevere, who is often present at the convening of the Round Table, acts as a moral compass for the knights. She also rewards knights who behave well and punishes those who conduct themselves poorly.

Arthur is almost betrayed by his sister Morgan le Fay, but fortunately, he is helped by

Nimue, a sorceress who learned her magic powers from Merlin before entrapping him in a rock.

Arthur later fights against the Romans when Emperor Lucius demands from

Arthur to pay him a tribute. Although the war is long and requires several battles,

Arthur and his knights return victorious. Soon after that, Lancelot is considered as the greatest knight in all the world because of his virtue, loyalty, and bravery.

Tristram, the nephew of King Mark of Cornwall, is introduced in the Book

Eight, and his adventure unfolds. He kills Sir Marhault to free his uncle from a debt that is owed to King Angwyssh of Ireland. He eventually returns to Ireland to retrieve Isoud as she is supposed to marry King Mark. Moreover, he then falls in love with Isoud,

Angwyssh's daughter, and on the return trip, Tristram and Isoud both unknowingly drink a potion that causes them to fall in love. Mark marries Isoud, but Tristram performs various feats of bravery for her, including rescuing her from Sir Palomides.

Eventually, Mark discovers that Tristram and Isode are lovers and while Tristram manages to escape, the king keeps Isoud.

Lancelot, who is in love with the queen and utterly loyal to her, leaves one day in search of an adventure. He defeats a dragon, finds the Grail. Lancelot is tricked into lying with Pellas' daughter Elayne, with whom he concieves a son who is called

Galahad. Guinevere, upon learning about the affair, has Lancelot banished from court.

Lancelot then wanders from one place to another in his grief. Elayne heals Lancelot with the help of the Holy Grail, and he eventually returns blissfully to Camelot and the

Round Table.

Lancelot later introduces his son to the court and Galahad is made a knight.

Most of the knights then set out separately on quests. Lancelot then later returns to the court and is still in love with Guinevere. After a series of trials, Guinevere is convinced of Lancelot's affection for her. Although Arthur knows of the affair, he overlooks it and is prompted by Agravain and Mordred to act; Guinevere is sentenced to be burned at

14 stake. Lancelot rushes to rescue her and to take her to his castle, however, in the battle,

Lancelot kills Gareth and Gaheris, who happen to be at the execution, however, they are unarmed. Lancelot returns Guinevere to Arthur, and Lancelot is once again exiled, along with his supporters. Gawain then swears vengeance for the death of his brothers and insists that Arthur attacks Lancelot. Arthur agrees, however, while Arthur and

Gawain are away to find Lancelot, Mordred declares himself King of England, claims

Guinevere as his wife, and attacks Arthur's army. Gawain is mortally wounded and warns Arthur in a dream not to continue with battle. Because of a misunderstanding, the battle does not cease. Arthur kills Mordred, however, he is mortally wounded by him, exactly as Merlin has prophesied. Lancelot and Guinevere both die of illness soon after, and Constantine becomes the king, while the Round Table falls apart.

3 DIFFERENCE OF THE STORY IN THE LEGEND

As with many other tales throughout the course of history, even the Arthurian legend has been changed as time went by. However, that is only natural as people kept telling the legend over and over again, once forgetting to mention an unimportant detail, once adding something completely new. Several of these changes were small and possibly so insignificant that the ordinary reader would have never notice them if he had not been focusing on them. But as a contrast to those trifling details there are the significant changes that have changed the story substantially and some of its core elements that will be discussed in this chapter.

Geoffrey of Monmouth is usually seen as the one who firstly brought the world of King Arthur to life, even despite the indications that there were other works with comparable (or possibly even similar) features. As time went by, the story kept changing, and there are many differences between the version Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote down and the one written by Sir Thomas Malory. Moreover, as the story changed, so did the characters, although it is hardly a shocking piece of new information that with the storyline the characters differ as well, some more, some less. As it can be expected, not every character had appeared in every version of the legend and not every one of the characters stayed in the legend. Legends and tales are by definition stories, which are repeated over and over again, and it is only natural that some of their characters were deemed unnecessary and disappeared, and some appeared to freshen up the tale.

