HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF BROADCASTING

IN IRAN

Bigan Kimiachi

A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

June 1978 © 1978

BI GAN KIMIACHI

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED n

iii

ABSTRACT

Geophysical and geopolitical pecularities of Iran have made it a land of international importance throughout recorded history, especially since its emergence in the twentieth century as a dominant power among the newly affluent oil-producing nations of the Middle East.

Nearly one-fifth the size of the United States, with similar extremes of geography and climate, and a population approaching

35 million, Iran has been ruled since 1941 by His Majesty

Shahanshah Aryamehr. While he has sought to restore and preserve the cultural heritage of ancient and Islamic Persia, he has also promoted the rapid westernization and modernization of Iran, including the establishment of a radio and television broadcasting system second only to that of Japan among the nations of Asia, a fact which is little known to Europeans or Americans.

The purpose of this study was to amass and present a comprehensive body of knowledge concerning the development of broadcasting in Iran, as well as a review of current operations and plans for future development. A short survey of the political and spiritual history of pre-Islamic and Islamic Persia and a general survey of mass communication in Persia and Iran, especially from the Il

iv

advent of the telegraph is presented, so that the development of broadcasting might be seen in proper perspective and be more fully appreciated.

Iranian journals and other publications available only in Iran were reviewed and discussions and interviews with authorities at various government agencies and broadcasting centers were arranged.

The study revealed that, despite enormous obstacles and innumerable problems, National Iranian Radio and Television has achieved most of its major objectives and has recently effected a reorganization, with the establishment of two entirely separate radio and television networks, which will provide necessary competition and lead to more efficient operation of the system and more effective programming. To Dr. Majid Tehranian

of

Iran Communication and Development Institute

in appreciation and friendship V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation would not have been possible but for the

assistance of a number of people at National Iranian Radio and Television,

and Iran Communications and Development Institute to whom I am greatly

indebted. I especially would like to thank Dr. Majid Tehranian,

Dr. Ali Asadi, Dr. Morteza Mir Aftabi, Dr. Ali Mohammadi,

Mr. Khosrow Jahandari, Mr. Bijan Hamzelow, and Ms. Manizha Aarabi.

In addition, I would also like to thank the members of my

committee for their kindness, assistance, and patience.

I would also wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to Ms. Goldi

Korenberg and Mr. Alfred Corbosiero for their kindnesses and

encouragements. Equally, sincere thanks are expressed to

Dr. Abdolkhalegh Kimiachi, Dr. Frotan Mahjowr, Ms. Homa Salehi, and Mr. Amir Golara.

Numerous other people have been instrumental during the research and writing of this dissertation to whom I extend my appreciation. vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT...... iii-iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v

LIST OF FIGURES...... x

LIST OF TABLES...... xi

FOREWORD...... 1

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION...... 8 Definition of Historical Study, 8 The Purpose and Scope of the Present Study, 9 Delimitations, 10 Sources of Information, 11 Treatment of Information, 12 Summary, 14

2. A SHORT HISTORY OF PERSIA AND IRAN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN IRAN...... 15 Iran or Persia, 15 From Islamic Persia to Modern Iran, 18 Characteristics of Modern Iran, 24: Geography, 24; Population, 26; Language, 32; Government, 34 Summary, 37 Vll

Page

3. THE ADVENT OF THE TELEGRAPH IN IRAN...... 39 Historical and Political Background, 39 Introduction of the Telegraph System, 43: The Establishment of the First Line, 43; The Extension of Soltanieh-Tabrize, 46; The Extension of Aras, 46; The Southern Extension, 47; The Condition of the Telegraph System 1866-1874, 50; The Telegraph Treaties, 50 Iranian-Russian Telegraph, 52 Iranian-Ottoman (Turkish) Telegraph, 53 The Effect of the Telegraph in Iran, 53 The Advent of the Wireless Telegraph in Iran, 57: Historical and Political Background, 57; Introduction of the Wireless Telegraph System, 61 Summary, 65

4. THE ADVENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO IN IRAN...... 67 Administration and Technical Development, 67 Finance, 78 Personnel, 80 Programming, 82: Program I, 85; Program H, 89; Program n FM, 91 Foreign Service, 92 The Role and Objectives of Radio in Iran, 94 Provincial Radio Centers, 97: Tabriz, 99; Esfahan, 99; Mashhad, 100; Sananadaj, 100; Ahvaz, 101; Rasht, 101; Rezayeh, 101; Shiraz, 102; Kermanshah, 103; Gorgan, 104; Sari, 104; Darya, 105; Yazd, 105; Hamedan, 106; Khoramabad, 106; Ram, 107; Ardebill, 107;Khash, 107; Taibad, 108; Iranshahr, 108 Summary, 109 Vili

Page

5. THE ADVENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION IN IRAN...... Ill Iran Television (Commercial), 111: Administration and Technical Development, 111; Finance, 115; Personnel, 116; Programming, 118 National Iran Television, 121: Administration and Technical Development, 121 National Iranian Radio and Television, 127: Administration and Technical Development, 127; Transmission and Facilities, 137; Finance, 138; Personnel, 151; Programming, 159; Educational Television, 168; English Language Television, 172; Pars News Agency, 174; The Center for Preserva­ tion and Propagation of Traditional Music, 182; Music Workshop, 185; Theater Workshop, 188; Audience Research and Analysis, 189; Provincial Television Clubs, 194; Provincial Television Centers, 198 Summary, 215

6. INTERNATIONAL AFFILIATIONS...... 219 Radio, 219 Television, 220 Satellite Telecommunication, 223 Summary, 227

7. THE FUTURE OF NATIONAL IRANIAN RADIO AND TELEVISION...... 228 Implementation Plan for Program Assessment, 228 Personal Observation and Analysis, 232

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 235 Summary and Conclusion, 235 Needs for Further Study, 245

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 247 IX

Page

APPENDIXES

A. SAMPLE RADIO PROGRAMS-PROGRAM I...... 255

B. SAMPLE RADIO PROGRAMS-PROGRAM II...... 264

C. SAMPLE PROGRAMS OF IRAN TV...... 272

D. LAW ESTABLISHING NIRT, JUNE 19, 1971...... 276

E. SAMPLE PROGRAMS OF AMERICAN TV...... 290

F. GENERAL RULES...... 295

F. TIMES AND LEVELS OF TV PROGRAMS...... 300

F. TIMES AND LEVELS OF RADIO PROGRAMS...... 304

F. ADVERTISING RATES...... 307

G. SAMPLE PROGRAMS IN TV-PROGRAM 1...... 309

H. SAMPLE PROGRAMS IN TV-PROGRAM H...... 313

I. FOREIGN TELEVISION PROGRAMS...... 317 X

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Population Growth in the 20th Century...... 30

2. Forecast of Iranian Population...... 31

3. Radio Transmitters in Iran for Selected Years 1940-1973...... 72

4. FM Stations From 1969-1974...... 74-5

5. Radio Transmitters in the Provinces, by Date of Establishment...... 76-77

6. Radio Iran's Budget 1940-1971...... 79

7. Television Production and Transmission Centers by Date of Establishment 1966-1970...... 126

8. Television Production and Transmission Centers and Relay Stations in Iran by Date of Establishment...... 129-134

9. NIRT Budget During the 1967-1968 Period...... 140

10. NIRT Principal Sources of Income, 1972...... 142

11. Radio and Television Expansion Budget 1978.... 144-45

12. Number of NIRT Personnel 1966-1976...... 153

13. Number of Personnel of Selected Centers 1976.. 154-55

14. Age Bracket in Households With TV Sets...... 192

15. Education Level in Households With TV Sets.... 193

16. Satellite Earth Stations in the Middle East as of March 1976...... 224 XL

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Persian Empire 500 B. C...... 17

2. Iran’s Neighboring and Major Cities...... 27

3. Iran: General Map...... 58

4. Radio Iran: A World-Wide Network...... 86

5. Total Power Output of Television Transmitters in Iran 1967-1974...... 136

6. International News Sources of NIRT and NIRT News Agency Representatives Abroad...... 180 !

FOREWORD

The Legend of the World-Revealing Cup

"I said, 'O throne of Jamshid, where now is his all-seeing cup ? And came reply: 'Alas, that vivid splendour sleeps." XLIII, from Thirty Poems, Hafiz of Shiraz

Persian literature speaks often of a legendary cup in which

world and human affairs are reflected or revealed. In the "Shahnameh" Epic of the Kings,1 Ferdowsi, one of the greatest poets of all times,

alludes to the magic cup frequently, and such a cup has been referred

to in other works of Eastern and Western literature as well. Although

the stories in which it is an element are varied, they seem to confirm

or at least suggest that such a cup actually existed at one time.

In Eastern literature it is sometimes called the "World-

Viewing Chalice, " "Mirror of Solomon, " and "Mirror of Alexander, " but it appears most often in Persian literature, where it is called

"Jam-i-Jam" "Jam-i-Jamshid, " "Jam-i-Keykhosrow, " or the 2 "World-Revealing Cup."

Abuol-Qasem Ferdowsi, Epic of the Kings (University of Chicago Press, 1967). 2 Ibid., p. 165. 2

In Western literature, however, the legendary cup appears in

a somewhat different guise. Although the image is virtually the same,

there is a profound shift in emphasis, and its significance is greatly

altered. For example, in some European folk legends, the cup is referred to as the Grail or Holy Grail, the cup which Jesus is said to have held in his hand at the Last Supper, and which Joseph of Arimathea, one of the

disciples, supposedly filled with the blood which flowed from the wound

in Jesus' side at the time of crucifixion.

Most beautiful of all the legends of the cup is that of Bizhan and

Manizha in the Epic of the Kings by Ferdowsi. Eager to seize any opportunity to prove himself the young nobleman Bizhan accepted the charge of King Keykhosrow to go to the land of Armenia to liberate its people. His task was accomplished in good time, and on his way back to

Persia with his army, Bizhan made camp and lay resting in his tent, when Gorgin, one of his companion officers, asked him if he had ever 3 seen or even heard of Manizha, daughter of Afrasiyab, King of Turan.

Bizhan replied that he had not. Gorgin, who in his heart was jealous of

Bizhan's favor in the eyes of the Persian King and would be well rid of him, described Manizha in the most seductive terms: "Cypress-statured,

q Eleanor Brockett, Persian Fairy Tales (Chicago: Follett Publishing Company, 1962), p. 155.

Turan is the mythical name of Turkey. 3

fragrant with musk, her cheeks are rose-tinted, her eyes languorous, 4 her lips wine-filled and redolent of rose-water."

On the morrow, Bizhan departed for the court of Manizha.

When the young nobleman beheld her, his heart was instantly taken captive by the most beautiful woman he had ever seen, and Manizha was also enkindled with love for the most handsome nobleman of Persia.

Acknowledging their love to each other, but aware of Afrasiyab's hatred for all Persians, they married secretly and journeyed to the court of

Afrasiyab. Strongly disapproving of their marriage, which he had learned of through the treachery of Manizha's attendants, Afrasiyab gave orders that Bizhan should be overtaken and imprisoned in a cavern with an enormous rock covering the mouth of the pit. Manizha was cruelly 5 expelled from her father's court to share her husband's punishment.

In the meantime, Gorgin lead the army back to Persia, where he reported to Bizhan's father, the famed warrior Giv, that Bizhan had been lost in a terrible storm. But, refusing to believe Gorgin's story, Giv compelled him to retell the story in the presence of

King Keykhosrow. Turning to Giv, the king said:

Ferdowsi, op. cit., p. 155. 5 Brockett, op. cit., p. 160. 4

Stay until the month of April has arrived; then I shall call for the world-revealing cup, and, going into the presence of God, shall stand there looking into the cup to search through the seven climes— every region and country. Then I shall reveal to you where Bizhan is, for truly it shall be shown to me within the cup. ®

When spring arrived, Giv came to the court of Keykhosrow

with hope in his heart. The mighty Keykhosrow demanded the cup. He

dressed himself in Grecian robes and placed the royal diadem upon his

head. He took the cup in his hand and went thence into the presence of

God. Over the whole firmament he ranged within the cup, from the sign

of the Fishes to that of the Ram, beholding Saturn and Jupiter, Mars and the Lion, the Sun and the Moon, Venus and Mercury. All things yet to be, the wonder-working Emperor beheld in the cup. Into every one of the seven climes he looked in the hope that he would find Bizhan.

By the will of God, he espied him there, in Turan fettered in the pit with heavy chains and praying for death in his misery, while ready in attendance nearby him stood a maid of royal stock. At sight of that pathetic spectacle, the king turned his gaze toward Giv and smiled in 7 such a fashion that the whole throne-room was illumined.

Keykhosrow told Giv that Bizhan was alive. Later, Rostam the

0 °Ferdowsi, op. cit., p. 165. 7 Ibid., pp. 165-66. 5

strongest warrior of Persia was sent to rescue Bizhan and his beloved

Manizha.

The cup is similarly referred to as a mirror in other Western

literature, as in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Fellowship of the Ring, where 8 it is called "the mirror of Galadriel".

Obviously, the reality of such a wonderful world-revealing cup

or mirror is not only a figment of the vivid Persian imagination, but also

a cherished archetype of other nations and civilizations. Whether the

various legends of the cup are "sensible" in themselves, or whether it

is believable that behind the legend there must once have been—and

perhaps still is—a cup, many Persians of today regard television as the

ultimate manifestation of their ancient world-revealing cup. Thus, the

advent of television in Iran seemed to many as a confirmation of the

legend's truth, the cup come home again!

News of the invention of television was avidly followed by

Iranians long before its introduction to Iran. Foreigners travelling in

Iran and those Iranians returning from abroad brought many stories of the modern "revealing cup" as they had seen it. Unfortunately, several

8j. R. R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring (New York: Ballantine Books, 1965), p. 468. 6

decades were to pass before the "cup” itself was seen in Iran, and—

contrary to all expectations—when at last it did arrive, the television

system did not spread throughout the country. In the beginning only the

capital city, Tehran, and, Abadan, a port city in southern Iran, had a

television station. But in those cities television was taken into Iranian

homes with great enthusiasm and excitement.

The development of a nation-wide television system did not

actually begin until 1967, when the Iranian government purchased the 9 existing stations, which had been privately owned and operated; then,

in less than a decade, the television broadcasting system grew into a giant organization. According to Sir Charles Moses, former

Secretary General of the Asian Broadcasting Union, ". . . with the exception of Japan, Iran has the largest television network in Asia.

Today, television broadcasting in Iran is so advanced that viewers may actually refer to it as a "world-revealing cup. " A member of the International Telecommunication Satellite Consortium (Intelsat),

Iran was the first country in the Middle East to own an earth satellite, which permits transmission of events occurring in virtually any part of the world.

9 The existing stations located in Tehran and Abadan. For more details, see Chapter V. IQyiew, September 19, 1972, p. 10. 7

Indeed, while the history of Iran reaches far back to the high

tide of the Persian Empire and even to the beginning of recorded time,

the history of the extraordinary development of television broadcasting

in Iran is very brief. Unfortunately, little or nothing is known of it by

Americans or Europeans. But now, with an organization of the

magnitude of the National Iranian Radio and Television (NIRT) on the

verge of dynamic expansion, attention is focused on the progress in its

development, and there is additional reason for a study of the various

aspects of its operation.

The task of writing the history and development of broadcasting

in Iran was difficult to assume. Perhaps it would have been preferable

had it been done by a historian rather than by one whose educational

background and experience are predominantly in the aesthetic and

technical aspects of broadcasting. However, this writer is an Iranian

with a strong sense of national identity and obligation and, as a student

of broadcasting, has the advantage of understanding the importance of broadcasting to the technical development of the country. 8

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Definition of Historical Study

Jeffrey Auer in An Introduction to Research in Speech defines historical research as "the study of a period, person, or phenomena in human development, in order to record discovered facts in an accurate, coherent, and critical narrative that posits causations and probabilities. He goes on to say, "In contrast with the descriptive or experimental method, there are no audiometers, oscilliscopes, or questionnaires to serve as measuring instruments in historical 2 research."

". . . the proper historian dedicates himself to what Allen Nevins calls 'the spirit of critical inquiry for the whole truth.' He searches endlessly for facts and statements accurately reporting, describing, or classifying, on the basis of personal observations or authentic testimony of others, some events, circumstance, or phenomena that has happened or is happening.

Historical research establishes probabilities, not absolutes.

Jeffrey Auer, An Introduction to Research in Speech (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959), p. 28. 2 Ibid., p. 29.

3Ibid., p. 122. 9

"It is virtually impossible ever to be sure no further evidence will 4 be brought to modify conclusions. " Therefore, there is a certain degree of generalization and analysis in historical study. In the case of this study, an attempt has been made to write with a minimum of interpretation and analysis in order to provide a basic body of information without personal bias, but as Carr points out: "The historian is of his own age, and is bound to it by the conditions of human existence. The very words which he uses. . .have current conditions from which he cannot divorce them. . .yet the historian is 5 obliged to choose: the use of language forbids him to be neutral. "

The Purpose and Scope of the Present Study

The purpose of the present study is to amass and present a comprehensive body of knowledge concerning the development of broadcasting in Iran; it is also to present a review of current operations and plans for further development.

In order to meet the purpose of this study it was necessary to trace the history of broadcasting in Iran to its earliest development.

As in most countries, broadcasting in Iran began with the introduction

4 Homer Carey Hockett, The Critical Method in Historical Research and Writing (New York: The MacMillan Co., 1955), p. 8. 5 Edward Hallett Carr, What Is History? (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1962), p. 28. 10

of Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph. It is important for the purpose of this study to present a brief historical account of the introduction of the electric and wireless telegraph which led to the development of modern broadcasting in Iran. This introduction is preceded by a short history of pre-Islamic and Islamic Iran and some characteristics of Iran such as geography, population, language, and government. Finally the plans for the future of broadcasting in Iran are discussed, followed by the summary and conclusion.

Delimitations

The period of this study is from the advent of the electric telegraph and its historical-political background during the Crimean War

(1853-56) to the present status of modern broadcasting in Iran and its plans for future development.

Unlike the United States where information is free and open to the public, in Iran access to information such as that used in this study requires permission from the government. Although permission for the present study was given prior to the author's return to Iran, it took nearly two months before the study could begin.

At the time of this study, National Iranian Radio and Television was undergoing a major reorganization. Most of the officials were reluctant to be interviewed. Those who gave information demanded to remain anonymous. Therefore, articles, journals, books, and 11

government documents were more reliable for the purpose of this study.

Some secondary sources are used in this study with their accuracy

carefully examined. The authors of these secondary sources were more

fortunate in getting information not available to this author.

The limitation of primary sources, the difficulty and occasional

impossibility of obtaining information, and, in general, lack of usable

and reliable material for documentation limits the scope of this study to

some extent. These limitations imply that this study, as with all

historical studies, is not able to bring to light all evidence about the

history and development of broadcasting in Iran.

Sources of Information

For the initial research, the facilities and resources of a number of libraries, information centers, and government agencies in the U.S. were used. Some materials were examined, but far too little was either authoritative or sufficiently thorough for the purpose of this study. In fact, only a scattering of articles, most of them inaccurate, and a few official pamphlets were available in the U.S. Initial research for the present study clearly indicated that an in-depth study of the history and development of broadcasting in Iran would demand on-location research if reliable documentation was to be obtained.

Therefore, NIRT authorities were consulted concerning the desirability and feasibility of conducting such a study in Iran. Their 12

responses were positive. The major part of the study was completed

in Iran.

After a number of Iranian journals and other publications in

Persian and English—available only in Iran—were reviewed, discussions

and interviews with authorities at various government agencies and

broadcasting facilities were arranged, at which time a search of official

files and records for relevant material were permitted. Much of the

information and documentation, and most of the charts, figures, and

other materials presented in this study were acquired through such

investigation. Additional information—as well as valuable assistance,

guidance, and encouragement—was obtained through employment at the

Iran Communication and Development Institute.

Treatment of Information

The works of a number of historians were reviewed. The 6 methods employed were consistent with those of these historians. The documents used for the historical background of broadcasting in Iran such as electric and wireless telegraph and introduction of radio broadcasting were written by reputable authors. Most of the other

6 See bibliography. 13

information was obtained through personal observation and open-ended

interviews with the officials. Files and records for relevant materials were reviewed. Stations and facilities were also visited. Information

concerning the first television station in Iran was mostly from the personal memories as a former employee of the organization. Other

open-ended interviews were designed to elicit information critical to this study. The questions were related to the position of the official and his experience and/or knowledge about the broadcasting in Iran.

Thus, the information and documents gathered for the purpose of this study were examined, discussed with persons knowledgeable about the subjects for accuracy, then carefully reviewed by the author, synthesized and arranged in chronological and topical order. The following chapters represent results of the study completed in Iran.

They present a general survey of mass communication in Iran from the earliest times, especially from the advent of the electric and wireless telegraph so that the main subject of the study, the development of radio and television in Iran, might be seen in proper perspective. 14

Summary

Jeffrey Auer in An Introduction to Research in Speech defines historical research as "the study of a period, person, or phenomena in human development, in order to record discovered facts in an accurate, coherent, and critical narrative that posits causations and probabilities."

The purpose of the present study is to amass and present a comprehensive body of knowledge concerning the development of broadcasting in Iran and to review its current status.

The period of this study is from the advent of the telegraph and its political-historical background during the Crimean War to the present time and includes plans for future development.

The initial research has been done in Iran during the major reorganization of the National Iranian Radio and Television. Journals and other publications in Farsi and English were reviewed; discussions and interviews with authorities were arranged and official files were checked. Historical methods were employed to gather the information and to examine the accuracy of the materials. Then they were carefully reviewed, synthesized and arranged in chronological and topical order. 15

CHAPTER II

THE HISTORY OF PERSIA AND IRAN

Approaching a Historical Perspective

The significance of the advent and development of broadcasting in Iran can be most fully appreciated when viewed in the light of a short survey of the political and spiritual history of pre-Islamic and Islamic

Persia, as well as modern Iran.

Iran or Persia

The early history of Iran can be divided into three phases: the prehistoric period, with the earliest evidence of man on the Iranian plateau (c. 100,000 B. C.); the protohistoric period, which began with the first millenium B. C., and extended through the first half of the mil- lenium; and the historic period, which began with the Achamenid dynasty, and with which Iran entered the full light of recorded history—a history which extends over 2,500 years.1

Although it has traditionally been called Iran by the Iranians

^Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., IX, 829. 16

themselves, it has been known to the Western World as Persia, and

appears thus in many great historical works. In 1935 the Iranian

government decided to change the name from Persia to Iran.

Iran means the land of Aryans, the several tribes who settled

the land, among whom were the Persians, who began one of the

greatest civilizations in the world with the Achamenid dynasty. Thus,

while the name, Persia, originally designated only one region in the

southern part of the Iranian plateau known as Persis or Fars, it was

extended by the ancient Greeks and Western people to apply to the whole plateau, linking the Near East and Asia.

The empire founded by Cyrus the Great was the greatest and most extensive the world had ever known up to that time (see Figure 1).

In describing its reach, Cyrus said, "My kingdom extends far to the south where man cannot live because of the heat, and northward to where 2 he cannot live because of extreme cold."

In 1971 Iran celebrated the 2, 500th anniversary of the founding 3 of the Persian Empire. The event was televised throughout the world.

Aziz Hatami, Iran (Tehran, General Department of Publication and Broadcasting, 1963), p. 8. 3 Iran Tribune, May, 1971, pp. 4-7.

Life, October 15, 1971, pp. 34-6.

New York Times, October 25, 1971, pp. 32-3.

Newsweek, October 25, 1971, pp. 58-9. “H U. tÛ

•pŸRo'iw^^

*4 18

During the commemorative festivities, His Imperial Majesty

Shahanshah Aryamehr said, "The name of Iran still has the prestige which Cyrus the Great gave it; the country remains the bearer, in a world living in anguish, of the eternal message of humanism on which he 4 based his whole empire."

From Islamic Persia to Modern Iran

Early in the seventh century .A.D., the Sassanid dynasty, which had ruled the Persian Empire since the third century B. C., was overthrown by the Moslems of the Arabic world. By necessity, Persians accepted and adjusted to the new world and religion brought by the Arabs.

Although Persians never became Arabic, they gradually accepted the 5 faith of their conquerors.

Mohammad, the Moslem leader and prophet, died in 632 A.D.

With his death two principal factions of Islam developed: the Omayyads and the Hashemites. The Hashemites claimed authority of Mohammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali. The partisans of Ali are known as the Shia.

For a time, Shia were scattered throughout Islam, though "Persians formed a nucleau of sedition and joined with the followers of Ali and Abbas,

4 Ministry of Information and Tourism, Iran (Tehran, 1974), p. 19. 5 Herbert H. Vreeland, ed., Iran (Human Relation Area File, New Haven, 1957), p. 19. 19

the uncle of the Prophet, to resist the Omayyad rule."

In 750 A.D., the Abbasids, adherents of Abbas and Ali overthrew the Omayyads with the help of Persians. Thus, they became the new rulers of the Islamic world. The Abbasids moved the capital of the empire from Damascus to Baghdad, a short distance from the site of the former Sassanid capital of Persia. Soon the Persians adopted the Arabic language and used it with such perfection that a large part of 7 the literary and scientific work in Arabic was achieved by Persians.

Arab dynasties ruled Iran until the eleventh century when they were succeeded by the Seljuq Turks. The Mongols and Timurids followed in the 13th and 14th centuries. In 1499 the Safavide dynasty, led by the Shia Moslems established a religious political state. The founder of the Safavide dynasty traced his origin to Ali's son, Hussain, who was believed to have married a daughter of the last Sassanid ruler, and Musa Kazem, the Seventh Imam (Pontiff or religious leader) who lived in the second half of the eighth century.

Contemporary with the late Elizabethan - early Jacobean era in England and that of Charles the Fifth in Spain, the Safavide ruler,

°Herbert H. Vreeland, ed., Iran (Human Relation Area File, New Haven, 1957), pp. 19-20. 7 William S. Hass, Iran (New York: Columbia University Press, 1946), p. 23. 20

Shah Abbas the Great, in every way encouraged the arts and sciences, and promoted the building of great and magnificent colleges and

Masjid or mosques, which became places for people's gatherings and a center of information.

