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Home , Anne Berthelot, Arthuriana, Bedivere, Bladud, Cador, Caradoc of Llancarfan

NOTES

Introduction 1 . Siân Echard, Arthurian Narrative in the Latin Tradition , Cambridge Studies in 36 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 14; Helen Cooper, The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from to the Death of Shakespeare (: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 26–27; Anne F. Sutton and Livia Visser-Fuchs, “The Dark of the Normans: A Creation of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Stephen of Rouen, and Silvester,” Quondam et Futurus: A Journal of Arthurian Interpretations 2.2 ( 1992): 2 [1–19]. 2 . Julia Briggs discusses the Vortiger and plays per- formed by Philip Henslowe’s company as well as William Rowley’s and Thomas Middleton’s Hengist, “New Times and Old Stories: Middleton’s Hengist ,” Literary Appropriations of the Anglo- from the Thirteenth to the Twentieth Century , ed. Donald Scragg and Carole Weinberg, Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon 29 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000 ), pp. 108–9 [107–21]. 3 . For evidence supporting a late 1138 date for Geoffrey’s HRB , see Wright, introduction to HRB Bern , p. xvi [ix-lix] and John Gillingham, “The Context and Purposes of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain ,” Anglo-Norman Studies 13 (1991 ): 100 n5 [99–118]. 4 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. vii [vii-50]; Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 218. 5 . Lee Patterson, Negotiating the Past: The Historical Understanding of Medieval Literature (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1987 ), pp. 160, 201, 170, and 187; , Aeneid in Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid I-VI , trans. H. Rushton Fairclough (: William Heinemann; New : G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1926 ) and Aeneid VII-XII and the Minor Poems , trans. H. Rushton Fairclough (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd., 1950). 6 . Eneas: roman de XIIe siècle ( Le roman d’Eneas ), ed. J.-J. Salverda de Grave, Les classiques français du moyen âge 44 and 62, 2 vols. (Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1925–29); Chrétien de Troyes, et , ed. Mario Roques, Les classiques français du moyen âge 80 142 NOTES

(Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1955); Alliterative Morte Arthure: A Critical Edition , ed. Mary Hamel (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1984 ). 7 . Maureen Fries, “Boethian Themes and Tragic Structure in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae ,” in The Arthurian Tradition: Essays in Convergence , ed. Mary Flowers Braswell and John Bugge (Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1988), pp. 29–30 and 37 [29–42]. 8 . Susan M. Shwartz, “The Founding and Self-Betrayal of Britain: An Augustinian Approach to Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae ,” Medievalia et Humanistica n.s. 10 ( 1981): 34 and 48 [33–53]. 9 . Laura D. Barefield, “Gender and the Creation of Lineage in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae ,” Publications of the Medieval Association of the Midwest 9 (2002 ): 1–3 [1–14]. 10 . Stephen Knight, Arthurian Literature and Society (London: Macmillan, 1983), p. 58. 11 . Knight, Arthurian Literature , pp. 60–63. 12 . Knight, Arthurian Literature , p. 59. 13 . Michelle R. Warren, History on the Edge: and the Borders of Britain, 1100–1300 (Minneapolis, MN and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2000 ), p. 46. 14 . Warren, History on the Edge , pp. 35, 37–38, 45–47, and 49. 15 . Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, Of : Sex, Monsters, and the , Medieval Cultures 17 (Minneapolis, MN and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), pp. 46–47. 16 . Cohen, Of Giants , p. 46. 17 . Cooper acknowledges the HRB ’s importance, The English Romance in Time , pp. 26–27. 18 . Cooper, The English Romance in Time , pp. 23, 191, 24, 74, 129, 184, and 405. 19 . In Cooper’s The English Romance in Time , there are three mentions of Geoffrey as an author (pp. 27, 412, and 414) along with one reference to The Prophecies of Merlin (p. 191), three pages on which The History of the Kings of Britain is discussed (pp. 23–24 and 405), and three on which The Life of Merlin is discussed (pp. 74, 129, and 184). 20 . Cooper notes Geoffrey’s “endlessly inventive spawning of legends” that enabled many romancers to add their own “quasi-historical mate- rial,” his use of the legend that later enabled the Elizabethans to advance “nationalist agendas,” and his inclusion of both Leir and Arthur that led to both Sir ’s Le Morte Darthur and Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene , The English Romance in Time , p. 24. See Sir Thomas Malory, The Works of Sir Thomas Malory , ed. Eugène Vinaver, rev. P. J. C. Field, 3rd edn., 3 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990) and Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene , ed. A. C. Hamilton, Hiroshi Yamashita, Toshiyuki Suzuki, and Shohachi Fukuda, 2nd edn. (New York: Longman, 2006). NOTES 143

21 . Lori J. Walters, introduction to and : A Casebook , ed. Lori J. Walters, Arthurian Characters and Themes 4 (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1996; repr. New York: Routledge, 2002), p. xv [xiii-lxxx]. 22 . Susann Samples, “Guinevere: A Re-appraisal,” in : A Casebook , ed. Lori J. Walters, Arthurian Characters and Themes 4 (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1996 ; repr. New York: Routledge, 2002 ), pp. 219–20 [219–28]. 23 . Samples, “Guinevere,” in Lancelot and Guinevere , ed. Walters, p. 220. 24 . Samples concludes, “Thus, in History Geoffrey devotes little attention to the courtship, and the marriage of Guinevere and Arthur is never developed. This lack of interaction between Guinevere and Arthur is also mirrored in Geoffrey’s description of knights and ladies at Arthur’s court, where the entourages are segregated: Arthur has a following of brave and noble warrior-knights, and Guinevere, of fair and lovely ladies. During a banquet, the knights eat in one hall, the ladies in another; and later, two separate masses are sung to accommodate the knights and ladies,” “Guinevere,” in Lancelot and Guinevere , ed. Walters, pp. 219–20. 25 . Peter Korrel, An Arthurian Triangle: A Study of the Origin, Development and Characterization of Arthur, Guinevere and Modred (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1984 ); Charlotte A. T. Wulf, “A Comparative Study of ’s Guenevere in the Twelfth Century,” in Arthurian Romance and Gender , ed. Friedrich Wolfzettel (Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA: Rodopi, 1995 ), pp. 66–78; Fiona Tolhurst, “The Britons as Hebrews, Romans, and Normans: Geoffrey of Monmouth’s British Epic and Reflections of Empress Matilda,” 8.4 ( 1998): 69–87 and “The Once and Future Queen: The Development of Guenevere from Geoffrey of Monmouth to Malory,” Bibliographical Bulletin of the International Arthurian Society 50 ( 1998): 272–308; and Fiona Tolhurst Neuendorf, “Negotiating Feminist and Historicist Concerns: Guenevere in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae ,” Quondam et Futurus: A Journal of Arthurian Interpretations 3.2 (1993 ): 26–44. 26 . J. S. P. Tatlock, “Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Motives for Writing His Historia ,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 79.4 (1938 ): 695 and 701 [695–703]. 27 . J. S. P. Tatlock, The Legendary History of Britain: Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae and Its Early Vernacular Versions (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1950), pp. 286–88. 28 . Antonia Gransden, Historical Writing in England c. 550 to c. 1307 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974), pp. 202–4. 29 . Gransden, Historical Writing , pp. 206 and 208. 30 . Gransden, Historical Writing , p. 208. 31 . Martin B. Shichtman and Laurie A. Finke, “Profiting from the Past: History as Symbolic Capital in The Historia regum Britanniae ,” Arthurian Literature 12 ( 1993): 22 [1–35], republished as Chapter 2 of 144 NOTES

and the Myth of History (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004 ), pp. 35–70 citing Gransden, Historical Writing , pp. 207–8. 32 . Shichtman and Finke, “Profiting from the Past,” pp. 22–27. 33 . Patterson, Negotiating the Past , pp. 8–9 and 77. 34 . Maureen Fries, “Female Heroes, Heroines and Counter-Heroes: Images of Women in Arthurian Tradition,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Sally K. Slocum (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), pp. 5–17. 35 . Fries, “Female Heroes,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Slocum, p. 15. 36 . Donald L. Hoffman argues that Malory’s Guenevere appears to retain a bit of the magical power that might once have been hers as the Giant’s Daughter and eventually takes on mystical power as she leads Lancelot to salvation, while Malory’s Morgan turns out to be a potentially parodic goddess and finally a healer; this situation makes Guenevere a potential counter-heroine and Morgan an imperfect counter-hero, “Guenevere the Enchantress,” Arthuriana 9.2 (1999 ): 31, 33, and 34 [30–36]. 37 . Joan Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science, and Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 2. 38 . Judith M. Bennett, “Medievalism and Feminism,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 68 (1993 ): 322 [309–31]. 39 . Jean Blacker argues for her “belief in the referentiality of historical nar- rative” in the Middle Ages, The Faces of Time: Portrayal of the Past in and Latin Historical Narrative of the Anglo-Norman Regnum (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994), pp. xiii-xiv while Nancy F. Partner approaches historical narrative in a similar manner, Serious Entertainments: The Writing of History in Twelfth-Century England (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1977). 40 . Nancy F. Partner, “No Sex, No Gender,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 68 (1993 ): 443 and 423–33 [419–43]. 41 . Oxford English Dictionary Online , entry for ‘feminism, n.,’ accessed March 1, 2011 http://dictionary.oed.com/. 42 . Ruth Evans and Lesley Johnson, introduction to Feminist Readings in Middle : The Wife of Bath and All Her Sect , ed. Ruth Evans and Lesley Johnson (London and New York: Routledge, 1994 ), p. 1 [1–21]. 43 . Alcuin Blamires, The Case for Women in Medieval Culture (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997; repr. 2005), p. 1. 44 . HRB 25.52–26.68 (Guendoloena), 31.254–32.270 (Cordeilla), and 47.256–266 (Marcia). 45 . Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum , ed. J.-P. Migne, Patrologiæ Cursus Completus, Series Latina (Paris: J.-P. Migne, 1857 –66), vol. 23, columns 205–338. 46 . Woman Defamed and Woman Defended: An Anthology of Medieval Texts , ed. Alcuin Blamires with Karen Pratt and C. W. Marx (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992; repr. 2002). NOTES 145

47 . Joan Kelly, “Early Feminist Theory and the Querelle des femmes , 1400–1789,” Signs: Journal of Woman and Culture in Society 8.1 (1982 ): 4–28. 48 . Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, ed. Sylvana Tomaselli (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 ); Kelly, “Early Feminist Theory,” 7. 49 . Christine de Pizan, Le débat sur le roman de la rose , ed. Eric Hicks (Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1977); Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun, Le roman de la rose , ed. Félix Lecoy, 3 vols. (Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1965–70); Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun, The Romance of the Rose , trans. Frances Horgan, Oxford World’s Classics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 ); Maureen Cheney Curnow, “The ‘ Livre de la cité des dames ’ of Christine de Pisan: A Critical Edition,” 2 vols. (PhD dissertation, Vanderbilt University, 1975); and Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies , trans. and with introduction and notes by Rosalind Brown-Grant (London: Penguin Books, 1999). 50 . Sheila Delany, “‘Mothers to Think Back Through’: Who Are They? The Ambiguous Example of Christine de Pizan,” in Medieval Texts & Contemporary Readers , ed. Laurie A. Finke and Martin B. Shichtman (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 177–97. 51 . Beatrice Gottlieb, “The Problem of Feminism in the Fifteenth Century,” in Women of the Medieval World: Essays in Honor of John H. Mundy , ed. Julius Kirshner and Suzanne F. Wemple (Oxford and New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985), pp. 351, 354, and 345 [337–64]. 52 . Gottlieb, “The Problem of Feminism,” in Women of the Medieval World , ed. Kirshner and Wemple, pp. 340 and 362. 53 . Gottlieb, “The Problem of Feminism,” in Women of the Medieval World , ed. Kirshner and Wemple, p. 359. 54 . Renate Blumenfeld-Kosinski, “Jean le Fèvre’s Livre de leesce : Praise or Blame of Women?,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 69 (1994 ): 705 [705–25]. 55 . Maureen Fries, “Gender and the Grail,” Arthuriana 8.1 (1998 ): 68 [67–79]. 56 . R. Howard Bloch, Medieval Misogyny and the Invention of Western Romantic Love (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 178. 57 . Editor Michael D. Reeve and translator Neil Wright offer both a reli- able Vulgate text and a facing-page translation in HRB . Michael A. Faletra offers a translation in Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Editions, 2008 ), as does Lewis Thorpe in Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain , trans. Lewis Thorpe (London and New York: Penguin, 1966). 58 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 27. 59 . Historian Charles Beem has demonstrated that Empress Matilda pro- vides the first example of a woman possessing “kingly sovereignty in English history” because “from February until late summer 1141, contemporary sources considered Matilda the master of all England,” 146 NOTES

The Lioness Roared: The Problems of Female Rule in English History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 ), pp. 25 and 50. 60 . Reeve, introduction to HRB , pp. vii-viii [vii-lxxvi].