The legend was passed orally in the beginning, and many things were therefore changed or omitted as the speaker chose to. Michael Austin Phillips has promptly described this phenomenon in his thesis A Trust Betrayed: The Role and Evolution of the Arthur – Mordred Relationship in Medieval Arthurian Texts:

In essence, medieval authors were tasked with shaping a narrative out of a loose

collection of ‘facts’ that were long faded from any living memory and largely

obscured by the nationalistic and fantastical elaborations of the oral tradition. To

consider what facets of the Arthur legend are now lost is an exercise in agony to

the Arthurian scholar, and one of ultimate futility. What is important to understand

is how legend was passed down orally for several hundred years before being

recorded in writing, and how medieval writers took the broadly placed ‘stepping-

stones’ of the Arthur legend and inserted their own interpretations between them

in order to form a number of complete, but competing, narratives. (Phillips 3-4)

Each of the authors who wrote about King Arthur and his knights chose some elements that were passed from the oral tradition and then inserted something they thought was exciting, fitted greatly in the story and completed their narrative.

When The History of the Kings of Britain and Le Morte Darthur are considered and directly compared, many differences can be found between the two texts, some small, some quite important. In this chapter, the thesis will focus on some story elements as well as on some characters that are important to the story. Many elements are similar to for example the conception of Arthur or Arthur’s war with Rome.

However, there are many instances where the book differs.

Geoffrey of Monmouth is, as has already been discussed, considered the first ever author who gave a complete account of the story of King Arthur and his knights.

Danielle Heaney in her work The Development of Arthurian Legends writes:

In Geoffrey’s story of Arthur, Arthur is first identified as the son of the British

king Uther Pendragon, and his counselor Merlin is introduced. The Historia also

mentions the isle of Avalon, where Arthur went to recover from wounds after his

last battle. It also begins the legend of Guinevere's infidelity and the rebellion

instigated by Arthur's nephew, Mordred, after he took her to bed. None of these

facets have anything to do with Arthur mentioned before Geoffrey of Monmouth’s

work. All the story lines were crafted by Geoffrey for a purpose. (Heaney 14 -

15).

He introduced King Arthur and his father, Uther. He wrote as the first about the conception of the famous King and also about his death. And even though Lancelot does not appear in his version of the legend, there are several indications that Guinevere is unfaithful to Arthur. Monmouth also writes about Mordred and his betrayal. All these elements of the story that have been mentioned had not appeared before as a part of the

Arthurian legend. They were created by Geoffrey of Monmouth and used as an essential story moment.

Sir Thomas Malory obviously followed up with his story of King Arthur on the story Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote as many elements that appeared in the previous book also appear in his text Le Morte Darthur. However, Malory did not shy away from inventing his own elements of the story and also rewrote several old stories on his own.

He is the first author to write the legend as a whole with all the fundamentals that are nowadays vital parts of the legend. He keeps the story of the conception of Arthur and his birth, marriage with Guinevere and the final battle with the Mordred. However,

Malory added the Round Table (which is now the stable of Arthurian legends), the love triangle between Arthur, Guinevere and Lancelot and the quest for Holy Grail.

Merlin

One of the first among many differences between the texts is the introduction of wizardry character Merlin. He is an essential part of any Arthurian story; therefore it is

18 not surprising that he is to be found even in these texts. However, his introduction to the readers and how he enters the story is different for each book.

In the book The History of the Kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth, he is introduced due to the king Vortigern. That is when “Vortigern, after consultation with magicians, orders a youth to be brought that never had a father.” (Monmouth 68). After the Saxons rise against him, Vortigern fears for his safety and so he searches for help.

The magicians whom he consults with his safety advise him to build a tower. He decides to heed their advice, assembles the builders and commences building the tower.

However, the building process does not progress as smoothly as it could have. As it is stated in the story: “The builders, therefore, began to lay the foundation: but whatever they did one day the earth swallowed up the next, so as to leave no appearance of their work.” (Monmouth 68).

Vortigern then once again consult magicians and ask for advice. They tell him to

“find a youth that never had a father, and kill him, and then sprinkle the stones and cement with his blood” (Monmouth 68), and then he should have “a firm foundation.”

(Monmouth 68).

However, here in this story it is Merlin who is brought before the king as no one knows who his father is. He tells the king: “I entreat your majesty would command your workmen to dig into the ground, and you will find a pond which causes the foundation to sink.” (Monmouth 69). The king is intrigued, commands his men to do what Merlin says and shortly after they do indeed find a pond under the very foundations of the tower. Vortigern orders to have the pond drained and on its bottom two dragons in the stone are found. With the help of those two dragons Merlin then tells prophecies about the future of Britain. Merlin helps Vortigern with his problem, and after Vortigern is

19 defeated, Merlin aids Aurelius and Uther Pendragon, Arthur’s father, when they ascend the throne.