Shah Abbas established his government at the new capital of

Isfahan. In the seventeenth century Isfahan's population was as high as 8 100, 000 people and as large as London. With such a large population, news of the court and political and religious news diffused mainly from the Masjid (mosque) or the Ghahvekhaneh (tea house). Although in 1639

Julfa Armenias established the first printing press in Iran, it was not until several decades later that the first publication appeared in Iran.

Iranian nationalism was stimulated by both politics and religion during the Safavide dynasty. Not only international politics, but also international trade became more active in Iran, but, since land routes to the Middle East and the Far East depended on amicable relations with Turkey, European trade with Iran and across Iran to the Indies and the Far East by land and sea was necessarily re-routed. Thus began the competition for hegemony in the Persian Gulf which ended with the

Q Jean Chardin, (later Sir John), Voyages, Vol. VII, (lOvols., Paris: 1811), pp. 289-90. 21

victory of Britain over Portugal. Ambassadors from Britain were soon

followed by commercial emissaries, agents of the East India Company,

and a relatively large number of merchants who ventured on their own

behalf.

Unhappily, internal stagnation during the last years of the

Safavide dynasty allowed Iran to fall victim first to another of the long

line of world conquerors, and then to the ever-widening net of

European imperialism.

Iran was finally delivered from the anarchy and foreign rule which followed its defeat by the Afghans in 1722, when Nadir Quli Shah became one of Iran's most outstanding warriors. Comparing his career with that of Napoleon Bonaparte, Hass observed, "Nadir and Napoleon do have one point in common: their exploits, momentous as they were, left no lasting mark on the history of their nations.

In spite of Nadir's success in battle, he was a failure as an administrator, and after his assassination in 1747, Iran suffered fifty years of civil war, which eventually culminated in the victory of the

Qajars, a northern tribe, who established their capital at Tehran in 1794.

After the French Revolution, political negotiations between

9 Laurence Lockhart, The Fall of the Safa vid Dynasty and Afghan Occupation of Persia (Cambridge University Press, 1958). 10 Hass, op. cit., p. 29. 22

Napoleon and the Qajar ruler drew Iran deeper and deeper into the net

of the European powers, beginning as an active partner and participant, but ending merely as a tool and victim. Napoleon set forth his plan, both monstrously ambitious and romantic, to attack the British in India by land and by sea. He proposed to march on India with an Iranian army trained and led by French officers. In return, Fath Ali Shah, the

second ruler in the Qajar dynasty, expected the assistance of the French

in wresting Georgia from the Russians, who, by occupying it, had become dangerous neighbors in the Caucasus.

In the later nineteenth century, the Shah of Iran was an absolute ruler in the tradition of the Achamenids, except that he had been entirely divested of his religious authority, which had been assumed by mujtahids, religious leaders whose influence was very great, both spiritually and temporally, and was often sufficient for them to be decisive in resolving political issues of great importance.

By the early years of the twentieth century, conditions in Iran had grown unbearable for many Iranians. Corruption, decadence, disorder, and instability throughout the nation led to agitation and mass

H Hamid Mowlana, Journalism in Iran: A History and Interpretation (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, 1963), pp. 45-6. 23

demonstrations; the troubles culminated in the Revolution of 1906,

which led to the establishment of Parliament—a National Assembly,

and, in December of that year, the granting of the Constitution which,

with minor modifications, remains in effect to this day.

At the beginning of the First World War, Iran declared its

neutrality, but Tehran became a "hotbed" of intrigue between Russian,

British, French, and German diplomats and agents. The Russian

Revolution, the defeat of Germany, and Britain's post-war relaxation of

its military posture left to Iranians the rule of their own nation once again. Increased corruption in the government, incompetence and inexperience among the younger generation, and the general resentment toward the way the government was being directed all prompted further agitation for a change.

The Qajar dynasty which had ruled Iran for 128 years, ended ingloriously with Ahmad Shah, who was both morally and physically deficient. He left Iran two years before his deportation was pronounced by Parliament, to clear the way for the election of Reza Khan, an officer in the Persian Cossack Brigade, as prime minister. In 1925 he was elected Shah of Iran. The dominating personality of the founder of the

Pahlavi dynasty was enough to banish competition, so that the intrigues, rivalries, and bloodshed which had often marked succession to the throne or Iran were averted. Thus, following in the wake of the 24

national uprising which secured the Constitution, the Pahlavi reign 12 reawakened both the Persian spirit and the national ambition of Iran.

Characteristics of Modern Iran

Electronic mass media grow as cities and their populations grow. Mass media require a common language in order to communicate uniformly. In Iran electronic mass media are owned and operated by the government. Farsi is used since it is Iran’s principal language.

A brief geographical description of Iran is given here as well as an account of population, language, and the government in order to provide a background for the advent and the development of electronic mass media in Iran.

Geography

Iran is situated in the north temperate zone, between the 44th and 63rd degrees longitude and the 25th and 40th degrees latitude.

Its 628,000 square miles equal 1,645,000 square kilometers, an area five times that of Italy. It is equal to the total areas of Italy, France,

Germany, Belgium Holland, Denmark, and England, or that of Texas, 13 New Mexico, Arizona, and California.

12 Ibid., pp. 49-50. 13 Iran Almanac, (Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1971), p. 79. 25

A part of Asia, Iran is bounded by a 1,200-mile border

with Russia and the Caspian Sea on the north; by Afghanistan and

Pakistan on the east; by Turkey and Iraq on the west; and the Persian

Gulf and the Sea of Oman on the south (see Figure 2). This

geographical location has made Iran the crossroads between East and

West throughout history. Until modern times, Iran has been considered

a country of international importance.

Iran is a country of great contrasts. Approximately one-third

of its area is an arid mountainous plateau, an average of 4,000 feet

above sea level. Another third consists of wooded slopes and arable

plains. In the north, the lush Caspian littoral has a heavy rainfall with

dense, misty forests which contrast sharply with the rest of Iran, a

vast desert stretching unexplored, since its treacherous crust is made

up of large and sharp-edged fractures of mud, layer upon layer.

According to popular belief, the eastern part of the desert known as

Kavir-e Lut is the site of the lost legendary city of Lut (lot) which is mentioned in the Koran, the holy book of the Moslems, and in the Bible, where it is identified as Sodom. The belief is that the city was destroyed by the hand of God who laid a curse upon the entire area and 14 turned it to salt.

14 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th ed., 9, p. 821. 26

The climate varies from region to region, ranging from

sub-tropical to sub-polar. In winter, the portions of the country

affected by a high-pressure belt centered in Siberia, which slashes

west and south to the interior of Iran, become very cold. In summer,

Iran has one of the world's lowest-pressure areas in the south. The

Persian Gulf area has unbearable heat and humidity, while the coastal

region of the Caspian Sea, with the moist air from the sea mingled with

the dry air currents from the Elburz Mountain, affords a quite

"heavenly" breeze.

Most of NIRT broadcasting centers have been built under

harsh, geographical conditions. In many cases, the equipment had to be carried by mules. Despite all the difficulties, broadcasting centers were built and antennae erected atop rugged mountains in a remarkably

short time.

nPopulation

The first census of population in Iran was taken in November 1956, at which time it was 18,954,704. In November 1966, the second census was taken, which revealed that many changes had occurred during the ten years. The population had increased to 25, 781,090, including an

80 per cent increase in the urban population, but only an 18 per cent increase in the rural/provincial population which seemed to be a natural growth rate. 15 27

Fig. 2 29

A sample census was taken in 1968, the results of which were published in 1971, and a more recent estimate of population growth was made during several major events in Iran (see Table 1).

On December 13, 1975, the Department of Public Registration reported that an average of 3,430 births were recorded daily while an average of only 410 deaths were recorded, indicating a net increase of 17 3, 020 daily. The population growth for 1974-75 was 1,103,782.

According to the most recent census, in 1976, the total population of Iran was 33, 591,875, of which 17,277, 656 were men and 18 16,314,219 were women. There were 15,715, 338 people from urban and suburban areas and 17,876, 537 from rural, provincial, and undeveloped areas; 8,185,218 men and 7,530,120 women from the former, and 9,092,438 men and 8, 784, 099 women from the latter.

It is projected that, by 1993, the population of Iran will increase to 50-55 million, depending on the success of the family 19 planning program (see Table 2). It is also projected that the economically-active population will increase by 18 million and the 20 overall labor force by approximately 7 million. If the current rate of

17 Ibid. 18 Report From Iran Census Bureau, Publication No. 1 (Tehran: Census Bureau, 1976), p. 5. 19 20 Almanac, op. cit., p. 321. Ibid. 30

TABLE 1

1 Population Growth in 20th Century

1906: Signing of the Constitution 7.5 million 1921: Beginning of the Pahlavi Era 8.0 " 1941: Beginning of the Shahanshah’s Era 15.0 " 1963: Beginning of the Shah and People Revolution 23.0 1966: The Second National Census 25.8 " 1973: Beginning of the 5th Plan 32.0 " 1976: Census 34.0 "

1 Iran Almanac, 1976, p. 321. TABLE 2

Forecast of Iranian Population

Supposing Annual Supposing Annual Supposing the Growth Year Growth rate to be Growth rate to be has been as shown 3% 2.7% in%

1976-77 34,801,000 34,278,000 33,962,000 (2.5%) 1981-82 40,371,000 39,190,000 38,075,000 (2.3%) 1986-87 46,874,000 44,763,000 42,312,000 (2.2%) 1991-92 54,401,000 50,898,000 46,233,000 (1.8%)

~4ran Almanac, 1976, p. 321.

co 32

population growth continues, the population of Tehran will probably increase to 10 million by 1993, while the optimum population is only 21 5.5 million.

With such a population, Iran needs a well-equipped broadcasting system in order to maintain effective mass communication. Most of

NIRT's attempts until recently have been focused on the expansion of facilities, but lately attention has been given to its programming as well.

Language

Farsi is the principal language of Iran, and it is used in Iranian broadcasting. Among the important goals of the National Iranian Radio and Television is the promotion of the Farsi.

The language of Iran can be divided into three historical periods, each marked by major events: spoken from 550-330 B. C. was the

Old Persian, which lasted until Iran was conquered by Alexander of

Macedonia (331 B.C.). After the conquest, Middle Persian was spoken until approximately the 9th century A.D. which eventually led to Modern

Persian. The Persian languages are Indo-European in origin and are closely akin to the ancient Indian languages shared by the Aryan family.

Old Persian is recorded in older portions of the Avesta or Zend

21 Ibid. 33

Avesta, the sacred writings of the ancient Persians, and the inscriptions

of the Achaemenians, the ruling dynasty of Persia from the time of

Cyrus the Great to the death of Darius the III (533-330 B. C.). Middle

Persian, in Avesta, comprises the commentary language, the so-called

Pahlavi. It is represented by numerous epigraphic texts of Sassanid

kings written in Aramaic script—Pahlavi was the name of official oq Middle Persian Language of the Sassanid Empire.

Among modern Persian dialects the most important is the

literary language which derives from southern dialects of Middle Persian,

roughly dated from the advent of Islam, in A. D. 641 when the Persian army was defeated by the Arabs. The vocabulary is mostly Arabic and 24 Turkish for which Arabic script is used.

In the 20th century, the Persian language is highly analytic, with simple, flexible grammar which makes it easy to master. The language now called Parsy or Farsi is spoken by the vast majority of

Iranians and is the official language of Iran. It is understood by almost all Iranians. Apart from Farsi, other languages are spoken locally,

22Almanac, op. cit., p. 605.

^Britannica, op. cit., p. 890.

^Almanac, op, cit., p. 605. 34

including Turkish, Russian, Kurdish, Luri, Baluchi, and Arabic.

Among educated people, English, French, and German are spoken with

proficiency. The promotion of Farsi as a single common language paved

the way for a modern communication system in Iran.

Government

Iran has been a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral

legislative body since 1906. His Imperial Majesty Mohammad

Reza Shah Pahlavi Shahanshah Aryamehr is the present king and has

held the title Shahanshah, which means "king of kings, " since 1941. 25 He succeeded his father Reza Shah the Great to the throne.

The Prime Minister, presently Jamshyd Amozegar, is the

head of government. He was selected by the Shahanshah Aryamehr and

his Cabinet, with the approval of the Parliament.

Parliament, the legislative body, consists of two chambers:

Majlis-e Shora, or the Lower House, and the Senate. There are 200

or more in the Lower House, who are elected for four years. Women can be elected and have voted since 1963. The Senate consists of 60 members 26 elected from the capital city Tehran, and 15 from the provinces.

25Ministry of Information and Tourism, Iran (Tehran: 1974), p. 19. 35

Through the office of the Prime Minister, the Ministries

operate and receive orders. There are nineteen Ministries:

Agriculture, Commerce, Culture and Art, Housing and Town Planning,

Economy, Education, Energy, Foreign Affairs, Health and Welfare,

Information and Tourism, Interior, Industry and Mines, Justice,

Labour and Social Service, Cooperation and Rural Affairs, Post, Telegraph

and Telephone, Roads and Transport, Science and Higher Education, and

War. Some of the Ministries have semi-independent agencies under them.

For example, the University of Tehran is under the Ministry of Education.

National Iranian Radio and Television is similarly under the Ministry of

Information and Tourism although it is an independent organization.

There are also some self-contained agencies such as Plan Organization

which are almost independent although they are under government

control. The provinces are administrated by the government through the

Ministry of the Interior. There are offices in the provincial capitals by 27 other Ministries.

Shahanshah Aryamehr is the only person with the power to

dissolve the Parliament. He also appoints the governor for the country's provinces or Ostans. A bill, after approval of the two Chambers, becomes a law only upon the Shahanshah's signing. His Imperial Majesty

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Mission For My Country (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1968), p. 170. 36

is also the executive and supreme commander in chief of the Armed 28 Force.

28 Ministry of Information, op. cit., p. 19. 37

Summary

Television broadcasting in Iran is regarded by many Iranians

today as being the ultimate manifestation of their ancient legend of an

image which has persisted in the literature of Persia and Iran as well

as a number of other works of world literature.

Each nation uses broadcasting in accordance to its own

particular needs and purposes. To understand the development of broadcasting in Iran, it is helpful to know its past history, especially the periods prior to the advent of broadcasting. The early history of

Iran is divided into three phases: the prehistoric, the protohistoric, and historic periods. Iran's recorded history extends over 2,500 years.

Iran has been known to the Western World as Persia but has always been called Iran, the land of Aryans, by Iranians.

Early in the seventh century A.D., Persia was conquered by

Moslems of the Arab world; thus Iran entered its Islamic era. Arab leaders ruled in Persia until the eleventh century. In 1499 the Safavid dynasty established a religious political state. It was during the Safavid dynasty that Shia Moslem became the official religion of Iran.

In 1794 Qajar, a dynasty of Turkish origin, began to rule in

Iran. During the reign of Nasir ed-Din Shah, the telegraph which is discussed in Chapter III was introduced in Iran.

Iran has an area of 628,000 square miles and a population of approximately 35 million. The official language is Farsi, and the 38

goyc-mment is a constitutional Monarchy with the Shahanshah Aryamehr as head of state. 39

CHAPTER III

THE ADVENT OF THE TELEGRAPH IN IRAN

Historical and Political Background

As in most countries, long-distance communication in Iran

began with the advent of Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph

system. The telegraph in Iran was introduced by the British basically

for their own use. Several historical and political events took place before the telegraph was finally seen in operation in Iran. A brief

review of these events is presented here in order that the main subject, the development of the telegraph, can be seen in proper perspective.

In 1853 war broke out between Russia and Turkey. England,

France, and Sardinia as allies in turn declared war on Russia. The most important part of this war was in Crimea where Russian soldiers stood against the British and French navies for a long time. It was during this campaign that the British government first realized the great need for the development of an effective telegraph communication system between its embattled troops in Iran and the Indian outposts.

1 Hussanin Pejman, History of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (Tehran: 1948), p. 371. (in Farsi) 40

In 1857 the Indian Sepey Mutiny further increased the need for

telegraphic communication between England and India. The need for a

fast means of communication seemed to be a vital necessity. It took

three months for a letter from London to be received in India.

By this time, the British government was convinced that, in

order to maintain control and governance of India and to utilize the

resources of that country, England urgently needed a direct communication

link between the British Isles and India.

The British government had three possible alternatives of

establishing an electric telegraph communication link with the vast

Indian continent. The first was to lay an undersea cable which would

connect the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean by way of the Red Sea.

The second alternative was to extend the cable that had been laid during

the Crimean War from Uskadar, located in Northwest Turkey at the

south entrance of the Bosporus on the Asiatic side opposite Istanbul

proper, to the port of Faw, a port in Basra province in southeastern

Iraq'on the Persian Gulf, then through the Persian Gulf to Karachi,

Pakistan. The third choice, the route through Iran, was by far the best

and the least expensive.

Despite the enormous technical difficulties involved in the first

proposal, the British initially adopted the extension of the cable beneath the sea, since the second and third alternatives were dependent on their 41

success on the approval of the Iranian government—not very likely at

this time. But because of the great expense and the political

difficulties which might have occurred in connection with the first

solution, the British finally decided that the most practical alternative

would be to come to an agreement with the Iranian government, whatever

the cost.

The Shah of Iran, Nasir ed-Din Shah, at first regarded the

British offer to establish a telegraph system with some suspicion, for he

did not trust foreign powers. He had good reasons for doing so: England's

interference had just precipitated the loss of Harat, the important

trading city; Russia had trespassed in Iran's northern provinces; and

Napoleon had broken the Paris agreement. The Shah, however, overcame

his pessimism, for the British offer was too obviously beneficial to

refuse. Encouraged by popular support and the urgings of his Prime

Minister, the Shah eventually accepted it.

It was indeed fortunate for Iran that the Shah did finally consent,

since if it had not been for the pressing need of the British to establish

telegraphic communication with India, it is extremely doubtful that Iran would have been able to develop the telegraph as easily and as rapidly as it actually did. Lord Curzen points out that "if Iran was not in the way

of the British to India, with its favorable geographical situation, Iran would have had to wait for the telegraph for many years." As it was, 42

by the end of 1864, exactly twenty years after Samuel F. B. Morse sat at the table in the Old Supreme Court Chamber in Washington and tapped out a message in code, the first telegraph line was constructed in Iran.

2 George Nathaniel Curzon, Persian and Question of Persia, trans, by Vahid Mazandarany (2 vols., London and New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892), pp. 604-606. 43

Introduction of the Telegraph System

The Establishment of the First Line

An Austrian civil official at the Military School of Darul-Fnoon,

Krsiz by name, who was then working in the artillery, was knowledgeable about the electric telegraph. The Prime Minister immediately commissioned him to make the necessary preparations to supply a sample telegraph apparatus for Iran, and in only one month,

Krsiz and students at the military school had completed the arrangements and furnished Iran with two telegraph instruments. The two pieces of equipment were then placed in separate rooms and students were instructed in their operation and in reading the Morse Code.

By 1857 all the basic preparations were completed, and in the presence of the Prime Minister, the first telegraph message was dispatched. He then took the honor of informing the Shah of the new development. As a result, the Shah permitted the establishment of the telegraph under the supervision of Prime Minister Atezad-u-Saltaneh, 4 with Mirza Zaky Mazandarany as translator.

3 Lieutenant Nicolar M. Krsiz. His name has also been spelled "Krsis." 4 Mirza Zaky Mazandarany knew French well. He translated Krsiz' book, Mechanics, into Persian. The book was translated from pamphlets which Krsiz taught in Darul-Fnoon College in Tehran. The translation was retitled The Science of Mechanics and Winch. 44

Krsiz was honored with the shoulder-belt of a colonelship

and the royal robe of honor. The newspaper, Vaghayeh Ittifagiyeh,

commented briefly on Krsiz' success:

Because, in Europe, some. . . scientific apparatus have been fashionable which have not been prevalent in Iran, apparatus such as the electric telegraph which enables news to be dispatched from distant places, and because the rumors about that wonderful apparatus could not be understood without examining the article, His Majesty has commanded Mr. Krsiz, the instructor of artillery at the military school, to supply a sample telegraph apparatus under the supervision of. . . Minister of Education, and to exhibit it. Mr. Krsiz and his fellow workmen are commissioned to fulfill the royal wishes in one month, and to install them in two rooms in Darul-Fnoon School. Because the’basic examinations have been successful, last Thursday the Prime Minister himself arrived at the school and gave a message to be dispatched. After a satisfactory result was obtained, the Prime Minister praised the Minister of Education and the students, and gave the order to wire the royal palace to Lalezar Garden. (Vaghayeh Ittifagiyeh, No. 392, 1857)

The early years of the electric telegraph in Iran showed very little progress, if any at all. In spite of the fact that the telegraph had been in formal use for a little over fourteen years and that many improvements had been made in the original apparatus, none of the changes made were known to Iran. It is astonishing that even Krsiz was not acquainted with the scientific discoveries of the last twenty years, especially Steen Hayl's discovery of the earth's conductivity. 45

Issue 385 of Vagheyeh Ittifagiyeh (1857), makes the following

observation:

The German scientist, Steen Hayl, proved that the earth could be used to transmit telegraphs and that instead of using two lines of electrical wire, only one need be used—the earth functioning as the second line of wire to carry the electrical energy.

The Shah fully recognized the usefulness of the wonderful communication

apparatus, and the suggestions and enthusiasm of the royal court inspired

him to believe that the telegraph could be the most important medium to

support his kingdom and inform him of any events in any place in the

country before danger became eminent. The Shah's support of the

telegraph is apparent in his later decisions to extend the telegraph from

Tehran to Chaman-e Soltanieh, the site of the Royal Summer Camp, and

in the same year, 1858, to order the wiring of the outlying areas of the

country.

The British were extremely pleased, of course, that the line

had at last been completed since they were hopeful that the Soltanieh

extension would help them in establishing their projected communication

line between England and India. Despite their enthusiasm, they began

to set up plans for the Red Sea cable link, which was completed and

X ready to operate in 1859. But because of a defect in the cables, it lasted

only about three weeks. The communication link to India had failed.

Once again, the British were forced to acknowledge their dependence on 46

Iran, and Colonel Patrick Stewart was sent to Tehran to resume negotiations.

The Extension of Soltanieh-Tabrize

Supporters of the telegraph, both in the Court and the government, informed the Shah that its development was essential in order to be informed of events. As a result, Nasir ed-Din Shah ordered the 5 extension of the telegraph to Tabriz. The telegraph was extended to

Zanjan, the capital city of Tabriz province, in 1860. Within a year, the cities along the telegraph lines were all equipped with telegraph facilities, and communication between these cities began.

From this point on, Nasir ed-Din Shah was strongly in favor of the telegraph in Iran; in order to protect the line, he appointed several members of the artillery to safeguard the telegraph centers.

In 1860, the year that the line reached Tabriz, it was also extended from Tehran to Shemran, a city of Tehran.

0 The Extension of Aras

In 1863 the order was given by Nasir ed-Din Shah to extend the

5 Miratul Baldan, (Tehran: 1860), p. 248. 0 °Aras, formerly called the Araxes, is a river rising in Turkey which flows 686 miles in an easterly direction, forming the border between Turkey and the Soviet Union and between Iran and the USSR. 47

telegraph from Tabriz to the border of Iran, Aras. The new line was completed in the same year and congratulatory messages were dispatched, as is indicated in Miratul Baldan: "The extension was made between

Tabriz and the border of Iran. A telegram was sent by Nasir ed-Din Shah 7 to the Crown Prince of Caucasia, and vice versa."

The northern line was extended for no other reason than to alleviate any concern Nasir ed-Din Shah might have had about the safety of his borders. When his suspicions were allayed, the British began work on the southern lines for which approval was given.

The Southern Extension

As already mentioned, the Red Sea cable was laid, but was in operation for only slightly more than three weeks. After its failure,

British experts decided to extend the cable from Uskadar in Turkey to the Port of Faw at the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, and extend it to the Persian Gulf. It would inevitably need to pass along

Iran's shores, from the banks of the river, Karun, to the border with

Baluchistan. In the same year, 1860, Stivic, the British representative was also sent to Iran to cooperate with the British Consul in Iran, in

7 Pejman, op. cit., quoting Miratul Baldan, pp. 381-82. 48

devising a suitable agreement for the extension of the England-India

telegraph line. Unfortunately, the two disagreed violently, and Stivic's

appointment ended in his abrupt departure for England without any

progress.

In 1862 Stivic was sent to Iran for a second time. On this

occasion, he was acting as a diplomat, the Charge D'Affaires of the

British Embassy, and was therefore able to obtain an audience with

Nasir ed-Din Shah. At this time, Mirza Saiedkhan, the Minister of

Foreign Affairs, and Forokhkan Amin-u-Duleh, who had signed the most

recent treaty with the British, were both in favor of Stivic. They

finally convinced the Shah of Stivic's good faith; thus, the first

telegraph treaty between Iran and England was signed in 1862.

The installations began very quickly from three points:

Bushire, Kermanshah, and Esfehan, and by 1863 all the necessary equipment and apparatus had been assembled. One year later, the lines were ready for use, and the equipment was put into operation. In the

same year, Nasir ed-Din Shah ordered the line extended from Tehran to the port of Bushire, and later from Khanaqin to Tehran so that Iran 8 might have a direct communication link with the European governments.

When the extension of the lines was completed, a British

g Miratul Baldan, op. cit., Vol. Ill, p. 23. 49

representative and twenty-eight of his compatriots remained in Iran

to work for five months under contract with the Iranian government

to supervise operation of the lines and instruct Iranians in operating

the equipment. The Tehran-Khanaqin line was under British control for

five months which was later extended.

In accordance with the 1862 treaty, signed by Iran and England,

England's telegraph system was linked to Baghdad through the

Mediterranean and from Baghdad was extended to Kermanshah, Hamedan,

Shirza, Bushire, and finally reached Karachi by sea cable. In this way two telegraph lines were in British hands so that if one line was impaired, the other could be used in its place. In the same year an extension to 9 10 Astarabad was begun; it was completed in 1864.

The rapid development of the telegraph during this period had linked the cities of the northwest, the south, and the southwest with

Tehran, and significant advance was brought about chiefly because of the initiative of Nasir ed-Din Shah. It was really his interest that prompted the advent of the electric telegraph in Iran in the nineteenth century.

