Economic Sovereignty in Iran Vis-À-Vis the Soviet Union, 1921-1946

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Economic Sovereignty in Iran Vis-À-Vis the Soviet Union, 1921-1946 Economic Sovereignty in Iran vis-à-vis the Soviet Union, 1921-1946 by Mary Yoshinari A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Mary Yoshinari (2018) Economic Sovereignty in Iran vis-à-vis the Soviet Union, 1921-1946 Mary Ann Hiloko Yoshinari Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto 2018 Abstract My dissertation analyzes Iran’s national economy vis-à-vis the Soviet Union and global conditions. In Chapter I, I elucidate the importance of legislation enacted by the Iranian Parliament in preparation for studies of the country’s economy and subsequent measures for the establishment of state economic institutions during the second half of the 1920s. At the same time, I discuss ongoing trade relations with the Soviet Union and their impact on Iran’s economy. In Chapter II, I link the formation of domestic monopolies and other enterprises with state banking institutions and corporations. Moreover, I show how fundamental shifts in trade relations with the Soviet Union had shaped these developments in the early 1930s. In Chapter III, I demonstrate that changes in the Iranian government’s political landscape and the further capitalization of national banks resulted in the expansion of industrialization from 1934 onwards, as well as the fusion of the trade monopoly system with the corporations, and the increasing centralization of domestic capital. Finally, in Chapter IV, I explain how the foreign occupation of Iran, including that of the USSR, had been preceded by the consolidation of state institutions, and then led to increasing cooperation between disparate Iranian statesmen in an effort to regain autonomy over the country’s economic affairs in 1941-46. Conversely, there were a promising signs of regeneration during this tumultuous period, particularly with regard to Iranian industry and the monopoly system, which were both indicative of future developments in the postwar period. ii Acknowledgements I am indebted to Professor Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi, my Dissertation Supervisor, as well as my other Committee Members, Professor Jennifer Jenkins and Professor Thomas Lahusen. Likewise, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my External Examiners, Professor Hadi Salehi Esfahani at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and Professor James Reilly and Professor Lynne Viola at the University of Toronto. Also, my special thanks to the Late Professor Amir Hassanpour and Professor Victor Ostapchuk in the University of Toronto’s Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, as well as Askari Husain, Hormoz Khakpour, Lari Langford, Anne-Marie Crotty, Lyle Davis, Dylan Ryske, and other staff at Robarts Library. Moreover, I am extremely grateful to Dr. Ali Tatari at the Library, Museum and Document Center of the Iranian Parliament, Mr. Mahmoud Esmaeilnia at the Center for Documents and the History of Diplomacy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Iran, and Ms. Hoorieh Saeidi at the National Library and Archives of Iran, as well as the Russian State Archives of the Economy, and Socio- Political History, and the State Archive of the Russian Federation. My doctoral research has been funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, as well as the Department of History and the School of Graduate Studies at the University of Toronto. iii Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii Introduction: Summary of the Argument and Historiography .........................................................1 Chapter I: Organization, Preparation, and Legislation, 1920s .......................................................22 Chapter II: Monopolization, Commercialization, and Financialization, 1920s-30s ......................65 Chapter III: Industrialization, Corporatization, and Centralization, 1930s .................................107 Chapter IV: Consolidation, Cooperation, and Regeneration, 1940s ............................................149 Conclusion: Reflections on Iran’s National Economy, 1921-46 .................................................191 Selected Primary Sources ............................................................................................................196 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................197 iv 1 Introduction This dissertation analyzes the establishment of Iran’s national economy from 1921 to 1946, which spanned the challenging, yet opportune, years of the interwar period and the Second World War. Most notably, it demonstrates that such economic development, particularly of Iran’s foreign trade monopoly and state corporations, was shaped in many ways by interactions with the Soviet Union. This corporate-monopoly system that arose in this period was also concrete evidence of the Iranian government’s increasing centralization of political power, economic resources, and domestic capital, as well as a broadening of the state’s partnerships with trusted economic actors, including local merchants and other