However, that moment does not appear in Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte

Darthur. In his book, Vortigern is nowhere to be found, and the story starts the moment

King Uther is already the king. In the story, Merlin is introduced to the readers when

King Uther is trying to seduce lady Igraine. Sir Ulfius decides to seek Merlin out when he learns that King Uther is longing after Igraine. Malory writes:

So Ulfius departed, and by the adventure he met Merlin in a beggar’s array, and

there Merlin asked Ulfius whom he sought. And he said he had little ado to tell

him. Well, said Merlin, I know whom thou seekest, for thou seekest Merlin,

therefore seek no farther, for I am he; and if King Uther will well reward me,

and be sworn unto me to fulfil my desire, that shall be his honour and profit

more than mine; for I shall cause him to have all his desire. (Malory 2)

Merlin is found by one of King Uther’s knights and Merlin agrees to help, however, it would not be without a reward for the wizard. Merlin then helps Uther to conceive the legendary king and then acts as a consul to the young king.

Even the way of how Merlin disappears from the story is different. Merlin disappears from Geoffrey of Monmouth’s story after he helps Uther to conceive Arthur which is done the same way as Malory’s Le Morte Darthur. Merlin transforms Uther into the likeness of Duke of Cornwall, and then Uther tricks Igraine to lay with him.

However, Monmouth does not continue to have Merlin around. Merlin does not tutor or advice Arthur as he does for example in Malory’s version. Monmouth returns to the character of Merlin in the text The Vita Merlini, however, in The History of the Kings of

Britain he disappears before Arthur is crowned king and does not appear again.

In Malory’s version, Merlin is present in the story way longer, he disappears at the beginning of the Book Four. Malory writes: “Merlin fell in a dotage on the damosel that King Pellinore brought to court, and she was one of the damosels of the lake, that hight Nimue.” (Malory 88). Merlin falls in love with one of the ladies of the lake, whose name is Nimue. However, the Lady of the Lake soon departs, and “Merlin went with her evermore wheresomever she went.” (Malory 88) and Merlin, being in love with her, leaves with Nimue. Merlin teaches her the secrets of magic; however, she grows bored of him and also wary of him. Malory then writes:

And so on a time it happened that Merlin showed to her in a rock whereas was a

great winder, and wrought by enchantment, that went under a great stone. So by

her subtle working she made Merlin to go under that stone to let her wit of the

marvels there; but she wrought so there for him that he came never out for all the

craft he could do. And so she departed and left Merlin. (Malory 89)

Nimue is slowly getting bored with him as she does not share his feeling. As Donald

Hoffman nicely writes in his work Malory’s Tragic Merlin:

His demonic parentage is the reason [Nimue] gives for rejecting him, but is also

clear that the woman simply doesn’t like him, although she both fears him and

desires to acquire his secret knowledge. […] The poignant tragedy of Malory’s

Merlin in that he is willing to dare, to risk love knowing full well that the

consequence is to be trapped in his tomb by the woman he loves and whom he has

given all he owns and all he is. (Hoffman 28)

She fears him as it is insinuated that his father was a succubus or some other demon, which stated as the reason why she rejects him. However, it is also clear that she does not feels the same about Merlin as he does. She wants to learn magic from him, and so he teaches her, however, she does not want to become his wife. Therefore, she traps him

21 in a stone, leaving him to die a horrible death. It could be argued that Merlin is well aware of her intentions, but still he prevails and risks it all because of love.

Arthur

Arthur is the main character of the whole legend and therefore, he is the most important character because without him there would have not been any legend. It is not surprising that he is not missing from any version of the legend, especially from neither of the two texts this thesis is focusing on. However, he is not the same character in both texts. There are differences in his story and also in his characterisation. As it is always, the character undergoes many changes, and each author gives his own spin on the character. Mark Allen writes in his article The Image of Arthur and the Idea of King:

The literary King Arthur is not essentially a figure of strength, of guile, nor of

love. He is also not a religious hero for the most part. Arthur’s knights are more

knightly than he, his courtiers more courteous, and his cross-bearers more

Christian. Gawain is stronger; Merlin is wiser; Galahad, holier; and if Guinevere

is any judge, Lancelot is lovelier. Yet what Arthur is that they are not, is king.