Now Gorgan. 10Pejman, History of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (Tehran: 1948), p. 384. 50

The Condition of the Telegraph System (1866-1874)

The telegraph installation was in very good condition from

1866 to 1874; the northern lines remained in operation, and the

southern lines were extended. Not only were there ample lines to

carry messages, but the system was also a very efficient one. Iranian

articles published during this period attest to the accuracy of telegraph

transmission and the special attention paid by Atezad-u-Saltaneh to the 11 training of students in Morse Code.

By 1867, Iran had become the link to Europe for messages dispatched from both Russia and India, and a message sent from Boston 12 took only eight hours to reach Tehran.

In 1875, Nasir ed-Din Shah issued an order to extend telegraph 13 lines over the entire country. Work progressed rapidly despite the fact that additional equipment had to be imported from England.

The Telegraph Treaties

The first telegraph treaty between Iran and England was prepared in Tehran on December 17, 1862. It was then sent to England for royal

l\ran, no. 588, (Tehran), 1867. (at the end of this part)

12 Iran, op. cit., no. 616. 13 Iran, op. cit., no. 46, 1875. 51

assent, which was received on February 6, 1863. The treaty contained articles concerning extensions of telegraph lines, purchases of equipment and apparatus by Iran, which was to be paid for over a five- year period. The telegraph system was to be administered by British 14 representatives.

This treaty made it possible for Iran to have the telegraph.

But under the treaty Iran was forced to pay for telegraph equipment which basically was for British use. In addition, administration of the telegraph system was in British hands.

In 1866 a treaty was signed to extend the telegraph from

Bandar Abass to Gwadr, a port in Baluchistan. The treaty provided that Sir Charles Alison, Esquire, the British Council of Ministers' representative of Queen Victoria, and Mirza Said Khan, Minister of

Foreign Affairs, as Nasir ed-Din Shah's representative, administer the telegraph extension of Bandar Abbass-Gwadr.

Several other treaties were signed between Iran and the

British—among them, the treaty of 1902. Under this treaty three lines were to be established: from Kerman, Kahsan, and Yazd to

Baluchistan. The expenses of this undertaking were to be borne by the

14 Pejman, op. cit., p. 399. 52

British, but these were to be met in the form of a monetary advance to

Iran. The income from the lines was to go to the British, but they had to pay Iran 20, 000 francs a year.

Under the treaty of 1905 England would permit the Indo-European

Telegraph Company to establish lines in southern Iran and expenses of this venture were to be borne by Iran's government.

By 1882 nearly half the telegraph lines in Iran were in use for the British and more than 142 miles of these lines under their control.

Iranian-Russian Telegraph

For some time after the introduction of the telegraph in Iran,

Russia showed no interest in establishing telegraph communication with

Iran. At that time, Russia possessed neither real property nor commercial interest in Iran. However, when the Iranian telegraph lines were extended to the northern border at Aras, the line was linked to the

Russian telegraph system without the signing of a treaty or the observance of any special ceremony. In 1863 a message of best wishes was sent from Iran to the Caucasian prince, who returned the compliment.

On October 28, 1870, the first treaty with Russia was signed—however 15 unnecessary it may officially have been.

15 Telegraphic, (Tehran), no. 3, pp. 1-5. Pejman, op. cit., pp. 421-25. 53

In 1921 all of the treaties with Russia were cancelled with control of all Iranian lines returning to Iran.

Iranian-Ottoman (Turkish) Telegraph

The Iranian telegraph was also linked to the Ottoman (Turkish) telegraph system primarily to meet British needs, but also to complete the world-wide communication network. The first Iranian-Ottoman treaty was signed in 1863. According to the treaty, the Iranian line would be extended to the Iranian-Ottoman border, while the Ottomans would extend their line from Bagdad to the border point. Iran and Turkey further agreed that Morse Code would be employed for all telegraphic 16 communication.

After 1939, all treaties were concluded on an international basis for a telegraph network which linked virtually all countries of the world. Also wireless telegraph had been introduced, and both 17 attention and emphasis rapidly shifted to the new system.

The Effect of the Telegraph in Iran

The most important aspect of the introduction of the telegraph in Iran was the linking of Iran with Europe since Iran was at last placed

16 Hussanin Pejman, History of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (Tehran: 1948), pp. 426-60. 54

in an international spotlight. This new awareness on the part of the

West stimulated an influx of visitors to the country; tourists, scholars, and adventurers flocked to discover for themselves the land of

Cyrus the Great.

The exchange was a reciprocal one, though; Iran became more familiar with European culture, technology, and mode of living—a fact which typifies an important aspect of the Iranian national temperament.

Although the Iranian people are extremely conservative and hold traditional values, they have always recognized the importance of innovation, and consequently have had a fondness for new inventions and new ways of living. The changes brought by the advent of the telegraph helped to release the country from stagnancy and ignorance much earlier than would otherwise have been possible. Even the political organization of the country was changed; contact with the West awakened-the country's constitutional leaders to Western democracy and the notion that all men should be equal in the eyes of the law. Travelers to and from Europe and the publication of Persian newspapers abroad were significant in 18 creating this desire for change.

Another important effect of the telegraph was that for the first time major cities, provinces, and even villages were linked. The

Kasravi, History of the Constitutional Movement in Iran (Tehran: 1963), p. 44. 55

geography of Iran had previously made her extremely difficult to govern.

During the Achamenid period, for example, the "pony express" was the only fast means of delivering the post and conveying news. Throughout the history of Iran, kings had to station men at strategic points, at home and abroad, and rely on those "eyes and ears" for the vital information which would enable them to control and govern the great

Persian Empire.

Thus, after many years, the telegraph provided a means of unifying the distant portions of Iran. The local government in Tehran could now control other parts of the country with ease. News was received by telegraph in Tehran, and orders were sent all over the nation. The telegraph strengthened the power of the government, since it put an end to many of the small powers scattered over the country who were unaware of each other's existence. Rumors of any mutiny or rebellious movements were sent to the Shah by telegraph, and consequently, such movement never had a chance to ripen. The local governors were under closer surveillance by the Shah and received far more instruction from the central government than ever before so that they could not deal harshly with people. 56

Indeed, in many places free telegraph centers were established for the people to send their complaints to the Shah. These telegraph centers were for use not only by Iranian citizens but also by citizens of foreign countries who were living in Iran. In one incident the

British Consul in Iran sent a telegram of complaint from Kerman to the

British Ambassador stating that the director of the postal service was not forwarding British mail. The Ambassador telegraphed the Shah, and the director of the postal service was at once relieved of his duties. 20

Nasir ed-Din Shah had a great interest in the telegraph and sup­ ported it for many years. He was assassinated on May 1, 1896, by the reformist, Seyyed Jamal-ud-Din Assad Abadi. The telegraph did not progress in any significant fashion after him and it remained that way until Reza Shah came to power in 1921.

19Nazemal-Islam Kermany, History of Iran Awakening, Vol. II (Tehran: 1965), p. 175. 2°Ibid. 57

The Advent of the Wireless Telegraph in Iran

Historical and Political Background

After World War n, the wireless telegraph gained much popularity and importance among the nations of the world. The new

system was relatively inexpensive and more convenient to operate.

Iran, too, adopted the new wireless system for its use. Reza Shah, the father of the present ruler of Iran, was mainly responsible and instrumental in the introduction and advancement of the wireless telegraph in Iran.

In order to understand the advent of the wireless telegraph more fully, it is appropriate to first explain the political background of Iran prior to its coming and also to give a brief biographical outline of the progenitor of the Pahlavi dynasty and the founder of modern Iran,

Reza Shah the Great.

Reza Shah was born in 1878 at Alast, a village in the Savadkuh of Mazandaran Province located in northern Iran (see Figure 3). By the time he had reached his teens, he had enlisted in the Iranian army where he showed a natural aptitude for leadership.

Because of its recent history of misrule and the ravages wrought by World War I, Iran was in a desperate condition by 1921. The last ruler of the Qajar dynasty, Ahmad Shah, who had succeeded to the throne at the age of eleven, was too inexperienced and incompetent to preserve to

GJ

Iran: General map

i

en 00 59

the integrity of Iran or the fate of his dynasty. The occupation of Iran during World War I (1914-1918) by Russian, British, and Ottoman

(Turkish) troops was a blow from which Ahmad Shah never fully recovered. In addition, his Cabinet was weak and corrupt.

On February 4, 1921, Reza Shah (then called Reza Khan) took over the government in a military coup with the assistance of a young, reforming ^journalist Seyed Zia ed-Din Taba-Tabai. Seyed Zia headed the new cabinet that was formed in 1921, and soon he became the

Prime Minister while Reza Khan became the Commander-in-Chief of the

Iranian army and the Minister of War. Although Seyed Zia had taken part in coup d'etat with Reza Shah, soon he clashed with him over reform 21 issues. Seyed Zia was then forced to resign and leave the country.

Reza Khan's objective was to end the chaos by forming a strong government supported by a well-training and disciplined military force.

His dream was to revitalize and modernize Iran. Through his influence as War Minister he rapidly reached the position where he could realize his dream. He became the real power behind a succession of prime ministers until 1923 when he himself assumed this post.

Two years later, in October, 1925, the Majles, Iran's

National Consultative Assembly, formally deposed Ahmad Shah Qajar

21 Hassan Kamshad, Modern Persia Prose Literature (Cambridge University Press: 1966), p. 54. 60

because of his refusal to return to Iran from Europe where he was undergoing lengthy medical treatment. A constituent assembly elected

Reza Khan as Shah, this event marking the beginning of the Pahlavi dynasty in Iran; Reza Shah built roads, schools, hospitals, and opened

Iran's first university, Tehran University, in 1934. A good indication of his social reform was his emancipation of women in 1935; the veils that women were required to wear throughout Iran's Islamic period were finally to be discarded. Clearly, Reza Shah's efforts were directed toward the democratization of Iran and its emancipation from foreign 22 influence.

Among Reza Shah's many approaches toward revitalizing Iran was his attempt to raise the efficiency of the army by modernizing its equipment and apparatus. The introduction of the wireless telegraph and its equipment was among the first of these improvements. It was, of course, necessary to establish a permanent center in the capital city of Tehran and in other strategic cities as well for the wireless telegraph stations. Afterward, apparatus and equipment had to be supplied.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Mission For My Country (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1961), p. 43. 61

Introduction of the Wireless Telegraph System

In 1924 the Ministry of War negotiated with a Russian

company 23 to purchase a wireless telegraph set with twenty-kilowatt

long-wave power and the antenna for installation in Tehran. In addition,

six four-kilowatt long-wave sets were acquired for the six major cities:

Tabriz, Mashhad, Kerman, Shiraz, Kermanshah, and Mohamereh, now

called Khoramshahr (for location of these cities see - Iran: General

Map, Figure 3, p. 58).

The first mast, 120 meters high, was erected in Tehran.

Reza Shah looked upon it as a monument and placed beneath it a cannon

ball which contained a short monograph he had written on his past service

and his hope for the future. The radio mast came then to symbolize

modern Iran. Because Reza Shah was concerned that state affairs be

conducted by Iranians as much as possible, he ordered the Ministry of

War to establish "The Army School of Wireless" with three classes to train young students to operate the wireless equipment. The school began operation in 1925.2324

The wireless was officially inaugurated in April 1926 on the third day of celebration for the coronation of Raza Shah even though

23 The name of the company is unknown. 24 Hussanin Pejman, History of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (Tehran: 1948), p. 507. 62

preparations for operation were not complete, and, indeed, most parts of the transmitters and apparatus were not yet in service. With the effort of the director of the Department of Wireless,

General Abdelreza Afkhami, and foreign experts, the transmitters were in operating condition in time for Reza Shah's inauguration of the wireless. After the Shah cut the ribbon, designed after the Iranian flag, a telegraph message was dispatched inviting stations all over the world 25 to respond to and communicate with Iran.

The first station to respond to the signal was Moscow. A message of good wishes was sent to Iran directed to Reza Shah, the

Ministers of Court, and the Minister of War. Thus, the station was established under the name Pahlavi Wireless; it was also known as

R.V.A.; the abbreviation was changed to EPA which stood for

Empire of Persia. Radio Iran was equipped with one two-kilowatt medium-wave transmitter and one thirty-two-kilowatt short-wave transmitter. 26

Toward the end of 1926 the Department of Wireless, which had been under the control of the Ministry of War, was transferred to the

Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (PTT). Under this

25 Hussanin Pejman, History of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (Tehran: 1948), p. 507. 26 National Iranian Radio and Television, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 10. 63

ministry the wireless system experienced some difficulties. In fact, at one point the station ceased transmission, but Reza Shah solved the problems, and the station resumed operation.

One of the chief problems Iran encountered with the wireless was the long-wave system with its costly mercury bulbs. Often, replacement bulbs were not purchased in time so that the station was forced to cease transmission for a period, but the introduction of the short-wave system brought an end to these problems. As a result,

Iran ordered two such systems from the French General Company which shipped two SFR short-wave systems to Iran in 1928. In addition, the company sent a team of experts to train Iranians to operate the new 27 equipment.

The new system, with its two stations, was established in the area of Tehran. Located in the Castle of the Qajar in Tehran, the transmission center, which sent out signals, was powered by a

100-horsepower and a 75-horsepower diesel motor. The station also had two transmitters, one with a wavelength of 27.75 and the other of

19.86. The antenna, built on a mast twenty meters high, was erected in Tehran. The receiving station for incoming signals was located two kilometers from the transmission center in a castle in the Najafabad area;

27 Pejman, op. cit., p. 510. 64

it was equipped with two short-wave and two long-wave receivers. This new system was inaugurated in 1930 in the name of His Majesty

Reza Shah Pahlavi, by the Director of Wireless, Ghasem Seer. The first communications were widespread; Berlin, Paris, London, Ankara,

Beirut, and Tiflis were all contacted in the first broadcast. Nonetheless, the new system was still not sufficient for Iran's need, and it was gradually expanded. In 1935, a dynamo generator capable of producing

10,000 volts was purchased and incorporated into the new system thereby increasing the power for outgoing signals. Thus, the range of communication was widened, and together with a number of teleprinters and other small apparatus purchased in 1947, Iran was well on her way 28 in modernizing her communications systems.

Hussanin Pejman, History of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (Tehran: 1948), p. 510. 65

Summary

During the Crimean War in which Great Britain, France,

Turkey, and Sardinia as allies declared war on Russia, the British

realized the need and the importance of the electric telegraph. Later,

in 1857, the Indian Sepoy Mutiny further increased the need. Great

Britain had three alternatives in establishing telegraphic communication

between England and India. The extension of the telegraph line from

Uskadar in Turkey through Iran was by far the best.

In the beginning, the British had difficulties in persuading the

Shah of Iran, but eventually they succeeded, and finally the telegraph

was introduced in Iran connecting England to India.

The advent of the electric telegraph in Iran was the beginning

of electronic mass communication. It connected Iran with the Western

World and at last placed Iran in a spotlight. Development of the

electric telegraph opened many new doors to Iran. It influenced other

facets of Iranian life, but more important it led to the development of the

wireless telegraph telegraph which eventually led to the advent of radio.

As in most countries, radio broadcasting in Iran began with the introduction of the wireless telegraph. Reza Shah introduced the wireless telegraph to Iran and used it as part of a modernization of the

Iranian Army. In 1926 Iran's first wireless system was inaugurated by

Reza Shah. The wireless station dispatched a message inviting the 66

neighboring countries to respond to its message. The Moscow station was the first station to respond with good wishes. Toward the end of

1926 the Department of Wireless which was under the control of the

Ministry of War, was transferred to the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone. 67

CHAPTER IV

THE ADVENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF RADIO IN IRAN

Administration and Technological Development

Long-distance communication in Iran began with the advent of

the wired telegraph and the wireless telegraph, and in this respect

progress from a simple telegraph communication system to a complex

broadcasting network followed the same path as in most other countries.

In the early days of radio some European broadcasts could be

received in Iran by a few receivers imported from Europe by visiting

Iranians. Because of political circumstances the broadcasts of

neighboring countries were not especially friendly; however, those

Iranians who had travelled in Europe mentioned radio and its functions

to others upon their return to Iran. At the same time the use of the phonograph and disc records was gaining in popularity. The need for

radio, therefore, became more noticeable. In September 1934, the

Cabinet of Ministers passed a law permitting merchants to import

radio sets, and people to install antennae atop their houses after they

obtained a permit from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone.

The Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone was commissioned to conduct a study and to submit a proposal for the establishment of a 68

radio broadcasting system in Tehran, This action finally led to the

establishment of radio broadcasting in Iran.

In 1937 the primary steps toward the establishment of Iran's radio broadcasting system were taken. A proposal from the

Minister of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone was submitted to

His Majesty Reza Shah, and, upon its approval, the order was given for work to begin on the installation of transmitters in Tehran and in a number of provinces. The first equipment consisted of one two-kilowatt medium-wave transmitter to cover Iran and broadcast to the neighboring countries. In addition, ten one-kilowatt transmitters were installed in provinces to broadcast locally but mainly to relay the programs of

Radio Iran in Tehran. These transmitters were purchased from the

Telephone Company of England.

Low-power transmitters were purchased at the suggestion of

Iranian engineers. They reasoned that With Iran's geographical barriers and the existence of vast non-populated areas between the cities, the country would best be served by several transmitters. They also thought it would be better if the provinces were to receive their programming from Tehran, the capital city. Although Reza Shah had ordered the purchase of more powerful transmitters, he accepted the engineers' suggestion. The first broadcasts of the new system were beamed to

Tehran and districts in Iran; eventually broadcasts also reached 69

neighboring countries.

On April 24, 1940 Radio Iran was formally inaugurated in

Tehran by Shahanshah Aryamehr, then Crown Prince. The first radio station where the ceremony took place consisted of a small room with only basic instruments for simple broadcasting; today it is preserved 1 in its original condition. After the normal inauguration the Iranian national anthem was broadcast—an event that made a great impression on the people. The Prime Minister Mateen Daftary then sent a message expressing good wishes and appreciation to His Majesty the Crown Prince and promised the people that radio would be established as a source of news, information, and entertainment for the general public. He also announced that centers in various parts of Tehran would be established where loud speakers and radio receivers would be provided for the general public to listen to broadcasts free of charge.

Radio Iran was under the supervision of the Ministry of Post,

Telegraph, and Telephone for its first two years. In 1942 the

Department of Publication and Propaganda was established and was given control of Radio Iran. The Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and

Telephone, however, remained in charge of and responsible for providing the engineering staff and maintenance of the equipment.

National Iranian Radio and Television, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department). 1974), p. 10. 70

Previously, in 1941, the Cabinet of Ministers had approved a proposal for the technical expansion and improvement of the Radio Iran.

The Department of Publication and Propaganda was amalgamated with the Ministry of Labor, being newly titled the Ministry of Labor and

Propaganda. But the merger only lasted a year, at which time the

Department of Publication and Propaganda was put under the administration of the Office of the Prime Minister.

Eventually, during the 1950's the Department of Publication and

Propaganda gained more independence and self-control. This was due to its rapid expansion, a significant improvement and increase in its programming, activities and a nation-wide expansion plan that included

Tehran and other cities and provinces throughout the country. Under this plan, several powerful short-wave transmitters were to be added to the already existing facilities of the Department of Publication and 2 Propaganda in Tehran.

Along with the expansion of radio broadcasting in Tehran several other radio stations were also established in a number of cities and provinces. In 1946 Radio Tabriz was put into operation with a 100-kilowatt medium-wave transmitter. Interestingly enough, in radio development as well as telegraph development, Tabriz was the first city after Tehran

2 UNESCO, World Communication (New York: UNESCO Pub. Center, 1964), p. 221. 71

to have a station. By 1960 there were ten radio stations in operation in major cities and provinces beside the ones in Tehran. Initially many of these provincial stations were using the army transmitters for their broadcasting, but they were gradually replaced with more modern and powerful equipment, and became independent of the army.

A new era of marked development began in 1961. By then, there were in operation two short-wave transmitters, one of 250-kilowatts and the other of 350-kilowatts which were installed in Kamalabad, Tehran.

Other major cities and province transmitters were established immediately after those already in operation. These provincial radio stations are described later in this chapter.

Radio Iran during the 1960's experienced a great deal of improvement and technical advancement. In 1960 a new division called

Radio Tehran or Program II was added to the services of Radio Iran. 3 The new division broadcast from a 100-kilowatt medium-wave band.

In 1963 the Department of Publication and Propaganda was given the full 4 status as a ministry and was retitled the Ministry of Information.

Under the Ministry of Information Radio Iran gained further independence and was expanded even more. In 1973 total transmission power of radio stations in Iran was 7, 710 kilowatts (see Table 3).

^Tamasha, no. 321 (Tehran: 1977), p. 53. 4 Ministry of Information, 30th Anniversary of Radio in Iran (Tehran: Ministry of Information, 1970), pp. 1-4. 72

TABLE 3

RADIO TRANSMITTERS IN IRAN1 For Selected Years, 1940-73

Year Total power Number of Cities with output (KW) transmitters transmitters*

1940 22 2 1

1945 30 3 2

1950 32 5 4

1955 33 6 5

1960 300 22 13

1965 600 28 13

1970 1152 45 15

1971 1152 45 15

1972 5629 56 26

1973 7710 64 31

*In most centers there is also a stand-by transmitter. Such transmitters are not included in the totals. ^Commercial Affairs (Tehran: NIRT, May 1974), p. 23. 73

In 1967 Iran's first FM station was established and put into operation in Tehran with a ten-kilowatt transmitter. In 1971 a second

FM station with ten-kilowatt transmission power was established in Ahvaz with a 250-watt power, Kermanshah with a 250-watt power, and Shiraz with a one-kilowatt transmitting power. In 1971, however, the major reorganization of Radio Iran under the Ministry of Information took place when the thirty-year-old Radio Iran merged with the newly 5 established but already powerful National Iranian Television forming 6 the National Iranian Radio and Television. National Iran Radio and

Television (NIRT) will be discussed in Chapter V. In 1972 two new FM stations were established in Tehran with ten-watt transmitting power to transmit original soundtracks of foreign films shown on television for the benefit of foreign residents of Iran. By 1974 there were nearly twenty FM stations (see Table 4) and over thirty AM stations in operation in various parts of Iran. Additional radio stations have been established since 1974 in many locations to complete the nation-wide radio network and to provide a full coverage (see Table .

5 Henceforth, referred to as NITV when discussed prior to the merger with Radio Iran. 6 Henceforth, referred to as NIRT. 74

TABLE 4

FM Stations From 1969-1974^

Station Power Frequency Date of establishment (kw) MHz

Tehran 10 kw 90 1969

I! II II 1971

n 250 w 98.9 1972 Original sound of films

if 250 w 90 1972 Reserved

Shirza 250 w 106 1971

Ahvas 250 w 106 1971

Kermanshah 250 w 1065 1971

Tehran 10 kw 93.36 1974 Program I

If 10 kw 90 1974 Program II

II 10 kw 98.584 1974 Original sound of films

Esfahan 1 kw 95.056 1974 Program I & local

If 1 kw 100.18 1974 Program II and original sound

Abadan 10 kw 93.712 1974 Program I

II 10 kw 98.8 1974 Program H & local 75

TABLE 4 (continued)

Station Power Frequency Date of establishment (kw) MHz

Rasht 10 kw 88.252 1974 Program I

IT 10 kw 98.5 1974 Program II & local

Ma shad 1 kw 93.46 1974 Program I

11974 Report (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 8. 76

TABLE 5

Radio Transmitters in the Provinces, * By Date of Establishment

Power Date Location output Frequency of (kw) MHz Establishment

Tabriz 100 + 10 «- 5 461 650,1500 1946 Isfahan 10 + 1 272 1100 1949 Mashhad 10 + 1 416 725 1949 Sanandaj 10 + 1 203 1484 1952 Ahvaz 100 + 10 + 1 216 1390 1952 Rasht 100 + 1 441 680 1957 Rezaiyeh 10 + 1 321 933 1959 Shiraz 10 + 1 310 967 1959 Kermanshah 100 + 1 300 985 1959 Kerman 10 + 1 275 1090 1959 Zahedan 100 + 10 387 777 1960 Gorgan 10 t 1 210 1426 1960 Bandar-e Abbas 10 + 1 484 620 1969 Sari 1 250 1240 1970 Mahabad 10 335 897 1971 Chalus 10 252 1190 1972 Oasr-e Shirin 400 + 400 417 720 1972 Ahvaz 400 + 400 216 1390 1972 Ziba Kenar 10 441 ' 680 1972 Abadan 10 500 605 1972 Yazd 10 370 820 1972 Hamadan 1 195 1520 1972 Bushehr 1 200 1500 1972 Khorramabad 1 308 976 1972 Ham 1 308 976 1972 77

TABLE 5 (continued)

Power Date Location output Frequency of (kw) MHz Establishment

Bam 1 226 1326 1973 Bonab 4004- 400 460 638 1973 Bandar-e Lengeh 125 + 125 295 1050 1973 Marivan 10 315 952 1973 Ardebil 10 + 10 260 1340 1973 KHSH 1 - - 1976 Taibad 100 - - 1976 Iranshahr 10 - - 1976

*Radio transmitters from 1973-76 are only partial.

^Commercial Affairs (Tehran: National Iranian Radio and Television, May, 1974), p. 7. 78

Finance

Since its inception Radio Iran has been operated, controlled

and financed by the Iranian government. Its early budgets after World

War II, due to the general economic conditions of the country, were not

sufficient. In 1940 the budget for Radio Iran was 12,570,000 rials

(approximately $167,000).

In the following years the budget was decreased to almost half

of the 1940 amount. In 1949 the budget was increased to little more

than what it was in 1940. Although the budget increased every year at

a constant rate, it was not until 1959 that the budget of Radio Iran had

increased significantly and was 101,669,000 rials (approximately

$1,355,586). This increase, however, continued until 1971 when

Radio Iran merged with NITV and enjoyed a more adequate budget

(see Table 6).