1 Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Arthurian Section as Feminist Legend 1 . Geoffrey Ashe argues for the origin of the legend of Arthur in “‘A Certain Very Ancient Book’: Traces of an Arthurian Source in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History ,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 56 (1981 ): 301–23; “The Origins of the Arthurian Legend,” Arthuriana 5.3 (1995 ): 1–24; and The Discovery of King Arthur (London: Guild Publishing, 1985 ), pp. 53–59 and 96–125. Jeremy duQuesnay Adams sees a possible early glimmer of the “moral qualities . . . of spirited warriors” such as Riothamus or Arthur in a letter written by , “Sidonius and Riothamus: A Glimpse of the Historical Arthur?” Arthurian Literature 12 ( 1993): 161 [157–64]. N. J. Higham, however, has argued that “the historicized Arthur of the central Middle Ages had his roots in a Roman Artorius who had been taken up and developed within British folk stories already widespread by the begin- ning of the ninth century,” King Arthur: Myth-Making and History (London and New York: Routledge, 2002), p. 97. At the other end of the critical spectrum is historian David N. Dumville who argues that “there is no historical evidence about Arthur” and therefore concludes, “we must reject him from our histories and, above all, from the titles of our books,” “Sub-: History and Legend,” History 62 (1977): 188 [173–92], repr. in Histories and Pseudo-Histories of the Insular Middle Ages (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1990), pp. 173–92. For further information on the debate regarding Arthur’s historicity, see Thomas Charles-Edwards, “The Arthur of History,” in The Arthur of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh Literature , ed. Rachel Bromwich, A. O. H. Jarman, and Brynley F. Roberts (Cardiff: University of Press, 1991), pp. 15–32 and the special issue of Arthuriana entitled The Historical Arthur , particularly two commentaries: R. W. Hanning, “ Inventio Arthuri : A Comment on the Essays of Geoffrey Ashe and D. R. Howlett,” Arthuriana 5.3 ( 1995): 96–100 and O. J. Padel, “Recent Work on the Origins of the Arthurian Legend: A Comment,” Arthuriana 5.3 ( 1995): 103–114. 2 . The best-known novel based upon Geoffrey of Monmouth’s history is Mary Stewart’s The Crystal Cave (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1970 ). Although few Arthurian films draw upon Geoffrey’s ver- sion of the Arthurian legend, Barbara D. Miller has argued that the comic yet magical Merlin of John Boorman’s Excalibur (Los Angeles, CA: Orion Pictures, 1981) has a point of origin in Geoffrey’s Life of Merlin , “‘Cinemagicians’: Movie of the 1980s and 1990s,” NOTES 147

in King Arthur on Film: New Essays on Arthurian Cinema , ed. Kevin J. Harty (Jefferson, NC and London: McFarland & Company, Inc., 1999 ), pp. 142–43 [141–66]. In addition, Michael N. Salda has noted the influ- ence of both Geoffrey’s History of the Kings of Britain and Life of Merlin on Dennis J. Woodyard and Hu Yihong’s limited animation Merlin and the (Lightyear Entertainment, 1990), “‘What’s Up, Duke?’ A Brief History of Arthurian Animation,” in King Arthur on Film, ed. Harty, p. 225 [203–32]. 3 . Reeve, introduction to HRB , pp. vii-viii and lix [vii-lxxvi]. 4 . Charles-Edwards, “The Arthur of History,” in The Arthur of the Welsh , ed. Bromwich, Jarman, and Roberts, p. 17. Charles-Edwards provides a useful discussion of the genres within the broad category of histo- ria [history] in the Middle Ages, one applicable to Geoffrey’s history, pp. 17–21. 5 . Bonnie Wheeler, “The Masculinity of King Arthur: From to the Nuclear Age,” Quondam et Futurus: A Journal of Arthurian Interpretations 2.4 ( 1992): 2–7 [1–26]. 6 . Wheeler, “The Masculinity of King Arthur,” 1–3 and 7. 7 . Wheeler, “The Masculinity of King Arthur,” 9. 8 . Robert Bartlett, England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075–1225 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000 ), p. 49 citing Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel (787–1001 A.D.) with Supplementary Extracts from the Others , ed. Charles Plummer, vol. 1 of 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1889), 1:233–34. 9 . Rosemary Morris, “Uther and Igerne: A Study in Uncourtly Love,” Arthurian Literature 4 ( 1985): 70–92. 10 . The principle that lands should be returned to their former owners was one that the 1153 Treaty of Winchester honored through its peace terms, W. L. Warren, Henry II (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press; London: Eyre Methuen, 1973; repr. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), p. 62. 11 . Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference , pp. 199 and 207. 12 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 54; Fries, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 39; Morris, “Uther and Igerne,” 73. 13 . Morris, “Uther and Igerne,” 71 and 74. 14 . Morris, “Uther and Igerne,” 71–72. 15 . Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner, Shaping Romance: Interpretation, Truth, and Closure in Twelfth-Century French Fictions (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993 ), pp. 213 and 8. 16 . At the beginning of Cligès , Chrétien de Troyes foregrounds the issue of translating the literary works of ancient Greece and into the vernacular, ed. Alexandre Micha, Les classiques français du moyen âge 84 (Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1957), lines 1–42. foregrounds translating Latin texts into French as well as 148 NOTES

translating Breton lais into French verse, Lais , ed. Alfred Ewert with introduction and bibliography by Glyn S. Burgess, French Texts Series (London: Bristol Classical Press, 1995 ; repr. 2001), Prologue, lines 1–56 and “Guigemar,” lines 19–26. For a modern English translation, see Marie de France, The Lais of Marie de France , trans. with an introduction by Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby (London and New York: Penguin Books, 1986 ; 2nd edn. 1999), Prologue, p. 41 and “Guigemar,” p. 43. 17 . Jaufré Rudel, “Belhs m’es l’estuis e l temps floritz,” in The Songs of Jaufré Rudel , ed. and trans. Rupert T. Pickens (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1978), pp. 144–47. All subsequent references will be to this edition and translation. 18 . Rudel, “Belhs m’es l’estuis,” lines 9, 15, 1–18, 24, and 32. 19 . Rudel, “Belhs m’es l’estuis,” lines 31 and 39–40. 20 . Rudel, “Belhs m’es l’estuis,” lines 22–23, 30, and 45–46. 21 . Rudel, “Belhs m’es l’estuis,” lines 27, 41–42, and 49. 22 . Rudel, “Belhs m’es l’estuis,” line 37. 23 . Bloch, Medieval Misogyny , p. 178. 24 . Although Judith Weiss notes that the dragon is “an originally Roman ensign” that has negative as well as positive associations, Geoffrey in no way associates Uther with tyranny or any other negative meaning here, “Arthur, Emperors, and Antichrists: The Formation of the Arthurian Biography,” in Writers of the Reign of Henry II: Twelve Essays , ed. Ruth Kennedy and Simon Meecham-Jones, The New Middle Ages (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006 ), p. 243 [239–48]. 25 . Valerie I. J. Flint notes that “in Geoffrey’s accounts of royal celebra- tions wives play an important part,” “The Historia regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth: Parody and Its Purpose. A Suggestion,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 54 (1979 ): 464 [447–68]. 26 . Geraldine Heng, “Cannibalism, the First Crusade, and the Genesis of Medieval Romance,” Difference s : A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies 10.1 (1998 ): 159 n54 [98–174]. 27 . Cadden explains that medical texts did not begin to focus on lovesick- ness until the turn of the thirteenth century, Meanings of Sex Difference , p. 139. Heng notes that “Uther suffers the ‘lover’s malady’” as well as participates in a love triangle like a romance hero, “Cannibalism,” 159 n54. 28 . Catherine Batt discusses the problem of consent present in Sir Thomas Malory’s account of Lancelot’s suffering rape by and yet father- ing , “Malory and Rape,” Arthuriana 7.3 ( 1997): 91–92 [78–99]. For a discussion of modern versus fourteenth-century rape law, see Christopher Cannon, “Chaucer and Rape: Uncertainty’s Certainties,” Studies in the Age of Chaucer 22 ( 2000 ): 67–92. 29 . John F. Benton, “Clio and Venus: An Historical View of Medieval Love,” in The Meaning of Courtly Love , ed. Francis X. Newman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1968), p. 32 [19–42]. NOTES 149

30 . Benton, “Clio and Venus,” in Courtly Love , ed. Newman, p. 32. 31 . Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference , p. 87 citing Hildegard of Bingen, Causae et curae , also known as Liber compositae medicinae , ed. Paul Kaiser, Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1903 ), book 1, p. 18 and book 2, pp. 68 and 71. 32 . Morris, “Uther and Igerne,” 70–71. 33 . Benton, “Clio and Venus,” in Courtly Love , ed. Newman, p. 20. 34 . Linda E. Mitchell, “Women and Medieval Canon Law,” in Women in Medieval Western European Culture , ed. Linda E. Mitchell (New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1999), p. 147 [143–53]. 35 . Weiss confirms that “ HRB chap. 138 talks of mutual love uniting Uther and Ygerne, but VV [the First Variant] and Wace omit this,” RB , p. 223 n1. Neil Wright’s translation of this passage is similar to mine, but it omits the idea of “pariter [as equals]”: “They remained together there- after, united by no little passion, and had a son and daughter. Their son was called Arthur, their daughter Anna,” HRB 138.535–36, p. 188. 36 . Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference , p. 80 quoting and summarizing Hildegard of Bingen, Causae et curae , pp. 70–76 and 87–89. 37 . Patterson, Negotiating the Past , p. 177. 38 . Bruckner, Shaping Romance , p. 224. 39 . HRB Bern 138.23–25, my emphasis. 40 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 55. 41 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 55 n53. 42 . FV 138.23–25. 43 . FV 138.25–26. 44 . Madeleine Blaess relates the problem of Geoffrey’s inconsistency regarding Anna’s story to the development of the roles of Arthur’s sis- ters and half-sisters within the Arthurian tradition, “Arthur’s Sisters,” Bibliographical Bulletin of the International Arthurian Society 8 ( 1956): 69–77. 45 . Karl Heinz Göller, “King Arthur in the Scottish Chronicles [König Arthur in den Schottischen Chroniken],” trans. Edward Donald Kennedy, in King Arthur: A Casebook , ed. Edward Donald Kennedy (New York and London: Routledge, 2002), pp. 175–76 [173–84] citing John of Fordun, Scotichronicon (Chronica gentis Scotorum ), ed. William F. Skene, vol. 1 of The Historians of (Edinburgh: Edmonston and Douglas, 1871 ), book 3, ch. 109. 46 . Göller, “Scottish Chronicles,” in King Arthur , ed. Kennedy, p. 176. 47 . Göller, “Scottish Chronicles,” in King Arthur , ed. Kennedy, pp. 176–77. 48 . Warren, History on the Edge , p. 53. 49 . Bartlett, Norman and Angevin Kings , p. 232. 50 . Siân Echard, “Geoffrey of Monmouth,” in The Arthur of Medieval Latin Literature: The Development and Dissemination of the Arthurian Legend in Medieval Latin, ed. Siân Echard, Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages 6 (Cardiff: Press, 2011), p. 56 [45–66]. 150 NOTES

51 . C. Stephen Jaeger, The Origins of Courtliness: Civilizing Trends and the Formation of Courtly Ideals, 939–1210 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1985 ), p. 166. 52 . When I was beginning this project, a search of The Modern Language Association International Bibliography for Guenevere/Guinevere yielded eight entries for Geoffrey of Monmouth’s version of the character, nineteen for Chrétien de Troyes’s, and forty-nine for Malory’s, accessed September 28, 2009 http://www.mla.org/bibliography. 53 . Knight, Arthurian Literature , pp. 58–63; Warren, History on the Edge , pp. 35, 37–38, 45–47, and 49; Cohen, Of Giants , pp. 46–47; Walters, introduction to Lancelot and Guinevere , p. xv; and Samples, “Guinevere,” in Lancelot and Guinevere , ed. Walters, pp. 219–20. 54 . Geoffrey’s female kings are Guendoloena ( HRB 25.52–26.68), Cordeilla (31.254–32.270), and Marcia (47.256–66), and the female king-candidates are Helena, daughter of King Coel (78.135–42), and Octavius’s daughter (81.196–201). Historian Charlotte A. Newman a ck nowle d g e s E m pr e s s M a t i ld a’s r ei g n , s t a t i n g , “For a l mo s t n i ne mont h s , the Empress ruled England,” The Anglo-Norman Nobility in the Reign of Henry I: The Second Generation , Middle Ages Series (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988 ), p. 164. Fellow historian Charles Beem asserts that the empress’s “contemporaries agreed that Matilda was recognized as the sole source of royal authority for several months in the year 1141,” The Lioness Roared , p. 26. 55 . Tolhurst, “The Britons as Hebrews, Romans, and Normans,” 73. 56 . Beem notes both Matilda’s years of service as empress and her retention of that title throughout her life, The Lioness Roared , p. 35. 57 . Tatlock, The Legendary History , pp. 56–61; Fries, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 35. 58 . Wace asserts that Artur loves Genuevre deeply, RB 9656. However, Laȝamon not only repeats this assertion but expands upon it, LB 11099–102. 59 . Bartlett notes that “in the twelfth century, for the first time, [Ireland] became also a field of conquest and colonization” for England, Norman and Angevin Kings , p. 85. 60 . For an example of another Guenevere who takes on a male role, see Anne P. Longley’s reading of the Lancelot romance in the French Vulgate Cycle, “Guinevere as Lord,” Arthuriana 12.3 (2002 ): 49–62. 61 . Marjorie Chibnall, “The Empress Matilda and Her Sons,” in Medieval Mothering , ed. John Carmi Parsons and Bonnie Wheeler (New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1996), p. 280 [279–94]. 62 . Among the historians who discuss these oath-taking ceremonies are Judith A. Green, Henry I: King of England and Duke of (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006 ), pp. 193 and 290 and Beem, The Lioness Roared , pp. 26 and 36. Beem documents how the empress not only used charters, grants, and coins to craft her public image as a woman with the right to rule (a right grounded in both her NOTES 151

position as empress and her descent from the Norman line of kings) but also put that image into circulation from 1139 onwards by using a king’s round royal seal—not a queen consort’s oval seal, pp. 40, 49, and 51. Twelfth-century historian William of Malmesbury documents Matilda’s right to rule when he reports in the Historia novella that King Henry I bound the noblemen, bishops, and abbots of England to accept Matilda as their “dominam [lady]” because she was the person “cui soli legitima debeatur successio [in whom alone lay the legitimate succes- sion],” Historia novella [ The Contemporary History ], ed. Edmund King and trans. K. R. Potter (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 1.2, pp. 6–7. 63 . Patrick Sims-Williams, “The Early Welsh Arthurian Poems,” in The Arthur of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh Literature , ed. Rachel Bromwich, A. O. H. Jarman, and Brynley F. Roberts (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1991 ), pp. 44, 46, and 49 [33–71]; Brynley F. Roberts, “ ac , the Triads, Saints’ Lives,” in The Arthur of the Welsh , ed. Bromwich, Jarman, and Roberts, pp. 91–92 [73–95]. 64 . Edward Donald Kennedy, “’s Sons,” in The Arthurian Way of Death: The English Tradition , ed. Karen Cherewatuk and K. S. Whetter (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2009 ), pp. 34–35 [33–49] and an e-mail dated August 28, 2011. 65 . Tolhurst, “The Britons as Hebrews, Romans, and Normans,” 74–75. Fries makes a similar observation about Ganhumara’s loss of power once Modredus betrays Arturus, “Gender and the Grail,” 69. 66 . For examples of treacherous and/or unfaithful wives, see Gildas, De excidio Britonum and Other Works , ed. and trans. Michael Winterbottom (London and Chichester: Phillimore; Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978 ), 32.2, pp. 101 and 32; , Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum [ The Ecclesiastical History of the English People ], ed. and trans. Bertram Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969; repr. 1992), 4.20, pp. 398–99 (Helen of Troy); 1.27, pp. 100–103 and 4.20, pp. 400–01 (Eve); Matthew Paris, Chronica majora , ed. Henry Richards Luard, 7 vols., Rolls Series 57 (London: Kraus Reprint Limited, 1964), 1:206 (Empress Matilda) and 2:285–86 (Eleanor of Aquitaine); William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum Anglorum , ed. and trans. R. A. B. Mynors and completed by R. M. Thomson and M. Winterbottom, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 4.388.1, pp. 694–95 (Countess Almodis of Toulouse). 67 . Weiss notes that Geoffrey’s phrasing “suggests the queen could be a victim,” introduction to RB , pp. xix-xx. 68 . Fries, “Gender and the Grail,” 69. The passive form of the verb does not indicate Queen Ganhumara’s passivity, for the deponent verb copulor is identical in meaning to the regular first conjugation verb copulo : ‘to con- nect, to couple, to bind together,’ A Latin Dictionary, ed. Charleton T. Lewis and Charles Short (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1879 ; repr. 1991), p. 468. 69 . Warren translates the opening phrase of this passage as “about this, august lord, Geoffrey of Monmouth says nothing,” History on the 152 NOTES

