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Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page I 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page i IRANUnderstanding 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page ii BOOKS BY WILLIAM R. POLK Backdrop to Tragedy: The Struggle for Palestine (with David Stamler and Edmund Asfour) The Opening of South Lebanon 1788–1840: A Study of the Impact of the West on the Middle East The United States and the Arab World The Arab World The Arab World Today Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East (editor with Richard Chambers) The Elusive Peace: The Middle East in the Twentieth Century The Golden Ode (translator) Passing Brave (with William Mares) Neighbors and Strangers: The Fundamentals of Foreign Affairs Understanding Iraq Out of Iraq: A Practical Plan for Withdrawal Now (with George McGovern) Polk’s Folly: An American Family History Personal History: Living in Interesting Times The Birth of America The Diary of President James K. Polk (editor) 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page iii IRANUnderstanding EVERYTHING YOU NEED TO KNOW, FROM PERSIA TO THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC, FROM CYRUS TO AHMADINEJAD WILLIAM R. POLK 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page iv UNDERSTANDING IRAN Copyright © William R. Polk, 2009. All rights reserved. First published in 2009 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe, and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe, and other countries. ISBN 978-0-230-61678-3 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Polk, William Roe, 1929– Understanding Iran : everything you need to know, from Persia to the Islamic Republic, from Cyrus to Ahmadinejad / William R. Polk. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-230-61678-X 1. Iran—History. I. Title. DS272.P65 2009 955—dc22 2009035743 A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Letra Libre, Inc. First edition: November 2009 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America. 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page v For Monique and Raja Ann and Brican ✞ Bibi and Gabriel Liv and Donald Jane and Hugh Mary and David ✞ Nahed and Amr Beloved friends all. This page intentionally left blank 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page vii CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix A Few Words on Words xi Foreword xiii One Becoming Iranian 1 Two Being Iranian 33 Three Shahs, Ulama, and Western Powers 57 Four From Political Revolution through Social Revolution to Violent Revolution 87 Five The Revolutionary Regime 129 Six The United States and Iran Today 169 Afterword 205 Notes 215 Index 239 This page intentionally left blank 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS n the more than half a century during which I have visited, read about, and relished Iran, I have incurred debts to scores of people. My first visit to Iran was in 1956 with Khodadad Farmanfarmaian, who made me an honorary brother of his large family and gave me my first taste of Persian culture. Later, as head of the Plan Organization, he did much Ito shape modern Iran. Cyrus Ghani, also a friend since the 1950s, when he was Iran’s greatest bibliophile, kindly read sections of this book. My State De- partment colleague,William Miller, slated to be ambassador to Iran if the hostage crisis was solved, and Kenneth Hansen, a fellow member of the “Iran Task Force,” were constantly stimulating. Roy Mottahadeh, briefly my stu- dent and later professor of history at Harvard, wrote the best book on Iran- ian Shiism, The Mantle of the Prophet. From Peter Avery, Laurence Lockhart, John Bulliet, Charles Issawi, Nikki Keddie, Joseph Upton, Leonard Binder, John Woods, Marvin Zonis, Donald Wilber, Jahangir Amuzegar, and Richard Frye, each of whom has been a colleague at various times, conferences, and organizations over the many years, I have profited greatly. Juni Farmanfar- maian Ardelan and Farhad Diba checked my transliterations from the Farsi. Finally, I cannot fail to mention Sion Soleimany, my teacher in the fine art of Persian carpets. I have been fortunate to be able to visit Iran frequently, to travel extensively throughout the country, and to discuss and negotiate with many of the major figures of modern Iran. I end by seeking refuge, to para- phrase the common Muslim remark, in a statement by that great scholar on Iran, Edward G. Browne: “that he who would write a flawless book writes nothing [but] even the most imperfect book, [may] prepare the way for a better.” William R. Polk This page intentionally left blank 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page xi A FEW WORDS ON WORDS uring the two thousand years covered in this book, the Iranians spoke, wrote, and read a number of languages and dialects from four of the great “families.” The first literate inhabitants in Elam used a language Dfrom the Dravidian family; then came the Indo-European peoples from Cen- tral Asia whom Herodotus knew as the Medes and the Persians; next a peo- ple speaking a Semitic language, the Arabs, invaded and occupied Iran; and finally, over the last thousand years, another Central Asian people, the Turks, brought into Iran a language of the family linguists call East Asian or Ural- Altaic.1 Dravidian almost completely died out, at least in Iran, but the other languages interacted, borrowing from one another, changing intonation, re- defining concepts, and becoming specialized. This diversity and change offer fascinating insights into culture and history, but make difficult the attain- ment of clarity in writing. There is no easy way to overcome this problem. What I have done here is not a perfect solution, but it is the best I could devise. For the early period, I have used the method of transliterating words from ancient languages that is standard in The Cambridge History of Iran. The few Turkish or Azari words I have kept I have written in the modern Turkish spellings. It is Arabic and Persian (Farsi) that present the challenge. In the Middle Ages, Iranian scholars often wrote in Arabic, and Arabic has remained the liturgical language of Islam. As the language in which the Quran was written, it was at the medium of Iranian intellectual exchange over the last thousand years. To thoroughly understand the Quran, scholars, jurists, and moralists believed that they had not only to master its text but also to probe into the vast corpus of pre-Islamic literature. (A parallel attempt to 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page xii IRAN xii Understanding understand more fully the Old Testament, incidentally, was what motivated eighteenth-century European scholars to study Arabic, which they thought to be a “primitive” form of Hebrew.) Among the members of the Iranian Shia religious establishment, the ulama, Arabic also came to be the preferred language of communication. So when I refer to religious matters, I use a simplified transliteration—that is, I omit the diacritical marks that stand for letters that do not occur in English but write the words as they sound in Arabic. Modern Persian, Farsi, contains a large number of Arabic words and is written in a modified form of the Arabic script. But many of the words are differently pronounced so that several Arabic letters take on modified sounds. For example, the Arabic q is pronounced “gh” so that an underground irri- gation canal, which is written in the Arabic/Persian script as Qanat, becomes in the spoken form Ghanat; the Arabic u becomes the Persian o so that Muharram, the first month of the Islamic lunar year, becomes Moharram; and the Arabic i becomes the Persian e so that the spiritual guide, the Arabic Murshid, is pronounced Morshed. When the words are distinctively Iranian, for figures such as the molla (a low-ranking religious figure), concepts such as moghaled (“to be required to accept the judgment or ruling of a senior religious figure”), or offices such as the Marja-e Taghlid (the ultimate religious authority), I use the standard form of Farsi transliteration. And for names and offices that have been “Englished,” I write as they appear in the media, so the former Iranian prime minister is Muhammad Mossadegh. But this is a book on history and not on language. So, while linguists may argue over the niceties of transliteration, they need not disturb the read- ers for whom I am writing. I mention them here only so that readers will not be confused if they see Farsi words spelled differently in other books. The spelling differences are minor and can easily be spotted. 01 Polk text REV:Polk_Understanding Iran 9/9/09 12:24 PM Page xiii FOREWORD uring the Cold War, mathematicians and economists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) were searching for a means to understand and evaluate trends and events in the conflict. Bor- Drowing from the German army, they hit on the “war game,” the kriegspiel. What the German General Staff used for essentially tactical military simula- tions, they elaborated to deal with politics as well as military confrontations.
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