The budget of Radio Iran has been provided mainly by the

government but commercial advertising has also provided a

substantial income. Comparing the expansion pattern of Radio Iran

(see Table 6) with the budget, it seems that prior to 1950 the budget was insufficient and naturally the developments were insignificant. On the other hand, during the 1960's the budget was sufficiently increased,

resulting in more technical improvements and expansion of the facilities. 79

TABLE 6

1 RADIO IRAN'S BUDGET (1940-1971)

Budget Year Administration Approximately Budget Dollar Rials

1940 Ministry of PTT $167,000 12,570,000 41 ft - - 42 Office of Prime Min. 96,666 7,250,000 43 If 46,666 3,500,000 44 IT 46,666 3,500,000 45 Ministry of Labor 46,666 3,500,000 46 f T 33,333 2,500,000 47 f f 33,333 2,500,000 48 If 46,666 3,500,000 49 If 171,226 12,792,000 50 ff 185,226 13,792,000 51 ft 185,226 13,972,000 52 ft 185,226 13,972,000 53 tf 185,226 13,972,000 54 ft 185,226 13,972,000 55 If ' ■ 232,493 17,437,000 56 Independent 300,000 27,000,000 57 ft 505,333 37,900,000 58 ff 772,000 57,900,000 59 ff 11,355,586 101,669,000 60 ff 2,546,666 191,000,000 61 ft 2,533,986 190,849,000 62 ft 2,460,000 184,500,000 63 If 2,720,000 204,000,000 64 Ministry of Info. 3,295,200 247,140,000 65 If 2,428,853 182,164,000 66 ft 1,940,986 145,574,000 67 tf 2,994,306 224,573,000 68 ft 2,647,040 198,528,000 69 ft 3,281,813 246,136,000 70 ft 4,365,773 327,433,000 71 NIRT 47,407,053 355,547,000

1 Iran Communication and Development Institute (Tehran: 1977) 80

Since 1971 the budget of Radio Iran is furnished from the

general budget for NIRT. Under the new organization radio has

expanded even more and at a more rapid pace. Details of the NIRT

budget are presented in Chapter V.

Personnel

The early technical personnel of Radio Iran came from the

Wireless Telegraph Department. For nearly a decade the programs were

broadcast from a small studio in the wireless station located in northern

Tehran while the offices of Radio Iran were in the center of the Tehran

some ten miles away.

Early in the 1930's under the supervision of the Minister of 7 Education, the "Organization for Developing the Public Opinion" was

formed. The organization, which consisted of a number of top Iranian

writers, was commissioned to provide programming materials and nec­

essary personnel for Radio Iran. The organization had a number of

divisions each commissioned for a special task. The Division of Radio

was commissioned to provide announcers for Radio Iran. An audition was, therefore, held with 160 participants from whom several men and women were chosen as Radio Iran's first Farsi announcers. In addition

7 Literal translation. 81

to announcers for Farsi programs, ten announcers were also chosen for the foreign language programs of Radio Iran. The Division of Radio was supervised by the Minister of Finance.

The Division for Music under supervision of the director of the

Department of Music was commissioned to provide an adequate orchestra for musical programs of Radio Iran. The director held a number of sessions to prepare musicians to form Radio Iran's orchestra. In addition ten Czechoslovakian musicians were hired to train Iranian musicians, to perform classical music on Radio Iran, and to perform in the Tehran Symphony Orchestra.

The performers, talent, and musicians who came to work in

Radio Iran were basically from theater houses, passion-play houses, and music halls. Most of them lacked formal training in their field, although they were professional. Radio Iran, therefore, established a number of training classes for various purposes. These classes consisted of training for technicians, engineers, and equipment operators. It also provided training classes in announcing and dramatic reading as well as singing and music. These classes along with the increase of people's awareness of radio's function in providing information and entertainment resulted in the creation of a sufficient body of personnel for various areas of Radio Iran. 82

Programming

As previously mentioned, Radio Iran was formally inaugurated

on April 24, 1940 by His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr, then the

Crown Prince. After airing the formal inauguration, news of the

ceremony was broadcast in Arabic, English, Farsi, French, German,

Russian, and Turkish. A program of Iranian music followed.

Beginning the next day Radio Iran broadcast regularly from

11:30 a.m. to 2:00 p.m. and from 5:15 p.m. to 11:30 p.m. daily.

The eight-and-one-half hours of broadcasting consisted primarily of news

in Arabic, English, Farsi, French, German, Russian, and Turkish.

Western and Iranian music was also a major component in programming

of Radio Iran. The general public often did not have the opportunity to

enjoy listening to music performed by famous musicians or orchestras.

Only the rich could afford to hire singers and musicians for wedding

ceremonies and banquets or to go to the theater houses and music halls.

In most places women were not allowed to sing or play an instrument.

Radio made it possible for musicians and singers and other artists to

present themselves to the general public. Women found it easier to sing

and play on the radio and, therefore, were encouraged to participate more

openly. Radio also provided a source of entertainment for people to

enjoy Iranian music openly and free-of-charge. Listeners were thrilled with Iranian music they heard from the magic radio box. 83

There are stories that when Iranian music was being broadcast people gathered around radio sets in public places and Ghahvekhanehs

(tea houses) and took work breaks. Droshky (buggy) drivers did not accept riders when Iranian music was broadcast. Radio Iran in many respects has contributed to the promotion of Iranian culture and music.

Radio Iran's programming also consisted of some talk shows, soap operas, and dramatic readings from Shahnameh. The dramatic readings from Shahnameh were done by Naghals (narrators) and inspired a sense of nationalism in the listeners. Historical events and folk stories were presented as radio dramas. Such programs have continued until today with a great number of listeners and are among the most popular radio in Iran. The use of sound effects, theatrical reading, and music adds to the impact of these programs which fill the hearts of the listeners with joy or bring tears of sorrow to their eyes.

In the early years of radio in Iran, except for recorded music, programs were broadcast live. The disc records were produced by

American and European recording companies especially by RCA Victorola.

Live programming was often accompanied by technical difficulties. Lack of pre-recorded programs and inadequate transportation facilities to bring the musicians to the studio often resulted in interruptions in pro­ gramming . 84

In 1949 two Telefunken tape recorders were purchased, but

because of a shortage of tape they could not be used. After the

War a number of RCA tape recorders with wire tapes were purchased.

However, they were not dependable and, therefore, most of the programs

were still broadcast live.

The main role of radio programs was to inform and entertain

the Iranian people. Radio Iran from its inception has undertaken the

important tasks of promoting the Iranian culture and creating a sense of

liberty, independence, and mirth. The programs of Radio Iran during

World War II and after were designed to maintain the neutrality of Iran

among the nations of the world.

Eventually Radio Iran expanded its facilities and increased its broadcasting time. The programs of Radio Iran or Voice of Iran were

soon received nationwide in Iran and in the neighboring countries as well as some Western countries. In 1960 Radio Iran began to broadcast

24 hours a day. Radio Tehran or Program II was also established as a new division mainly to cover Tehran and the surrounding area. Soon most cities in the country were able to receive the programs of the

Radio Tehran. In 1967 FM and FM stereo broadcasting were added to the service of Radio Iran. In 1971 Radio Iran was merged with National

Iranian Television which resulted in more improvement in programming and coverage. The number of radio sets which did not exceed 1,000 in 85

1941 was estimated at 6,800,000 in 1966 and increased to 10,000,000

in 1974. Radio programming under the new organization enjoyed

expansion in coverage and an increase in broadcast time.

Program I

Similar to the British broadcasting system, Radio Iran consists

of two programming centers, Voice of Iran or Program I and Radio g Tehran or Program II. Program I is broadcast twenty-four hours a

day on several medium-wave transmitters.

A 100-kilowatt medium-wave transmitter, located in the

Pahlavi Wireless station in northern Tehran; a 2, 000-kilowatt

medium-wave transmitter in Dasht-e Qazvine; and a medium-wave

300-kilowatt transmitter in Kamal Abad, Tehran broadcast the programs

of Program I throughout Iran and to some neighboring countries via 9 microwave and satellite (see Figure 4). From 10:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. via a 250-kilowatt short-wave transmission located in Kamal Abad,

Tehran, Program I broadcasts programs which are received in

European countries, the United States, and North Africa. From 9:30 a.m. to 12:00 midnight, Program I is beamed from Kamal Abad, Tehran to

g Henceforth, referred to as Program II. 9 Development satellite is presented in Chapter VI. ta

«P»

oo o 87

Europe and to the United States on a short-wave 250-kilowatt transmitter.

From 8:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., a 100-kilowatt short-wave transmitter broadcasts a special program for those countries near the Persian

Gulf. Program I is broadcast from 8:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m. the next day for Europeans and Americans. From 10:30 p.m. to 12:00 midnight programs are designed for Iraq and Syria and transmitted by a 100- kilowatt short-wave (see Appendix A for sample programs for selected week).

The Voice of Iran, Program is intended for the general public and designed to suit all ages, and educational backgrounds. Program I consists of various types of programs designed for a variety of interests— children, youth, women, workers, farmers, and various minorities.

These programs are produced in the Radio Iran production centers by various groups of writers, poets, psychologists, sociologists, technicians, and experts for each form of program. The programs are intended to entertain, inform, educate, and, above all, to promote and safeguard the

Iranian culture.

Almost everyone can find some program to enjoy on Radio Iran.

There is news on the hour which includes national, international, political, and sports reports. Children and youth have their special programs in which they perform as announcers and/or talent. Since these programs are performed by their peers they are most likely to be effective and to have a greater attraction. 88

Workers also have a special program on Radio Iran. It is designed to entertain and inform the workers and is aired at 12:30 p.m. while most workers are on their lunch break. Consequently a great majority of them listen to it. Talented workers can perform on their program. Labor laws are discussed on this program and different situations in which workers and management disagree are dramatized.

As a result workers learn the laws and, furthermore, they learn how and where to go in case they have problems with their employers.

Radio Iran also serves the needs of the nation's farmers by producing agricultural programs. Since the majority of farmers in the country are not educated in the science of agriculture, through a variety of programs, Radio Iran assists them in learning about farming, cattle raising, animal husbandry, and even how to sell their products. In

1967 the farmer's program won the first prize in an international 10 competition held in Tokyo, Japan.

Among the Program I features is an unusual and rather interesting service provided for the public free of charge. Because of the shortage of transportation and inadequate emergency services in

Tehran, Radio Iran monitors all emergency calls and provides the necessary assistance from 12:00 midnight until 7:00 a.m. During this

^Iran (Tehran: Ministry of Information, 1971), p. 162. 89

time, emergency services such as hospitals, fire departments, police, and even taxies are tuned to Radio Iran's all-night programs. In case of any emergency, those involved can simply call Radio Iran at an easy telephone number to remember (27-000). Radio Iran then broadcasts the information over the air. At this time either the police, nearest taxi, or volunteers who are near the site of the incident can assist the people in trouble. This program has created a communication network similar to that of American Citizen Radio Broadcasting (CB

Radio) and has been in service since 1960.

Since Fridays in Iran are the weekend holiday similar to Sundays in the United States, Radio Iran presents special programs which have a large audience. The programs are specially produced and include a variety of music, talk shows, dramatic readings, and radio dramas.

Radio Iran is linked to all major radio stations throughout the country by relay stations and microwave communication systems, hi

1971 Radio Iran merged with the National Iranian Television, fa move which placed all of Radio Iran's programming under National Iranian

Radio and Television.

Program II

Program II, also called Radio Tehran, operates on a medium- wave 200-kilowatt and FM, 10-kilowatt, transmitter from its main broadcasting center in Tehran. Program II airs from 6:30 a.m. to 90

1:00 a.m. daily except for Fridays when it begins at 7:00 a.m. and

continues until 1:00 a.m. The programs are intended primarily for

listeners in Tehran and surrounding towns and cities; however, because

of interest in the programs they are also transmitted to a number of

cities throughout Iran. While the programs of Program I are intended

for the general public, the programs of Radio Tehran, or Program II,

are designed for a comparatively more sophisticated audience. The

listeners to this Program are predominantly high school and college

students, the intellectual elite, and families with higher education. Of

course, it is available to other sectors of society as well.

The programs consist of a variety of interesting subjects. They are produced in the Radio Tehran production center by a group of highly educated writers, and specialists in the field of radio programming.

They are backed up by a group of skillful engineers and technicians.

The programs are in Farsi, and offer Iranian and Western music, drama, soap operas, and news. In addition, the English and French languages are taught for the benefit of those who wish to study these languages at home. Western music programs include classical, I popular, and rock-and-roll selections. An entire book is read and interpreted in a series of half-hour programs (see Appendix B for sample programs of Program II). 91

By the end of the Fifth National Development Plan (March 1973-

March 1978) more than fifty per cent of the population of Iran should be able to receive the programs of Radio Tehran.

Program II FM

As mentioned earlier Program II also broadcasts on FM and

FM stereo bands. Western and classical music may be heard on these

FM bands for the benefit of foreign residents in Iran. Iranians interested in foreign music also enjoy listening to these stations.

As in the case of a few countries such as Uganda, since 1972

NIRT has provided two FM bands which broadcast the original soundtracks of films shown on television as a service to the foreign residents. Since foreign films are dubbed in Farsi for the Iranian audience, those foreign residents and interested Iranians who wish to watch the films with the original soundtracks may simply turn the audio portion of their television sets off and listen to the FM radio station which broadcasts the film's original soundtrack. Although the procedure may at first seem complicated, it can readily be mastered and allows audiences conversant with the original language to enjoy the films more fully. 92

Foreign Service

The history of Radio Iran's foreign service dates back to the beginning of radio in Iran. The first programs were broadcast on

April 24, 1940, following the formal inauguration by Shahanshah Aryamehr, the Crown Prince. The news of the inauguration was broadcast in Arabic,

English, French, German, Russian, and Turkish as well as Farsi. Until the late 1960's Radio Iran, under the Ministry of Information, broadcast some programs which were beamed to neighboring countries and some

European countries. In 1971, after Radio Iran merged with the newly established National Iranian Television, the NIRT Department of News

Agency took charge of broadcasting abroad in various languages. These programs are intended for foreign residents, neighboring countries, and Western countries and are broadcast in Arabic, English, French,

German, Russian, and Turkish as well as various Iranian regional 11 dialects.

As mentioned, there are several short-wave and medium-wave transmitters in various parts of the country which broadcast for foreign residents. Some external broadcasts are transmitted by way of provincial transmitters. For example, the Urdu programs are received in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India from a 100-kilowatt transmitter at

HCommercial Bulletin (Theran: NIRT Publication Department, 1976), p. 18. 93

Zehedan, a southwestern city in Iran. The Urdu program has a large audience and over 10,000 letters are received monthly. Most of the programs broadcast to foreign countries are devoted to answering 12 listeners' questions and providing entertainment.

The Arabic language programs are intended for the countries south of the Persian Gulf and the islands in the Gulf. A thirty-minute program is broadcast from Tehran on short-wave. In addition, there are a four-and-one-half hours program from the Ahvas transmitter, and one hour from Kermanshah. 13

The Azary and Turkish programs are broadcast from the

Tabriz and Rezaiyeh transmitters which are located in northwest Iran.

Similarly the programs in Kurdish are broadcast from

Kermanshah, Sanandaj, Rezaiyeh, and Mahabad transmitters. The programs in Kurdish consist of three separate dialects: Surani, Urami, and Northern Kurdish. Surani and Northern Kurdish are literary languages, while Urami is a vernacular. Radio Kermanshah broadcasts in

Surani two hours daily. Radio Rezaiyeh broadcasts in Northern Kurdish one-and-one-half hours daily. The programs consist of news, music, literary features, mail-bags, youth features, and a special program in

12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 94

Northern Kurdish, called "Thought and Knowledge" which discusses 14 agriculture and religion.

There are also programs in Assyrian which are broadcast from

Tehran for a half hour daily, and programs in Turkoman which are

broadcast from Radio Gorgan. By broadcasting in Farsi as well as the

region's special dialects the regional dialects are preserved and the

Farsi language is promoted as well.

The Role and Objectives of Radio Iran

Since its beginning radio has been the most powerful and

effective means of mass communication in Iran. For many years Iran's writers, philosophers, intellectuals, and artists have considered radio an important instrument to preserve and develop Iran's rich culture.

In fact, many musicians and poets became popular after performances

on Radio Iran, which has always provided a sanctuary where artists were protected and supported. Radio Iran also has played an important role in international politics and in safeguarding national interests by answering the propaganda broadcasts of enemies. Promoting the welfare of all groups of Iranian people, families, children, youth, workers, agriculturalists, farmers, and peasants has been another concern of

14Ibid. 95

Radio Iran. It has also stimulated writers to publish a number of books, magazines and papers, covering a wide range of subject matter, to increase the average Iranian's awareness.

It is obvious, then, that Radio Iran is more than a source of entertainment. It has played an important role in reporting important world events. For example, through the efforts of NIRT, the 1974

Seventh Asian Games—the most important sports event ever held in

Iran—could be broadcast to the United States and Europe. Foreign radio and television reporters were thus able to transmit chosen events of the games to their countries or to record them on audio or video tape. 15 The 2, 500th Anniversary of Iran's Kingdom and the Coronation of 0 Shahanshah Aryamehr were also broadcast to the rest of the world.

In countries such as Iran, which are on the verge of social, economic, and technological change, an active exchange of views among citizens of the country plays an important role:

In Iran, radio is considered one of the most effective means of communication for this purpose, capable of influencing its listeners and stimulating cooperation, confidence, and a sense of purpose.

15 For further accounts of the biggest birthday party of all time, see "Iran, the Show of Shows,” Time (October 25, 1971), pp. 32-33, and "Iran's Birthday Party," Newsweek (October 25, 1971), pp. 58-59.

■*-®More details in "Iran's Shah Crowns Himself and His Empress," National Geographic (March 1968), pp. 300-321. 17 Commercial Affairs (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, May 1974), p. 59. 96

Hence, Radio Iran has an important responsibility to educate

its listeners by preserving national traditions while propagating

language and modern cultural values.

Recently, the introduction of transistor, battery-operated radio

sets has increased the availability of radio and has made Radio Iran's

task of educating people easier. Families in remote villages can now

listen to local, national, and international news in their homes. Workers

can enjoy their national music at work or on their breaks. Farmers

ploughing their fields can listen to local news by fastening their transistors

onto their oxen's horns. All these situations indicate that radio has

become and will continue to be an important part of everyday living,

keeping the people of Iran entertained and, most importantly, informed.

To fulfill its goals NIRT has attempted to maximize its coverage and expansion throughout the country. By March 1973, the end of the

Fourth National Development Plan, the coverage of Radio Iran's First

Program was 75.45 per cent of the total population. It is estimated, however, that by 1978, the end of the Fifth National Development Plan, the coverage of Radio Iran's Program I will have reached 100 per cent of the total population. As for Radio Iran's Second Program, it is estimated that it will be at least another twenty years before the coverage 18 reaches the entire country.

18 Iran Almanac (Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1976), p. 109. 97

The overall goal of Radio Iran is to serve the people. With this

in mind, the Fourth National Development Plan (March 1968-March 1973)

outlined the following specific goals:

(a) Publicity on national development affairs from political, social, and economic aspects;

(b) The public must be informed of current events by broadcasts of both foreign and national news;

(c) National unity must be strengthened;

(d) Culture must be disseminated, and artistic talent actively fostered;

(e) The public should be encouraged to collect and maintain national and regional artistic works;

(f) Education and culture should be developed by means of a sustained educational program;

(g) The general standard and specialized knowledge should be revised;

(h) The public should be entertained by means of musical and recreational programs; and,

(i) Iran should be made familiar to other countries by means of foreign language broadcasts.

Provincial Radio Centers

In terms of both quality and quantity National Iranian Radio and

Television has a sophisticated, complex, radio production and transmission

19 Elihu Katz. The Role of Broadcasting in Iran (Jerusalem, Israel: Communication Institute of the Hebrew University, July, 1974), p. 53. 98

system. There are a number of radio stations fully equipped for both production and transmission. The major network stations, Radio Iran

Program I, or Voice of Iran, and Radio Tehran Program II, are located in Tehran. There are also stations located in the main cities of all the provinces of Iran. Among the more important stations are the ones in

Abadan, Ahvaz, Esfahan, Gorgan, Qazvin, Kerman, Kermanshah,

Mashhad, Rasht, Razaiyeh, Sanandaj, Sary, Shiraz, Tabriz, and

Zahedan.

With the broadcasting capacity of the far-flung provincial stations taken into account, the present (1977) radio network offers complete around-the-clock coverage. In addition, the present reach of the network enables NIRT to broadcast its various programs to the several 21 neighboring countries and the Western world over eighteen hours daily.

A brief description of some major radio stations is presented here in order to shed light on the general status of radio broadcasting in

Iran. Information in some areas is limited. In cases where the popularity of a program is mentioned the basis is reports from the stations, based on the number of telephone calls and letters they receive on each program.

20 See Table 5, "Radio Transmitters in the Provinces, ” on p. 76 (and continued on p. 77).

21 See the map of "Radio Iran: A World-wide Network," on p. 86. 99

Radio Tabriz

Radio Tabriz, one of the oldest radio stations in Iran, was

established in 1946. Tabriz with its important location in the Northwest

is one of the best equipped radio stations in Iran. Radio Tabriz has a

10-kilowatt and a 100-kilowatt transmitter. Radio Tabriz began

broadcasting with a 10-kilowatt transmitter, but today it also has

a 100-kilowatt transmitter. Radio Tabriz broadcasts nineteen-and-one-

half hours of daily programming. Radio Tabriz receives programs from

Tehran Program I and II and rebroadcasts them in conjunction with its 23 locally produced programs.

Radio Esfahan

Radio Esfahan was established in 1949. Although in the beginning the station did not have adequate facilities, currently this station is among the best equipped radio stations in the country. Its

10-kilowatt transmitter is favorably located to provide coverage not only for the city of Esfahan but for some neighboring cities as well. In addition to its regular twenty-four hours of AM broadcasting, Radio

Esfahan also broadcasts on the FM band eleven hours daily.

Among NIRT's plans for expansion is the installation of two

23 Jila Sazegar, ed. A Report of NIRT's Activities Until 1976 (Tehran: NIRT Mardomsara, 1976), p. 19. 100

24 100-kilowatt transmitters for Radio Esfahan.

Radio Mashhad

Radio Mashhad was established and began its operation in 1949 with a 10-kilowatt transmitter. Currently, Radio Mashhad with its fully equipped studios and technical facilities is broadcasting about nine hours daily.

Since Mashhad is a religious city the programs of this station are carefully produced. Also, the programs that are received from

Tehran are carefully selected for the local listeners.

NIRT has installed two 100-kilowatt transmitters which will 25 soon be put into operation in Mashhad.

Radio Sananadaj

Radio Sanandaj began broadcasting in 1952. This station has a

10-kilowatt transmitter. Radio Sanandaj receives its programs from

Tehran and rebroadcasts them in addition to five-and-one-half hours of locally produced programs.

The local productions are in Farsi and Kurdish. There is a

1-kilowatt transmitter in reserve.

24Ibid., p. 21. 25Ibid., p. 17. 26Ibid., p. 17. 101

Radio Ahvaz

Radio Ahvaz was established in 1952. It began its regular

broadcasting from a moderately small building. Currently, Radio

Ahvaz has a 100-kilowatt transmitter for Program I which is received

from Tehran. Radio Ahvaz also has a 1-kilowatt transmitter for broad­

casting Tehran's Program II. In addition, Radio Ahvaz has at its

disposal a powerful 800-kilowatt transmitter for foreign broadcasting.

The programs of Radio Ahvaz are in Farsi and Arabic and are

received in Ahvaz and the neighboring countries. Due to its important 27 location Radio Ahvaz has a 10-kilowatt transmitter in reserve.

Radio Rasht

Radio Rasht was established in 1957. With its 100-kilowatt

transmitter Radio Rasht currently is among the best equipped radio

stations in the country. Radio Rasht is able to produce eighteen different

programs and broadcasts nineteen hours daily. Radio Rasht has a large 28 number of listeners and covers a vast area in the north of the country.

Radio Rezayeh

For over eleven years Radio Rezayeh re-transmitted the programs that were received from Tehran by installing loudspeakers in different

27Ibid., p. 20. 28]kid. , p. is. 102

locations of the city in public places. In 1959 Radio Rezayeh began

its own programming with a 500-watt transmitter. Today Radio Rezayeh broadcasts nineteen hours of programming daily. Seven hours are produced locally in Farsi as well as Azary, Kurdish, Northern Kurdish, and the Assariean dialects.29

Radio Shiraz

Radio Shiraz was established in 1959 with a 10-kilowatt trans­ mitter. This station is among the most active stations in the country.

Radio Shiraz broadcasts twenty-four hours a day, thirteen hours of which are produced locally. Among the locally produced programs are,

"Gozargah-e-Aftab” (The Passageway of the Sun), "Shahr-e Shab"

(The City of the Night) and "Shab Zendeh Daran" (Night Vigilantes).

The locally produced programs have drawn a large number of listeners.

Every Friday a special program called "Sharh-e Shab-e Adineh"

(The City of Friday Night) which is most popular among the listeners is broadcast. This program is produced with the assistance of a number of university professors, writers, and elites as well as poets and musicians.

The topics concern national and international cultural events.

29 Ibid., p. 19. 103

NIRT has installed two additional 400-kilowatt transmitters in the Shiraz broadcasting center which will soon be put into operation. 30

Radio Kermanshah

Radio Kermanshah began its broadcasting in 1959 with a

400-kilowatt transmitter. In the beginning the station only broadcasted three hours a week. Currently, Radio Kermanshah with its 100-kilowatt transmitter is able to broadcast over eighteen hours of programming every day. Among its popular programs is "We and Listeners." This program consists of a mixture of music, news, and talk on a variety of topics. The program is four hours long and is aired live.

There is also a three-hour program in the Kurdish language which is broadcast daily. Currently the Kurdish program is broadcast by an 800-kilowatt transmitter located in Qasr-e Shirin.

Arabic programs of Radio Kermanshah are broadcast in two time periods—mornings and evenings, six-and-one-half hours a day.

These programs are received in most of the Arabic countries as well.