Edge , p. 58. However, Echard and Wright translate it as I do: “Nor will Geoffrey of Monmouth, most noble consul, be silent about this,” Arthurian Narrative , p. 63; “Geoffrey of Monmouth will not be silent even about this,” HRB , p. 248. 70 . Françoise H. M. Le Saux notes how the uncle-nephew bonds fill “le vide affectif [the emotional void]” left by the lack of development of father-son relationships in Geoffrey’s history, “Relations familiales et autorité royale: de l’ Historia regum Britanniae au Brut de ,” Senefiance 26 (Les Relations de Parenté dans le Monde Médiéval ) (1989 ): 218 [217–31]. 71 . Of course, scholars cannot know whose name Geoffrey of Monmouth had in mind when he chose to refer to the ‘consul’ in this passage, and Wright notes that Geoffrey refers to Robert of Gloucester as ‘dux’ ( HRB 3.17). Nevertheless, Wright also notes that although Geoffrey calls Waleran ‘consul’ in the double dedication, he refers to “two fic- tional earls of Gloucester” as ‘consul’ (HRB 105.480 and 156.335), a pat- tern suggesting that ‘consul’ could be Geoffrey’s coded way of referring to Robert as the , introduction to HRB Bern , p. xiv and n20. 72 . Weiss interprets the queen’s f light in response to learning of Modredus’s “recovery from defeat and his advance to Winchester” as support for the theory that she is a victim, introduction to RB , p. xx. 73 . Korrel, An Arthurian Triangle, p. 122; Fries, “Gender and the Grail,” 69. 74 . Knight offers a more generous, though still negative, view of Ganhumara: breaking her marriage vows “suggest[s] she might not have been entirely unwilling to go with Mordred,” Arthurian Literature , p. 59. 75 . Fries interprets Ganhumara’s entry into the convent as suggesting “the possibility of regaining integration,” but she emphasizes the instabil- ity of “personal and social just rule” in Geoffrey’s history, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 40. 76 . Peggy McCracken articulates the paradigm of the adulterous queen in French romance, a genre “in which culpable agency is assigned to the woman in the form of her consent to adultery,” “The Body Politic and the Queen’s Adulterous Body in French Romance,” in Feminist Approaches to the Body in Medieval Literature , ed. Linda Lomperis and Sarah Stanbury, New Cultural Studies (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993 ), p. 59 [38–64]. 77 . Gransden, Historical Writing , p. 206. 78 . Fries states that Arturus “rectifies the nuptial fraud of his begetting” by giving the crown to Constantinus, son of , “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 40. 79 . Barbara N. Sargent-Baur notes how “the theme of warriors who will- ingly offer their services to the great king is no longer found” late in the narrative, “Dux Bellorum / Rex Militum / Roi Fainéant: The Transformation of Arthur in the Twelfth Century,” in King Arthur: NOTES 153

A Casebook , ed. Edward Donald Kennedy (New York and London: Routledge, 2002 ), p. 31 [29–43]. 80 . Chrétien de Troyes creates the passionate love scene between Guenevere and Lancelot that inspires so many subsequent versions of their story, Lancelot ( Le chevalier de la charrette ), ed. Mario Roques, Les classiques français du moyen âge 86 (Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1958), lines 4551–754. 81 . Heng, “Cannibalism,” 161 n57. 82 . La mort le roi Artu: roman du XIIIe siècle , ed. Jean Frappier, 3rd edn. (Geneva: Droz; Paris: Minard, 1964), pp. 171–81; The Death of Arthur [ La mort le roi Artu ], trans. Norris J. Lacy, in Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation , gen. ed. Norris J. Lacy, 5 vols. (New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995 ), 4:135–38 [89–160]. For the stanzaic poem’s tower episode, see Stanzaic Morte Arthur: A Critical Edition , ed. P. F. Hissiger, Studies in English Literature 96 (The Hague: Mouton, 1975 ), lines 2986–3001, and for Malory’s version of it see The Works , 3:1227–28. 83 . Helen Cooper, “Lancelot’s Wives,” Arthuriana 16.2 ( 2006): 59 [59–62] citing Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, Lanzelet, eine Erzählung , ed. K. A. Hahn (Frankfurt am Main: Heinrich Ludwig Brönner, 1845 ; repr. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1965), lines 9322–41 and Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, Lanzelet , trans. Thomas Kerth, Records of Western Civilization (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005), p. 24. 84 . Heng, “Cannibalism, ” 160 n54. 85 . Sargent-Baur describes how Geoffrey’s Arturus “actively, during a period of peace, searches for additional military personnel for the pur- pose of consolidation of his power,” “Dux Bellorum,” in King Arthur , ed. Kennedy, p. 31. 86 . Fries comments on the passage’s length, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 35; Tatlock, The Legendary History , p. 270. 87 . Charles T. Wood discusses the importance of coronation oaths in medieval England, “Queens, Queans, and Kingship: An Inquiry into Theories of Royal Legitimacy in Late Medieval England and France,” in Order and Innovation in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honor of Joseph R. Strayer , ed. William C. Jordan, Bruce McNab, and Teofilo F. Ruiz (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976 ), pp. 397 and 400 [385–400, notes pp. 562–66]. Robert of Gloucester was Matilda’s most important sup- porter, for his official transfer of allegiance to her in May 1138 made his half-sister’s military campaign for the throne possible: Robert served as both her primary advisor and commander of her troops, Beem, The Lioness Roared , p. 26. Geoffrey positions Robert of Gloucester as the primary dedicatee of his history: in the single dedication to the Historia regum Britanniae , Robert’s is the only name; in the Robert-Waleran ver- sion, Robert is the primary dedicatee—an important fact given that the Stephen-Robert version is a corruption the Robert-Waleran, Wright, 154 NOTES

introduction to HRB Bern , pp. xiv-xv. For the text of the Robert-only version, see HRB 1.1–3.23; for the texts of the Robert-Waleran and Stephen-Robert versions, see Wright, introduction to HRB Bern , pp. xiii-xiv. 88 . Fries, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 36. 89 . Fries, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 36. 90 . Guendoloena compensates for her husband King ’s immoral and foolish affair with a German princess—an affair which poses a threat to the Britons’ ethnic purity and sovereignty over the island when the king attempts to make his mistress his wife: first Guendoloena fights a battle against him that results in his death, and then she executes both the mistress and her illegitimate female child (HRB 25.52–60). Cordeilla compensates for her father ’s foolish division of his kingdom between her dishonest elder sisters: first she restores her father’s kingly appearance, and then she acts with her husband to grant Leir sover- eignty over France until he regains Britain (31.237–49). Cordeilla also compensates for the civil war her father’s foolishness causes by reigning in peace until her nephews rebel against her, thereby starting another civil war (32.260–62). 91 . Tatlock notes similarities between Arturus’s crown-wearing at and the crown-wearing ceremonies of Anglo-Saxon and Norman kings, The Legendary History , pp. 271–73. Green discusses how Henry I followed his father’s practice of using crown-wearings to display and reinforce his power, Henry I , pp. 289–90. 92 . David Crouch confirms the May 1138 date, “Robert, Earl of Gloucester, and the Daughter of Zelophehad,” Journal of Medieval History 11 ( 1985): 233 [227–43] while David N. Dumville cites the conclusion of historian R. H. C. Davis who states in a letter dated July 23, 1981, “In 1138 it would surely have been clear to all that civil war was on the way,” “An Early Text of Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia regum Britanniae and the Circulation of Some Latin Histories in Twelfth-Century Normandy,” Arthurian Literature 4 ( 1985): 27 n107 [1–36], repr. in Histories and Pseudo-Histories of the Insular Middle Ages (Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 1990), pp. 1–36. 93 . The twelfth-century Gesta Stephani documents the Norman barons’ hesitation to transfer their loyalty to Stephen because they wanted both to protect their own power and honor their oaths of fealty to the empress, ed. and trans. K. R. Potter with new introduction and notes by R. H. C. Davis (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), p. 22. 94 . Paul Dalton documents how the barons tended to divide and shift their allegiance in order to protect their holdings, “Eustace Fitz John and the Politics of Anglo-Norman England: The Rise and Survival of a Twelfth-Century Royal Servant,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 71 ( 1996): 368–70 [358–83]. NOTES 155

95 . Fries asserts that Geoffrey’s “purpose” in creating the separate feasts is “to remind his reader that was smitten with his Saxon Renwein, and Uther with Ygerna, at nonsequestered royal banquets,” “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 36. However, Geoffrey does not link these events through his narration. 96 . Tatlock, The Legendary History , pp. 273–74. 97 . Heng, “Cannibalism,” 160 n54. 98 . Gransden, Historical Writing , p. 206. 99 . The closest Geoffrey of Monmouth comes to associating women at court with tempting men is through the words of Duke Cador of , who welcomes the prospect of war with the Romans after twelve years of peace (HRB 158.437–45). Nevertheless, Duke Cador does not blame women for corrupting men; instead, he says that “longa pace [a long peace]” has caused men to replace “usus armorum [the use of arms]” with “aleae autem et mulierum inflammationes ceteraque oblectamenta [games of chance and also women’s kindling of passions and other pleasures]” and therefore “dubitandum non est ne id quod erat uirtutis, quod honoris, quod audatiae, quod famae, ignauia com- maculet [it is not to be doubted that idleness has polluted whatever manliness, courage, and fame there was]” (158.437, 158.439–42). The concern here is with the effeminacy of soldiers during peacetime, not with the stereotypical corruption of great men by women. Furthermore, Geoffrey’s earlier depiction of the mutual moral improvement of men and women at Arturus’s court does not correlate with women hav- ing committed adultery or having seduced men into their current weakness. 100 . Marjorie Chibnall, The Empress Matilda: Queen Consort, Queen Mother and Lady of the English (Oxford, UK and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1991), p. 26. 101 . Chibnall, The Empress Matilda , p. 26. 102 . Chibnall characterizes Empress Matilda’s wedding as the high point of her life: “As far as worldly pomp and ceremony went, the remainder of Matilda’s long life must have been something of an anticlimax,” The Empress Matilda , p. 26. 103 . From an anonymous chronicle (MS 373 Library of Corpus Christi College, ) translated and discussed by Chibnall, The Empress Matilda , p. 26. The chronicle appears in Frutolfi et Ekkehardi chronica necnon anonymi chronica imperatorum , ed. and trans. Franz-Josef Schmale and Irene Schmale-Ott, Ausgewählte Quellen zur deutschen Geschichte des Mittelalters 15 (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1972 ), p. 262, and the translation is my own. 104 . Fries, “Female Heroes,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Slocum, p. 7. 105 . Chibnall, The Empress Matilda , p. 16. 106 . Beem, The Lioness Roared , p. 51. 156 NOTES

107 . Norris J. Lacy, “Arthurian Texts in Their Historical and Social Context,” Arthurian Literature 26 ( 2009 ): 138 [131–48]. For evidence of Earl Robert’s position as primary dedicatee, see note 87 above. 108 . As Echard notes, the use of animal as well as celestial imagery in this dream links it with The Prophecies of Merlin , thereby creating a sense of foreboding that “Arthur is the bear as well as the dragon, the victor and the vanquished in this dream,” Arthurian Narrative , p. 62. 109 . For discussions of the episode, see Cohen, Of Giants , pp. 29–61; Laurie Finke and Martin Shichtman, “The Mont St. Michel Giant: Sexual Violence and Imperialism in the Chronicles of Wace and Laȝamon,” in Violence against Women in Medieval Texts , ed. Anna Roberts (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998), pp. 56–74; Heng, “Cannibalism,” 98–174; Tatlock, The Legendary History , pp. 87, 113, 203, and 388; and Warren, History on the Edge , pp. 46 and 99–100. 110 . Heng, “Cannibalism,” 159 n51. 111 . Anne Clark Bartlett, “Cracking the Penile Code: Reading Gender and Conquest in the Alliterative Morte Arthure ,” Arthuriana 8.2 (1998 ): 63 [56–76]. 112 . Fries, “Boethian Themes,” in The Arthurian Tradition , ed. Braswell and Bugge, p. 37. Heng offers another possibility: “It is possible to read the giants more simply and intuitively as merely rude figurations of Saracens,” “Cannibalism,” 156 n45. 113 . Fries, “Female Heroes,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Slocum, p. 15. 114 . Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, “Decapitation and Coming of Age: Constructing Masculinity and the Monstrous,” The Arthurian Yearbook 3 ( 1993): 176 [173–92]. 115 . Jeffrey Jerome Cohen discusses the beard, and hairiness in general, as the symbolic capital of masculinity in medieval romance, “The Armour of an Alienating Identity,” Arthuriana 6.4 (1996): 17 [1–24]. 116 . Rebecca S. Beal, “Arthur as the Bearer of Civilization: The Alliterative Morte Arthure , ll. 901–19,” Arthuriana 5.4 ( 1995): 34 [32–44]. 117 . Heng, “Cannibalism,” 117. 118 . Rupert T. Pickens, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing: Courtesy and the Demonic in Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace’s Brut ,” Arthuriana 7.3 ( 1997): 10 [3–19]; Wheeler, “The Masculinity of King Arthur,” 2–7. 119 . Cohen, “Alienating Identity,” 2. 120 . Cohen, “Decapitation and Coming of Age,” 181. 121 . Kathryn Gravdal, Ravishing Maidens: Writing Rape in Medieval French Literature and Law , New Cultural Studies Series (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991 ), pp. 43–44. 122 . Heng, “Cannibalism,” 125. 123 . Pickens, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 9. 124 . The story of Dionotus’s daughter and her companions includes two key details: that some of the young women simply prefer chastity to mar- riage and would rather die than marry for wealth (88.379–82), and that NOTES 157