entrepreneurs from the Chambers of Commerce. Moreover, the Iranian government looked increasingly outward for new export markets and sources of imports for its growing industries during the interwar period. The dissertation argues that these advances were largely driven by a small group of Iranian statesmen, especially Reza Shah Pahlavi, but also by those in his inner circle: Abdolhossein Teymurtash, and ʿAli Akbar Davar, who rose to prominence in the second half of the 1920s—in tandem with the Iranian Parliament (Majlis). As shown in the following study, the structure proved durable. Even without these drivers of modernization, Iran’s economic infrastructure remained more or less intact during the early 1940s and the Second World War. The last chapter of the dissertation shows how it withstood the pressures of the Allied occupation while being expanded by these same forces. Likewise, its institutional apparatus was gradually revived during and after the war thanks to the coordinated efforts of disparate Iranian politicians, such as Ahmad Qavam, Mohammad Saʿid, Abolhassan Ebtehaj, Hossein ʿAlaʾ, and Mohammad Mossadegh. Summary of the Argument As illustrated in Chapter I, “Organization, Preparation, and Legislation,” the relationship with the Soviet Union was fundamentally important to Iran’s economic development from the start. The 1921 Friendship Treaty with the Soviets set the wheels into motion for the emergence of Iran’s national economy. Nonetheless, the necessary political consensus for development did not coalesce within the Iranian government until late 1924, when the Economics Commission was formed. Prior to its formation, discord had hampered the conclusion of a commercial agreement with the Soviet government, and the scramble to exploit the northern oil concession had proven to be a pipe-dream. Unlike these false starts, important legislation ratified by the Majlis in 1925 marked the beginning of tangible developments, just as the American overhaul of Iran’s taxation 2 and financial systems was nearing completion. Important state structures and projects emerged. Most significantly, the Tea, Lump Sugar, and Sugar Monopoly was established in May 1925 to finance the Trans-Iranian Railway, arguably the country’s most important industrial project. Moreover, Reza Khan’s influence on Iran’s economy, already evident in his role as Prime Minister, was intensified by his rise to monarchical power later in the year. However, state power was not limited to the person of Reza Shah. Equally crucial was the appointment of his loyal supporter Davar as Minister of Public Works, who prepared the groundwork for the Railway’s construction. Having been convinced of its potential to mobilize the country’s agricultural resources in service to the expansion of foreign trade, industry, and domestic commerce—the north-south railway line was overwhelmingly approved by the Majlis in February 1927. As argued in Chapter I, during this initial phase, Iran’s economy was largely dependent on its complex trade relationship with the Soviet Union, frequently entailing a battle of wits and wills between the two countries. In the absence of a formal agreement, Iranian merchants traded more or less freely at the annual Nizhny Novgorod and Baku fairs from 1922 onwards. Compared to other Eastern countries, Iran dominated these fairs, shifting the balance of trade with the USSR in its favor. However, in 1926, the Soviet government sought to reverse this trend by imposing restrictions on Iranian exports, and securing an advantageous Commercial Agreement in October 1927. Correspondingly, the Iranian government ventured to raise customs rates on imports, including those from the USSR, and a complex dynamic emerged. Just as the Soviet government prepared for a massive industrialization drive by increasing its foreign exchange reserves, the Iranian government started to restrict gold and silver exports in advance of the Bank-i Melli’s founding in 1927. Along with this cornerstone of Iran’s economy, the future establishment of the Agricultural Bank and an iron-smelting factory were to be financed
Recommended publications
  • British Persian Studies and the Celebrations of the 2500Th Anniversary of the Founding of the Persian Empire in 1971
    British Persian Studies and the Celebrations of the 2500th Anniversary of the Founding of the Persian Empire in 1971 A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Master of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities. 2014 Robert Steele School of Arts, Languages and Cultures Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4 Declaration .................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Copyright Statement ................................................................................................................................................ 5 Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................. 6 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Objectives and Structure ............................................................................................................................................. 8 Literature Review .......................................................................................................................................................... 9 Statement on Primary Sources...............................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Eastern Mediterranean La Revue De Santé De La Health Journal Méditerranée Orientale