There are two 100-kilowatt transmitters installed in the 31 Kermanshah Radio Center which soon will be put into operation. 30

30Ibid., p. 21. 31Ibid., p. 17. 104

Radio Gorgan

Radio Gorgan began broadcasting regularly in 1960 with only fifteen minutes a day in the Turkish language. Its coverage was limited to only fifteen kilometers. Since the city of Gorgan is located near a number of vast plains which are the homes of many Turkman tribes, its transmitting power was soon increased by installation of a

10-kilowatt transmitter. Currently Radio Gorgan broadcasts nineteen hours daily. Four hours of the station's nineteen hours are in the

Turkman language.

The Turkman language programs consist of programs for children, young adults, farmers, workers, and a variety of other 32 interesting subjects including native music and dances.

Radio Sari

Radio Sari began its broadcasting in 1970 with a 1-kilowatt transmitter. The station was established mainly to assist the farmers in the Mazandaran Province area and to encourage local artists and musicians to preserve the native arts and music.

Among Radio Sari's most popular programs are, "Teetees of

Mazandaran" (Youth of Mazandaran) and "Dehghan" (Peasant). The

22Ibid., p. 18. 105

Dehghan program is intended to inform farmers and peasants of the

latest progress and development in farming and cattle raising and to 33 answer their questions.

Radio Darya

Radio Darya broadcasts only during the summer seasons from a

station located in Chalus located in northern Iran. The Chains station

was established in 1972 with a 20-kilowatt transmitter. Due to the traffic

from all points in Iran and from other countries to the coast of the

Caspian Sea three million people every year listen to Radio Darya. The

station is called Darya, or Sea, because it is mainly received by people

near the Caspian Sea.

The programs of Radio Darya start daily at 7:30 a.m. and

continue until 1:30 a.m. For almost four months the Chalus radio

station called or designated Radio Darya covers a vast area which includes

Gorgan. The transmission reaches all the way to Astara, a border city 34 in the northern part of the country.

Radio Yazd

Radio Yazd was established in 1972 with a 10-kilowatt transmitter. Yazd is located in the central part of the country near the

33Ibid., p. 18. 34Ibid., p. 18. 106

desert. Radio Yazd broadcasts fourteen hours daily. Of the fourteen hours only three hours are produced locally by Yazd Radio while the

remaining eleven hours are received from Tehran's Program I.

The people in Yazd are early risers and consequently the early morning programs, 5:30 a.m. to 7:00 a.m. are more popular and have a larger number of listeners. The producers of the local programs are aware of the people's needs and interests and intend to produce programs that can be useful, informative, and answer questions that listeners may have.

Radio Hamedan

Radio Hamedan began broadcasting in 1972. Currently, this station broadcasts twelve hours daily. Its programming consists of native music, news, children's programs, and some talk shows. These 36 programs are transmitted by a 1-kilowatt transmitter.

Radio Khoramabad

Radio Khoramabad was established in 1972. The station is located some six kilometers outside the city of Khoramabad. The station began its schedule with three hours daily but has been increasing it continuously ever since. There are two 10-kilowatt additional

35Ibid., p. 21. 36Ibid., p. 17. 107

transmitters which will soon be put into operation to broadcast the

Tehran Program I and II. 37

Radio Ham

Radio Ham was established in 1972 with a 1-kilowatt transmitter.

The station began its operation from a moderately small building. Currently

Radio Ham answers all local broadcasting needs.

Although Radio Ilam primarily rebroadcasts the programs it

receives from Tehran, lately the station has focused attention on producing 38 its own programs.

Radio Ardebill

Radio Ardebill was established in 1973. Its locally produced

programs are limited, and, therefore, it rebroadcasts Tehran's Program

I and II from 6:00 a.m. to 12:00 midnight.

Radio Khash

Radio Khash was established in 1976. The station has two

1-kilowatt transmitters. This station has not yet begun its own program­

ming and only rebroadcasts Tehran's Program I and Radio Zehedan's programs. Installation of two additional transmitters is planned by NIRT 39 for Radio Khash in the near future.

37Ibid., p. 20. 38Ibid., p. 17. 39Ibid., p. 22. 108

Radio Taibad

Radio Taibad was established in 1976. This station has two

100-kilowatt transmitters at its disposal. Radio Taibad receives its programs from Tehran and Mashhad and rebroadcasts them for local listeners as well as for those listeners in Afghanistan. Radio Taibad has not yet produced any of its own programming; however, with its adequate facilities local programming is anticipated soon. 40

Radio Iranshahr

Radio Iranshahr was established in 1976. This relatively young station has a 10-kilowatt transmitter. Since this station does not have any locally produced programs, it only receives and rebroadcasts Tehran's

Program I and Kerman's locally produced programs. There are additional 10-kilowatt transmitters installed which will be put into operation in the near future.44

40 41 Ibid., p. 17. Ibid., p. 22. 110

variety of programs for various audience tastes. Program II is designed for a more sophisticated audience and consists of more cultural and educational programs.

There are radio centers in most major cities of the provinces in

Iran. The provincial centers broadcast Program I and II in conjunction with their locally produced programs. Ill

CHAPTER V

THE ADVENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION IN IRAN

Iran Television

Administration and Technological Development

Although television had begun in the Western world several years earlier, it was not until 1958 that television broadcasting finally became a reality in Iran. Iranians responded to television as the modern fulfill­ ment of their ancient dreams of Jamshyd's world-revealing cup. Thus the introduction of television broadcasting was an extremely interesting event to them. Television became an instrument of entertainment, a gateway to a wonderful world of fantasy and magic. Although television was introduced to Iran mainly for entertainment purposes, the government's primary hope for uses of television included the development of Iranian culture, dissemination of information, and education of the general public of Iran.

In 1956-57 Mr. Habib Sabet, an Iranian business "tycoon,"

Chairman of Firooz Trading Company, RCA representative, and the founder of Pepsi-Cola plants in Iran, purchased a closed-circuit television system. His son, Iraj, was a graduate of the Harvard University School of Business Administration. While there he wrote a thesis on the 112

possibility of adapting modern television broadcasting to Iran's particular needs.4 After the system was installed Mr. Sabet invited members of the Iranian press to see the system in operation. Although not directly, it seems that this event was the result of a business transaction and stimulation from Iraj’s thesis. However, Mr. Sabet also used the system to cover and transmit the wedding ceremony of

His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr and Shahbanou Farah to the Queen

Mother during her recuperation from a broken leg which prevented her from attending the wedding ceremony.

Unlike telegraph, wireless, and radio which were established, owned, and operated by the Iranian government, television was first introduced, established, owned, and operated by a private organization.

Television broadcasting did not actually begin until after the Iranian

Parliament enacted a bill in June 1958 which permitted the private 2 company to establish a television broadcasting center in Tehran. * 2

Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. Mission For My Country (London: Hutchinson & Company, 1961), pp. 138-9. . .one young man, the son of a prominent business man, studied at the Harvard. . .wrote a thesis on the possibility of adapting modern television broadcasting to Persia's particular needs. When he returned, he became a pioneer in establishing Iran's new television industry." Author's assumption. 2 National Iranian Radio and Television. NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 24. 113

The bill contained provisions for the installation of one television

transmitter with the necessary equipment and apparatus under the

supervision and approval of the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and

Telephone. The station, according to the bill, would operate tax-free

for five years. The Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone was to

supervise the technical operation, while the programming of the station

was to be under the supervision of the Department of Publication and Radio.

Thus, the first television station was established and put into

operation in Tehran in 1958 and began its regular broadcasting on

October 3rd of the same year. Nearly nineteen years after the

National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) in the United States began its

regular television service in 1939, with opening ceremonies at the 0 New York World's Fair, Iran too began its regular television broadcasting 4 with a message from His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr. The station

was called "Iran Television. "

3 "History of Television Broadcasting, ” Encyclopedia Americana, 1975. 4New York Times, October 5 (1958), p. 82. . .the Shah of Iran opened last night the first commercial television station in the Middle East. Called the 'Television of Iran,' the station will be managed by Vance Hallack, 44 years old and from New York." 114

Iran Television (ITV) began its broadcasting on Channel three

with a transmission power of four kilowatts and was located on a hill in

northern Tehran. The station was patterned somewhat after the American

commercial television broadcasting system with a similar administrative

structure and program offerings. The system operated on the American

525-line standard. The equipment was mostly Thompson and RCA.

Although Mr. Vance Hallack was the general manager of the

Iran Television, in reality Sabet's family and friends operated the

entire station.

Early in 1960 the Sabet company established the second television 0 broadcasting station in Abadan, a port city in southern Iran. Abadan television station also broadcasted on Channel three but its transmission power was 12-kilowatts. In addition to the Abadan television station, a relay station was also established in Ahvaz, another city in southern

Iran near Abadan. The southern stations, Abadan and Ahvas, were not

electronically linked to the main television station in Tehran. However, the Abadan broadcasting station and Ahvaz relay station in conjunction covered a large area in Khozistan Province.

5 Unlike the United States where radio and television stations are assigned call letters, in Iran they are assigned names to denote the station's location. 6 NIRT, op. cit., p. 24. 115

As mentioned, Iran Television was to operate tax-free for five years. In 1963, after the initial five years tax-free terms of concession, the Iranian government decided to take over the system. After negotiations it was decided to extend the concession for another five years.

Sabet's company maintained the ownership and operation of the

Tehran and Abadan television stations for a little over a decade. In

1969 the Iranian government purchased both Sabet's Tehran and Abadan television stations and the Ahvaz relay station with all their equipment and facilities. Thus, activities of the first commercial television station in the Middle East were terminated by the Iranian government in order to expand the system and to establish a non-commercial television broadcasting system.

Finance

Both Iran Television in Tehran and the Abadan and Ahvaz relay station were operated commercially. The cost of operation was paid mainly out of advertising revenues from air time sold to the sponsors.

Although the station's air time sales for commercial advertising provided a substantial income, both the Tehran and Abadan stations were losing money. According to Mr. Habib Sabet as of

March 23, 1962 Iran Television had lost about 60,000,000 rials

(approximately $800,000). Mr. Sabet had remarked on several occasions that if there was not enough advertising given to the Abadan 116

television station to provide operational income for the station and if the people and various organizations did not help with the cost of operations he would have only three alternatives: (1) to reduce the programming time one hour a day; (2) to limit the broadcasting time to three days a week; or, (3) to close the station entirely and transfer the equipment to another location in Iran.

Because of the support of the people, an increase in advertising, and support of various organizations Abadan Television was not only able to stay in operation but was also able to expand its reception so that the people throughout the Khuzistan Province could use the service.

In spite of the difficulties in operation and budget the Sabet company managed to stay in operation and maintained its broadcasting for over a decade.

The actual budget of the Iran Television due to the dissolution of the company was not available to this writer.

Personnel

With the introduction of television broadcasting to Iran for the first time, Americans trained and assisted Iranians in operating various technical positions in the Tehran station. The first group of

Iranian technicians were trained on-the-job by the American technicians.

Soon the trained Iranians began to operate practically all technical positions without the assistance of the American trainer-technicians. 117

In all, there were probably no more than thirty on the permanent staff

of the Iran Television in Tehran. Despite a small staff trained on-the-

job, Iran television was comparatively successful in its programming

and station operation and management.

However, as time passed, Iran Television was confronted with

some serious difficulties. Although on-the-job trained personnel were

competent, the public demand for better and more programming was so

great that there was a shortage of technical supervision to meet the de­

mands. Of course, the growth in audience size and the popularity of

television helped to create this shortage of technical supervision. Most « of the employees had no background in television and even though they

had within a short time developed sufficient skills to operate in virtually

all technical and non-technical positions, the system still lacked a

sufficient number of professional supervisors.

The employees of the Iran Television were very enthusiastic

about their job and took a great deal of pride in their work. They had a

sense of accountability not often found in the government organizations.

However, in spite of the enthusiasm and loyalty of its staff, mounting

deficits forced Iran Television to close its operations in 1969. As previously mentioned, the Iranian government purchased the equipment and facilities in Tehran, Abadan, and Ahvaz for its own operations. 118

Programming

In October 1957, after its formal inauguration, Iran Television

began its regular programming daily from 6:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. and

sometimes until midnight. Due to the newness of the system and the

lack of an adequate number of technicians and program producers, the

early programming of Iran Television was about 48 per cent film and

52 per cent live broadcasts. Of these live broadcasts, 41 per cent was

produced by the Iran Television, 29 per cent was purchased as air time by advertising sponsors, and the government had the final 30 per cent for

its various uses.

The programs of Iran Television consisted of programs for

children, women, musical, quiz, talk shows, and news. The programs for children included cartoons, films, and educational and entertainment programs. The programs for education and entertainment purposes consisted of various programs on hand crafts, drama, and games. The women's programs included housekeeping, decorating, cooking, sewing, and child* care. The Department of Fine Arts, later the Ministry of Culture and

Arts, supplied some musical programs. These programs were produced specially for television and often with large orchestras. Most of the quiz programs were sponsored by the commercial advertising agencies. High school students and the general public could participate in them and prizes were given to the winners. 119

Talk shows were predominantly produced for government use.

In these programs various government officials were interviewed on a

variety of topics and subjects.

The regular national news was provided by Iran's official news

agency, "Pars News Agency.” International news was from the United

States Information Service (USIS) materials and was sponsored by

Pan American Airlines.

A large portion of the programs consisted of American television

series which were imported mainly by the advertising agencies. These

imported programs and films were dubbed in Farsi for the maximum

enjoyment of the audience and Iranian-made advertisements in Farsi

were inserted and run during their broadcasting time. The American

series including "The Fugitive, " "Bonanza, " and "Gunsmoke" had a

large audience.

In general, there was no political or religious criticism, or any type of controversial programming on Iran Television. Programs were basically intended for the Iranian identity and promotion of the culture; they did provide some enlightenment through music and culturally-oriented programs. In all, whether because of its newness or because of its programming, Iran Television was very popular among Iranian families.

Since Abadan Television was not linked electronically to the

Tehran station its programs were broadcast independently. Some of the 120

programs produced in Tehran were video-taped before or at the time of their live broadcasting and later were sent to Abadan Television for re-broadcast.

The lack of video-tape facilities in the beginning, however, meant most of the programming had to be broadcast live. This set a very difficult task for both performers and technicians. In spite of the enormous difficulties, within the first year of its broadcasting, Iran

Television had increased its broadcasting hours from four to six hours, broadcasting from 6:00 p.m. to midnight, seven days a week. In addition, a mid-day program consisting mostly of music and movies was added for the daytime enjoyment of the people. (A sample of programs for a selected week can be found in Appendix C). 121

National Iran Television

Administration and Technological Development

Iran's first television station, the commercial Iran Television

(ITV), operated a little over a decade. In 1969 the ITV stations in

Tehran and Abadan were purchased by the Iranian government as part of National Iranian Television.

Prior to the purchase of Iran Television, in May 1964 the

Iranian government commissioned a French consulting firm to do a research project to prepare for the establishment of a well-equipped and powerful television station for Iran which would be financed, owned, and 7 operated by the Iranian government. This was the first step toward the establishment of National Iranian Television (NITV).

Plans for the establishment of such a station for a long time had been one of the most important goals of the Department of Publication and

Broadcasting as well as the entire Iranian government. The decision was the result of the interest of His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr and a g group of strongly patriotic intellectuals from the Plan Organization.

7NIRT, op. cit., p. 24. g In 1946 the Iranian government set up a committee which was called the Planning Board. The committee was to prepare a developmental plan for the country. Several revisions took place along with a number of amendments until a plan was prepared for seven years' expenditures of 21 billion rials (approximately $650 million) and simultaneously Plan 122

Most members of the Plan Organization had been educated in Western countries where they were exposed to modern developments, including television broadcasting. They were convinced that television broadcasting could be well adapted to the Iranian society under government operation and serve to promote Iranian culture and preserve Iranian traditions.

A proposal was then given by them for the establishment of a non-commercial and culturally-oriented television broadcasting center in Tehran which would eventually develop and be expanded throughout the country.

Plans for the establishment of such a station were not completed until August 1966. Under Project No. 4613 of the Plan Organization,

35 million rials (approximately $467, 000 at that time) were allocated for the basic costs of the television station. Another 180 million rials

(approximately $2,400,000) were allocated by the Plan Organization for the construction of a center for radio and television. The land for the construction, which was located in northern Tehran, was donated by the

Ministry of Economics.

It was then proposed that a television center should be constructed in Tehran as the headquarters. Since this would take four years it was decided that, in the meantime, a simple, temporary television center

Organization was set up to implement it. Plan Organization is now basically an agency of the government for implementation of national development plans. Iran Almanac (Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1971), p. 411. 123

would be built. Four months later, on October 26, 1966, National

Iranian Television (NITV) began broadcasting its trial programming.

On March 20, 1967, National Iranian Television was inaugurated 9 by His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr and Empress Farah Pahlavi.

In His Majesty's inaugural address he expressed his wish that television should serve as a tool for the stimulation of cultural development and for the integration, mobilization, and motivation of the

Iranian people.

The next day, March 21, 1967, the Persian New Year, National

Iranian Television (NITV) began broadcasting three hours a day, seven days a week. The new government station had a power of 10-kilowatts and broadcast on Channel seven. The equipment was purchased from France.

Unlike the private commercial station, Iran Television, which used the American 525-line system for its transmission, the

Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone selected the European

625-line transmission system for Iran broadcasting. The 625-line

European system is now being used for the entire country and is believed to offer a sharper and more defined image. It is also a more suitable system for use with Iran's 220-volt, 50-cycle electrical system.43^

3Iran Almanac (Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1971), p. 182; Ettela at (December 3, 1968), p. 7; View (January 25, 1972), p. 6. 40 The new organization, NITV, transmitted its broadcasting 124

According to the agreement between the Department of Publication and

Broadcasting and the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone (PTT),

the installation, operation, and maintenance of the station equipment was to be supervised by PTT. The Department of Publication and Broadcasting would be responsible for the production and programming.

On June 25, 1967 a proposal for the independence of National

Iranian Television was approved by the Parliament which would give

NITV economic and administrative independence. This marked the beginning of the government-controlled but independent television broadcasting system in Iran under National Iranian Television (NITV).

During its first year NITV activities were limited to the Tehran station. But the need for a nation-wide, government-controlled television broadcasting system was apparent from the beginning, and that goal was assigned top priority by the government.

Although the plan at first included only two centers, the organizers of NITV had envisioned a non-commercial, government-financed television broadcasting system for all of Iran which might become the nation's most powerful medium of mass communication. 44

via 625-line European system. People who already owned television sets suitable for receiving the 525-line American system had the option of equipping their sets with a converter which enabled them to receive both systems. 11 NIRT, op. cit., pp. 24-25. TABLE 7

TELEVISION PRODUCTION AND TRANSMISSION CENTERS1 BY DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT (1966-1970)

Video Audio Date Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency of Entry KW MHz MHz

Tehran (Prog. I) 20 kw 7 189.25 194.75 1966

Rezaiyeh 50 kw 5 175.25 180.75 1968

Bandar Abbas 20 kw 8 196.25 201.75 1968

Shiraz 50 w 8 196.25 201.75 1969

Esfahan 50 w 5 175.25 180.75 1969

Abadan 20 kw 7 189.25 194.75 1970

Kermanshah 2 kw 7 189.25 194.75 1970

Hamadan 100 w 4 62.25 67.75 1970

Rasht 20 w 11 217.25 222.75 1970

Aryashahr 10 w 11 217.25 222.75 1970 1 2

1NIRT Commercial Affair (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1974), p. 10. 6 127

National Iranian Radio and Television

Administration and Technological Development

In 1970 National Iranian Television commissioned the

Industrial Management Institute of Iran to design a more adequate organizational structure for NITV. The Institute was asked to plan a merger of the existing National Iranian Television with the thirty-five- year-old radio organization, Radio Iran. It was also asked to plan for the rapid expansion of broadcasting services, especially television, through­ out Iran. This was to be done mainly by establishing a large number of 13 production and transmission centers.

Studies done by the government concerning control and direction by government departments clearly indicated the need for combining the operation of radio and television in Iran. The proposal for such a merger was approved by Parliament on June 23, 1971, and the 14 new organization operating as an independent corporation was to be called National Iranian Radio and Television (NIRT).

The organization is a corporation managed as a joint stock corporation. 15 It is supervised by a Director General appointed by

13 NIRT, op. cit., p. 134. 14 See Appendix D, "The Law Establishing NIRT. " 15 NIRT, op. cit., p. 134. 128

His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr. The organization is governed by its

own constitution, an Executive Council, and a General Assembly.

Mr. Reza Ghotbi, one of the leaders of the Plan Organization and a

brilliant engineer and administrator, is the Director General of NIRT.

He has studied in France and is related to the Iranian royal family.

The combining of radio and television in Iran marked the

establishment of the second largest broadcasting system in Asia.

By September 1971, Iran had eight major television production

and transmission centers in addition to the two centers already in

operation in Tehran (see Table 7).

In 1971 more new centers were established and put into

operation in various parts of the country. The new centers consisted

of production, transmission, and relay stations which extended NIRT

service significantly (see Table 8).

By 1974 there were over 100 production, transmitter, and relay stations in operation throughout Iran broadcasting programs trans­ mitted by the central network, Program I and their own locally produced programs (see Table 8). This immense expansion created a network which linked 148 sectors of the country with television coverage, provided 16 mainly through fifty-one microwave relay and booster stations.

16 NIRT, op. cit., p. 25. 129

TABLE 8

TELEVISION PRODUCTION AND TRANSMISSION CENTERS1 AND RELAY STATIONS IN IRAN BY DATE OF ESTABLISHMENT

Video Audio Date of Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency Operation (KW)) MHz MHz

Tehran 20 kw 9 203.25 208.75 1971 (Program H)

Tabriz 4 kw 10 210.25 215.75 1971

Mashhad 2 kw 11 217.25 222.75 1971

Arak 500 w 5 175.25 180.75 1971

Kerman 50 w 8 169.25 201.75 1971

Alamdeh 12 kw 5 175.25 180.75 1971

Sanandaj 10 w 9 203.25 208.75 1971

Zahedan 10 w 8 169.25 201.75 1971

Shah Abbas dam 5 w 4 62.25 67.75 1971

Frahnaz dam 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1971

Mahabad 10 w 5 175.25 180.75 1971

Ahvaz 20 kw 11 217.25 222.75 1971

Dezful 50 w 5 175.25 180.75 1971

Agha Jari 50 w 5 175.25 180.75 1971

Masjed 50 w 8 196.25 201.75 1971 Soleiman 130

TABLE 8 (continued)

Video Audio Date of Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency Operation (KW) MHz MHz

Bushehr 500 w 11 217.25 222.75 1972

Kazerun 5 w 8 175.25 180.75 1972

Qazvin 500 w 8 196.25 201.75 1972

Behbehan 10 w 11 217.25 222.75 1972

DœGonbadan 10 w 9 203.25 208.75 1972

Azna 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1972

Chalus 10 w 4 62.25 67.75 1972

Shahr-e Kord 5 w 6 182.25 187.75 1972

Gardanch Rokh 3 5 aw 9 203.25 208.75 1972

Murcheh Khort 5 w 3 55.25 60.75 1972

Takht-e Jamshid 5 w 9 203.25 208.75 1972

Marvdasht 10 w 5 172.25 180.75 1972

Zarghan 5 w 7 189.25 194.75 1972

Abadeh 10 w 10 210.25 215.75 1972

Ab-e Ali 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1972

Damavand 5 w 3 55.25 60.75 1972

Shahreza 5 w 7 189.25 194.75 1972 131

TABLE 8 (continued)

Video Audio Date of Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency Operation (KW) MHz MHz

Khorramabad 10 w 3 55.25 60.75 1972

Veizian 50 w 8 196.25 201.75 1972

Bostan 2 kw 9 203.25 208.75 1972

Rion Kuh, 500 w 8 196.25 201.75 1972 Semnan, Damghan

Kashan 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1972

Birjand 50 w 7 189.25 194.75 1972

Khark 5 w 4 62.25 67.75 1972

Esfahan 50 w 8 196.25 201.75 1973 (Program H)

Karaj 100 w 10 210.25 215.75 1973

Mahabad 10 w 3 55.25 60.75 1973 (Program H)

Miandoab 5 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Borujan 5 w 8 196.25 201.75 1973

Daran 5 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Rudbar 5 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Kerend 50 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973 132

TABLE 8 (continued)

Video Audio Date of Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency Operation (KW) MHz MHz

Khoi 5 w 9 203.25 208.75 1973

Ma rand 10 w 7 189.25 194.75 1973

Harsin 5 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Shahabad-e 5 w 8 196.25 201.75 1973 Gharb

Sero 5 w 10 210.25 215.75 1973

Qasr-e Shirin 50 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Pol-e Zehab 5 w 11 217.25 222.75 1973

Jolfa 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973

Manesht 5 w 11 207.25 222.75 1973 (Ham)

Shahnakhjir 12.5 kw 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Zanjan 10 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Malayer 5 w 8 196.25 201.75 1973

Kangavar 50 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973

Azarsharh 50 w 9 203.25 208.75 1973

Maragheh 10 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Borujerd 50 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973 133

TABLE 8 (continued)

Video Audio Date of Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency Operation (KW) MHz MHz

Shurab 50 w 8 196.25 201.75 1973

Neishabur 10 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973

Sabzevar 5 w 10 210.25 215.75 1973

Sarakhs 500 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Kuh-e Kokab 50 w 9 203.25 208.75 1973

Torbat-e 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973 Heidarieh

Gonabad 50 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Shahrud 50 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973

Naqadeh 5 w 7 189.25 194.75 1973

Delijan 10 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Abhar 5 w 9 203.25 208.75 1973

Paveh 10 w 3 55.25 60.75 1973

Mianeh 50 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973

Nahvand 10 w 8 196.25 201.75 1973

Tuiserkan 5 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Oshnuiyeh 5 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Meimeh 5 w 6 182.25 187.75 1973 134

TABLE 8 (continued)

Video Audio Date of Location Power Channel Frequency Frequency Operation (KW) MHz MHz

Amir Kabir dam 10 w 4 62.25 67.75 1973

Natanz 5 w 5 175.25 180.75 1973

Sahneh 5 w 11 217.25 222.75 1974

Borazjan 5 w 5 175.25 150.75 1974

Yazd 50 w 5 175.25 150.75 1974

Kuh, 50 w 5 175.25 150.75 1974 Benafsheh

Saqez 5 w 7 189.25 194.75 1974

Dotooieh 10 w 4 62.25 67/75 1974

Parchin 5 w 11 217.25 222.75 1974

Moharlou 500 w 8 196.25 201.75 1974

Kuh, 500 w 5 175.25 150.75 1974 Kharman

1NIRT Publication Department,, NIRT Commercial Affair (Tehran: NIRT, 1974), pp. 10-12. 135

By the end of 1974 additional transmitters and relay stations had

been established which brought the total number of facilities to 157

including transmitters and relay and booster stations capable of reaching

approximately nineteen million people, nearly 60 per cent of the total

population, in various parts of Iran.