none of them will convert to paganism in order to save their lives. They would rather die than suffer violation by the inhabitants of “barbaras insulas [savage islands]” (88.387). 125 . Cohen, “Decapitation and Coming of Age,” 179 citing Milan Kundera, “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the ‘Political Economy’ of Sex,” in Toward an Anthropology of Women , ed. Rayna R. Reiter (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975 ), pp. 157–210. 126 . Heng, “Cannibalism,” 125. 127 . Lewis Thorpe, “Le Mont Saint-Michel et Geoffroi de Monmouth,” in vol. 2: Vie montoise et rayonnement intellectuel of Millénaire monastique du Mont Saint-Michel: les mélanges commémoratifs publiés sous les auspices de la société parisienne d’histoire et d’archéologie normande , ed. R. Foreville, 6 vols. (Paris: P. Lethielleux, 1967), pp. 380–82 [377–82]. Thorpe notes both that, in this region, the word tumba referred to a high hill rather than a tomb (p. 381) and that Geoffrey’s phrase Tumba Helenae (HRB 165.109) corrupts the diminutive form of tumba ‘hill,’ tumbellana (p. 382). In addition, Thorpe notes that the popular etymology for Tumba Helenae is attested only after 1136, making Geoffrey its originator (p. 380). 128 . Weiss notes how Arturus’s biography in Geoffrey’s history reflects “antithetical views of empire” in circulation in the 1130s, “Arthur, Emperors, and Antichrists,” in Writers of the Reign of Henry II , ed. Kennedy and Meecham-Jones, p. 243. 129 . Shwartz, “The Founding and Self-Betrayal,” 44. Heng, like Shwartz, views Rome in Geoffrey’s Arthuriad as Easternized: it “refers as much to the Eastern . . . —twelfth-century Byzantium, or Constantinople—as to sixth-century Rome,” “Cannibalism,” 127. 130 . Echard, however, refers to Arturus as “Geoffrey’s perfect king” in con- trast to the sometimes “foolish” Arthurs of his fellow authors of Latin literature, Arthurian Narrative , p. 93. 131 . Knight, Arthurian Literature , p. 58. 132 . For an edition of the French Vulgate Quest, see La queste del Saint Graal: roman du XIIIe siècle , ed. Albert Pauphilet (Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, 1923), and for an English translation, see The Quest for the [ La queste del Saint Graal ], trans. E. Jane Burns, in Lancelot-Grail: The Old French Arthurian Vulgate and Post-Vulgate in Translation , gen. ed. Norris J. Lacy, 5 vols. (New York and London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1995), 4:1–87.

2 Complicating and Undermining Feminist Legend in Le 1 . For a study of Guenevere in Wace’s roman de Brut , see Wulf, “A Comparative Study,” in Arthurian Romance , ed. Wolfzettel, pp. 66–78. For studies of Guenevere in Laȝamon’s Brut , see Maureen Fries, “Women, Power, and (the Undermining of) Order in Lawman’s Brut ,” Arthuriana 8.3 (1998 ): 158 NOTES

23–32 and Carole Weinberg, “Victim or Virago: The Construction of Guinevere in Laȝamon’s Brut ,” Reading Medieval Studies 35 ( 2009 ): 27–43. For a study of female figures in Le roman de Brut and the Brut, see Le Saux, “Relations familiales,” 217–31. For studies of female figures in the Brut , see Marie-Françoise Alamichel, “The Function and Activities of Women in Laȝamon’s Brut ,” in A Wyf Ther Was: Essays in Honour of Paule Mertens-Fonck , ed. Juliette Dor (Liège: University of Liège, 1992), pp. 11–22; Rosamund Allen, “Female Perspectives in Romance and History,” in Romance in Medieval England , ed. Maldwyn Mills, Jennifer Fellows, and Carol M. Meale (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1991 ), pp. 133–47; and Elizabeth J. Bryan, “Laȝamon’s Four Helens: Female Figurations of Nation in the Brut ,” Leeds Studies in English n.s. 26 (1995 ): 63–78. 2 . All English translations of subsequent quotations from Wace’s roman de Brut are taken from Judith Weiss’s edition and translation of the RB . In order to avoid unwieldy parenthetical citations, I insert her name only in the case of an extended quotation. 3 . See Marie de France, Lais , ed. Ewert, “Laüstic,” lines 23–28 and “Milun,” lines 23–28. For an English translation, see Marie de France, The Lais , trans. Burgess and Busby, pp. 94 and 97. 4 . Wayne Glowka interprets Uther’s desire for Ygerne, particularly its manifestation in physical illness, as “symptomatic of an unmanly inability to control one’s sexual urges,” “Masculinity, Male Sexuality, and Kingship in Wace’s roman de Brut ,” in Laȝamon: Contexts, Language, and Interpretation , ed. Rosamund Allen, Lucy Perry, and Jane Roberts (London: King’s College London, Centre for Late Antique and Medieval Studies, 2002), p. 423 [413–31]. Wace, however, does not criticize Uther’s wooing of Ygerne, and Philippe Ménard interprets Wace as pre- senting Uther’s wooing of Ygerne as appropriate behavior, “La déclara- tion amourouse dans la littérature arthurienne au XII e siècle,” Cahiers de Civilisation Médiévale 13 (1970 ): 33–34 [33–42]. 5 . HRB 138.535; FV 138.23–25. 6 . The Variant-redactor follows Geoffrey in presenting Anna as the woman “cuius filii et nepotes regnum Britannie succedenter habebunt [whose sons and grandsons will possess the realm of Britain in succes- sion],” FV 133.20–22. 7 . Weiss notes that Wace adds several details that give Artur “a more tyrannical, less justified career” than the one his Galfridian counterpart has, “Arthur, Emperors, and Antichrists,” in Writers of the Reign of Henry II , ed. Kennedy and Meecham-Jones, p. 243. 8 . Geoffrey of Monmouth says that the guests spend the rest of the day “postposita lite [with any quarrel having been set aside],” HRB 157.398. 9 . Sargent-Baur, “Dux Bellorum,” in King Arthur , ed. Kennedy, p. 33. 10 . The often judgmental Variant-redactor describes the noblemen at Arturus’s court as “iocunde [pleasantly/delightfully]” spending their day in sport and games (FV 157.19), but in ten of the extant manuscripts NOTES 159

of Wace’s poem, some version of a long passage about the evils of gam- bling appears, as Weiss notes, RB , p. 266 n1 and introduction to RB , pp. xxvii-xxix. 11 . Wulf interprets the revised order of Genuevre’s attributes (“personal characteristics” before Roman ancestry) in a similar manner: “Wace may consider her personal qualities more important, or more to be admired, than her ancestry,” “A Comparative Study,” in Arthurian Romance , ed. Wolfzettel, p. 67. 12 . Wulf, “A Comparative Study,” in Arthurian Romance , ed. Wolfzettel, p. 68. Because Wace adds Artur’s love for his wife but does not replicate Galfridian comments about other marriages, Wulf suggests that Wace thought it was “essential to the story that Guenevere as well as Mordred should betray Arthur,” p. 69. 13 . Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference , pp. 249 and 251. Cadden notes, however, that most late-medieval writings about infertility recognized that a couple’s sterility could derive from either the man or the woman or both—including from an “intrinsic” or “extrinsic” effect upon either partner, or from the couple’s “physical incompatibility or insufficient mutual attraction,” p. 240. 14 . Wace expands Geoffrey’s detail of “aureos gladios [golden swords]” ( HRB 157.363) into the gilding of all parts of the kings’ swords, and he adds that Count Cador of Cornwall possesses no less “digneté [dignity]” than the three actual kings, RB 10379. 15 . See R. E. Latham’s entry for ‘pontifex’ in the Revised Medieval Latin Word-List: From British and Irish Sources (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 359. 16 . See the entry for ‘invitare, v.’ meaning ‘to invite, treat, feast, enter- tain’ and ‘to invite, summon, challenge,’ A Latin Dictionary , ed. Lewis and Short, pp. 996–97 and the entry for ‘mander, v.’ meaning ‘1. Commander, ordonner; 2. Demander,’ Dictionnaire de l’ancien français: le moyen âge , ed. Algirdas Julien Greimas, Trésors du français (Paris: Larousse, 1979 ; 2nd edn. 1992), p. 365. Based upon these entries, Weiss’s translation of aveit mandees as ‘had invited’ is problematic, for it presents the queen as requesting, rather than requiring, these noblewomen to attend the crown-wearing and is therefore inconsistent with the mean- ing of RB 10390–94. 17 . In making this point, I dispute Wulf’s assertion that “overall, Wace’s account weakens Geoffrey’s impression that the British women are sec- ond-class citizens” while building upon her admission that the women serve “primarily a decorative function” in Wace’s crown-wearing sequence, “A Comparative Study,” in Arthurian Romance , ed. Wolfzettel, p. 71. 18 . Elizabeth A. R. Brown, “Eleanor of Aquitaine Reconsidered: The Woman and Her Seasons,” in Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady , ed. Bonnie Wheeler and John Carmi Parsons, The New Middle Ages (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003 ), p. 9 [1–54]. 160 NOTES

19 . Warren, History on the Edge , p. 169. 20 . Wulf remarks that Wace’s omission of Modret’s seizing of the crown is “odd,” “A Comparative Study,” in Arthurian Romance , ed. Wolfzettel, p. 75. However, this omission does not contradict the poet’s portraits of the main Arthurian characters. 21 . Wulf, “A Comparative Study,” in Arthurian Romance , ed. Wolfzettel, p. 68. 22 . Hans-Erich Keller, “De l’amour dans le roman de Brut ,” in Continuations: Essays on Medieval French Literature and Language in Honor of John L. Grigsby , ed. Norris J. Lacy and Gloria Torrini-Roblin (Birmingham, AL: Summa Publications, 1989), p. 69 [63–81]. 23 . Geoffrey of Monmouth uses the phrase “caste uiuere [to live chastely]” while the Variant-redactor is more explicit: “inter monachas uitam pro- fessa monachalem delituit [she took shelter among the nuns, commit- ting to a monastic life],” HRB 177.35; FV 177.33–34. 24 . Françoise H. M. Le Saux, A Companion to Wace (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2005), p. 7. 25 . Le Saux, A Companion , p. 9. 26 . Le Saux, A Companion , p. 11. 27 . D. D. R. Owen, Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen and Legend (Oxford, UK and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1993), p. 184. 28 . Peggy McCracken, “Scandalizing Desire: Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Chroniclers,” in Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady , ed. Bonnie Wheeler and John Carmi Parsons, The New Middle Ages (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 247 [247–63]. 29 . Brown, “Eleanor of Aquitaine Reconsidered,” in Eleanor of Aquitaine , ed. Wheeler and Parsons, p. 9. 30. Wace, Le , ed. A. J. Holden, 3 vols. (Paris: A. & J. Picard & Co., 1970–73), 1.4, line 31; Le Saux, A Companion , pp. 275–78. 31 . Finke and Shichtman, “The Mont St. Michel Giant,” in Violence against Women , ed. Roberts, pp. 56–74. 32 . Heng notes that Helena “mercifully died from terror as the giant was about to rape her,” “Cannibalism,” 100. 33 . Pickens reports this statistic, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 9. 34 . Finke and Shichtman, “The Mont St. Michel Giant,” in Violence against Women , ed. Roberts, pp. 62–63. 35 . Pickens, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 5 and 9. 36 . Anne Clark Bartlett links the considerable sexual explicitness of the Giant of Mont Saint-Michel episode in the Alliterative Morte Arthure with The Prose Life of Alexander that includes a similarly large-membered giant, “Cracking the Penile Code,” 65–66. Nevertheless, Wace’s retell- ing begins the process of developing the episode’s sexual explicitness. For the Alexander text, see The Prose Life of Alexander (from the Thornton MS ), ed. J. S. Westlake, EETS o.s. 143. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. and H. Milford: Oxford University Press, 1913 [for 1911]); New York: Kraus Reprint, 1971). NOTES 161

37 . Pickens reports this statistic, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 9. 38 . Pickens, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 13. 39 . Pickens, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 12. 40 . Pickens, “Arthur’s Channel Crossing,” 12. 41 . Warren notes that the Giant of Mont Saint-Michel now has a name and eats cooked pork, so he is no longer a cannibal, History on the Edge , p. 165.