    EMHJ – Vol. 24 No. 5 – 2018 Eastern Mediterranean La Revue de Santé de la Editorial Health Journal Méditerranée orientale World No Tobacco Day 2018: towards a sustainable campaign involving the cardiovascular community Fatimah El-Awa, Nizal Sarrafzadegan, Slim Slama and Asmus Hammerich .............................................................................................409 Research articles Smoking behaviour among male students in a Saudi University Guoping Jiang, Shafi Aldamer and Ahmed Bendania .........................................................................................................................................411 Tobacco cessation: attitude and practice of dentists in Northern United Arab Emirates Danavanthi Bangera, Mohamed Takana and Jayakumary Muttappallymyalil .........................................................................................419 Comparative analysis of essential medicines for cardiovascular diseases in countries of the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region Hedieh Mehrtash, Richard Laing and Veronika J. Wirtz ...................................................................................................................................427 Hypertension and associated cardiovascular risk factors among urban slum dwellers in Egypt: a population-based survey Mohsen Gadallah, Soad Abdel Megid, Amira Mohsen and Sahar Kandil ...................................................................................................435 Practice and enforcement of national Hospital Waste Management
    [Show full text]
  • Report of Field Trip (Guilan Province from 14 to 17 October 2019)
    Third Plenary Conference and Field Trip of INQUA IFG 1709F Ponto-Caspian Stratigraphy and Geochronology Report of field trip (Guilan Province from 14 to 17 October 2019) First Day, 14 October 2019 Stations: (Manjil, Totkabon (Rashi cave), Rasht) On Monday, at 7:30 AM the group traveled to the Gilan province. The first station was Manjil City for visiting Manjil Dam and geology Formations (Shemshak formation) in Mnajil. Dr. Nazari from Geological Survey of Iran described that how the formations were formed and some short descriptions about its tectonic plate. The second station had been located in the Totkabon (near the Ruodbar city). After having lunch near the Rashi village, the group led by Dr. Biglari from the Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts moved to the Rashi cave. At 8:00 PM, the team accommodated in their Hotel and hostel in Rasht. Second day, 15 October 2019: Stations: Fuman city, Masuleh village On Tuesday, 15 October 2019, field work started at the 8:30 AM. The team traveled to near Rasht City to visit old beach deposition and to the Fuman city for visiting Qale-Rudkhan Castle that is located 25 km southwest of Fuman city. And it is built on two tips of a mount, with an area of 2.6 hectare at the elevations of 715 and 670 meters. To get to the Qale - Rudkhan Castle, the group had to climbed approximately 1000 steps. On Tuesday afternoon, team went to Masuleh for visiting old village. (Also, at night a city tour was organized by the Guilan University).
    [Show full text]
  • Causes of the Rise and Flourishing of Civilizations
    www.ijcrt.org © 2021 IJCRT | Volume 9, Issue 5 May 2021 | ISSN: 2320-2882 Causes of the rise and flourishing of civilizations Habibullah hazem Abstract A cursory glance at human history makes it very clear that civilizations are born as human beings, reach maturity and growth, and collapse and die due to more internal causes. The death of civilizations is something that history has talked about a lot and it is called forgotten civilizations. In the science of history and more in the philosophy of history, the issue of how the causes and factors of the emergence, flourishing and destruction of civilizations are mentioned and history analysts study these causes and factors. According to them, the mentioned causes and factors are natural and in the field of events related to natural and human laws. But in intra-religious analysis, looking at causes and factors is done from another angle; The Qur'an, with the aim of guiding human beings, looks at events from an educational point of view. On this basis, each of the events is closely related to the issues of punishment and encouragement of human beings and finds meaning and meaning with monotheism and its belongings. Although it is necessary to look at the events and their causes from the perspective of philosophy of history and natural traditions and laws, but these traditions are closely related to human actions and behavior. In a comprehensive analysis, although earthquakes, floods and other natural disasters are related to natural laws, but human actions are effective in its creation and emergence, and these actions can have a positive and negative impact on natural laws and nature.