(Allen 1)

Arthur is introduced as the king, that is what he is, as well as an essential part of the story. However, he is not a perfect character. He is not the strongest, Gawain is way stronger than him. Nor he is the wisest, that would be Merlin who often guides Arthur at the beginning of the book. However, it is Arthur who is the king. In Monmouth’s narrative, he is a strong and central character who is essential to the whole story. He is the one who travels in searches of quests and battles.

However, in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur he is not the central character any more. He is there, no doubt of that, however, he is not the vital part of the story. He is

22 no longer one who goes on every quest. Nor he is the one who is welcomed with all the fame and glory. His knights are the one who leave for quests and battles most of the time, especially Sir Lancelot who appears in the book a lot and has entire chapters of the text written about his adventures.

Merlin is also an important guide in Arthur’s life. He is there at every step

Arthur takes, and Arthur seems lost without his guidance. Moreover, the moment Arthur decides to go against Merlin wishes, things do not always end up well. It could also be argued that this Arthur is responsible for his downfall as he is the father of Mordred, who is his undoing, however, more on that later.

The conception of Arthur and his birth is the same in both texts. In both of them,

Uther seeks Merlin’s help to help him seduce beautiful Igraine. Merlin helps him by enchanting Uther and therefore he looks like the Duke of Cornwall, Igraine’s husband.

Uther then in the form of Duke of Cornwall tricks Igraine into laying with him and

Arthur is conceived that night. However, the event that takes place after that is different in each version.

In Geoffrey of Monmouth’s The History of the Kings of Britain Arthur is raised in the court alongside his sister Anne. In Malory’s Le Morte Darthur, however, things differ. After Merlin helps Uther with seducing Igraine, he asks that the child would be given to him. “So the child was delivered unto Merlin, and so he bare it forth unto Sir

Ector, and made a holy man to christen him, and named him Arthur; and so Sir Ector’s wife nourished him with her own pap.” (Malory 5). Merlin gives the child to Sir Ector to be raised alongside his own son Kay. However, that is not the only difference after the birth of Arthur. Even the way how King Arthur ascends to the throne. Monmouth writes: “Uther Pendragon being dead, the nobility from several provinces assembled together at Silchester, and proposed to Dubricius, archbishop of Legions, that he should

23 consecrate Arthur, Uther’s son, to be their king.” (Monmouth 91). Because Arthur has not been given to someone else to be raised, the people know about him. The nobles propose him as a new ruler. Moreover, it does take long before “Dubricius, therefore grieving for the calamities of his country, in conjunction with the other bishops, set the crown upon Arthur’s head.” (Monmouth 91). Arthur is therefore crowned a new king of

Britain.

On the other hand, Malory takes on a different approach. Arthur is raised by Sir

Ector alongside his son Kay. After King Uther dies, Merlin places sword in the stone and a person who manages to pull out the sword will become the new king. Malory then writes:

So upon New Year’s Day, when the service was done, the barons rode upon the

field, some to joust and some to tourney, and so it happened that Sir Ector, that

had great livelihood about London, rode unto the joust, and with him rode Sir

Kay his son, and young Arthur that was his nourished brother; and Sir Kay was

made knight at All Hallowmass.” (Malory 7)

Sir Ector takes both Kay, who had been made knight not long before, and Arthur to

London. However, soon enough they find out that Kay forgot his sword. Malory then continues:

[…] and so [Kay] prayed young Arthur for to ride for his sword. I will well, said

Arthur, and rode fast after the sword, and when he came home, the lady and all

were out to see the jousting. Then was Arthur wroth, and said to himself, I will

ride to the churchyard, and take the sword with me that sticketh in the stone, for

my brother Sir Kay shall not be without a sword this day. So when he came to

the churchyard, Sir Arthur alighted and tied his horse to the stile, and so he went

to the tent, and found no knights there, for they were at the jousting. And so he

handled the sword by the handles, and lightly and fiercely pulled it out of the

stone, and took his horse an rode his way until he came to his brother Sir Kay,

and delivered him the sword. (Malory 7)

Arthur does not want to leave his brother without a sword, and that is why he arrives in front of the church and tries to pull out the sword. He manages to do so and then brings the sword over to his brother. Everyone is shocked that he managed to do it. Arthur then must prove that he is able to pull out the sword multiple times. When he does, he is crowned the king of Britain. There are a couple of instances where the character of

Arthur and his storyline differs, however, that will be discussed later.