3 Displacing Feminist Legend in Laȝamon’s Brut 1 . The scholarly consensus is that Laȝamon wrote his poem after 1155, for its base text is Wace’s roman de Brut that was completed in 1155. W. R. J. Barron and S. C. Weinberg note that the past tense reference to Eleanor as Henry’s queen in the Brut ’s proem (Caligula lines 22–23) could indicate that the proem was written either after Henry II’s death in 1189 or after Eleanor of Aquitaine’s death in 1204, but they argue that the poem antedates Henry III’s marriage to another Eleanor in 1236 because that marriage would have required the poet to clarify his refer- ent for ‘Eleanor,’ introduction to LB , p. ix. For other discussions of the problem of dating Laȝamon’s Brut , see W. R. J. Barron, “The Idiom and the Audience of Laȝamon’s Brut ,” in Laȝamon: Contexts, Language, and Interpretation , ed. Rosamund Allen, Lucy Perry, and Jane Roberts (London: King’s College London, Centre for Late Antique and Medieval Studies, 2002), pp. 157–60 [157–84]; Elizabeth J. Bryan, Collaborative Meaning in Medieval Scribal Culture: The Otho Laȝamon (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999), pp. 47–49; Donald G. Bzdyl, intro- duction to Layamon’s Brut : A History of the Britons , trans. Donald G. Bzdyl, Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 65 (Binghamton, NY: MRTS, 1989 ), p. 10 [1–31]; and Frederic Madden, preface to Laȝamons Brut or Chronicle of Britain; a Poetical Semi-Saxon Paraphrase of the Brut of Wace , 3 vols. (London: Society of Antiquaries of London, 1847 ), 1: xx-xxi [iii-xli]. 2 . Because the two extant manuscripts of the Brut , Cotton Caligula A.ix and Cotton Otho C.xiii, were copied dur- ing the second half of the thirteenth century, neither can be the author’s autograph copy, N. R. Ker, introduction to “The Owl and the Nightingale”: Reproduced in Facsimile from the Surviving Manuscripts Jesus College Oxford 29 and British Museum Cotton Caligula A.IX , EETS o.s. 251 (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1963 ), p. ix [ix-xx]. Paleographical analysis confirms that these manuscripts derive from a common version of the poem that was not the author’s original copy, and that they preserve redactions whose content differs significantly, Bryan, Collaborative Meaning , pp. 47–48. For the Otho text, see Laȝamon, Brut , ed. G. L. Brook and R. F. Leslie, 2 vols., Early English Text Society 250 and 277 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963 , 1978). 162 NOTES

3 . Barron and Weinberg, introduction to LB , pp. xviii and xvi [ix-xxi]. 4 . Håkan Ringbom, Studies in the Narrative Technique of Beowulf and Lawman’s Brut, Acta Academiae Aboensis Series A, vol. 36.2 (Åbo: Åbo Akademi, 1968), pp. 105–7. 5 . Cyril Edwards, “Laȝamon’s Elves,” in Laȝamon: Contexts, Language, and Interpretation , ed. Rosamund Allen, Lucy Perry, and Jane Roberts (London: King’s College London, Centre for Late Antique and Medieval Studies, 2002 ), pp. 79–80 [79–96]. 6 . Bzdyl, introduction to Layamon’s Brut, p. 20. 7 . For discussion of how the Brut ’s thematic emphasis differs from that of Le roman de Brut , see Françoise H. M. Le Saux, La ȝamon’s Brut: The Poem and Its Sources, Arthurian Studies 19 (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1989), p. 229. 8 . Le Saux, The Poem and Its Sources , pp. 116–17. 9 . The nature of Laȝamon’s response to both Old English verse and Anglo-Saxon culture is an ongoing issue of debate. See, for example, Thomas Cable, “Lawman’s Brut and the Misreading of Old English Meter,” in Language and Civilization: A Concerted Profusion of Essays and Studies in Honour of Otto Hietsch , ed. Claudia Blank and Teresa Kirschner, 2 vols. (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1992), vol. 1, pp. 173–82; Daniel Donoghue, “Laȝamon’s Ambivalence,” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 65 ( 1990): 537–63; James Noble, “Laȝamon’s ‘Ambivalence’ Reconsidered,” in The Text and Tradition of Laȝamon’s Brut, ed. Françoise Le Saux, Arthurian Studies 33 (Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1994 ), pp. 171–82; Ringbom, Studies in the Narrative Technique , especially pp. 58–155; Richard J. Schrader, Old English Poetry and the Genealogy of Events (East Lansing, MI: Colleagues Press, 1993), pp. 155–83; E. G. Stanley, “Laȝamon’s Un-Anglo-Saxon Syntax,” in The Text and Tradition , ed. Le Saux, pp. 47–56; Carole Weinberg, “Victor and Victim: A View of the Anglo-Saxon Past in Laȝamon’s Brut ,” in Literary Appropriations of the Anglo-Saxons , ed. Scragg and Weinberg, pp. 22–38; and Neil Wright, “Angles and Saxons in Laȝamon’s Brut : A Reassessment,” in The Text and Tradition , ed. Le Saux, pp. 161–70. 10 . Fries, “Women, Power,” 23–32; Weinberg, “Victim or Virago,” 27–43. 11 . See LB 9923–25 (Arður mourns his father’s death), 14142–48 (mourns Walwain’s death), 10944–46 (pity for the Scots), 11391–11409 (anger at brawling noblemen), and 13623–41 (belief in God’s aid). 12 . Fries, “Gender and the Grail,” 70. 13 . Entry for ‘bold (adj.),’ Middle English Dictionary , definitions 6. (a) and 4. (a), accessed December 10, 2011 http:// quod.lib.umich.edu/m/med/. 14 . Entry for ‘careful (adj.),’ Middle English Dictionary , definitions 1. (a) and 2. (a), accessed December 10, 2011 http:// quod.lib.umich.edu/m/med/. 15 . Barron and Weinberg cite Rosamund Allen’s argument that the refer- ence to water “seems to be an idiom simply meaning ‘disappeared with- out a trace,’” LB note for p. 729 on pp. 887–88 citing Lawman, Brut , trans. Rosamund Allen (London: Dent, 1992 ), p. 461. NOTES 163

16 . W. R. J. Barron and S. C. Weinberg, Layamon’s Arthur: The Arthurian Section of Layamon’s Brut (Harlow: Longman, 1989; repr. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2001), p. 251 and note. 17 . Wheeler, “The Masculinity of King Arthur,” 1 and 4–9. 18 . Barron and Weinberg, LB , p. 659; Lawman, Brut , trans. Allen, p. 327. 19 . Warren, History on the Edge , p. 99. 20 . Warren concurs, noting that while Geoffrey’s Helena dies of “fright,” Laȝamon’s Eleine “dies of rape,” History on the Edge , p. 100. 21 . Warren, History on the Edge , p. 122. 22 . Gransden, Historical Writing , p. 208. 23 . Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg , edited with introduction, bibliog- raphy, notes, glossary, and appendices by Fr. Klaeber, 3rd edn. with 1st and 2nd supplements (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath and Company, 1950), lines 739–45. 24 . Entry for ‘tobreken (v.),’ Middle English Dictionary Online , definitions 1. (b), 2. (b), and 3. (b), accessed December 10, 2011 http://quod.lib .umich.edu/m/med/. 25 . Cohen and the members of Interscripta discuss this type of “heroic mas- culinity,” “Alienating Identity,” 2. 26 . Beal, “Arthur as the Bearer of Civilization,” 37. 27 . La queste , ed. Pauphilet, p. 19; The Quest , gen. ed. Lacy, trans. Burns, p. 8. 28 . Alliterative Morte Arthure, lines 976–99. 29 . Al literative Morte Arthure, lines 1029–32. 30 . Malory, The Works , 1.201.4–5 and 1.202.1–3. 31 . Batt, “Malory and Rape,” 86 and 89–90. 32 . On the development of Guenevere, see Tolhurst, “The Once and Future Queen,” 272–308.

4 Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Life of Merlin as Feminist Text 1 . Nikolai Tolstoy, “Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Merlin Legend,” Arthurian Literature 25 (2008 ): 1 [1–42]. 2 . A search of the Modern Language Association International Bibliography yielded 214 entries for ‘Historia regum Britanniae ’ but only thirty-two for ‘ ,’ accessed February 14, 2011 http://www.mla.org/ bibliography. For an example of acknowledging The Life of Merlin ’s difference from other romances before discussing those other romances, see Carolyne Larrington, “The Enchantress, the Knight, and the Cleric: Authorial Surrogates in Arthurian Romance,” Arthurian Literature 25 ( 2008 ): 47 [43–65]. 3 . Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘,’ p. 212; Michael J. Curley, Geoffrey of Monmouth (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994), p. 2. 4 . O. J. Padel, “Geoffrey of Monmouth and the Development of the Merlin Legend,” Cambrian Medieval 51 ( 2006 ): 42 [37–65]. 5 . HRB 1.1–3.23. 164 NOTES

6 . For the Prophecies of Merlin , see HRB 109.1–117.304. For Merlinus’s other appearances in HRB , see 106.499–108.577, 118.1–23, and 128.212– 138.532. Merlinus receives mention in HRB 205.560–206.577. 7 . Padel, “Development of the Merlin Legend,” 43. 8 . A. O. H. Jarman, “The Merlin Legend and the Welsh Tradition of Prophecy,” in The Arthur of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh Literature , ed. Rachel Bromwich, A. O. H. Jarman, and Brynley F. Roberts (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1991), p. 132 [117–45]; HRB 106.507–27. 9 . Lorraine Kochanske Stock, “Civilization and Its Discontents: Cultural Primitivism and Merlin as a in the roman de Silence ,” Arthuriana 12.1 ( 2002): 25–26 and 33 [22–36]. According to Basil Clarke, Geoffrey’s later Merlin figure conflates Merlin Ambrosius with Merlin the fugitive, an elderly man called Merlin Calidonius or Merlin Silvester; although both Merlins have prophetic gifts that derive from the Welsh figure of Myrddin, only Merlin Ambrosius has connections with the “shadowy British political leader” often called Ambrosius or Aurelianus who appears in Gildas’s account of the British past as the hero of the siege of Badon Hill, introduction to VM , pp. vii–viii. For Gildas’s , see De excidio 25.3, pp. 98 and 28. Padel notes that Merlin Silvester is the common name for a wild-man figure called , a figure from northern legend that Geoffrey of Monmouth might have been the first author to combine with the southern-Welsh prophet figure Myrddin, “Development of the Merlin Legend,” 41. 10 . Clarke, preface to VM , p. v. 11 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , pp. 18, 41–43, 52–53, and 193–231. 12 . Clarke, preface to VM , p. v. 13 . Padel provides a useful overview of the competing theories of how the Merlin legend developed while presenting his own theory that Geoffrey could have been the originator of the merged Myrddin/Lailoken f igure who is both prophet and wild man, “Development of the Merlin Legend,” 37–41; Curley, Geoffrey of Monmouth , p. 129. 14 . Echard comes to this conclusion about Geoffrey of Monmouth’s knowl- edge of the Welsh tradition based upon the work of Basil Clarke, Michael J. Curley, A. O. H. Jarman, O. J. Padel, and Nikolai Tolstoy, “Geoffrey of Monmouth,” in The Arthur of Medieval Latin Literature , p. 52 and n40. John K. Bollard states, “It has been plausibly argued that the core of this poem was composed before 1100,” introduction to “The Prophecy of Myrddin and Gwenddydd, His Sister” [Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei chwaer ], in The Romance of Merlin: An Anthology , ed. Peter Goodrich (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1990 ), p. 30 [30–31]. Tolstoy argues not only that a version of this conversation poem “existed long before Geoffrey of Monmouth was born” but also that “Geoffrey may well have learned from contemporaries of the existence of the Welsh poem,” “Geoffrey of Monmouth,” 21 and 25. NOTES 165

15 . Clarke calls the Welsh poem a “Conversation” in his introduction to VM , p. 1 while Bollard labels it a “Prophecy,” introduction to “The Prophecy of Myrddin,” in The Romance of Merlin , ed. Goodrich, p. 30. 16 . CMGC 1.2–3 and 4.2–3. All subsequent references to this poem will be to Bollard’s translation by stanza and line number. For an edition of the Welsh text, see Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei chwaer , in The Poetry in the Red Book of Hergest , reproduced and ed. J. Gwenogvryn Evans, Series of Old Welsh Texts 11 (Llanbedrog, UK: Issued to subscribers only, 1911), columns 577–83, pp. 1–4. 17 . Jarman, “The Merlin Legend,” in The Arthur of the Welsh, ed. Bromwich, Jarman, and Roberts, p. 119. 18 . CMGC 15.1, 120.1; 66.1; 62.1, 80.1, 82.1, 84.1, 94.1, 104.1, 109.1, 116.1; and 50.1, 70.1, 72.1. 19 . CMGC 74.1; 76.1; and 78.1. 20 . CMGC 3.2; and 9.1, 11.1, 19.1, 30.1, 37.1, 39.1, 52.1, 54.1, 56.1, 58.1, 60.1, 86.1, 88.1. 21 . CMGC 9.2, 54.2; 19.2, 30.2, 52.2, 56.2, 58.2, 60.2, 86.2, 88.2; 37.2; 39.2; and 120.3. 22 . CMGC 11.2; 35.1–2; and 72.1–2. 23 . CMGC 68.1; 17.1–2, 44.1; and 64.1–2. 24 . CMGC 21.1–2; and 5.1–2, 7.1–3, 23.1–2, 90.1–2. 25 . CMGC 3.3; and 27.1–2, 15.2. 26 . Jarman, “The Merlin Legend,” in The Arthur of the Welsh , ed. Bromwich, Jarman, and Roberts, p. 119. 27 . CMGC 92.1–2, 98.1–2, 100.1–2, and 102.1–2. 28GC . CM 18.3; and 110.1–2. 29 . CMGC 111.3, 115.3; and 111.1, 115.3. 30 . CMGC 117.2; and 119.1. 31 . CMGC 122.2; 130.3; 126.2; and 126.3. 32 . CMGC 127.3. 33 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. 4. 34 . Clarke states that “Guendoloena, Merlin’s wife, is a new character with- out direct antecedents,” name notes index to VM , ‘Guendoloena,’ p. 186. Tolstoy concurs that “there can be no doubt that Geoffrey invented the character of Guendoloena,” “Geoffrey of Monmouth,” 37. 35 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. 2. 36 . Lucy Allen Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” Modern Language Notes 18.6 ( 1903): 168 [163–69]. 37 . Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘Ganieda,’ p. 184. 38 . Inge Vielhauer-Pfeiffer concurs: “Von Anfang an ist hier die Schwester die eigentliche, aktive Gefährtin des Sehers [From the very beginning, the sister is the real, active partner of the seer],” “Merlins Schwester: Betrachtungen zu einem keltischen Sagenmotiv,” Inklings: Jahrbuch für Literatur und Ästhetik 8 ( 1990): 164 [161–79], my translation. 166 NOTES