    [Show full text]
  • Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nineteenth-Century Iran
    publications on the near east publications on the near east Poetry’s Voice, Society’s Song: Ottoman Lyric The Transformation of Islamic Art during Poetry by Walter G. Andrews the Sunni Revival by Yasser Tabbaa The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Shiraz in the Age of Hafez: The Glory of Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century a Medieval Persian City by John Limbert by Zeynep Çelik The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi‘i Symbols The Tragedy of Sohráb and Rostám from and Rituals in Modern Iran the Persian National Epic, the Shahname by Kamran Scot Aghaie of Abol-Qasem Ferdowsi, translated by Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology, Jerome W. Clinton Expanded Edition, edited and translated The Jews in Modern Egypt, 1914–1952 by Walter G. Andrews, Najaat Black, and by Gudrun Krämer Mehmet Kalpaklı Izmir and the Levantine World, 1550–1650 Party Building in the Modern Middle East: by Daniel Goffman The Origins of Competitive and Coercive Rule by Michele Penner Angrist Medieval Agriculture and Islamic Science: The Almanac of a Yemeni Sultan Everyday Life and Consumer Culture by Daniel Martin Varisco in Eighteenth-Century Damascus by James Grehan Rethinking Modernity and National Identity in Turkey, edited by Sibel Bozdog˘an and The City’s Pleasures: Istanbul in the Eigh- Res¸at Kasaba teenth Century by Shirine Hamadeh Slavery and Abolition in the Ottoman Middle Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid East by Ehud R. Toledano by Daniel Martin Varisco Britons in the Ottoman Empire, 1642–1660 The Merchant Houses of Mocha: Trade by Daniel Goffman and Architecture in an Indian Ocean Port by Nancy Um Popular Preaching and Religious Authority in the Medieval Islamic Near East Tribes and Empire on the Margins of Nine- by Jonathan P.
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing Chlorophyll-A in the Southwestern Coastal Waters of the Caspian Sea
    Journal of the Persian Gulf (Marine Science)/Vol. 5/No. 16/June 2014/14/1-14 Assessing Chlorophyll-a in the Southwestern Coastal Waters of the Caspian Sea Jamshidi, Siamak Iranian National Institute for Oceanography and Atmospheric Science, Tehran, IR Iran Received: October 2013 Accepted: April 2014 © 2014 Journal of the Persian Gulf. All rights reserved. Abstract Caspian Sea with an average depth of 27m is the largest enclosed water body in the world. Despite its enormity and valuable biotic and economic resources, investigations on the biota and seawater properties are mosaic at best. In previous studies, the monitoring of the chlorophyll-a concentrations in the Southern Caspian Sea was organized based on satellite data sets; however, vertical distribution of chlorophyll-a concentrations and its variations in deeper layers of the southern Caspian seawater are not well known. The aim of this research was to study the variations of seasonal distributions of chlorophyll-a near Anzali Port in northern Iran. Data collection was performed at 23 stations, 2 km apart, along four survey lines perpendicular to the coastline and two transects parallel to the coast every season using a research vessel. Field measurements in the study area were carried out. A portable CTD probe was applied for profiling from sea surface to bottom. Results of seasonal field measurements showed variations of the seawater properties (e.g. temperature, salinity, density and chlorophyll-a). Maximum depth of the profiling stations was more than 470 m and vertical structure of temperature in the southern Caspian Sea waters with a significant seasonal thermocline between 20-50 m depths in summer with a vertical difference of 16oC were characterized.