The Round Table

The Round Table is one of the most important and more so famous elements that everyone knows. As it is considered one of the essentials parts of the story, it is hard to imagine the legend without it. However, it was not always the part of the story.

Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book The History of the Kings of Britain does not write about the Round Table at all. Arthur therefore does not have his knights of the

Round Table. However, that does not matter that much as the book goes on without that element and Arthur still has brave knights who fight with and for him.

The Round Table is introduced much later after Monmouth. However, it is not omitted from the Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte Darthur. Malory introduces the Round

Table at the beginning of the Book Three. He writes:

Then Merlin desired of the king for to have men with him that should enquire of

Guenever, and so the king granted him, and Merlin went forth unto King

Leodegrance of Cameliard, and told him of the desire of the king that he would

have unto his wife Guenever his daughter. That is to me, said King

Leodegrance, the best tidings that ever I heard, that so worthy a king of prowess

and noblesse will wed my daughter. And as for my land, I will give him, wist I it

might please him, but he hath lands enow, him needeth none; but I shall send

him a gift shall please him much more, for I shall give him Table Round, the

which Uther Pendragon gave me, and when it is full complete, there is an

hundred knights and fifty. (Malory 68 – 69)

When Arthur decides to marry Quinevere (here referred to as Guenever), he sends

Merlin to tell the King Leodegrance of his desire. The king grants Arthur’s request and also gives him the Round Table which was given to him by Arthur’s father, Uther

Pendragon.

The Round Table is connected to the notion of chivalry that was common by the time Malory wrote his book. However, as Robert L. Kelly writes in his article Royal

Policy and Malory’s Round Table:

Malory replaces the rich affective relationship between Arthur and the

companions of the Round Table which exists in the source with a political bond.

The nature of this bond begins to emerge from the oath of homage which the

knights take after their induction into the Round Table. (Kelly 50)

There is no affectionate relationship between the knights and the king. The knights swear an oath that they will abide by the chivalry and honour.

Halfway through the book, the readers learn that the Round Table is a Merlin’s creation. Malory writes:

Also Merlin made the Round Table in tokening of roundness of the world, for by

the Round Table is the world signified by right, for all the world, Christian and

heathen, repair unto the Round Table; and when they are chosen to be of the

fellowship of the Round Table they think them more blessed and more in

worship than if they had gotten half the world; and yet have seen that they have

lost their fathers and their mothers, and all their kin, and their wives and their

children, for to be of your fellowship. (Malory 594)

He made the table shaped like the world as it reflects and symbolizes it. Only the worthiest of knights in land are allowed to be seated at the Round Table. If the Round

Table should have been analysed in the literal terms, it stands for the fellowship and the kingdom of King Arthur which was at the time one of the greatest in the world. The circular structure of the Round Table could also suggest more or less a lack of hierarchy and an emphasis on camaraderie rather than competition.

Mordred

Mordred is an important character in the legend of King Arthur, almost as important as the King Arthur himself. He is the main antagonist, the villain, the

“baddie”. He is the one who is prophesied to kill the legendary King Arthur. As Michael

Austin Phillips notes in his work A Trust Betrayed: The Role and Evolution of the

Arthur – Mordred Relationship in Medieval Arthurian Texts:

He is a dynamic and fascinating character – a literary figure that continually

confounds and amazes. […] The Arthurian story, though purportedly based in

history, is ultimately a work of fiction, and while history reveals few true

villains, literature by its very nature requires them. Mordred is a bad man.

However, he is a good villain and fills an important role in the narrative.

(Phillips 2)

Mordred is an appealing character, he is not a good man, nor is a hero. On the contrary he is a great villain who fills an important role in the narrative. It is also important to not

27 forget that Mordred is part of the literature as early as is king Arthur. Therefore, it is not surprising that Mordred appears in both version of the story that this thesis focuses on.

The circumstances of Mordred’s birth are different in each book. In Geoffrey of

Monmouth’s The History of the Kings of Britain Mordred is first introduces in Book

Nine and he is Arthur’s nephew. There is no indication that he is born evil. It is assumed that he, as well as all humans, is born innocent, and it is with time that he becomes corrupted, or in other words – anyone can become a villain. That it is not something that is destined or given at birth.