39 . , Heroides and Amores , ed. and trans. Grant Showerman (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press and London: William Heinemann Ltd., 1963 ), Heroides 7, pp. 82–99 (Dido); 2, pp. 18–31 (Phyllis); and 3, pp. 32–43 (Briseis). 40 . Padel notes that Geoffrey of Monmouth likely drew on “northern Latin material . . . for the combined motif of the leaf betraying the queen’s adultery plus the prophecy of the threefold death,” “Development of the Merlin Legend,” 58. 41 . Sarah Roche-Mahdi comments upon “the spiteful laughter” of Merlin in Le roman de Silence as well as in the leaf episode in The Life of Merlin , “A Reappraisal of the Role of Merlin in the roman de Silence ,” Arthuriana 12.1 (2002 ): 17 [6–21]. 42 . Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” 167. 43 . John J. Parry discusses two possible Celtic sources for Geoffrey’s triple death episode, a tale of Lailoken in a Saint Kentigern fragment and a tale of Twm Ieuan ap Rhys as recorded by Iolo Morgannwg, but he finds the Latin poems of Bishop Hildebert of LeMans the more likely source because they contain a striking parallel to Geoffrey’s story: “that the expected child would be a boy, that it would be a girl, and that it would be neither, and that this also proves true,” “The Triple Death in the Vita Merlini, ” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 5 (1930 ): 216–17 [216–17]. 44 . Jarman describes a Scottish tale called Lailoken and Meldred in which the queen plots the murder of the Merlin figure (Lailoken) as well as discusses “points of contact” between The Life of Merlin and Lailoken tales, “The Merlin Legend,” in The Arthur of the Welsh , ed. Bromwich, Jarman, and Roberts, pp. 122–23 and 134. 45 . Fries discusses the categories of female hero and female counter-hero, “Female Heroes,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Slocum, pp. 10–15. 46 . HRB 47.257–61 (Marcia) and 78.138–42 (Helena, daughter of King Coel). 47 . HRB 176.480–84 (Modredus). 48 . HRB 157.364–91 (Ganhumara), 165.48–70 (Helena’s nursemaid), and 41.126–49 (Tonwenna). 49 . Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘Guendoloena,’ p. 186. 50 . Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘Guendoloena,’ p. 186. 51 . Entry for ‘hiatus, n.,’ A Latin Dictionary , ed. Lewis and Short, p. 851. 52 . CMGC 120.1–135.4. 53 . Clarke notes a similar sequence in the Vita Gildae in which “one of Gildas’s brothers built himself a monastery, while two other brothers and a sister built themselves a group of oratories in the remotest part of the country,” name notes index to VM , ‘Gildas,’ p. 185 citing of Llancarfan, Vita Gildae , in Two Lives of Gildas by a Monk of Ruys and Caradoc of Llancarfan , ed. and trans. Hugh Williams, 2 vols., Cymmrodorion Record Series (London: The Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, 1899; repr. Felinfach, UK: Llanerch Enterprises, 1990). NOTES 167

54 . Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” 167. 55 . Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” 167. 56 . Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” 167. 57 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 225. 58 . For examples of female characters that correct male misbehavior and help men to lead better lives, see HRB 24.40–26.68 (Guendoloena, wife of Locrinus), 31.237–49 (Cordeilla), 41.126–49 (Tonwenna), and 69.344–71 (Gewissa). 59 . CMGC 132.1–135.4; and 134.2, 135.2. 60 . CMGC 132.3 and 133.1–3. 61 . CMGC 41.3 and 133.1–3. 62 . Anicius Manlius Severinus , Consolatio philosophiae , ed. and with commentary by James J. O’Donnell, 2 vols., Bryn Mawr Latin Commentaries (Bryn Mawr College: Bryn Mawr, PA, 1984 ; 2nd edn., 1990). 63 . Clarke, introduction to VM , pp. 16–17. 64 . Curley suggests that Geoffrey might have been in Wales rather than at Oxford (ca. 1150) while composing The Life of Merlin , for he learned about some Welsh traditions that form the basis of his account of Merlinus, Geoffrey of Monmouth , pp. 5–6. 65 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 227. 66 . Based upon Geoffrey’s inclusion of several characters (Peredurus, Guennolous/Gwenddolau, and Rodarcus) in addition to Merlinus and Telgesinus/ whose names and roles derive from the Welsh tra- dition, Padel argues that this Welsh poem “may have provided part of Geoffrey’s inspiration” for The Life of Merlin , but he notes Geoffrey’s tendency to adapt material freely, “Development of the Merlin Legend,” 44 and 46. For the Welsh poem, see Ymddiddan Myrddin a Thaliesin , ed. A. O. H. Jarman (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1967); for an English translation, see “The Conversation of Myrddin and Taliesin” [Ymddiddan Myrddin a Thaliesin], trans. John K. Bollard, in The Romance of Merlin: An Anthology , ed. Peter Goodrich (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1990), pp. 16–19. 67 . HRB 107.531–50. 68 . HRB 5.24–46. 69 . Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘Alaron,’ p. 156 and ‘,’ p. 166. 70 . Echard, Arthurian Narrative , p. 153. 71 . Susann T. Samples, “‘Problem Women’ in Heinrich von dem Türlin’s Diu Crône ,” Arthuriana 11.4 ( 2001 ): 36 [23–38]. For the romance, see Heinrich von dem Türlin, Diu Crône , ed. Gottlob Heinrich Friedrich Scholl, Litterarischer Verein in Stuttgart 27 (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 1966 ); Heinrich von dem Türlin, The Crown: A Tale of Sir Gawein and King Arthur’s Court [Diu Crône ], trans. John Wesley Thomas (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989). 72 . Marcia’s learning enables her both to create a law code that the Britons retain and translate into the vernacular and to govern the kingdom until 168 NOTES

her death (HRB 47.256–66) while Helena’s learning prepares her to rule more effectively (78.136–43). 73 . Michael Twomey, “‘, Empress of the Wilderness’: A Newly Recovered Arthurian Text in London, BL Royal 12.C.ix,” Arthurian Literature 25 (2008 ): 68 [67–91]. 74 . Twomey, “Morgan le Fay,” 68. 75 . HRB 178.81–84. 76 . Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘Morgen,’ p. 203; Jarman, “The Merlin Legend,” in The Arthur of the Welsh , ed. Bromwich, Jarman, and Roberts, p. 133. 77 . Maureen Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp: The Decline of Morgan le Fay in Medieval Romance,” Arthuriana 4.1 (1994 ): 1–18. 78 . Twomey, “Morgan le Fay,” 71. 79 . Curley, Geoffrey of Monmouth , p. 126. 80 . Twomey, “Morgan le Fay,” 77; HRB 5.24–46. 81 . Although the changes in who has dominion over Britain are too numerous to list given the more than 100 rulers the HRB includes, the key civil wars are these: King Leir vs. his sons-in-law (31.186–254), Cordeilla vs. her nephews (32.260–70), Marganus vs. (32.270–82), Ferreux vs. Porrex and then five kings (33.292–304), vs. (35.1–41.152), Bassianus vs. (74.32–37), and Arturus vs. Modredus (177.1–178.84). 82 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 2. 83 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 2. 84 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 3–4 and 2. 85 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 4–6. 86 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 6–12. 87 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 13. 88 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 10. 89 . Fries, “From The Lady to The Tramp,” 2. 90 . Fries, “Female Heroes,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Slocum, p. 15. 91 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. 17. 92 . HRB 185.141–186.154 (refusal to embrace peace); 32.260–82 and 177.1–178.84 (nephews causing disruption of succession). 93 . HRB 205.563–66. 94 . Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” 167. 95 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. 18. 96 . Entry for ‘aula, n.,’ A Latin Dictionary , ed. Lewis and Short, p. 205. 97 . Vielhauer-Pfeiffer, “Merlins Schwester,” 178. 98 . Cadden notes Dante’s intolerance of Tiresias’s gender-changes, Meanings of Sex Difference, p. 213. See Dante Alighieri, Inferno , trans. Robert and Jean Hollander, introduction and notes by Robert Hollander (New York: Doubleday, 2000 ), canto 20, lines 40–45. 99 . Entry for ‘canere, v.,’ A Latin Dictionary , ed. Lewis and Short, p. 279. NOTES 169

100 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. 21. Clarke notes that Geoffrey’s refer- ence to how the spirit of prophecy closes Merlinus’s book might “con- stitute a statement by Geoffrey that he was abandoning native (‘pagan’) prophecy for the religious life at a point when he knew he was probably to become a bishop,” textual commentary on lines 1474–1518, VM , p. 153. 101 . Curley speculates that the shift to Ganieda “may have been Geoffrey’s way of indicating that he would write no new prophecies for Merlin, and also perhaps to discourage any others from being foisted on him,” Geoffrey of Monmouth , p. 128. 102 . Paton, “Merlin and Ganieda,” 167. 103 . Padel, “Development of the Merlin Legend,” 43. 104 . Fries, “Female Heroes,” in Popular Arthurian Traditions , ed. Slocum, p. 14. 105 . Larrington, “The Enchantress,” 43; David Rollo, Glamorous Sorcery: Magic and Literacy in the High Middle Ages , Medieval Cultures 25 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000 ), p. xii. 106 . Larrington, “The Enchantress,” 53. 107 . H. L. D. Ward, Catalogue of Romances in the British Museum 1 , 3 vols. (London: British Museum, 1883 ), 1:283, cited by Clarke in his textual commentary on lines 1474 ff., 1479 ff., and 1485 ff., VM , pp. 153–54. 108 . Entry for ‘consumere, v.,’ A Latin Dictionary , ed. Lewis and Short, p. 443. 109 . Clarke, introduction to VM , p. 18. 110 . Tolstoy, “Geoffrey of Monmouth,” 39. 111 . HRB 185.141–186.154. 112 . Clarke, textual commentary on lines 1485 ff., VM , p. 154. 113. Clarke, name notes index to VM , ‘ and Bretons,’ p. 168; Clarke, textual commentary on lines 1474–1518 and 1511 ff., VM , pp. 153–54. 114 . Clarke, textual commentary on lines 1474–1518, VM , p. 153. 115 . CMGC 1.1–57.3 and 69.3–71.3; Bollard, introduction to CMGC , p. 31. 116 . Vielhauer-Pfeiffer, “Merlins Schwester,” 169, my translation.

Conclusion 1 . Anne Berthelot, “From Niniane to Nimüe: Demonizing the ,” On Arthurian Women: Essays in Memory of Maureen Fries , ed. Bonnie Wheeler and Fiona Tolhurst (Dallas: Scriptorium Press, 2001 ), p. 99 [89–101].

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Note: major Arthurian characters are listed under the most common spelling of their names, with references categorized by the texts in which each character appears.

Aaron the Martyr, see Church of antifeminist tradition, 9, 10, 128, 133 Aaron the Martyr Arfderydd, battle of, 117 , lover of Morgan le Fay, 130 Arthur, king of Britain, 4, 14, 31, 48, Achilles, 119 83, 130, 146 n1 Adversus Jovinianum, 10 court of, 28, 35, 40–2, 61–5, 67–8, , 119 71, 93–4, 143 n24, 155 n99, Aeneid, 2 158–9 n10 Aganippus, king of the French, 24, 41 crown-wearing of, 37–44, 65–9, Alamichel, Marie-Françoise, 93–5, 154 n91 157–8 n1 dreams of, 45, 99–101, 156 n108 Alaron, wife of Bladud, 127, 167 in FV (Arturus), 25–6 Alexander, bishop of Lincoln, 114 in HRB (Arturus), 2, 4, 15–16, Alexander the Great, 23, 160 n36 22–3, 25, 31–2, 47, 48, 52–3, Alighieri, Dante, see Inferno 57, 81–2, 109, 112, 125, 126, Allen, Rosamund, 103, 104, 128, 132, 139, 142 n20, 157–8 n1, 162–3 n15 143 n24, 149 n35, 152 n78, Alliterative Morte Arthure, 2, 46, 153 n85, 156 n108, 157 n128, 110–11, 112, 160–1 n36 157 n130, 168 n81 Amr, son of Arthur, 32 in HRB Bern (Arturus), 25 Angevins, 136 in LB (Arður), 83–4, 86–111 Angles, 131 in Morte Darthur, 130 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 16, 147 n8 in RB (Artur), 57–68, 70–3, 74, Anglo-Saxons, 41 81–2, 84, 87, 92, 108, 109, Anna, sister of Arthur 150 n58, 158 n7, 159 n12 in FV, 25–6, 158 n6 in Scotichronicon, 26 in HRB, 13, 18, 23, 26, 34, 55, sons of, 32 58–60, 75, 89, 139, 149 n35, in VM (Arturus), 128–9, 134 149 n44, 158 n6 Arður, see Arthur, in LB in HRB Bern, 25 Arthurian legend, 1, 12, 13, 15, 16, in LB, 13, 89–92, 97 26, 31, 37, 52, 53, 55, 64, 73, in RB, 13, 55, 58–60, 89–90 82, 84, 111–13, 134, 146 n2, in Scotichronicon, 26 149 n50 186 INDEX

Arthurian literature, 6, 7, 15, 32, 37, Bern manuscript, see Historia regum 44, 55, 127, 134, 140 Britanniae, Bern manuscript of Arthurian studies, 13 Berthelot, Anne, 140 Arthurian tradition, 1, 5, 15, 36, 75, Blacker, Jean, 8, 144 n39 111, 112, 128–30, 139, 149 n44 Bladud, king of Britain, 127, 167 n69 Artorius, precursor of Arthur, 146 n1 Blamires, Alcuin, 9, 10 Artur, see Arthur, in RB Bloch, R. Howard, 12 Arturus, see Arthur, in FV; Arthur, in Blumenfeld-Kosinski, Renate, 12 HRB; Arthur, in HRB Bern Boethius, see Consolatio philosophiae audience Bohemia, duke of, 43 of HRB, 22–3, 33–4, 38, 40–1, Bollard, John K., 14, 164 n14, 165 n15 42–4, 47 Book of the City of Ladies, see livre de la of VM, 132, 135 cité des dames see also Normans Brennius, 122, 168 n81 Auguselus, king of the Scots and see also Belinus; Tonwenna brother of Loth, 26 Bretons, 78–9 Aurelius Ambrosius, king of Britain Briseis, 119, 166 n39 in HRB, 16, 17, 20, 26, 46, 51, 59, Britain 125, 132 in FV, 158 n6 in LB (Aurilien Ambrosien), 84 in HRB, 3, 5, 17, 18, 20, 21, 26, , 4, 31, 36, 84, 113, 127–30, 27, 29–34, 39, 45–7, 60, 83, 135, 139 111, 114, 127–9, 132, 154 n90, 168 n81 Barefi eld, Laura D., 2 in LB, 83, 90, 92, 93, 99 Barron, W. R. J., 103, 104, 161 n1, in RB, 60, 61, 64, 65 162–3 n15 in VM, 117, 127, 133, 135, 139 Bartlett, Robert, 27, 150 n59 Britons Bassianus, king of Britain, 168 n81 in HRB, 17, 21, 27, 32, 45, 47, 51, see also Geta 52, 83, 131–2, 154 n90, 168 n72 Bathsheba, 57 in LB, 86, 92, 93 Batt, Catherine, 112, 148 n28 in VM, 118, 128–9, 131–4 Bede, see Historia ecclesiastica gentis Brittany, 104, 112 Anglorum Bruckner, Matilda Tomaryn, 19, 24 , butler of Arthur Brut, 13–14, 55 in HRB (Beduerus), 13, 45–50, 52, Arthurian section of, 7, 55, 75–6, 53, 78–80, 108, 139 83–111 in LB (Beduer), 103, 105, 107–10 compared to HRB, 85, 89, 92–6, in RB (Bedoer), 70, 79–82, 96, 108 98, 102, 105–6, 109, 111–12 “Belhs m’es l’estuis e l temps fl oritz,” compared to RB, 85, 87–98, 102–3, 14, 19–20 106–9, 111 Belinus, king of Britain, 122, 168 n81 see also Caligula manuscript; see also Brennius; Tonwenna Laȝamon; Otho manuscript Bennett, Judith M., 8 Brutus, fi rst king of Britain, 13, 24, Benton, John F., 22 46–8 Beowulf, 106 see also Innogin INDEX 187