    [Show full text]
  • Dr. Sabar Mirza Farman Farmaian; Benefactor and Former Director of Pasteur Institute of Iran
    SCIENTISTS and SCIENCE ADVOCATES Iranian Biomedical Journal 22(1): 1-3 January 2018 Dr. Sabar Mirza Farman Farmaian; Benefactor and Former Director of Pasteur Institute of Iran Narges Shahbazi and Ehsan Mostafavi Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Research Centre for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: [email protected] asteur Institute of Iran (PII) is known for its history of benefaction by exquisite characters, the most prominent of who is the family of Farman P Farmaian. Dr. Sabar Mirza Farman Farmaian, born in 1912 in Tehran, resided as the director of PII for a period of six years (1971-1977). Furthermore, he devoted his house (located in Shemiranat) for the establishment of a center to study and combat infectious diseases. Both of these events had a significant impact on the fate of PII. He was born to a famous family of Farman Farmaian. His father, Abdol- Hossein Mirza Farman Farmaian, the grandson of Abbas Mirza and Fath-Ali Shah, was born in 1852, in Tabriz. He was known as “Salar Lashkar” and “Farman Farma”. He finished his elementary studies at Dar ul-Funun, after which he went to an Austrian school to learn military skills. He held numerous critical positions during 1881-1919. These include the chief of Kerman and Azerbaijan military troops, governor of Kerman, Tehran, Fars, Khorasan, and Kermanshah, as well as the minister of War, Justice and the Interior. The most prominent of all is his chair as the prime minister during the reign of Ahmad Shah Qajar. In 1922, due to his passion for promotion of health, Abdol- Hossein Farman Farmaian dedicated a vast piece of land (~13 thousand square meters with the value of 10 thousand tomans, at the time) for the expansion of Pasteur Institute of Iran.
    [Show full text]
  • A Contribution to the Study of the Persian Concept of Âberu 113
    A Contribution to the Study of the Persian Concept of Âberu 113 Magdalena Zaborowska* PL ISSN 02398818 HEMISPHERES Vo l. 29, No. 1, 2014 A Contribution to the Study of the Persian Concept of Âberu Abstract The concept of âberu is one of those key concepts in Iranian culture which are very hard to define. In this paper the author attempts to explain its philosophical meaning, both by philological analysis based on dictionary sources and by placing it within the context of Iranian, pre-Islamic and Islamic culture. Emphasizing the bond between the idea of water and the concept of âberu, as well as defining it as veil woven from values and principles that protects humans; thus enables an understanding of its significant status among Iranians in contemporary culture. Because loss of âberu or its destruction is commonly understood in the terms of a threat to life, many actions undertaken by Iranians are motivated by the desire to preserve it. Since various methodological approaches can be applied to the study of the concept of âberu, this article should be viewed only as an small contribution to reviling its complexity. There is no doubt that understanding another culture requires familiarizing oneself with its fundamental concepts. While representatives of a particular culture often refer to such concepts and ideas in an attempt to facilitate intuition for others they usually remain unintelligible and unclear. Grasping their meaning is a difficult task as most of them are culturally rooted and refer to cultural experience. Decoding these ideas may however help in understanding how people think, with reference to their value systems and beliefs.
    [Show full text]
  • The Poetics of Commitment in Modern Persian: a Case of Three Revolutionary Poets in Iran
    The Poetics of Commitment in Modern Persian: A Case of Three Revolutionary Poets in Iran by Samad Josef Alavi A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Near Eastern Studies in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in Charge: Professor Shahwali Ahmadi, Chair Professor Muhammad Siddiq Professor Robert Kaufman Fall 2013 Abstract The Poetics of Commitment in Modern Persian: A Case of Three Revolutionary Poets in Iran by Samad Josef Alavi Doctor of Philosophy in Near Eastern Studies University of California, Berkeley Professor Shahwali Ahmadi, Chair Modern Persian literary histories generally characterize the decades leading up to the Iranian Revolution of 1979 as a single episode of accumulating political anxieties in Persian poetics, as in other areas of cultural production. According to the dominant literary-historical narrative, calls for “committed poetry” (she‘r-e mota‘ahhed) grew louder over the course of the radical 1970s, crescendoed with the monarch’s ouster, and then faded shortly thereafter as the consolidation of the Islamic Republic shattered any hopes among the once-influential Iranian Left for a secular, socio-economically equitable political order. Such a narrative has proven useful for locating general trends in poetic discourses of the last five decades, but it does not account for the complex and often divergent ways in which poets and critics have reconciled their political and aesthetic commitments. This dissertation begins with the historical assumption that in Iran a question of how poetry must serve society and vice versa did in fact acquire a heightened sense of urgency sometime during the ideologically-charged years surrounding the revolution.