However, in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur Mordred has a bit different origin. The readers learn about Mordred origins when Arthur is speaking with Merlin:

But ye have done a thing late that God is displeased with you, for ye have lain

by your sister, and on her ye have gotten a child that shall destroy you and all

the knights of your realm. What are ye, said Arthur, that tell me these tidings? I

am Merlin, and I was he in the child's likeness. Ah, said King Arthur, ye are a

marvellous man, but I marvel much of thy words that I must die in battle.

Marvel not, said Merlin, for it is God's will your body to be punished for your

foul deeds; but I may well be sorry, said Merlin, for I shall die a shameful death,

to be put in the earth quick, and ye shall die a worshipful death. (Malory 32)

The readers learn that Mordred is child of incest because Arthur lain with his half-sister

Margawse. As Phillips writes: “He is destined to destroy Arthur as the bastard child of incest, both the embodiment of Arthur’s sin and the one sent to punish that sin. […] a son created in sin is sent to punish the father, yet in doing so he commits a grave sin himself.” (Phillips 6 – 7). Mordred is destined to kill Arthur as he is born out of sin. He is there to punish Arthur of his sins. Merlin then advices Arthur to send all the May-Day children away. Malory writes: “Then King Arthur let send for all the children born on

May-Day, begotten of lords and born of ladies; for Merlin told King Arthur that he that should destroy him should be born on May-Day, wherefore he sent for them all, upon pain of death.” (Malory 41). Arthur sent the children away on the boat, however unfortunately for Arthur, Mordred survived the wreckage and “a good man found him, and nourished him till he was fourteen year old, and then he brought him to the court, as it rehearseth afterward, toward the end of the Death of Arthur.” (Malory 41). Mordred is brought up a man who found him at the wreckage. He later brings him to King Arthur’s court and therefore, the prophecy of Arthur’s death which is caused by Mordred is back in motion.

In The History of the Kings of Britain Mordred then appears the moment when

Arthur is leaving to fight in the war with Rome:

After the necessary dispositions were made, upon the kalends of August, they

began their march towards Britain, which when Arthur had intelligence of, he

committed the government of the kingdom to his nephew Modred, and queen

Guanhumara, and marched with his army to Hamo’s Port, where the wind stood

fair for him. (Monmouth 104)

Arthur leaves his kingdom in the hands of Mordred (here referred as Modred) and

Guinevere (here referred as Guanhumara). Geoffrey of Monmouth does not really explain Arthur’s logic in this very moment. However, kinship could have been a factor.

It appears that Mordred and Guinevere are acting as a co-rulers. As Phillips writes:

This is a wise choice: should one’s loyalty suffer, the other will keep or her in

check. However, Arthur does not count on them forming a treacherous and

romantic relationship together. Geoffrey’s Arthur is one who is deceived, not by

willful ignorance, but instead victimized by his own ideals: trust in the bonds of

kinship and marriage, certainty in his right to rule and his vassals’ recognition of,

and loyalty to, this fact. (Phillips 19 – 20)

Even though it is a sensible choice, it does not end well for Arthur. He is betrayed as the two of them form a relationship. Arthur is therefore deceived; however, it is not because he is ignorant, but because of his own ideals – he trusts in friendship and marriage and his certainty that he is the one to rule. Due to that Mordred is able to take control of

Arthur’s kingdom.

In Malory’s text Mordred becomes the king when Arthur is presumed dead.

Malory writes: “As Sir Mordred was ruler of all England, he did do make letters as though that they came from beyond the sea, and the letters specified that King Arthur was slain in battle with Sir Launcelot.” (Malory 782). Mordred forges the letters that says that Arthur died in a battle with Sir Lancelot (here referred as Launcelot). He then crowns himself as the new king of the land. In both books, Arthur returns angry and ready to deal with Mordred and his betrayal. What follow is the famous Battle of

Camlann. King Arthur is mortally wounded on the battlefield by Mordred and Mordred is killed by Arthur, therefore fulfilling the prophecy.