From 1967 to 1972 NIRT had increased the number of transmitters

from two to twenty-seven and the transmitting capacity from 14 to 81.3 kw.

By February 1974, however, the capacity had been increased to over

140 kw, with the rate of increase being relatively constant since 17 (see

Figure 5).

By the end of the Fifth National Development Plan (March 1973-

March 1978), the actual television coverage will have increased to over

60 per cent of the population, a large part of which lives in sparsely 18 populated areas. NIRT plans include nation-wide expansion of television coverage, and it is now estimated that such coverage will be

100 per cent for both the First and Second Programs by 1993, the end of the Eighth National Development Plan. The expansion of the television network during the past five years has been faster than had been anticipated.

There are indications that by the end of the Fifth National Development 19 Plan, about 70 per cent of the population of Iran may get television coverage.

17 18 NIRT, op. cit., p. 25. Iran Almanac, 1976, p. 110. 136

fig. 5 137

Transmission and Facilities

At the television broadcasting centers most of the equipment and studios are up-to-date. They include computerized electronic equipment for lighting, editing, and other technical operations. Older equipment is gradually being replaced with new; however, since most of the equipment was originally planned to be in service for eight hours rather than eighteen hours daily, there is too little time for effective routine studio and equipment checks and preventive maintenance. In addition, due to the rapid expansion of the nation-wide broadcasting system, there is a noticeable shortage of technicians.

Ampex, Thompson, and French television equipment predominates at most production centers. In 1974 color television equipment was installed in Tehran and continuous experiments were conducted in color television production and transmission so that color broadcasting could become possible as soon as trained personnel were available to meet all service needs. At the present time both

Programs I and II are in color. Most of the provincial centers are also in color.

An overall review of the technical facilities operated by NIRT for both production and transmission, suggests the degree of importance assigned to this aspect of the expansion policy. Such a review also focuses attention on the major trends in Iranian broadcasting, such as 138

the use of the most modern equipment available, the attempt to decentralize production while still successfully maintaining a co-ordination of its various aspects, and the assignment of priority to the urban television audience.

Finance

According to Article 13 of the Articles of Association of the

National Iranian Radio-Television Organization approved by decree of the Council of Ministers issued on March 20, 1972, (see Appendix D),

NIRT's several sources of income and credit are:

(1) proceeds from preparing and broadcasting advertisement programs on radio and television and granting of broadcasting and distribution rights;

(2) proceeds from the productive and commercial activities of the Organization in the public and private sectors, and profits from affiliated organizations;

(3) revenues received from the implementation of the Law of Expansion 'of the Television Network;

(4) the financial assistance of the government from the State General Budget, and other funds that the government may place at the disposal of the Organization in any other way;

(5) credits from the State Development Budget;

(6) cash or non-cash assistance from persons or bodies corporate;

(7) foreign or domestic loans in accordance with the current regulations of the country; 139

(8) other income that may accrue to the Organization in accordance with other laws and regulations.20 21

NIRT is also assisted by being exempt from paying certain

national and city taxes.

In October 1966 NIRT began its operation with a budget of

35 million rials (approximately $467,000). This budget was allocated by the Plan Organization. In the following year the budget was increased over five times greater to 181 million rials (approximately $2,447,416) to cover operations from March 21, 1967 to March 21, 1968.

The sources of income for 1967-68 were revenue from sales of broadcasting time for commercial advertising, funds from the Plan

Organization, the Office of the Prime Minister, the Ministry of

Information, assistance by way of donations from the National Iranian 21 Oil Company, and a number of other sources (see Table 9).

However, according to the 1972 figures supplied by the

Commercial Department of National Iranian Radio and Television, there are three main sources of income: (1) government subsidy, which consists of operating capital and development funds from the Plan Organization and the State Budget; (2) revenue from sales of broadcasting air time for commercial advertising; and, (3) revenue derived from the tax on

20 NIRT, op. cit., p. 139. 21 Ministry of Information, "National Iranian Television," p. 19. 140

TABLE 9

NIRT BUDGET DURING THE 1967-1968 PERIOD1

Source Dollar Rials (Approximately)

1967-68 National Budget $1,351,351 100,000,000

Plan Organization 743,243 55,000,000

Commercial Advertising 194,418 14,387,000

National Iranian Oil Company 135,135 10,000,000

Office of Prime Minister 20,270 1,500,000

Ministry of Information 2,702 200,000

Miscellaneous 297 22,000

Total: $2,447,416 181,109,000

4Ministry of Information, "National Iranian Television" (Tehran: 1968), p. 19. 141

television sets in Iran according to the Law of Expansion (see

Table 10).

During 1968-69, NIRT was allocated 155 million rials

(approximately $2,067,000) from the State Budget. In addition, 60

million rials (approximately $800, 000) were received as revenue from

sales of broadcasting time for commercial advertising. However, during

1970-71, revenue from commercial advertising almost quadrupled, which

brought the total revenue to over 230 million rials (approximately 23 $3, 067, 000). This increase was due mainly to the fact that in 1971

operations of the radio and television networks were merged in one

"giant" organization. With the merger radio and television operations were included in one organization and were also brought under one directorship.

For the development of television broadcasting in Iran,

1.9 billion rials (approximately $25,300,000) was allocated by the

Fourth National Development Plan (1968-1972). The allocation of the

Fourth National Development Plan was mostly for the expansion of radio and television centers in Tehran and to provide additional studios in the

Tehran broadcasting center. The funds were also intended to be used for

22NIRT Commercial Department, Tehran, 1972. 23 NIRT, Facts About National Iranian Television (Tehran: 1970), p. 19. TABLE 10

PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF NIRT INCOME 1972

Source Percentage Dollar Rials (Approximately)

Government Subsidy 87 $100,000,000 7,000,000,000

Advertising 9 10,000,000 700,000,000

Tax on Sets 4 4,000,000 300,000,000

Total 100 $114,000,000 8,000,000,000

^NIRT Commercial Department, 1972. 1 4 2 143

the expansion of radio and television in other major cities. 24 The NIRT budget allocation was gradually increased as plans were made for a nation-wide government-owned-and-operated broadcasting system. In

1975 the budget was over 8,696,680 rials (approximately $124,238,286).

About 1.2 billion rials of this budget were derived from commercial advertising.

The budget for 1976 was 7, 973, 000,000 rials (approximately

$113,000,000) and the budget for 1977 was 9,076,500,000 rials

(approximately $129, 664, 000). Most of these budgets have been spent for new buildings and technical equipment and to complete the facilities.

The budget for 1978 is 10,848,000 rials (approximately $154,971,420).

This budget is intended for new buildings and equipment and to complete the facilities of the already existing broadcasting centers.

This budget is also to cover expenses for the establishment of new radio and television transmitters and relay stations, improvements to microwave and satellite operations, and other essential related developments 25 (see Table 11).

24 Iran Almanac, 1969, p. 171. 25 Iran Communication and Development Institute, "Joint Committee Report" (1976), p. 93. TABLE 11

RADIO AND TELEVISION EXPANSION BUDGET (1978)

Project Building and Technical Facilities Equipment

Expansion and Development of Existing $22,142,857 $42,142,857 Centers Establishment of New Radio and 1,500,000 1,000,000 Television Centers High Power Radio Transmitters 1,571,000 385,714 Medium Power Radio Transmitters 1,285,714 Low Power Radio Transmitters 2,928,571 3,214,285 Short-wave Radio Transmitters 2,428,571 FM Transmitters 1,014,285 Maintenance and Transfer of Radio Transmitters 1,142,285 High Power Television Transmitters 857,142 Relay Station Transmitters for Programs I & H 5,714,285 16,428,571 Radio and Television Microwave Network 5,000,000 Balloon System 7,000,000 Monitoring Centers 142,857 1,428,571 1 4 4 TABLE 11 (continued)

Project Building and Technical Facilities Equipment

Provincial Warehouse 71,428 Heavy Machinery and Transportation Equipment 1,428,571 Tehran Plan for Building of Radio and Television College and Electronic Research Workshop 13,428,571 2,285,714

Total $50,214,282 $104,757,138

Grand Total $154,971,420

l'Iran Communication and Development Institute, "Joint Committee Report" (Tehran: 1976), p. 93. 146

Advertising

Although NIRT is a cultural institution rather than a commercial

enterprise, the organization does sell broadcast time on radio and

television for commercial advertisements from sponsors.

Since NIRT is the only broadcasting organization in Iran, it is

the only agency authorized to handle commercial advertising. NIRT

has recognized its commercial potential. Sales of broadcast time for

commercial advertising have provided the organization with substantial

revenue which has covered part of its enormous operating budget.

Commercial advertising has existed in Iran since the introduction

of printed media. The first advertisement in print was an announcement

of a house for sale which appeared in Iran's third published newspaper—

Vaghayeh Ittifagiyeh. The advertisement appeared in the back page of the fourth issue:

A house located in Darvazeh Shah Abdul-Az im district near Goud-e-Zambarak Kaheneh, which belongs to Monsieur Rafaeil (sic!), a Christian, is being sold. Those who are interested may inquire about the price from Mr. Rafaeil or whomever may happen to be at that house. 27

This advertisement was published 127 years ago in 1850. In the same

26 Vagayeh Ittifagiyeh. Rajab 7, 1267 A.H. No. 4, 1850. 27 Hamid Mowlana, Journalism in Iran: A History and Interpretation. Unpublished dissertation. (Hlinois: Northwestern University, 1963), pp. 223-4. 147

issue, and the same column of the back page, the publisher of the newspaper entered this advertisement:

Some of the subscribers to this government newspaper have complained that they do not receive their papers regularly. For this reason, the staff of the newspaper requests that readers inform the newspaper office in case they take a trip or move to a new address, so that the paper may reach them every week wherever they may be. 28

In this way modern advertising was introduced to Iran. Apparently

Mr. Rafaeil's house was sold more rapidly than it would have been had the customary procedure been used. It also made readers aware that the print medium could be effectively used for advertising purposes.

The newspaper, Vaghayeh Ittifagiyeh, officially began to accept advertising beginning with its twenty-second issue, at a cost of ten shahis (20 shahis equals 1 rial) per line, the price of a single copy of the newspaper.

Thereafter, the price was printed at the top of the front page of each issue. The charge for entering an advertisement in the newspaper was obviously minimal. Advertisements included announcements of change of address, publication of books printed in Tehran and other cities of Iran, and real estate for sale. 29

28 Hamid Mowlana, op. cit., p. 224. 148

Since that time, advertising in the print media has grown to its

fullest potential—in almost all newspapers and magazines, for almost

any product or reason. Unlike the first newspapers in Iran, which were < published by the government, most newspapers and magazines today are

privately owned, even though their contents are controlled and censored by the government.

Commercial advertising had been heard on radio since its

early days. Similarly, Iran's first television, Iran Television, as a commercial venture depended heavily on commercial advertising for its operating funds. NIRT also depends to some extent on revenue from sales

of broadcasting time for commercial advertising. Negotiations for advertising are handled directly with the advertisers/sponsors or through commercial advertising agencies. Commercial advertisements on broadcast media are presented in the form of "spots." Programs may also be sponsored entirely by advertisers with contracts written for thirteen, twenty-six, and fifty-two weeks. Such programs include

"serials" and "specials" produced in Iran as well as syndicated foreign serials. Among the successful syndicated programs which have been offered by Iranian television, after being dubbed in Persian for the benefit of the national audience, are "Bonanza, " "Days of Our Lives, " "I Love

Lucy, " and "Mission Impossible.” Advertisements are in Farsi for local products and are inserted between programs. 149

Prime time in Tehran has been determined by the Audience

Research Department of NIRT as 7:15-9:30 p.m. Obviously, prime time is more in demand among sponsors, and broadcasting time is more expensive during that period.

Locally produced programming may also be supplied by either sponsors of commercial advertising agencies. However, due to the difficulty and expense of gathering materials and talent, such production seldom occurs. In the event that a sponsor or a commercial advertising agency supplies a program for NIRT which meets its production standards and obtains a broadcasting permit, NIRT charges only for the air time.

Such programs must be ready for transmission without requiring any production or service assistance from NIRT.

Rates for local advertising are in accordance with program popularity and are usually fixed (see Appendix F for rates).

Because it is primarily a cultural and educational institution,

NIRT does not allow commercial advertisements to interfere with programming which means that they are only rarely presented during programs. Thus, the viewer may enjoy most programs without interruption. Advertising is limited to six minutes per hour, either after or before the program. This limitation is subject to change during

Noruz (New Year), 30 however, when special programs are preceded

30The celebration of Noruz is one of Iran's ancient customs and 150

by as much as three minutes of advertising.

Trade organizations, in conjunction with NIRT under government control, set and issue rules concerning advertising ethics. A commercial may be rejected before and after its broadcast if it is considered to be in bad taste, offensive, unethical, or contrary to government interests or policies.

Revenue from sales of broadcasting time for commercial advertising has been constantly increasing, while the available commercial broadcasting time has similarly decreased.

In 1976, NIRT's Commercial Department changed its advertising rates. In its new booklet, Commercial Bulletin, the rates are slightly higher than before. The main reasons for this increase are the fifteen per cent increase in the audience size, the addition of

150 new transmitters, increasing per capita income, improvement in radiorand television programming, and the introduction of color television. 31

Although the fifteen per cent increase in audience justifies a fifteen per cent increase in advertising rate, NIRT has only raised its rate by seven per cent for television's Program I and radio's

it lasts for five days. qj NIRT Publication Department, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT, 1976), p. 3. 151

Programs I and II. The small increase reflects NIRT's primary aim

to keep in step with anti-inflation policies of the government. By keeping

the advertising rates as reasonable as possible NIRT hopes to

contribute to the economy and enable businessmen and advertising OQ agencies to promote their products at lowest cost.

To place advertisements on NIRT, television and radio,

advertising agencies and sponsors must adhere to certain rules and

regulations (details of the regulations may be found in Appendix F).

There are further conveniences and commissions provided by NIRT

for advertising agencies (again, see Appendix F).

Personnel

From its inception Iran broadcasting, especially television, has been faced with one major problem—the lack of sufficient qualified personnel in both technical and non-technical areas. In the early years of radio development was slow due to insufficient experts.

Iran Television encountered the same problem. Because of its status as a relatively small, private and commercial organization, and its intention to be in operation for a short period, Iran Television did not take any initiative to establish training institutes for its staff. Most

32Ibid., p. 4. 152

staff members were trained on-the-job either by the American technicians who came to help in the beginning, by learned Iranians, and by a very few Iranians who had some formal training in television abroad.

Although there were only approximately thirty people on the staff of Iran Television they were able to operate effectively. The principle of accountability, not found in.the government departments, seemed to work well in Iran Television. The need for formal staff training other than on-the-job learning seemed unnecessary.

In 1966 National Iranian Television, Iran's first government television station, was established in Tehran. Many trained staff members of Iran Television were employed by the newly established, well-paying NITV. The station began its operation with fifty-six people on its staff (see Table 12), began to train its staff, but was still pressed for more qualified personnel in virtually all aspects of its operation in Tehran and provincial centers (see Table 13).

To remedy this situation and determine long-range plans for a nation-wide expansion of television broadcasting, NITV in 1966 set up several six-month, year-long, and crash-courses in various technical and non-technical areas. They included courses in cameras, lighting, audio, video, and engineering, as well as acting, announcing, direction, stage management, and cinematography. For the first class sixty students 153

TABLE 12

NUMBER OF NIRT PERSONNEL 1966-19761 FORECAST FOR 1978 AND 1988

Year Personnel

1966 56

1967 385

1968 780

1969 1379

1970 1572

1971 3271

1972 4093

1973 5045

1974 5839

1975 6819

1976 7678

Forecast 1978 9168

1988 14225

Iran Communication and Development Institute, 1977. 154

TABLE 13

NUMBER OF PERSONNEL OF SELECTED CENTERS (1976)

Centers Number of Personnel

Abadan 289

Tabriz 281

Kermanshah 300

Shiraz 215

Zahedan 167

Rasht 183

Mashhad 229

Bandar Abbas 135

Sari 191

Rezaieh 167

Esfahan 137

Kerman 161

Sanandaj 120

Mahabad 98 155

TABLE 13 (continued)

Centers Number of Personnel

Yazd 55

Hamadan 32

Khoramabad 31

Total: 2,791

1Iran Communication and Development Institute, 1977. 156

were selected from over 200 applicants. The courses were taught primarily

by trained personnel from Iran Television and NITV as well as some by the

management personnel of NITV. The classes proved useful and the

number of students was increased as more people were employed by

NITV. NITV employees increased to 385 within one year, 780 by 1968,

and to 1, 572 in 1970 (see Table 12). The training activities of the

organization were expanded and the number of students enrolled was

increased. The successful results of the courses, along with a pressing need for more trained personnel, led NITV to establish the School of

Television and Cinema.

In the beginning the School of Television and Cinema offered

short-term and some one-year courses for new students and less qualified personnel. These courses were designed to provide sufficient basic knowledge in various technical and non-technical areas of television.

In 1971 National Iranian Television merged with Radio Iran and retained its personnel. Subsequently, the new operation, NIRT had a total of 3,271 personnel working in various positions in radio and television. In 1974 the number of NIRT staff rose to 5, 839 over three times greater than in 1970 before its merger with Radio Iran. The number of students enrolled in the School of Television and Cinema also increased to over 200. 157

As the result of more newly graduated students from the

School of Television and Cinema who were hired by NIRT, the staff increased to 7,678. The increase was also due to the hiring of more people for NIRT's expansion of technical facilities and addition of new departments.

Currently the School of Television and Cinema has been recog­ nized as an institution for higher education in Iran and as accredited in other countries. It offers Associate, Baccalaureate of Art, and

Master of Art degrees in various areas such as research in Mass

Communication and Educational Technology. Students spend forty-five days in NIRT broadcasting centers during the summer on work study programs which provide on-the-job training. In 1976 there were over

100 foreign students, mostly from the neighboring countries, enrolled in various courses.

With the cooperation of European and American experts NIRT plans to expand the training facilities of the School and to increase majors and the short- and long-term courses offered.

At the present time, NIRT's technical expansion has reached an adequate level to answer the demand for coverage. NIRT is now focusing attention on programming and increasing staff training. It is hoped that in the near future the School of Television and Cinema can provide enough trained personnel to answer the existing lack of 158

qualified personnel in both technical and non-technical fields.

The forecast of personnel is 9,168 for 1978, rising to

14,223 by the year 1988.

NIRT provides numerous benefits and privileges for its

personnel. They include: subsidized health services, food coupons,

housing, a bonus for having children, and various insurance policies.

In all, NIRT is one of the most prestigious organizations in Iran. This

has attracted many people, especially young talented people, to seek

employment in various positions of the NIRT organization. NIRT's

recent reorganization into two entirely separate networks seems to have

stimulated the staff and encouraged the young and creative personnel.

In the past it seemed that many of the staff were reluctant to

demonstrate their talents, creativity and responsibility. Recently it

seems that the principle of accountability is functioning better than ever before.

As time passes the personnel of NIRT becomes more professional and competent in their work. Each year the School of Television and

Cinema graduates more trained students. It is hoped that in the near future NIRT will function as professionally as any Western broadcasting center with emphasis on programming, technical advancement, and train­ ing personnel. 159

Programming

The programming philosophy of the newly-established National

Iranian Television was somewhat different from that of the commercial

Iran Television. Iran Television had operated much as would an American

commercial station. It had depended heavily on revenues from the sale of

station air time for advertising. Therefore, a number of advertisements

were shown during the regular programs. The new station, NITV, did

not present commercials during, or for that matter, before or after its programs.

After the merger of National Iranian Television with Radio Iran

in 1971, NIRT began its television broadcasting with twenty-one hours of programs a'week. By 1974 the number of hours had greatly increased.

While in 1971 approximately sixty per cent of the programs were of foreign origin on film and video-tape, by 1974 almost seventy per cent of the programs were produced in NIRT's television center, headquartered m. Tm e,h ran. 33

The merger of radio and television had basically taken place

"in order to centralize all the activities. . .and also to prepare and broadcast radio and television programs."

NIRT, op. cit., p. 25.

84 Ibid., p. 137. 160

The primary programming objectives of NIRT according to Article IV

of the 1971 Act which established NIRT programming are as follows:

1. to assist in safeguarding, developing and propagating Iranian culture.

2. to raise the level of awareness and information of the public, and to develop arts and talents.

3. to prepare the mental background for quickening the rate of growth of the country and the political development of the people.

4. to guide public opinion in the national interest. 35 5. to broadcast wholesome entertainment programs.

The NIRT objectives clearly specify the organization's emphasis

on entertainment as its ultimate goal. Therefore, cultural and educational programs have higher priority among the productions of NIRT.

This priority to broadcast predominantly educational programs in the beginning created some dilemmas and was the subject of some controversy among the various classes of the audience. Those in favor of entertainment purposes felt that education should be left to educators and schools. Others believed that television could well be employed to educate and entertain the Iranian public.

NIRT, basically a non-profit and cultural organization, as opposed to an entertainment source, has attempted to encourage the public to

35Ibid., p. 137. 161

become more selective in their viewing. For this purpose and to serve the general public and those distinct audience groups, NIRT has created two entirely separate networks. These networks are NIRT Program I and Program II. "While Program I is of a general nature, Program II concentrates on educational, and cultural and local features." 36

Program I

Program I is basically designed to serve the general public, and is primarily intended to entertain a homogeneous audience group. The programs of Program I include a variety of subjects. They consist of foreign and domestic films and programs. Children and young adults have their special programs. It also includes programs on art and science, literature and drama, international and domestic news, and

Iranian and foreign music.

The movies shown on Program I are predominantly of foreign origin and are dubbed in Farsi for audience enjoyment. The original soundtracks of these foreign films are broadcast on FM bands for the benefit of the foreign residents of Iran. Western television series are also shown on Program I in the same way as the movies. Among them are

American television films such as "The Waltons, ” "Six Million Dollar Man, "

"Baretta, ” and "Rockford Files, " Although NIRT attempts to select

36 Ibid., p. 15. 162

its movies and television films carefully, it seems that violence on some

of these films is overlooked. In addition to the foreign films, there are

some domestically made films shown on television. They consist of

full length movies and some one-hour serial films. Iranian films, in

general, have a large audience. There have been some excellent films

made by Iranian film makers with extraordinary cultural and historical

stories.

Programs for children have been given much attention from

NIRT's inception. The programs for children are produced in conjunc­

tion with child experts. The programs are intended to provide a basic

body of knowledge and entertainment. Cartoons, short films, and games

are among the children's programs. Programs similar to "Sesame

Street" are produced for younger children. The children's programs are helpful in assisting them in dealing with their environment, their families and friends, as well as increasing their general knowledge and understanding of their world. Programs for young adults are also pro­ duced with the same intention but with more mature subjects.

Programs intended for families and homes are produced to serve a variety of purposes. The intention of these programs is to assist the families with their daily problems such as child care, marriage, cooking, gardening, sewing, and other related subjects. These programs have helped Iranian families a great deal. Since the average housewife 163

does not have a higher education and knowledge of modern living, especial­ ly in cities and provinces other than Tehran, the family programs seem to be beneficial.

Artistic and scientific programs are also shown on Program I.

These programs are intended to familiarize the audience with foreign and domestic arts such as ballet, music, dances, plays, and painting.

Scientific developments are also brought to the audience in order to broaden general knowledge.

Literature programs and television dramas are among the

Iranians' favorite programs. In these programs NIRT's aims are to promote Iranian culture and to familiarize the audience with Iran's rich literature. The works of past and present poets and writers are presented and discussed. Television dramas are also presented with

Iranian and foreign stories. These dramatic programs have a large audience and are among the favorite programs of Program I.

Musical programs on Program I consist mainly of Iranian songs and music but occasionally foreign music is. presented. NIRT has attempted to promote and preserve Iranian music. For this purpose various groups of musicians and technicians have been sent to all parts of the country to record local and native music. In addition, NIRT has established music shops and centers for preservation of Iran's traditional music (see latter half of Chapter 5 for more details). By presenting 164

foreign music NIRT attempts to introduce different music to Iranians

as an extension of their knowledge.

Finally, the news programs of NIRT Program I are intended

to bring the latest news and information of national and international

events. The news materials are provided by Iran's official and only

news agency, "Pars News Agency."

The Program I is transmitted to the provincial television

centers. The provincial centers supplement the programming with

approximately eight to ten hours of their own locally produced programs.

The centers which receive the programs directly from Tehran simply add

their own productions to the schedules. The provincial centers which are

not able to receive programs directly obtain them from Tehran on film

or video-tape. A sample of programs from Program I is presented in

Appendix G.

Program II

Program II is intended for a more sophisticated audience and to serve them with a higher quality of programs. It concentrates on

cultural and educational subjects, as well as significant local affairs.

The programs are broadcast from network headquarters in Tehran on

Channel 7, and are transmitted to a number of major provincial television centers throughout the country. 165

Since March 21, 1977, Program II has been broadcast in color.

The programs consist primarily of foreign movies and television serials,

Iranian and Western music, talk shows, interviews, documentary films,

children's programs, soap operas, television dramas, and news.

American and European films of high quality are shown on

Program II. They are dubbed in Farsi but the original soundtracks are

broadcast via FM bands for those foreign residents and Iranians

interested in watching the movies with original soundtracks. Television

film series such as "Little House on the Prairie, " "McCloud, " and

"Space 1999" are also shown after they are dubbed in Farsi and the

original soundtracks are broadcast via FM bands.

Musical programs include a variety of Iranian and foreign types. Popular, jazz, and classical music are also among these programs. In addition, there are some variety programs in which comedy and music are presented.