    [Show full text]
  • Evaluation of the Social Reasons for Defeating Political Parties in Iran Between the Years of 1942-1954
    EVALUATION OF THE SOCIAL REASONS FOR DEFEATING POLITICAL PARTIES IN IRAN BETWEEN THE YEARS OF 1942-1954 ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Mottov of $t|iIos;opIip IN SOCIOLOGY BY Naser Haghi Ghareh Darvishlou UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF Dr. Mohammad Akram DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL WORK ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (IIMOIA) 2012 -S5LM9 Political parties appeared on the scene when actions of an erstwhile political system attained a point of complexity that needed the introduction of a new political setup. Usually, political parties emerge when different classes of society become aware of their own interests, and the people of a country want the right to take part in political issues. The nineteenth century was an important phase in Iranian history, wherein political, social and economic corruption were the most obvious problem that Iranians faced. Tremendous increases of such problems have been the reason for the occurrence of all revolutions and reforms in Iran. With the allied occupation of Iran and the exile of Reza Shah, social chaos increased in the 1940s. Also, as a resuU of the Second World War, and because of the lack of a steady government, the country was led to anarchy. This problem offended Iranians more when they became aware of the degree and speed of development in the western countries. When Iranian intellectuals came into direct contact with western countries, they tried to regenerate the political structure of their own country to bring about political stability. After Reza Shah, especially between 1942 and 1954, there came a unique historical opportimity for Iranian elites to form a democratic political structure, whereas during the reign of Reza Shah, political parties and other active groups had been inactive.
    [Show full text]
  • International Organizations and Globalizations of Russian Regions
    International Organizations and Globalization of Russian Regions Introduction Why is it so important to raise the issue of globalization for Russia and her regions? Despite the underdevelopment of Russia’s version of globalization, the international community in general and specific foreign countries in particular do have their impact on internal developments in Russia. Sometimes the effects of globalization are not visible enough, but they cannot be disregarded. In spite of his inward-oriented rhetoric, President Putin’s federal reform launched in May 2000 to some extent was inspired by developments outside Russia. These were the foreign investors who were confused by the tug-of-war between the federal center and the regions, and who called for a reshuffle of the federal system in Russia to avoid conflicts between federal and regional laws and get rid of regional autarchy. What is also telling is that Putin intends to implement his federal reform in accordance with formal democratic procedures, keeping in mind Western sensitivity to these issues. The shift of power from the center to the regional actors was the major development in Russian politics in the beginning of the 1990s. Yet the Russian regions are not equal players on the international scene. Not all of them are capable of playing meaningful roles internationally, and these roles can be quite different for each one. Three groups of constituent parts of the Federation ought to be considered as the most important Russian sub-national actors in the international arena. The first group comprises those regions with a strong export potential (industrial regions or those rich in mineral resources[1]).
    [Show full text]
  • Iran's Long History and Short-Term Society
    IJEP International Journal of Economics and Politics Iran’s Long History and Short-Term Society 1 Homa Katouzian Oxford University,UK* ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: Iran has a long history and a short-term society. It is a country with thousands Date of submission: 27-04-2019 of years of history, the great variety of every aspect of which is at least partly Date of acceptance: 21-07-2019 responsible for the diversity of opinions and emotions among its peoples. It is an ancient land of the utmost variety in nature, art and architecture, languages, literature and culture. When the Greeks (from whom European civilisations JEL Classification: B10 descend) came across the Iranians first, Persian Iranians were ruling that country as the Persian empire, and they called it ‘Persis’. Just as when the A14 N10 Persians first came into contact with Ionian Greeks, they called the entire Greek lands ‘Ionia’. To this day Iranians refer to Greece as Ionia (=Yunan) and the Greeks as Ionians (=Yunaniyan). Thus from the ancient Greeks to 1935, Keywords: Iran was known to Europeans as Persia; then the Iranian government, prompted Iran’s Long History by their crypto-Nazi contacts in Germany, demanded that other countries Term Society officially call it Iran, largely to publicise the Aryan origins of the country. This Iran meant that, for a long time, almost the entire historical and cultural connotations of the country were lost to the West, the country often being confused with Iraq, and many if not most mistakenly thinking that it too was an Arab country.
    [Show full text]