Morgan le Fay

Morgan Le Fay is another important character in the Arthurian lore. She is one of the characters that changed the most. As Maureen Fries notes in her work From Lady to The Tramp: The Decline of Morgan le Fay in Medieval Romance:

This initial portrait of Morgan and her realm is a positive and even an androgynous

one, combining quintessentially feminine values […] with surprisingly male-

linked ones. Morgan is a teacher […] and she rules by herself, with no sign of

even a male consort, over her kingdom. […] Her gradual change (one can hardly

call it growth) from a connector of life with healing, as mistress of Avalon, into a

connector of death with illicit sex and wrongful imprisonment as she appears in

most subsequent romance, indicates the increasing inability of male Arthurian

authors to cope with the image of a woman of power in positive terms. (Fries 2)

Morgan was at first portrayed in a positive light. She was a healer and a teacher. She has feminine value as well as the ones that are generally linked to men. However, soon enough there came a change and her character was slowly being portrayed as more and more evil.

Morgan is not mentioned in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s The History of the Kings of Britain. However, he writes about her in his other work The Vita Merlini. He is the first one to introduce Morgan le Fay into the Arthurian mythology. She is introduced when Monmouth talks about the nine sisters who rule “The Fortunate Isle”:

She who is first of them is more skilled in the healing art, and excels her sisters

in the beauty of her person. Morgen is her name, and she has learned what useful

properties all the herbs contain, so that she can cure sick bodies. She also knows

an art by which to change her shape, and to cleave the air on new wings like

Daedalus; when she wishes she is at Brest, Chartres, or Pavia, and when she will

she slips down from the air onto your shores. (Monmouth 26)

Morgan le Fay (here referred as Morgen) is described as the most beautiful of the nine sisters. She is a skilful healer and is able to cure sick bodies. She can also shapeshift and turn into air. The description given here is positive, she is connected to the nature. She is also there to help when King Arthur is taken to the isle which is also called Avalon to be healed. She “placed the king on a golden bed and with er own hand she uncovered his honourable wound and gazed at it for a long time. At length she said that health could be restored to him if he stayed with her for a long time and made use of her

31 healing art.” (Monmouth 27). When King Arthur arrives at the isle, Morgan le Fay offers that she is able to heal him if he stayed long enough. They are no indication of any relation between the two. As Dax Donald Carver writes in his work Goddess

Dethroned: The Evolution of Morgan le Fay:

In fact, the Vita Merlini makes no mention of any type of familial relationship

between Arthur and Morgan. Instead, she is presented as a benevolent healer and

the ruler of a magical island to which Arthur is taken after his final battle. (Carver

26)

In The Vita Merlini there is not any indication of any relation between the two characters yet.

However, in Malory’s Le Morte Darthur Morgan le Fay is not portrayed as a good character anymore. She is no longer a healer and is no longer there to help to save

King Arthur after the final battle. In Malory’s version Morgan le Fay is Arthur’s sister.

She also tries on numerous occasions to kill King Arthur. In one instance she gives to one of her lovers “Arthur’s sword and its even more powerful sheath (it prevents its wielder’s bleeding to death) after having promised her brother to keep it safe. Arthur’s regaining of the sword and slaying of Accolon motivate Morgan to even further dirty work against the Round Table.” (Fries 7). Arthur survives the horrible attempt of assassination, but that is not the only time Morgan tries to murder him. Morgan directly or indirectly threatens Arthur and his kingdom throughout the whole book up until the war between Sir Lancelot and Arthur and later the rebellion of Mordred who then becomes the main antagonist.

4 CONCLUSION

The story of King Arthur and his knights has been around for many centuries.

And even nowadays, it is still very popular and holds up very good. However, it is definitely not the original version of the legend. As was shown in the thesis, the legend went under many changes even in the Medieval times.

Even though both books cover the topic of the Arthurian legend, they vary significantly. The main difference between The History of the Kings of Britain and Le

Morte Darthur is in the amount of characters and the approach to the story. Geoffrey of

Monmouth wrote his book more as a record of history, focusing evenly on every king, who managed to ascend to the Britain’ throne, while Sir Thomas Malory wrote his work more as a Medieval romance, directing the attention of the reader on the characters and their adventures. Both of the books share certain similar characteristics and story elements, they differ in many instances that are significant to the main storyline, however, the most of the core elements of the legend that appear in the both books remain the same.