Talk shows are usually conducted for information and to discuss social problems with people directly involved ororganizations in charge of particular situations or projects. In general, talk shows are very similar to interviews.

Interviews on television have been a great help in introducing government and non-government officials and personalities to the Iranian public. In these programs important political figures, scientists, artists, 166

and other interesting people are interviewed. Their work and in some cases their life stories are the subject matter. These interviews, particularly when an important member of society is being interviewed, are very beneficial because they inform the public about the on-going governmental programs and activities.

Iranian-made and foreign documentary films with numerous subjects are shown on Program II. These films are informative and educational as well as entertaining. Since most of these films are foreign-made, they introduce cultures of countries other than Iran and in this respect they help Iranians to become familiar with other cultures and ways of living.

Children's programs always have been given a great deal of attention. Entertaining cartoons are selected for children and dubbed in Farsi so that they may enjoy, understand, and learn. A number of locally produced children's programs feature Iranian children as masters of ceremony and as talent. These programs have a large audience based upon the many letters and telephone calls to the station.

Iranian and foreign soap operas are also among the programs.

The foreign soap operas are dubbed in Farsi with their original sound­ track broadcast on the FM bands. Iranian soap operas, however, have a larger Iranian audience and are better received. Lately, NIRT has realized that Iranian-produced soap operas and film serials are more 167

popular among the Iranian families. Attempts are, therefore, being

made to produce more local programs. This is also true of theatrical

dramas on television. From the early days of television in Iran dramas

have been among the favorite programs. Iranian actors are very

expressive in acting their roles. Television has been very important

in the development of Iranian dramas. Television with its editing

capabilities permits the actors to repeat their roles until they are

acceptable for broadcast.

Finally, news on Program n is presented in the same way as it

is presented on Program I. News materials are provided by "Pars News

Agency." Major national and international events are presented in the

news programs. Films, video-tapes, and photos of the events are also

shown.

In general, programs on Program I and Program II are similar

in many ways. This, perhaps, is due to the lack of locally produced and

special programs. Since a large percentage of the programs are of

foreign origin, the content is out of Iranian control. Programs are

produced in countries with different social, economic, and cultural backgrounds. Fortunately NIRT is aware of this problem and lately a

number of Iranian soap operas, film series, variety shows and other kinds

of programs have been produced in NIRT production centers in Tehran

and in some provincial centers. A sample of Program Il's programs for 168

a selected week are presented in Appendix H.

Educational Television

In 1964, the Iranian Ministry of Education broadcast its first trial series of programs on the then-existing commercial station, Iran

Television (ITV), The series consisted of a number of high school courses taught by professional teachers. Most of these programs were an hour in length daily, except on Friday, the Moslem holiday, and other holidays.

Continued for two years, the series of programs was very effective, and, as a result of its success, the Ministry decided to establish its own instructional television center in Tehran. Although the newly-established station offered what was referred to as "education" television, it was essentially "instructional" television.

On January 26, 1966 the first educational television station (ETV) in Iran was inaugurated. Funds for the establishment of the center were mainly provided by the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC). The station consisted of a production studio and technical facilities for a basic production installation. The center also had laboratories and a library for a variety of science courses.

For three years ETV broadcast on Channel 11, with 1,000 watts transmitter power, three hours a day. Later, in 1970, it increased its broadcasting to over seven hours a day six days a week, Saturday through Thursday. The programs consisted of the basic "classical" 169

courses such as algebra, chemistry, mathematics, physics, and other

courses for elementary and secondary schools. In addition to the regular

instructional programs, educational television also broadcasts a number of

locally-produced children's programs, drama, musical programs, and

"quiz shows, " as well as cartoons and cinemas on Friday and other

holidays.

Over seventy-five per cent of the ETV viewers consisted of

students, especially those in high school, who benefited most. But the

Ministry was aware that, although the instructional programs were highly beneficial, a great number of students did not have access to a television receiver because they could not afford to buy one or simply because television was not known to everyone during the introductory stage. Experts from the Ministry of Education and ETV decided that the problem could be solved by establishing a number of centers in various parts of Tehran where students could view the programs free of charge.

Sixteen such centers, called "television clubs, " were established, each 37 of which had a seating capacity of 100. Apart from its introduction of the clubs, ETV continued its programs with little or no change in format.

In 1973, after a preliminary study, National Iranian Radio and

Television (NIRT) decided to broadcast a number of high school courses

37Radio and Television, pp. 4-7; Ettela at (December 3, 1968), p. 7. 170

from its central station. This experiment was only for a limited time, but proved so beneficial NIRT planned to establish nation-wide

instructional television.

In September 1973 the educational station of NIRT, NIET, began broadcasting. Later, the buildings of the old commercial station

(ITV) became the central offices and station of the National Iranian

Educational Television (NIET), under the Ministry of Education, but a part of NIRT.

By 1974 the number of broadcasting hours of educational television exceeded 2,480 a year. The programs consisted mainly of the basic "classical" courses. They included instruction in the Persian language, literature, and foreign languages for primary and secondary school students. Additional programs of science and other educational material were also broadcast.38

Currently, educational television also broadcasts programs for high schools and vocational schools. They are usually ten to fifteen minutes in duration, and are repeated several times for those schools equipped with television receivers. Because of their length, the programs can be used in conjunction with the normal schedule of classes in the schools, since they may be viewed by students during their regular class

38NIRT, op. cit., p. 25. 171

periods with sufficient time remaining for class discussion after the viewing. Again, NIET refers to its programs as "educational" television, though they are more instructional in nature. NIET is

strongly supported by government funds. The budget of educational television is substantial and the station is well-equipped with essential technical equipment and a number of laboratories. A new building with an enormous amount of technical equipment has been added to the station, and it also uses both microwave and satellite service for its transmission.

In accordance with NIET plans, 10, 000 color television receivers were installed in school classrooms from 1975 to 1977, with the intention that virtually all classrooms will have color television receivers by

1979.39 40 41

In October, 1975 Iran Free University of Tehran, the second multi-media open-curriculum institution of higher learning in the world, 49 concluded an agreement with NIRT/NIET to produce and broadcast educational programs. Under the agreement, Iran Free University of

Tehran was to provide at least one-and-one-half hours of programs daily 41 for students at fifty study centers opened in six provinces in January 1977.

39 Iran Almanac, op. cit., 1976, p. 111. 40 Ibid.

41Ibid. 172

NIET has received much attention from NIRT. Thus it is hoped that, with all its modem equipment, NIET will be able to contribute much toward the improvement of education in Iran.

English-Language Television

In 1960 the American Force Radio and Television Service (AFTV) established a station broadcasting on Channel eight with 1,000 watts power in Tehran, for the benefit of English-speaking residents, especially

Americans. Transmitting with the American 525-line system, the station continued to operate even after the commercial television company, Iran

Television (ITV) was purchased by the Iranian government and became part of National Iranian Radio and Television (NIRT).

Broadcasting an average of eight hours daily, from 4:00 p.m. to 12:00 midnight, practically all of AFTV's broadcast schedules were composed on American Television programs and films. Only the daily news was live and included major American and Iranian news in English.

A sample of AFTV's weekly programs can be found in Appendix E.

On October 26, 1975 National Iranian Radio and Television supplemented its service with an English-language television channel for

English-speaking Iranians and foreign residents. After broadcasting in English from 4:30 to 7:30 p.m. daily, the channel then broadcasts

NIRT's Programs in Farsi. These programs are received in Abadan, 173

Esfahan, Mashhad, Rasht, and Shiraz as well as Tehran. 42 A sample

of NIRT International programs can be found in Appendix I.

According to The Law Establishing the National Iranian Radio and Television Organization enacted on June 19, 1971, Article Two:

The establishment of broadcasting stations and broadcasting of radio and television programs within the country shall be carried out exclusively by the Organization. All permits previously granted shall be cancelled upon the coming into effect of this law.43

Because NIRT considered that it possessed more than enough equipment and facilities to fulfill the needs of the English-speaking viewers satisfactorily, the operations of the AFTV were terminated in 1976.

As mentioned, foreign residents of Iran and those English- speaking Iranians can view the programs of NIRT International during the designated time on the same channel which programs of Program II are broadcast. In addition, some of the regular programs of Program I and Program II are of foreign origin, and the original soundtracks are broadcast on an FM band.

42Iran Almanac, 1976, op. cit., p. 111.

43NIRT, op. cit., p. 134. 174

Pars News Agency

In 1934 Iran's first and only news agency, the Pars News

Agency, was established by Reza Shah. The first solely Iranian news

agency received its news through the Najafabad wireless station in

Tehran. At that time, the agency subscribed to Havas and other world

news services as well. Until 1941, the Pars News Agency operated

under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; however, in 1941, the Department

of Propaganda and Publications assumed control of it.

The agency's service then had two major divisions, domestic

and international news. Domestic news was gathered by ten correspon­

dents in the capital city, Tehran, and by fifteen in various major cities

and centers.

In 1934 Pars News Agency contracted with Havas for an exchange

of news. In 1935 a contract was made with the United Kingdom news

agency, Reuters; in 1946, two more contracts were made with United

Press and Agence France Presse. These contracts enabled Pars News

Agency to receive news service from four of the major international

news services, and to dispatch its own news internationally.

Pars also received news from the Russian news agency,

Telegrafnoye Agentstvo Sovietskovo Soystza (TASS) though no contacts were made, 175

Eventually, Iran subscribed to the services of the Italian

Agenzie Nationale Stampa Associata (ANSA), The West German

Deutsche Presse Agentar (DPA), Associated Press (AP), and

United Press International (UPI) of the United States of America. Thus,

Iran's first solely Iranian news agency was established in its modern 44 form, marking the beginning of a very important step toward

modernization of the entire country. Pars News Agency's service was

free. It was, therefore, used by newspapers, magazines, bulletins, and

radio stations for both domestic and international news and information.

Until the Second World War Pars carried approximately 4,500 words of

news daily. After the War the service was much increased.

Pars not only covered domestic and international news, it also

engaged in coverage and distribution of financial, political, and sports

news. Although Pars usually carried equal amounts of domestic and

international news, the reporting of domestic news sometimes prevailed,

when a special event occurred. In such cases, perhaps ninety per cent

of the available news space might be taken up by the details of the event.

Pars service was mostly in Persian (Farsi), but it was also in French

44Information and news gathering has existed in Iran for more than 2,500 years. In its early form the King's reporters, "eyes and ears of Shah, " via pony express sent news from every corner of the vast Empire of Persia. 176

from time-to-time. The French-language news service was used by

newspapers published in Iran, one of which was published in French,

Journal de Tehran. This service was rather costly, though, since it was necessary to employ a French translator for such service. But the newspaper was to bear the high cost of the service only until it subscribed to the French Agence France Presse (AFP) for its French coverage.

Due to the lack of equipment to transmit news abroad Pars seldom sent any news to other countries. On special occasions the service of the Anatolian Agency of Ankara was employed, when the news was sent to Ankara by telegraph in French.

The headquarters of Pars were established in Tehran, where the agency was controlled by the central government. In fact, the entire

Pars operation was under government control. The agency received news from abroad on equipment installed in Tehran, Morse Code was used by AFP and UP, while Reuters employed Hellschreiber. 45

As mentioned, both telegraph and telephone systems in Iran were owned and operated by the government. Pars News Agency has employed both telegraph and telephone service, as well as the postal service for its use to transmit news and information within the country and abroad.

45 Hellschreiber of Bildschreiber is a German word for tele­ printer, a printing device with output methods similar to those of a typewriter and it is used in conjunction with a telephonic communications system. 177

Domestic and international news published in Iranian newspapers

was transmitted to many of the major provincial centers of Iran, so that

the same news was received in most of the major cities. The completion

of the railroad system made it possible for printed news to be delivered

to both the northern and southern areas of Iran.

The establishment of Pars News Agency enabled the Iranian

government to control and integrate the news. In this way censorship of

the news was effected within the agency itself by government officials.

The censored news was then distributed to various places for a variety

of uses.

Pars News Agency has served Iran's newspapers, magazines, bulletins, and radio and television networks for many years. Radio Iran

employed the Pars service for its Tehran center and all other provincial

stations. Similarly, the original commercial television network of Iran

Television used the Pars service, as did the first government-owned and operated television network.

Presently the agency has several divisions for domestic and international news and a three-minute news update service. 46 Each division has a managing editor, several assistant editors, reporters, translators, teletype operators, typesetters, and proof-readers. The

46 Ministry of Information, Pamphlet #14 (1969), p. 31. 178

latest news and reports of events of any significance, be they domestic or

foreign, are covered by the agency, as are developments in the

government of Iran and other nations. The agency uses telephone,

telegraph, and teletype, as well as microwave and satellite communica­

tions for its service. The result is a thorough and accurate compilation

of all the news which can be used in interviewing government authorities

and officials, and "on-the-spot" reporting of events. After editing has

been completed the news compilation is sent to the Iran News Bulletin

for publication.

Foreign news is obtained mainly through automatic teletype

equipment, to which only the government has access. News of the

world is thereby received by the government in much the same way as it

is in the United States, on a twenty-four-hour basis. The teletype

printout, in English or French, is then immediately translated and

edited for various uses. After censoring and editing have been completed

the teletype copy is forwarded for broadcast. Another copy is sent to the News Bulletin for publication.

Pars News Agency also serves as monitor of all foreign radio and television broadcasting, with all important matter recorded by such monitoring being forwarded to the relevant government authorities.

Pars News Agency has made contracts for the purchase of news films from various international points, and has direct relations with 179

both the European and Asian Broadcasting Unions.

In cooperation with Radio Iran, the Mobile Radio Department,

in its tour of various points within the country, records and transmits

events occurring in Tehran or any other place in Iran. The mobile

station can be linked to any local station or network for "live"

coverage of any event, with transmission by shortwave.

Pars News Agency has grown into a large organization, and

the merger of Radio Iran with National Iranian Television (NIRT) has

led to an even greater expansion of the agency's service. Since Pars

is responsible for broadcasting news which is both correct and timely,

the agency is constantly in contact with the other news agencies of the world,

such as the Associated Press, United Press, Reuter's, Agence France 47 Presse, and German News through its automatic teletype equipment

(see Figure 6).

The agency is also responsible for preparation of news for both

radio and television (NIRT), and for publication, as well. Pars analyzes the news daily and normally releases it to the media within thirty minutes, on a twenty-four-hour basis.4847

In 1972 a news center was established at NIRT for both radio and

47Sadeghian, Research in Radio (Mass. Communication College, 1973), p. 15. 48 Ibid., p. 17. 180

fig. 6 181

television use. hi the past, radio and television had each had separate news centers; with unifaction of the two centers, there was less duplication of effort and a greater uniformity in the news reporting.

At the same time the facilities were much improved.

NIRT news has six departments: Administrative, Cultural, 49 Economic, Political, Social, and Urban. The news of Iran is reported to the appropriate news departments from all provincial centers. There are also many correspondents who report to local radio and television stations from small towns and remote villages all over the country.

For foreign news, NIRT uses radio broadcasts from other countries as well as Pars reports to supplement its own news bureaus in London, Beirut, and Cologne, which provide NIRT with "sound" film.5490

NIRT also uses the service of telex channels "round-the-clock" to communicate with all parts of the world, and has correspondents abroad who report the news by telephone.

The news processed by NIRT is also available for use by NIRT's other radio and television stations throughout Iran. These stations are either production centers, repeaters, or simply relays that are linked

49 NIRT Publication Department, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 74. 182

to Tehran NIRT Center. Although radio and television centers throughout Iran are all part of the NIRT giant network, the local stations broadcast their local news as well as the national news in conjunction.

The Center for the Preservation and Propagation of the Traditional Music

In February 1969 National Iranian Radio and Television established The Center for the Preservation and Propagation of

Traditional Music. The goals of the Center are to collect the traditional songs and instrumental music of Iran; to encourage and inspire musicians, especially the young; and to study the ancient and early music of Iran, in order that the great heritage of Persian and Iranian music might be preserved. The Center also provides "live'' 51 and recorded musical programs for lovers of Iranian music.

The Center has a program for systematically recording performances by expert indigenous Iranian musicians, to preserve their work for future generations. Some of these works are broadcast on radio and television as well as being produced as records and tapes for public use.

51 NIRT, op. cit., p. 101. 183

The Center has encouraged young musicians to develop their

talents. As a result of these efforts a number of soloists have been

trained. By 1974 there were twelve versatile young instrumentalists

who had a firm foundation in traditional Iranian music. The Center 52 has also had the cooperation of a number of outstanding vocalists.

The most accomplished of these musicians have formed small

groups; two among them, "Darvish Khan, " and "Samai" have become

wellpknown. In September 1972 these groups gave their first public

concert at the Shirza Festival of Art. They are paid by NIRT in

order that they may devote all their time to becoming prominent artists

in the field of traditional music.

Classes given at the Center are open to the public. The object

is to provide people, especially the young, an opportunity to be trained

and become better known. Thus, musicians who have ability and talent

but lack academic training can enroll for formal coursework.

The Center has developed basic techniques for teaching

traditional music, which, in the past, has been taught almost entirely by

hearing it played and imitating it in performance rather than by learning the language of music academically so that the musician may read it and

study it.

52 NIRT, op. cit., p. 101. 184

The Center offers courses in tar, 54 setar, 55 santur, 56 57 58

kamancheh, tambak, 53 violin and many other instruments, as well as

voice. It also arranges "masterpieces" of Iranian music for

publication and has collected an extensive library of recorded works,

including a number of copies of older records and tapes. The library

is open to the public, and the services of its research department are 59 available to musicologists.

The Center presents a number of lecturers and performances.

In May 1972 the first of these lectures was held in the Center. For those

interested in these and similar activities of the Center, a quarterly brochure-journal is published which includes a statement of the objectives 60 of the Center and articles of general interest.

54 The tar is an Iranian musical instrument of the guitar family.

55The setar is a kind of "guitar" played with the fingernail. It is derived from the zither or cittern, but popular etymology connects it with the sitar with three strings, in spite of the fact that it usually has four strings.

56The santur is a dulcimer.

57 The kamancheh is a violin-like instrument which, like the violincello, rests on the ground when played; the term "kamancheh" means "little bow." 58 The tambak is a long one-headed orchestral drum.

NIRT, op, cit., p. 102. 185

The Center does not restrict its courses to those in music.

Rather, to better develop "all-around" musicians, it offers its music students a number of courses in other subjects as well. The Center also conducts many research projects in Iranian music, often working 61 in conjunction with the Music Department of Tehran University.

Music Workshop

In June 1969 the Music Workshop for Children and Young People was established as an affiliate of NIRT. The objective of this workshop was a somewhat unorthodox experiment, namely, the attempt to foster in the minds of children and young adults an appreciation of all forms of music. The activities of the Workshop were founded on the belief that music can play a constructive part in the development of the child 62 and has an effective role in all human thought.

Although the enrollment of the Workshop was only twenty students at the beginning, by 1974, it had reached 250. After an initial interview, candidates for the course of study are divided into three age groups:

3-6, 7-11, and 12-15 years old.

The 3-6 age group studies musical composition from foreign countries which were originally written for kindergarten use. The

61NIRT, op. cit,, p. 102.

°^NIRT, p. 110. 186

purpose of such a program is to offer the students a combination of

folk music and nursery rhymes set to various kinds of music attractive to them. Although the songs were originally in foreign languages, an

effort has been made to translate the lyrics so that the children might more readily understand and appreciate the meaning of the songs, and thus become familiar with other cultures.

Instruments have been carefully chosen to develop the rhythmic acuity of the children and to serve as accompaniment for their physical exercises.82

To offer even more educational opportunities and resources, the

Workshop has also had books translated and music composed for the instructors to use in their classes.

The 7-11 age group studies carefully selected foreign music of both melodic and rhythmic value. Special attention is paid to the organization of the Workshop's vocal and instrumental groups. Thus, the history and theory of music is taught, as well as musical composition on narrative themes. Special research is conducted to select books and other materials to supplement the various styles of music being taught in this group.

The 12-15 age group studies a program which includes music appropriate for developing and training vocal and instrumental groups 63

63 NIRT, op. cit., p. 110. 187

in preparation for organizing choirs and orchestras. In addition to

classes in the history, theory, and the composition of foreign music,

the Center also offers a course to develop an appreciation of traditional

Persian music.

The Workshop has a weekly program on radio and television

on which students of the Workshop perform. These programs encourage

the young people in their musical study and training and also serve as

auditions for judges from private music institutes who select scholarship

students. 64

The Workshop staff consists of music instructors and teachers who have had academic education and musical training. Most of them have received university degrees, and those without degrees have had many years of experience in their specialization.

The Workshop is well-received by musically talented children.

As a center which encourages and inspires children to express themselves, the Workshop is most effective with children of low-income families and those from orphanages. The psychological effects of music have ameliorated the behavior of these children, and, for this reason, the efforts of the Workshop have been well worthwhile. 65

64NIRT, op. cit., p. 110. 188

Theater Workshop

In August 1969 the Theater Workshop of National Iranian Radio 66 and Television was founded as one of the institutes sponsored by NIRT.

The goal of the Workshop is to assist directors, performers, playwrights, and others in related groups to experience unconventional theater, with the hope of promoting an art and culture free of the pressures of society and of the financial world.

Three companies were established in the Theater Workshop for this purpose: the "Bazigaran-e-Shahr"(city players), the "Teatr-e-

Tajrobi" (experimental theater), and the "Teatr-e-Kucheh" (side street theater). By 1974 they had produced twenty-three plays with the 67 participation of only three directors and thirty-five performers.

Admission to these plays was either free or very inexpensive—thirty rials (approximately $0.24).

The Workshop has since produced a number of other plays in which a larger number of performers have participated, for example,

"Halat Chetureh, Mash Rahim" (How Are You, Mash Rahim), and

"Golduneh Khanum” (Miss Golduneh) which are among the longest- running plays. They were performed by over 150 players.

66 NIRT, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 94. 67 Ibid.

68Ibid. 189

The Workshop is located in Tehran. It has the most modern equipment and its auditorium seats eighty.

In 1969 the Workshop presented one of its productions, "A

Profound, Bold, and New Research into the Fossils of the 25th

Geological Era, at the Shiraz Festival of Art. The play was also performed in Belgrade and at London's Royal Court Theater. 70 Other important plays produced by the Workshop include "Vis-o-Ramen, " presented at the 1970 Shiraz Festival of Art, Aeschylus' "Prometheus

Bound, " and five short pieces by Samuel Beckett.

Audience Research and Analysis

In spite of the rapid technological expansion and development of broadcasting in Iran, especially television, insufficient attention has been given to audience research and analysis and to a study of the effects of programs on people. Nevertheless, in 1966 National Iran Television authorities, aware of the potential impacts of television broadcasting on the Iranian society, established the Department of Public Opinion and

Social Research as an affiliated department. One of the Department's early tasks was a poll of attitudes among the television audience in

69NIRT, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 94. 190

Tehran concerning the first experimental programs of National Iranian

Television.71 72

In 1967 the Institute of Social Research at the University of

Tehran conducted a public opinion survey in Tehran somewhat more

detailed than the one done previously by the Department of Public

Opinion and Social Research of the National Iranian Television. A number of items were included in this public opinion survey such as general characteristics of the household, access to a television receiver in the household, viewing habits of its occupants, and their attitudes and opinions concerning television in general and various programs in particular. The survey was conducted in Tehran primarily because the number of those who owned or had immediate access to a television receiver was estimated to be over 110, 000, while most major cities in

Iran with the exception of Abadan and surrounding areas did not have television service. From over 6,000 households in Tehran, 1,000 owners of television receivers were selected to complete the study. 72

71 The findings of these public opinion surveys are not available. Several attempts were made by this writer to obtain the results of these or any audience research studies in the past ten years from the Department of Public Opinion and Social Research. The persistent efforts of this writer to obtain any information, however, were a complete failure.

72NIRT, Television in Tehran (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1967), pp. 3-7. 191

Regarding television owners in terms of age, the findings revealed that, of the 1,000 owners selected for the study, the highest percentage was in the 36-40 years of age bracket with approximately twenty per cent each for husbands and wives72 (see Table 14).

In terms of level of education, only 20.3 per cent of the husbands, and no more than 4.2 per cent of the wives had had any education beyond a high school diploma^ (see Table 15).

Almost all of the households surveyed had children, 76.7 per cent of them having children under fifteen years of age and 49.1 per cent having children fifteen or over. Children were not only the prime movers behind the purchase of television receivers for the households surveyed, they were also strongly influential in program selection. 75 Another finding of the study was that those members of the household who had spent the most time in viewing television were also the most decisive in program selection. Again, children were among those spending the most 76 time viewing television in 58.8 per cent of the households surveyed.

As to audience attitudes and opinions concerning overall television programming, the general response was that it was satisfactory, with 8 per cent rating it as "excellent, ” 37.4 per cent "good, " 9.2 per cent "poor, ” and the rest "fair" or "no comment. " Of those surveyed in 72 * 74

72NIRT, Television in Tehran (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1967), pp. 3-7.

74Ibid. 75Ibid., pp. 41-42. 76Ibid., p. 99. 192

TABLE 14

AGE BRACKET IN HOUSEHOLDS WITH TELEVISION SETS1

Age Bracket Husbands Wives (years) (percentage) (percentage)

25 or under 0.0 15.5 26-30 6.3 19.5 31-35 14.7 17.7 36-40 19.9 20.0 41-45 16.2 11.2 46-50 15.6 8.1 51-55 7.7 4.8 56-60 8.2 2.3 Over 60 10.5 0.9

NIRT Department of Public Opinion and Research (Tehran: 1977). 193

TABLE 15

EDUCATION LEVEL IN HOUSEHOLDS WITH TELEVISION SETS1

Education Husbands Wives (percentage) (percentage)

Higher Education 20.3 4.2

High School 25.6 20.5

Junior High School 19.0 20.2

Elementary School 26.0 35.8

Illiterate 7.6 18.8

No Answer 1.5 0.5

NIRT Department of Public Opinion and Research (Tehran: 1977). 194

the study, 23 per cent regarded television as "entertaining" and

"interesting."77

The survey was important because it indicated that the govern­

ment television programs had been received in Iranian households with

great expectations and immediate interest. This response may have

been evoked because, in 1967, Tehran had two broadcasting centers, the

commercial Iran Television (ITV) and the newly-established National

Iranian Television. Competition between the two centers, one privately-

owned and commercial and the other government-owned and non-commercial,

created a favorable climate for the development of varied programming and

offered viewers a wide choice in program selection.