Bryan, Elizabeth J., 157–8 n1, 161 n1, Cohen, Jeff rey Jerome, 3–4, 46, 48, 161 n2 156 n109, 156 n115, 163 n25 Conanus, (with Cadualadrus) a Cador deliverer of Britain, 132 in HRB, , 29–32, Concerning the Deeds of the Britons, 36, 64, 93, 128, 152 n78, see De gestis Britonum; 155 n99 Historia regum Britanniae in LB, earl of Cornwall, 93 Consolatio philosophiae, 126 in RB, count of Cornwall, 63, 64, Constans, king of Britain, 84 68, 159 n14 Constantin II, king of Britain, 84 Cadualadrus, last king of Britain, 32 Constantinople, 41, 157 n129 as deliverer of Britain (with Constantinus III, king of Britain, son Conanus), 132 of Duke Cador of Cornwall, , a deliverer of the Welsh, 31–2, 36, 128, 152 n78 126 “Conversation of Myrddin and His Caerleon, 3, 13, 31, 37–9, 61, 62, 65, Sister Gwenddydd,” see Cyfoesi 68, 74, 154 n91 Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei chwaer Caliburn, 109 “Conversation of Myrddin and Caligula manuscript, 83, 161 n1, Taliesin,” see Ymddiddan 161–2 n2 Myrddin a Thaliesin see also Brut; Laȝamon; Otho Cooper, Helen, 4, 142 n17, 142 n19, manuscript 142 n20 Camblan, 128 Cordeilla, female king of Britain, 6, , 118 18, 24, 26, 33, 41, 44, 129, Causae et curae, 149 n31, 149 n36 144 n44, 150 n54, 154 n90, Charles-Edwards, Thomas, 15, 167 n58, 168 n81 146 n1, 147 n4 , leader of Trojan exiles, 46 chevalier de la charrette, see Lancelot Cornwall, 30, 38, 92, 128 Chrétien de Troyes, 19, 147 n16, coronation oaths, 38, 153 n87 153 n80 Cotentin peninsula, 53 see also Cligès; Erec et Enide; Lancelot counter-hero, see female Christine de Pizan, 11 counter-heroes Chronica majora, 151 n66 courtly love, 19, 29, 37 Church of Aaron the Martyr, 39 see also , in RB; Uther Church of Julius the Martyr, 35, Pendragon, in RB 39, 40 Crown, see Diu Crône City of Legions, 35 Cumbria, 119 see also Caerleon Cunedagius, 168 n81 Clarke, Basil, 115, 118, 122, 131, 135, see also Marganus 136, 164 n9, 164–5 n14, 165 n15, Curley, Michael J., 164–5 n14, 165 n34, 166 n53, 169 n100 167 n64, 169 n101 Cligès, 147 n16 Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd ei chwaer, see also Chrétien de Troyes; Erec et 14, 115–18, 124–6, 136–7, Enide; Lancelot 164–5 n14, 165 n15, 165 n16 Coel, king of Britain, 122 Cynan, a deliverer of the Welsh, 126 188 INDEX

David, king of Israel, 2, 57 Europe, 27, 44, 45, 61, 62, 84, 92 De excidio Britonum, 16, 151 n66 Evans, Ruth, 9 see also Gildas Eve, 73, 151 n66 De gestis Britonum, 14, 15, 26, 38, 45, Excalibur, 130 53, 55, 111, 113 see also Geoff rey of Monmouth; Faerie Queene, 142 n20 Historia regum Britanniae; fairies, 84, 88 Vita Merlini female counter-heroes, 7, 121, 130–1, Delany, Sheila, 11 140, 144 n36, 166 n45 Demetia, 38 female counter-heroines, 144 n36 Denmark, 31 female fi gures Devil, 99, 130 Galfridian, 2–8, 10, 12–16, 18, Dido, 119, 166 n39 20, 21, 27–30, 38–41, 43–6, Dionotus’s daughter, 51, 156–7 n124 48, 53, 55, 69, 70, 74–6, 82, Diu Crône, 128 93, 104, 111–13, 118, 120–2, , archbishop of Caerleon 125–8, 129, 130, 134–5, 137, in HRB, 27, 65, 67 139–40, 167 n58 in LB (Saint Dubric), 94, 96 Laȝamon’s, 55, 84, 93, 95, 104, in RB (Dubric), 94 111–12, 157–8 n1 duchess of Brittany, in Morte Wacean, 55, 60, 67–70, 74, 82, Darthur, 112 111–12, 157–8 n1 female heroes, 7, 13, 16, 46, 48, 51–3, Echard, Siân, 13, 18, 25, 28, 115, 55, 75–6, 78, 80, 108, 113, 125, 126, 152 n69, 156 n108, 121, 130–1, 139, 140, 166 n45 157 n130, 164 n14 see also heroism Eden, 127, 129 female king-candidates, 29, 122, 140, Edward I, king of England, 26 150 n54 Edwards, Cyril, 84 female kings, 5–6, 9–10, 18, 29, 30–1, Egyptians, 52 33, 40, 44, 52, 53, 113, 140, Elaine, daughter of King Pelles, 150 n54 148 n28 female prophets, 2, 118, 124–5, Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of 131–7, 139 England, 56, 70, 74, 75, feminist, use of the term, 1, 2, 8–12, 151 n66, 161 n1 14, 16 Eleine, daughter of Howel, 103–9, feminist-historicist approach, 1, 2–3, 111, 112, 163 n20 5, 6–8 Eleine, niece of , 75–80 feminist movement, 8–9, 10–11 England, 2, 6, 42, 44, 56, 74, 75, 87, feminist studies, 8 111, 112, 115, 140, 145–6 n59, Ferreux, brother of King Porrex of 150 n54, 150 n59, 151 n62, Britain, 168 n81 153 n87 see also Iudon; Porrex English Channel, 31 Finke, Laurie A., 6, 75–6, 156 n109 Erec et Enide, 2, 130 First Variant see also Chrétien de Troyes; Cligès; compared to HRB, 25–6, 111–12, Lancelot 158 n6, 160 n23 INDEX 189

compared to RB, 77–9, 81, and medieval Latin, 1 158–9 n10 and the Normans, 41, 44, 135–6 as source for RB, 55, 57, 74 residence in Saint George’s Fortunate Island, 129 College, Oxford, 114, 125 see also Avalon treatment of female fi gures, 18, France, 12, 32, 44, 59, 60, 62, 75, 89, 21, 24–5, 29, 42, 51, 118, 135, 154 n90 133–5, 137 French treatment of Merlin theme, 114 as a language, 14, 128, 147–8 n16 use of Welsh literature, 115, 121, as a people, 24 124–6, 131, 136–7 see also Angevins; Normans writing , 19, 46, 50, 115, 119, French literature, 3, 5, 19, 20, 36, 37, 121, 123 48, 130, 150 n60, 152 n76 see also De gestis Britonum; Historia Fries, Maureen, 2, 7, 8, 12, 18, 33, regum Britanniae; Vita Merlini 35, 38, 43, 46, 52, 92, 93, 129, Germany, 31 130, 134, 151 n65, 152 n75, Gesta regum Anglorum, 151 n66 152 n78, 153 n86, 155 n95, Geta, king of Britain, 18, 168 n81 157–8 n1, 166 n45 see also Bassianus Fulk of Anjou, 37 Gewissa, queen of Britain, 6, 167 n58 Giant of Mont Saint-Michel, 3, 13, Galahad, son of Lancelot, 148 n28 35, 45–53, 75–82, 104–10, Galfridian studies, 6 112, 156 n112, 160 n32, Gallic provinces, 31 160 n36, 161 n41 Ganhumara, see Guenevere, in HRB Giants’ Ring, 17, 51 Ganieda, sister of Merlinus, 14, 113, Gildas, 16, 164 n9, 166 n53 115, 117–26, 129, 131–7, 139, see also De excidio Britonum 169 n101 Ginover, see Guenevere, in Lanzelet , nephew of Arthur God, 27, 32, 44, 47, 50, 71, 76, 92, in HRB (Gualguainus), 26, 34 101, 117, 125, 126, 162 n11 in LB (Walwain), 90, 91–2, 97–8, Goemagog, a giant, 46 99, 101, 162 n11 in RB (Walwein), 63 in HRB, duke of Cornwall, 21, Gawain-poet, 15 22, 36 gender roles, 8, 9–14, 23–5, 53, 104, in LB, earl of Cornwall, 85–8 108, 111–12, 133, 140 in RB, count of Cornwall, 57–8 gender studies, 3, 29 Gotland, 30, 31 Genuevre, see Guenevere, in RB Gottlieb, Beatrice, 11, 12 Geoff rey of Monmouth Gransden, Antonia, 6, 36, 106 and the Arthurian tradition, 15, Great Saint Bernard Pass, 89 111–12, 113 Grendel, 106 diatribe against civil war, 136 Gualguainus, see Gawain, in HRB as feminist, 1, 7–12, 16–17, 21, Guendoloena, queen and later king 139–40 of Britain, wife of Locrinus, feminist sympathies of, 21, 27, 29, 3, 18, 26, 44, 129, 144 n44, 75, 111, 118 150 n54, 154 n90, 167 n58 190 INDEX

Guendoloena, wife of Merlinus, Hengistus, Saxon leader, 17 118–19, 121–3, 139, 165 n34, Henry I, king of England, 6, 16, 166 n49, 166 n50 31, 33, 34, 40, 44, 53, Guenevere, queen of Britain, 4, 14, 154 n91 37, 55, 75, 143 n25, 150 n52, Henry II, king of England, 24, 70, 74, 163 n32 75, 137, 161 n1 in Chrétien’s Lancelot, 29, 37, Henry III, king of England, 161 n1 150 n52, 153 n80 Henry of Blois, bishop of in French prose romances, 37, 130, Winchester, 74 150 n60 Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, in HRB (Ganhumara), 3–4, 5, 6, 42, 44 13, 28–44, 47, 55, 64, 66, 69, Heroides, 119, 166 n39 70, 73–5, 95, 98, 122, 139, heroines 150 n52, 151 n65, 151 n68, classical, 119 152 n74, 152 n75, 166 n48 romance, 7, 56–8, 121 in Lanzelet (Ginover), 37 heroism in LB (Wenhauer), 92–103, 111, Galfridian, 13, 16, 27, 35, 46, 47–8, 157–8 n1 55, 75, 76, 80–2, 113, 140 in mort le roi Artu, 37 male heroism, traditional, 7, in Morte Darthur, 29, 37, 112, 13–14, 16, 46–7, 48, 51–3, 82, 144 n36, 150 n52 110, 119 in RB (Genuevre), 60–1, 64–7, see also female heroes 69–75, 92, 98, 103, 150 n58, Hildegard of Bingen, see Causae et 157–8 n1, 159 n11, 159 n12 curae in Stanzaic Morte Arthur, 37 Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, 15, Guiomar, lover of Morgan, 130 151 n66 Guithelinus, king of Britain, 18 Historia regum Britanniae Gwenddydd, sister of Myrddin, and Arthurian fi lm, 146–7 n2 115–18, 137 Arthurian section of, 1, 3–5, 7, 13, Gwynedd, 137 15–53, 55, 65, 83, 84, 111–12, 113, 125, 139–40 Hades, 123 audience of, 40–1, 42–4, 47 Heinrich von dem Türlin, Bern manuscript of, 25 see Diu Crône compared to FV, 25–6, 111–12, Helena, daughter of Coel, 122, 158 n6, 160 n23 128, 130, 150 n54, 166 n46, compared to HRB Bern, 25 168 n72 compared to LB, 105, 111–12 Helena, niece of Hoelus, 3, 13, compared to RB, 67, 74, 76, 79, 45–51, 53, 55, 75, 76–80, 80–1, 111 106, 112, 139, 160 n32, compared to VM, 129, 131, 132, 163 n20 136 Helena’s Tomb, 51, 157 n127 and courtliness, 19, 28 Heng, Geraldine, 21, 37, 51, 148 n27, date completed, 1, 29, 41, 141 n3 156 n109, 156 n112, 157 n129, dedication, 34, 38, 44, 114, 160 n32 152 n71, 153–4 n87 INDEX 191

infl uence on contemporary Irish, 35 Arthuriana, 15, 146–7 n2 Iudon, mother of Ferreux male kingship in, 2, 13, 16, 17–29, and Porrex, 2 46, 52–3 see also Ferreux; Porrex non-Arthurian portion of, 1, 3, 18, 39, 51, 113, 122, 140 Jaeger, C. Stephen, 29 prologue, 19 Jarman, A. O. H., 116, 117, reception of, 1–6 164–5 n14, 166 n44 similarities to VM, 113–15, 128, Jerome, see Adversus Jovinianum 129, 137, 139–40 Jesus Christ, 23, 125 as source for LB, 83–5 John of Fordun, see Scotichronicon as source for RB, 55, 74 Johnson, Lesley, 9 see also De gestis Britonum; Geoff rey Judas, 103 of Monmouth; Vita Merlini Julius the Martyr, see Church of Julius historicism, 7 the Martyr historiography Augustinian, 2 Kay, seneschal of Arthur insular, 2, 140 in HRB (Kaius), 41, 46 History of the Kings of Britain, see in LB (Kay), 96, 105 Historia regum Britanniae in RB (Kei, count of Hoel, ruler of Brittany Angers), 70 in HRB (Hoelus, duke [sometimes Keller, Hans-Erich, 73 called king] of Brittany), 3, 47 Kelly, Joan, 11 in LB (Howel, ruler of Brittany), Kennedy, Edward Donald, 32 104, 105 kingship, see female kings; Historia in RB (Hoel, king of Brittany), regum Britanniae, male 76–8 kingship in Hoff man, Donald L., 7–8, 144 n36 Knight, Stephen, 3, 152 n74 Hugh Le Puiset, lord of Jaff a, 37 Korrel, Peter, 35