One of many instances where the story differs is in the introduced of the character Merlin, who in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work is brought to the court by the

King Vortigern, who had done so because of the advice of his magicians as the King wants to build a unbreachable tower to protect him from his cunning enemies. While in the work of Sir Thomas Malory, Merlin is sought out by King Uther himself in order to be of assistance with his plan of seducing the lovely lady Igraine. Arthur’s ascension to the throne is differently put in both of the aforementioned works. In The History of the

Kings of Britain, Arthur is simply chosen to rule by the nobility class, while Le Morte

Darthur he is chosen to become the new of Britain by pulling out a sword from a stone.

This thesis was an admirable challenge, as it has proven to be a rather complex topic to tackle. There were many sources that looked as a valuable source of information for the thesis, however, they could not have been used because of their historical inaccuracy and because the researchers have already proven them to be false.

What was left was a bulk of texts, which reading alone took several days and the analysis of the usable information took longer still.

Although I have put a severe amount of work into putting this thesis together, there are still many research angles from which the Arthurian legend could possibly be researched from. From analysing more primary sources of the Arthurian legends to an analysis of the takes from different languages, the possibilities are endless and for the interested offer almost unlimited source of research questions.

WORKS CITED

Allen, Mark. “THE IMAGE OF ARTHUR AND THE IDEA OF KING.” Arthurian

Interpretations, vol. 2, no. 2, 1988, pp. 1–16. JSTOR, JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/27868636.

Carver, Dax Donald. “Goddess Dethroned: The Evolution of Morgan le Fay.” Georgia

State University, 2006,

scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=rs_theses.

Echard, Siân. The Arthur of Medieval Latin Literature : The Development and

Dissemination of the Arthurian Legend in Medieval Latin. University of Wales

Press, 2011. EBSCOhost,

ezproxy.muni.cz/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true

&AuthType=ip,cookie,uid&db=nlebk&AN=408773&lang=cs&site=eds-

live&scope=site.

Fries, Maureen. “From the Lady to the Tramp: The Decline of Morgan le Fay in

Medieval Romance.” Arthuriana 4.1 (Spring 1994): 1-18.

Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain. Digireads.com, 2011.

Geoffrey of Monmouth. The Vita Merlini. Global Grey, 2018.

Heaney, Danielle. “The Development of Arthurian Legends.” Lycoming College, 2010,

www.lycoming.edu/schemata/documents/heaney_hist449_final.pdf.

Hoffman, Donald L. “MALORY'S TRAGIC MERLIN.” Quondam Et Futurus, vol. 1,

no. 2, 1991, pp. 15–31. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27870118.

Kelly, Robert L. “Royal Policy and Malory's Round Table.” Arthuriana, vol. 14, no. 1,

2004, pp. 43–71. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27870574.

Malory, Sir Thomas. Le Morte Darthur. Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1996.

Parby, John J., and Robert A. Caldwell. “8. Geoffrey of Monmouth.” Arthurian

Literature in the Middle Ages: a Collaborative History, edited by Roger

Sherman Loomis, Clarendon Press, 1959, pp. 72–93.

Phillips, Michael Austin. “A Trust Betrayed: The Role and Evolution of the Arthur-

Mordred Relationship in Medieval Arthurian Texts.” The Ohio State University,

2012, kb.osu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/1811/51997/1/A_Trust_Betrayed.pdf.

Staropoli, Krista Dayle. “The Evolution of The Legend of King Arthur .” Renée Crown

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surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1747&context=honors_capstone.

SUMMARY

This thesis is an analysis of the two sources of the Arthurian legend, The History of the Kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth and Le Morte Darthur by Sir Thomas

Malory. It focuses on the differences that occur in these texts, specifically on characters of Merlin, King Arthur, Morgan le Fay and Mordred as well as on the changes in storyline. The work is also concerned with the backgrounds of the authors as well as with the books themselves. It provides a thorough summary of the topic while simultaneously discuss the differences in the texts and put them in the context with each other.

RESUMÉ

Tato práce je analýzou dvou zdrojů Artušovské legendy, a to konkrétně The

History of the Kings of Britain, kterou napsal Geoffrey z Monmouthu, a Le Morte

Darthur, napsáno Sirem Thomasem Malorym. Zaměřuje se na rozdíly mezi oběma díly, konkrétně na jejich postavy Merlina, krále Artuše, Morgany le Fay a Mordreda, a stejně tak na rozdíly v příběhu samotném. Práce se také zabývá životy autorů a samotnými knihami. Poskytuje podrobný popis daného tématu a zároveň nabízí kontext mezi oběma díly.