Iceland, 30, 31 Lacy, Norris J., 44 Igraine, duchess of Cornwall, then Lady/Ladies of the Lake, 130 queen of Britain Lady Philosophy, 126 in HRB (Igerna), 3, 6, 13, 18–26, Lailoken, 121, 164 n9, 164 n13, 28–30, 36, 38, 41, 55–8, 60, 166 n43, 166 n44 75, 85, 139 Lancelot, lover of Guenevere, 112, 130, in LB (Igærne), 85–8 144 n36, 148 n28, 153 n80 in RB (Ygerne), 21, 56–8, 149 n35, Lancelot, Vulgate Cycle, 158 n4 150 n60 incubi, 126–7 Lancelot (Le chevalier de la charrette), 37, Inferno, 133, 169 n98 153 n80 Innogin, fi rst queen of Britain, wife see also Chrétien de Troyes; Cligès; of Brutus, 2, 6, 24, 47 Erec et Enide see also Brutus Lanzelet, 37 Ireland, 17, 30, 31, 59, 89, 150 n59 Larrington, Carolyne, 135 192 INDEX

“Laüstic,” 158 n3 135–7, 140, 145 n59, 150 n54, Laȝamon, 13, 14, 30, 36, 53, 55, 83, 150 n56, 151 n62, 151 n66, 84, 87, 92, 98–9, 102, 106, 153 n87, 155 n102 150 n58, 161 n1, 162 n9 matriline, 17–18, 26, 27, 90 see also Brut; Caligula manuscript; Maximianus, king of Britain, 18 Otho manuscript McCracken, Peggy, 36, 75, 152 n76 Le Saux, Françoise H. M., 152 n70, Medea, 130 157–8 n1, 162 n7, 162 n9 Melisende, queen of Jerusalem, 37 Leir, king of Britain, 4, 18, 24, Merean, king of Britain, 63 142 n20, 154 n90, 168 n81 Merlin Life of Merlin, see Vita Merlini in HRB (Merlinus), 17–18, Lincoln, 135 21, 113, 114, 146–7 n2, livre de la cité des dames, 11 164 n6 Llachau, son of Arthur, 32 in LB (Merlin), 86–90, 110 Llallawg, 116 legend, development of, 115, see also Merlin 163 n1, 164 n4, 164 n7, Locrinus, king of Britain, 154 n90 164 n8, 164 n9, 164 n13, London, 17, 128 166 n40, 166 n44, 167 n66, Lot, king of Lothian 169 n103 in HRB (Loth), 26 Merlin Ambrosius, 114, 164 n9 in LB (Lot), 90–2, 97 Merlin Calidonius, 164 n9 in RB (Loth), 59 Merlin Silvester, 114, 164 n9 in Scotichronicon (Lot), 26 in Morte Darthur, 140 Lothian, 90 prophecy of the comet Louis VII, king of France, 75 in HRB (Merlinus), 17–18, 26, Lucius Hiberius, procurator of 27, 34, 59 Rome, 36, 45 in LB (Merlin), 89–90 in RB (Merlin), 60 Maeldinus, friend of Merlinus, in RB (Merlin), 57, 60 127, 132 in VM (Merlinus), 4, 14, 114–15, Malory, Sir Thomas, 15, 112, 140 118–29, 131–4, 136, 139, see also Morte Darthur 167 n66 Marcia, queen and later king of in Welsh tradition (Myrddin), Britain, wife of Guithelinus, 116–18, 125, 126, 164 n9, 18, 26, 44, 122, 128–30, 164 n13 144 n44, 150 n54, 166 n46, Metamorphoses, 129 168 n72 “Milun,” 158 n3 Marganus, 168 n81 , 126 see also Cunedagius Mont Saint-Michel, 46, 51, 53, 76 Marguerite de Navarre, 11 Mont Saint-Michel, Giant of, Marie de France, 19, 56, 147–8 n16 see Giant of Mont see also “Laüstic”; “Milun” Saint-Michel Matilda, Holy Roman Empress, 6, Mont Saint-Michel episode, 45, 46, 7, 13, 14, 19, 24, 29–31, 34, 48, 49, 52, 53, 75, 76, 79–81, 38, 40–4, 53, 68, 113, 114, 103, 105–8, 122, 139 INDEX 193

Mordred, nephew of Arthur, 14 of Eleine, niece of Hoel, 75–81 in HRB (Modredus), 3, 5, 26, 30, of Helena, niece of Hoelus, 13, 32–7, 45, 47, 72–4, 122, 139, 45–53, 55, 75–6, 80, 112, 122, 151 n65, 152 n72, 166 n47, 139, 166 n48 168 n81 in LB (Modred), 90, 97–103, 111 Octa, son of Hengistus, 17 in RB (Modret), 63–5, 71–5, 97, Octavius, king of Britain, 18 159 n12, 160 n20 Octavius’s daughter, 18, 150 n54 sons of, 32 (in HRB), 65 (in RB) Orkneys, 30, 31 Morgan le Fay, 2, 127–8, 131 Orpheus, 123 in French romances, 130 Otho manuscript, 83, 161–2 n2 in Morte Darthur, 130, 144 n36 see also Brut; Caligula manuscript; in Sir Gawain and the , Laȝamon 130 Ovid, see Heroides; Metamorphoses in VM (Morgen), 4, 14, 113, 118, Owain, a deliverer of the Welsh, 126 127–31, 134–5, 139 Owen, D. D. R., 75 Morris, Rosemary, 16, 18–19 Oxford, 114, 135, 167 n64 mort le roi Artu, 37 Morte Darthur Padel, O. J., 114, 164 n9, 164 n13, female fi gures in, 7–8, 112 164–5 n14, 166 n40, 167 n66 Guenevere, studies of, 29, 150 n52 pagans, 17, 28, 35, 156–7 n124, Guenevere, treatment of, 37, 112, 169 n100 144 n36 Partner, Nancy F., 8 Morgan le Fay, treatment of, 130, Paton, Lucy Allen, 118, 120, 124, 144 n36 125, 132 Nimüe, treatment of, 140 patriline, 27, 90 and popular Arthuriana, 15 Patterson, Lee, 2, 7 rape, treatment of, 112, 148 n28 Phyllis, 119, 166 n39 and romance tradition, 142 n20 Pickens, Rupert T., 14, 48, 50, 78, 80, scholarship on, 15, 29 81, 160 n33, 161 n37 tower episode in, 37, 153 n82 , 27, 35 Myrddin, see Merlin, in Welsh political prophecy, 1 tradition Porrex, king of Britain, 168 n81 see also Ferreux; Iudon New Historicism, 7 postcolonial studies, 3, 29 Nimüe, 140 prefeminist, as a term, 9 Normans, 6, 22–3, 31, 32, 33–4, 38, profeminine, as a term, 9–10 40–4, 68, 83, 131–2, 135–7, Prophecies of Merlin, see Prophetiae 150–1 n62, 154 n91, 154 n93, Merlini 154 n94 “Prophecy of Myrddin and Norway, 31, 91 Gwenddydd, His Sister,” see Norwegians, 91 Cyfoesi Myrddin a Gwenddydd nursemaid ei chwaer of Eleine, daughter of Howel, Prophetiae Merlini, 114, 115, 142 n19, 103–9, 111, 112 156 n108, 164 n6 194 INDEX querelle des femmes, 11 Rome, 33, 39–41, 45, 52, 63, 84, queste del Saint Graal, 53, 112, 98–101, 110, 147 n16, 157 n132 157 n129 Ronwein, daughter of Hengistus rape, victims of, 3, 13, 34–7, 45, 49, and wife of King Vortegirnus, 55, 75–80, 82, 103–8, 111–12, 2, 6 139, 151 n67, 152 n72 Rudel, Jaufré, 14, 19 Rhydderch the Generous, 116 see also “Belhs m’es l’estuis e l temps Riothamus, possible origin of Arthur fl oritz” legend, 146 n1 Rydderch, king of Cambria, 118 Ritho(n), a giant in HRB, 47, 82 Saint Dubric, see Dubricius, in LB in RB, 81, 82 Saint George’s College, Oxford, 114 Robert, earl of Gloucester, 34, 38, Saint Michael, 46 41, 44, 114, 135, 152 n71, Samples, Susann T., 5, 143 n24 153–4 n87 Saracens, 52, 156 n112 Robert Curthose, duke of Sargent-Baur, Barbara N., 62, Normandy, 53 152 n79, 153 n85 Robert de Chesney, bishop of Satan, 57 Lincoln, 114, 125 Saxons, 17, 27, 35, 83, 84 Rodarchus, king of Cumbria, 119–21, Scotichronicon, 26 124, 125, 131 Scotland, 20, 26, 31, 38, 60 roman de Brut, 13 Scots, 26, 27, 35, 91, 92, 118, Arthurian section of, 7, 162 n11 55–82, 84 Shichtman, Martin B., 6, 75–6, compared with FV, 77–9, 81, 156 n109 158–9 n10 Shwartz, Susan M., 2, 52, 157 n129 compared with HRB, 77, 79, 81, Sicily, 41 111–12 Sidonius Apollinaris, 146 n1 courtliness in, 64–5 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, 130 FV as source for, 55, 57, 74 Southampton, 30 non-Arthurian portion of, 63 Spenser, Edmund, see Faerie Queene see also roman de rou; Wace Stanzaic Morte Arthur, 37, 153 n82 roman de la rose, 11 Stephen of Blois, king of England, roman de rou, 75 34, 36, 41, 68, 114, 135, 136, see also roman de Brut; Wace 153–54 n87, 154 n93 roman d’Eneas, 2, 24 Stock, Lorraine Kochanske, 114–15 Roman Empire, 2, 43, 157 n129 , see Giants’ Ring romance, genre of, 1, 4–5, 19–20, Supplice, Pope, 91 24–5, 29, 36, 37, 48–9, 56, 57, 112, 113–14, 119, 122, 128, Tatlock, J. S. P., 5–6, 38, 154 n91, 130, 135, 142 n20, 148 n27, 156 n109 152 n76, 156 n115, 163 n2 Telgesinus, companion of Merlinus Romans, 29, 30, 44, 45, 52, 92, in VM, 124, 126–8, 129, 132, 134, 155 n99 167 n66 INDEX 195

in Welsh tradition (Taliesin), 126, commonalities with HRB, 113–15, 167 n66 128, 136, 137, 139–40 Thorpe, Lewis, 51, 157 n127 compared to HRB, 1, 129, 131–2 , 21, 22, 86, 88 date completed, 1 Tiresias, 133, 169 n98 dedication, 114 Tolstoy, Nikolai, 135, 164–5 n14, female fi gures in, 8, 10, 12, 14, 165 n34 113, 118–37, 139–40, 166 n41, Tonwenna, mother of Belinus 169 n101 and Brennius, 2–3, 6, 122, feminist-historicist reading 166 n48, 167 n58 of, 2 see also Belinus; Brennius reception of, 1, 4, 113–14, 142 n19, Treaty of Winchester, 114, 147 n10 163 n2 Troy legend, 142 n20 in this study, 7–8, 13 Twomey, Michael, 128, 129 and Welsh literary tradition, 115–18, 125–6, 131, 136–7, Ulfi n, advisor to Uther, 21, 86, 87 139, 166 n43, 166 n44, Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, 167 n64, 167 n66, see Lanzelet 169 n100 uncourtly love, 16, 19 Vortigern, king of Britain Urianus, king of Moray and brother and early modern drama of Loth, 26 (Vortiger), 141 n2 Uther Pendragon in HRB (Vortegirnus), 2, 18, 25, and early modern drama, 141 n2 114, 132, 155 n95 in HRB (Uther), 3, 16, 18–29, 30, Vortimerius, king of Britain, 132 36, 38, 41, 45, 46, 55, 58, Vulgate version, see Historia regum 75, 125, 132, 139, 148 n24, Britanniae 148 n27, 149 n35, 155 n95 in LB (Uðer), 83, 85–91 Wace, 13, 14, 30, 36, 53, 55, 60, in RB (Uther), 56–8, 64, 91, 74–5, 82, 99, 106, 149 n35, 158 n4 150 n58, 158 n4, 158 n7, 159 n11, 159 n12, 159 n14, Variant version, see First Variant 160 n20, 160 n36 Variant-redactor, 25, 57, 77–9, 81, see also roman de Brut; roman 111, 112, 158 n6, 158–9 n10, de rou 160 n23 Waleran, count of Meulan, 152 n71, Venedotia, 38 153–4 n87 Vielhauer-Pfeiff er, Inge, 133, 137, Wales, 116, 118, 126, 167 n64 165 n38 Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, 34 Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 11 Walters, Lori J., 4–5 vir modestus, 16, 20, 27, 51, 76, 81, 82, Walwain, see Gawain, in LB 84, 104, 111 Walwein, see Gawain, in RB Virgil, see Aeneid Warren, Michelle R., 3, 72, 106, Virgin Mary, 11 151–2 n69, 156 n109, 161 n41, Vita Merlini 163 n20 and Arthurian fi lm, 146–7 n2 Warren, W. L., 147 n10 196 INDEX

Weinberg, S. Carole, 92, 103, 104, Winchester, 20, 35, 73, 102, 111, 135, 157–8 n1, 161 n1, 162 n9, 136, 152 n72 162–3 n15 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 11 Weiss, Judith, 14, 76, 148 n24, Wulf, Charlotte A. T., 157–8 n1, 149 n35, 151 n67, 152 n72, 159 n11, 159 n12, 159 n17, 157 n128, 158 n2, 158 n7, 160 n20 158–9 n10, 159 n16 Wenhauer, see Guenevere, in LB Ygerne, see Igraine, in RB Wheeler, Bonnie, 16 Ymddiddan Myrddin a Thaliesin, 126, William of Malmesbury, 151 n62 167 n66 William Rufus, king of England, 53 York, 26, 28, 35, 73