However, this competitive climate did not last long because

Iran Television was purchased by the Iranian government. Consequently,

the importance of the survey in 1967 derives, in part, from the fact that the competitive climate of that time evoked a strongly positive public

response.

Provincial Television Clubs

Iran is a country of great contrasts. The geophysical character­

istics peculiar to Iran do not permit full coverage of the country by

77 NIRT, Television in Tehran (Tehran: NIRT Ptblication Department, 1967), p. 99. 195

television. This limitation of coverage is mainly because nearly two- thirds of the population still lives in relatively isolated agricultural villages and the surrounding areas. It is difficult to reach them by television. Also, because of poverty, most provincial and rural Iranians cannot afford to own a television receiver. For these and a number of other reasons, such as lack of electricity in most areas, National Iranian

Radio and Television has established centers called "television clubs" which operate on closed-circuit and are provided mainly for those villagers without television receivers and those who live in areas where 17 0 television signals cannot easily be received due to geographical barriers.

The objectives of the NIRT in establishing these clubs are, first to provide maximum television coverage throughout provincial and rural

Iran. But more important, is to provide specially designed and produced programs for the villagers consisting of entertainment, and informational and instructional material. Such programs assist the villagers in making better use of their resources; they also inform them of new or recently developed agricultural methods and instruct them in better health care. 79

After Argentina, Iran was the second UNESCO-affiliated country to experiment with the use of audio-visual aids in agriculture. Iran's

78NIRT, op. cit., p. 56. 79Ibid. 196

first such experiment was conducted over sixteen months, from May 1969

to September 1970. For this experiment the ancient city of Qazvin,

140 kilometers northwest of Tehran, was chosen because of its proximity

to Tehran, its favorable geophysical characteristics, and its suitability

on for establishing closed-circuit television broadcasting. The city

and surrounding agricultural region have an area of 14, 550 square kilo­ meters and total population of nearly 43, 000 (at the time of the experiment), most of whom speak Azari Turkish or Tati, an Iranian dialect, and were of the same social background. Almost two-thirds of them are dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry for a living.

Twenty villages of the Qazvin area were chosen for the experiment.

In fourteen villages television clubs were established, while the remaining six with no television clubs served as a control group. A number of programs dealing with agriculture and public health were broadcast for four months. During this period the ethnological and psychological characteristics, as well as the economic and social conditions of the 81 villages, were studied in relation to the programs being broadcast.

Broadcast programs concerned subjects such as the use of farming equipment and machinery, fertilizers and insecticides, soil

80 Ibid. 197

formation and texture, planting and pruning, seed improvement, correct methods of beet harvesting, potato cultivation, tree grafting, and the care of livestock.32

The findings of the experimental study were then published and made available, including the extent of arable land, the farming methods employed, and the major crops produced, as well as the social orientation of the population. The study clearly indicated the benefits of such clubs toward the improvement of village life. It also proved of value in pinpointing problems in the area. 83

The four-month series of programs presented two broadcasts a week, forty-five minutes to an hour each in duration. Each program was followed by a discussion among the local farmers and laborers at­ tending the club. The villagers were given a questionnaire to complete both before and after viewing each program. The number of correct pre-test answers increased from 40 to 50 per cent, and the number of post-test answers from 70 to 95 per cent. Thus, it was demonstrated that the programs were effective. 84-

One benefit of the clubs was to stimulate the imagination of the villagers so that they attempted to solve many of their daily problems.

An average of 443 villagers participated in the programs at the fourteen clubs.

82Ibid. 83Ibid. 84-Ibid. 198

A month after the completion of the experiment a final test was conducted in cooperation with UNESCO. In most respects positive results occurred. In some instances, the villagers were confused by a program which was too complicated so that they seemed to know less after viewing the program. Such programs were noted for revision.

But, in general, the results were satisfactory and proved to be both practical and useful.35

Provincial Television Centers

To complement and supplement network production and transmission National Iranian Radio and Television has established a number of provincial production, relay and repeater transmission centers or stations throughout the country. Since NIRT is a non-profit government-owned-and-operated organization, its interests are not in profit-making and consequently it does not rely on revenue from the sale of commercial advertising and air time. Radio and television expansion has occurred for other reasons than financial purposes. NIRT was originally established as a cultural organization. Broadcasting in Iran is, therefore, mainly for political, sociological, cultural, educational, and entertainment purposes.

86 See Articles of Association of the National Iranian Radio- Television Organization, Section Two—Objectives and Functions, Article Four, in Appendix D. 199

Without practical, effective, and powerful mass communication

advancements that have been made in national unity and other major

areas would have taken a longer time. In this respect, broadcasting

has contributed its share to national progress and has fulfilled its task.

During NIRT's first five years, 1966-1974, over 100 television

production and transmission centers and relay stations were established throughout the country.A vital part of this nation-wide broadcasting network consists of several production centers in which programs are locally produced and broadcast for local audiences. These centers are linked to the main headquarters in Tehran from which they receive the

National Program I and in some centers, Program II. The production centers then rebroadcast the incoming programs in conjunction with their own locally produced programs. In some cases the production centers transmit their programs to Tehran and other centers as well.

In addition to production centers there are a number of transmission centers established in various parts of the country. These centers, for the most part, do not produce any programs. Rather their role is simply to receive the incoming programs from Tehran and other production centers and rebroadcast them for the local audience.

87 NIRT, op. cit., pp. 10-12. (See Table 8 for Television Production and Transmission Centers and Relay Stations in Iran, by date of establishment on pages 129-134). 200

In addition to production and transmission centers NIRT has

established a number of relay stations in various places. These

stations do not produce any local programs. Their task is to receive the incoming signals and strengthen them for rebroadcast.

While provincial broadcasting centers rebroadcast the programs which they receive from Tehran, some also send their locally produced programs for viewing to Tehran and other provincial broadcasting centers. This nation-wide exchange of programming has provided an opportunity for people all over the country to become acquainted and learn about each other's culture and folkways. Most provincial centers have their own specialized programs in which regional dialects are used for the benefit of the local audiences. The programs that are sent to

Tehran and other broadcasting centers for rebroadcast are usually musical. Therefore, the difference in the language is insignificant.

Since Farsi is the principal language of Iranian broadcasting and most programs are produced in Tehran and are intended for the general public, it is hoped that eventually the whole nation will enjoy the same unified cultural programs.

Nationalized broadcasting systems in most countries have begun in the capital city and have developed and expanded throughout the country. The capital city influences the regional operations and dictates its values to them. Although local broadcasting centers in Iran are given 201

a certain degree of freedom in their programming most of the technicians and management personnel, at least in the beginning, are from the capital.

The programs, therefore, tend to reflect Tehran's values. The emphasis on unification seems to have proven fruitful in raising the level of general knowledge of the people of Iran.

A brief description of some major broadcasting centers is presented here in order to show the general status of television broadcasting in Iran. These centers are described in the order in which they were inaugurated and/or put into operation. Information concerning technical aspects, programming, number of personnel, coverage, and audience information for some of the centers is limited due to lack of documentation and the non-existence of information in some cases.

Abadan Television

Abadan, one of the most important cities of Khosiestan Province, is located on an island of the same name in the Shaft-al-Arab (Arabian

River), thirty-three miles from the Persian Gulf. Its possession was long disputed between Iran and Turkey, but was finally won by Iran in 1847.

The Anglo-Persian Oil Company, nationalized in 1951 and re-named the

National Iranian Oil Company, established its pipeline terminal and refinery there in 1909. The city also has an international airport.

Abadan was the first city after Tehran to have a television station. It was established as an extension of the commercial Iran 202

Television (ITV) and began operation in 1959. The Abadan station was purchased in 1969 by the Iranian government and became part of National

Iranian Radio and Television.

In 1970 Abadan Television, as part of NIRT, was officially inaugurated and began its operation on Channel seven with a 20-kilowatt transmitter with video frequency of 189.25 megahertz and audio frequency of 194.75 megahertz.

Abadan Television is linked to the Tehran broadcasting center from which the National network Programs I and II are received. They are then rebroadcast in a schedule which includes Abadan's locally produced material. The locally produced programs emphasize the old and rich history of Khosistan Province in which Abadan is located. Among the early programs still aired are "Atash-e Zendegi" (Flame of Life),

"Hamsaeh" (Neighbor), "Persian Gulf Music," "Barnameh-e Javanan"

(The Youth Program), and "Young Sport."

The programs of Abadan Television are received in the neighboring countries as well. For this reason Abadan Television produces programs in Arabic as well as in Farsi.88

Q Q Ijila Sazegar, ed., A Report of NIRT's Activities Until 1976 (Tehran: NIRT Mardamsara, 1976), p. 38. 203

Bandar Abbas Television

Bandar Abbas is an important port city located on the Persian

Gulf near the Sea of Oman in southern Iran. Bandar Abbas Television

was established in 1968, three years ahead of the original plan. A

reconsideration of its strategic location and its overall importance

prompted a revision of that plan. The station has a 20-kilowatt

transmitter and operates on Channel eight with video frequency of

196.25 megahertz and the audio frequency of 201.75 megahertz.

Bandar Abbas Television began its broadcasting with two

hours of programming daily. In 1969, a year later, it increased its

programming hours to four and finally to over ten hours. The programs

consist primarily of re-broadcasts of programs from Tehran in

conjunction with the station's locally produced programs.

The local production of the Bandar Abbas television center

consists of programs for children, young adults, quiz shows, health

programs, interviews, native dances and music, and news. Interviews

and discussions are held with government officials and authorities, and

representatives of various local and national agencies. Such programs are popular and considered helpful by the people of Bandar Abbas and the areas where they receive the Bandar Abbas programs. Bandar Abbas is located in an almost inaccessibly isolated and remote part of a mountainous coastal region. There is a shortage of doctors and medical 204

facilities and many people living in this area are unable to obtain

proper health care. The health programs on Bandar Abbas Television

discuss a variety of topics in language simple enough for those families

and individuals in need of basic health and medical information to

understand.

The programs of Bandar Abbas Television, in addition to the

local areas, are also received in neighboring countries such as Dobay,

Abuzaby, Chatar, and Kuwait. Some of the islands in the Persian Gulf

such as Hormoz and Qeshm also receive the programs of Bandar Abbas

Television.39

Mahabad Television

Mahabad Television was established in 1971. The center has a

10-watt transmitter with a video frequency of 175.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 180.75 megahertz. The station operates on Channel five.

Mahabad Television began programming with two to three hours daily. Soon it increased its programming hours. Residents of Mahabad provide the personnel for the station.

The programming is mainly intended for farmers and is produced locally. In addition there are some programs on native music and dances

89Ibid., p. 38. 205

and also local news. The center also receives programs from Tehran and rebroadcasts them along with its own.90

Sanandaj Television

Sanandaj Television was put into operation in 1971. It has a

10-watt transmitter with a video frequency of 203.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 208.75 megahertz and broadcasts on Channel nine.

This station is connected with the Tehran television center and rebroadcasts its programs in addition to locally produced programs. The local programs consist of various subjects for farmers and local audiences in Farsi and

Kurdish. 9^

Kerman Television

Kerman Television was established in 1971. The station has a

50-watt transmitter with a video frequency of 196.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 201.75 megahertz and operates on Channel eight.

Kerman Television began its regular broadcasting with four hours of programming, but soon increased it to six hours.

Similar to other provincial centers Kerman Television receives a large portion of its daily programs from Tehran. It also produces a

90 91 Ibid., p. 40. Ibid., p. 40. 206

number of programs locally. They consist of "Children, " "Youth, "

"Folk Music, " and "Face-to-Face Game. ” In addition Kerman Television

produces documentary films of Kerman’s historical places. Since Kerman

is an old city with rich historical background, it is an appropriate place 92 for documentary film makers.

Rezaiyeh Television

Rezaiyeh Television was established in 1968 with a 50-watt

transmitter and operates on Channel eight. Its early staff included

only fifteen people; however, within three years this was increased to

over sixty. The number of personnel in 1976 was 167.

In 1968 the total schedule was five hours a month. This was

increased to over twenty hours a month by 1970, and to thirty by 1971.

Currently, Rezaiyeh Television has a 20-kilowatt transmitter with a video frequency of 196.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of

201.75 megahertz and operates on Channel eight.

Since Rezaiyeh Television serves a basically agricultural population, its programming is designed to educate the local farmers and cattle raisers. To fulfill this important task Rezaiyeh Television has established a number of Television Clubs in various locations where

92Ibid., p. 40. 207

farmers and other people who do not own a television set can come and

enjoy the programs and watch the special educational programs. In addition, Rezaiyeh Television also uses locations provided by schools and other organizations for monitoring its programs. This effort, along with special programming, has resulted in a close relationship between the station and the people, especially the farmers. The station has become a center for information and assistance.

Rezaiyeh Television also produces programs on various topics.

News and native music in Azarbaijani, Kurdish, Asory, and Armenian are among the locally produced programs of this center. Young adults no and children also have their special programs.

Shiraz Television

Shiraz, the capital of Fars Province, is located in south central

Iran in the Zagros Mountains. Both an ancient and a modern city, it is famous for its wine and as the birthplace of two if Iran's most famous poets, Hafez and Sadi. Today Shiraz is the center for many special events such as the Shiraz Art Festival. Pahlavi University and the

Persian Church of St. Simon the Zealot are there. The famous ruins of

Persepolis, the ancient capital of the Persian Empire, are nearby.

qo Ibid., p. 40. 208

Because of its cultural and historical importance Shiraz has

become one of the most important broadcasting centers in Iran. The

center was put into operation in 1969 with a 50-watt transmitter with a

video frequency of 196.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 201.75

megahertz and operates on Channel eight. The power was increased

by establishing a number of repeater stations. In 1972 two 10-watt

repeater stations were established in Marvdasht and Abadeh. These

repeater stations transmit Shiraz programs to the northern part of

Fars Province. In addition, two other repeater stations, each with

500-watts power, were put into operation in 1974. They located on the

tops of Mount Moharlou and Mount Kharman to serve Jahrom, Lar, and

other nearby cities.

Like other provincial centers, Shiraz Television receives

Program I, and recently, Program II, from Tehran and broadcasts it

in conjunction with its own locally-produced programs. The locally- produced programs consist of dramas, interviews, native and popular music, news, quiz shows, and talk shows. Among the station's popular programs are the programs for children, "One, Two, Three, " and

"You and Television."

Programs from Shiraz Television are occasionally sent to Tehran and other television centers for viewing. All things considered, Shiraz 209

has one of the most active and progressive television centers in Iran.94

East Azarbaijan Television (Tabriz Television)

East Azarbaijan Television was established in 1971. The center

is generally known as Tabriz Television because it is located in the city

of Tabriz. After Tehran, this station is the largest center in the

country. Currently, there are over 300 people at Tabriz Television

working in various positions. Most of the station's efforts have been

focused on producing local programs. Since Tabriz has a rich cultural

and historical background subjects for programming are fairly easy to

find.

Tabriz is the birthplace of many political and literary persons.

Their life stories made into television programs are watched by a large audience. Tabriz has kept its traditional customs and ways as well as adopting the modern ways of living. This has created a unique contrast in programming.

Its local productions include programs for farmers, housewives, and children. A special program called "Ganjineha" (Treasures), is produced for general audiences. There is also ten minutes of local news among the daily programs.

94 Ibid., p. 39. 210

The Tabriz television center also receives Tehran's Program I

and rebroadcasts it along with locally produced programs. In return

some of the programs produced at the Tabriz television center are AC broadcast by Tehran and other broadcasting centers.

Esfahan Television

Esfahan Television was established as a relay station in 1968

to re-broadcast the programs of Tehran's Program I. In 1969, however,

with its 60-watt transmitter in operation, Esfahan Television became

independent and in addition to re-broadcasting the Tehran Programs

the station produced its own local programs. Currently, the station

has a 50-watt transmitter with a video frequency of 175.25 megahertz

and an audio frequency of 180.75 megahertz and operates on Channel five with 137 people on its staff. This station, unlike most stations, not only

receives and re-broadcasts Tehran's Programs, but it also sends its locally produced programs to Tehran via microwave connectors for re­ broadcast. These programs are sent both direct and pre-taped. Due to its 95-meter mast Esfahan Television is able to transmit its signal to a vast area north to Marchekhort, east to Saghez, and west to Najefabad.

95Ibid., p. 38. 211

A relay station transmits Esfahan's programs to the Zob-e Ahan area,

Aryo Shahi, and Shah Abbas dam. °

Sari Television

This center was established in 1975. Currently, this station

via Soordar microwave connection re-broadcasts Tehran's Programs

I and II. This station's only local production is fifteen minutes of

daily news.97

Kermanshah Television

Kermanshah Television began its operation in 1970. This

station has a 2-kilowatt transmitter with a video frequency of 189.25

megahertz and an audio frequency of 194.75 megahertz. Kermanshah

Television broadcasts on Channel seven. Most programs are received

from the network in Tehran. The station's 300 staff members produce a

small number of programs which consists of native music and news.

Kermanshah's location in the west of the country is basically an

agricultural region which calls for more educational programs on agricultural topics. The plans are for this center to be used mostly

for this purpose. 98

97Ibid., p. 39. 98Ibid., p. 38. 212

Zahedan Television

Located in the southeast portion of the country, Zahedan

Television was established in 1971. The station has a 10-watt transmitter with a video frequency of 196.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 201.75 megahertz. It broadcasts on Channel eight.

Although Zahedan Television re-broadcasts Tehran's programs, it also broadcasts locally-produced programs on a variety of topics.

The local programs consist of hand crafting, native dance and music, 99 historical stories, and news. The center has 300 personnel.

Mashhad Television

Mashhad is located in the northeast portion of the country.

Mashhad Television was established in 1971 with a 2-kilowatt transmitter.

The station has a video frequency of 217.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 222.75 megahertz and operates on Channel eleven.

Mashhad Television is connected to the central network in Tehran by direct microwave. The connection enables the station to send programs to Tehran as well. Mashhad has 229 employees. The center produces over five hours of programs daily. The remainder of the programming is taken from Tehran. Additional programs are carefully chosen because

"ibid., p. 38. 213

Mashhad is a religious and conservative city. The long history of

Mashhad provides subject matter for numerous programs. Some of the programs of the Mashhad television center are also broadcast in Tehran and other broadcasting centers.100

Rasht Television

In 1970 Rasht Television was established and went into opera­ tion. Rasht is located in the northern portion of the country in Gilan

Province. The station began broadcasting after a 20-kilowatt transmitter was installed. The station has a video frequency of 217.25 megahertz and an audio frequency of 222.75 megahertz and operates on Channel eleven.

Rasht Television began programming only three hours a day.

After one year programming hours were increased to six hours a day.

The programs are a combination of Program I received from Tehran and the station's own locally-produced programs. Due to its favorable loca­ tion with open-minded people, television broadcasting was received warmly.

Most of the 183 Rasht Television employees are indigenous to the area. With local producers Rasht Television is able to produce a number of programs that, in addition to broadcasts for local audiences, are sent to Tehran and other major television centers. The station's

100Ibid., p. 39. 214

locally produced programs consist of native music, dance, news, and a special program called "Mazra-a Sabz," (Green Field), which is watched by many children.404

101 Ibid., p. 39. 215

Summary

In. 1958 a private enterprise established Iran's first television

station, Iran Television, in Tehran. The first television system was

designed after the American commercial stations with similar operation

and programming. It experienced some difficulties, mainly financial.

In 1969 the Iranian government took over Iran Television with the

purchase of its stations in Tehran, Abadan, and Ahvas.

Iran's first government television station, National Iranian

Television, was established and put into a trial operation in 1966. The

station was officially inaugurated on March 20, 1967 and began regular programming. The new system utilized the 625-line European system

for its broadcasting operation.

hi 1971 National Iranian Television merged with Radio Iran and the two organizations formed National Iranian Radio and Television.

NIRT was established as a non-profit, non-commercial, cultural organization with plans to expand to a nation-wide broadcasting organiza­ tion.

At first, NIRT's budget was small. Eventually, however, because the government perceived broadcasting to be important, a budget necessary for NIRT's development was allocated. NIRT is primarily financed by the Iranian government, but commercial advertising also provides income. Even though NIRT is not a commercial organization 216

to assist business in Iran, and to acquire extra revenue, it accepts commercial advertising.

The programming philosophy of NIRT is to provide

"wholesome entertainment programs" for its audience. Therefore, to pursue this philosophy NIRT has created two entirely separated networks, Program I and Program n. Program I is basically intended to serve a general audience with a variety of programming subjects.

On the other hand, for those more educated and more sophisticated audiences, NIRT has designed a more educational, more cultural program service designated as Program H. Iranian programs and films as well as foreign programs and films are shown on both Program I and

II. The foreign programs and films are dubbed in Farsi for Iranian audiences while foreign residents in Iran can enjoy such films by receiving its original soundtrack via the FM band.

Educational television was first established in Iran in 1966 after a series of successful trial programs on Iran Television in 1964 and 1965. Eventually, after the merger of NITV with Radio Iran, educational television expanded and began regular operation from the old location of Iran Television.

News in Iran is provided mainly by Iran's only government news agency, Pars News Agency. The agency was established in 1934 in

Tehran and has been in operation since. NIRT produces domestic and 217

international services through its correspondents in various countries.

To collect and preserve traditional Iranian music, songs, and musical instruments NIRT in 1969 established the Center for the

Preservation and Propagation of Traditional Music. The Center also has provided an opportunity for musicians, especially young ones, to get proper training. The same year, to provide even more opportunities,

NIRT also established the Music Workshop.

To assist play directors, performers, writers, and other related groups, NIRT established the Theater Workshop in 1969 to promote art and culture free of society's pressures and financial limitations.

In 1969 the Department of Public Opinion and Social Research was established. This Department has since conducted a number of surveys.

Due to the lack of television sets in most rural parts of the country and Iran's geophysical characteristics, NIRT has established a number of television clubs in rural parts of the provinces throughout the country. Villagers can go to these television clubs to view programs free of charge. The objective of the clubs is to provide maximum coverage and to show specialized programs to the villagers.

To complement and supplement network production and transmission a number of provincial television centers have been 218

established by NIRT throughout the country. These centers re-broadcast

NIRT's Program I and Program II in conjunction with their own locally- produced programs.

In all, NIRT's intention is to provide a nation-wide broadcasting network to serve people with wholesome and culturally oriented programs in order to increase general knowledge and awareness and to inform and educate the general public of Iran. It also provides an opportunity for people all over the country to become acquainted with the different regional cultures, and as such, promotes unification. 219

CHAPTER VI

INTERNATIONAL AFFILIATIONS

Radio

Most countries of the world have their independent system of

broadcasting. In the field of mass communication, however, all

countries are related to the media of other nations and cannot separate

themselves from the rest of the world.

For mass communication and broadcasting, Iran has always had

to rely on Western countries and their experts. As has been noted, the

telegraph was introduced in Iran by the British. After World War II the

development of radio occurred with the assistance of Western technicians.

Although a large number of Iranians have developed skills along the way,

new progress in all broadcasting has always occurred with the assistance

of Western experts. In this way Iran has had a constant relationship with

Western people in the area of technical development. BBC and the Voice

of America have had programming activities in Iran. Unfortunately, due to the difference in the language, seldom have any Iranian programs been broadcast through program exchanges. Occasionally some Iranian songs and music have been a part of programs in some of the Western countries. 220

Unfortunately, not enough information was available to this writer to

elaborate on this subject.

Radio Iran in its early years—1940-50, became a member of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). In more recent years Radio Iran also became a member of the International Broadcast

Institute, Ltd. (IBI), headquartered in London, England. IBI is basically a research organization mainly studying the effect of messages on the receiver. Radio Iran is also a member of the Asian Electronic

Union (AEU), headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. The AEU is primarily a research organization.

Television

Since its inception NIRT has been an active participant in international communication and broadcasting. As have other major broadcasting organizations in the world, NIRT has recognized the importance of firm relations with other nations for the exchange of data, ideas, information on technical advances, and other related matters.

Consequently, NIRT has become a member of the European Broadcasting

Union (ABU), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO), as well as a number of other international organizations. 221

In 1966 NIRT became a member of the EBU. Through its membership NIRT has been able to avail itself of the services and technical assistance of EBU, and to use telecommunication satellites in exchanging films, "live" coverage of news and special events, and other such programs.

In 1967 NIRT took the next step in international participation, becoming a member of the ABU. hi 1968 when ABU held its Fifth

General Assembly in New Delhi, India, NIRT was represented for the first time, participating in discussions of illiteracy and related problems, matters of great concern to the Union.

Since Iran has been deeply involved in solving its own illiteracy problems for several decades, its role as a forerunner was obvious to the representatives attending the assembly, and the Iranian representative was elected to head the Illiteracy Campaign Committee.1

In October 1972 the Ninth General Assembly of ABU was held in

Tehran. One-hundred-and-six representatives from thirty-four member countries attended. Additional representatives from organizations without membership in ABU participated in the proceedings of the assembly, among them the African Broadcasting Union, the EBU, the International

Telecommunication Union, and UNESCO.

SilRT, NIRT Special Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1972), p. 39. 222

With the Iranian representative as chairman, the assembly discussed the vital role of radio and television in education, the use of the telecommunication satellite in the exchange of programs among member countries and in training broadcasting specialists, radio and television programs for women and youth, and other matters.

Iran is also a member of UNESCO. Among the nations of the world Iran was the second country, after Argentina, to be selected for a

UNESCO study of the effectiveness of special television programs in agricultural areas. The first of such studies, conducted in Cordoba,

Argentina, was not entirely successful. The second study was conducted in Qazvin, a plains city near Tehran, in cooperation with National Iranian

Radio and Television, as an experiment in educational television.

Iran continues to be an active and enthusiastic participant in international radio and television affairs, exchanging programs and views with a number of countries. As recently as 1976, Dr. Kambiz Mahmoudi,

Deputy Director General of National Iranian Radio and Television, was Q selected as the Secretary General of the Asian Broadcasting Union (ABU).

2Ettela at, October 1, 1972, p. 13; October 3, 1972, p. 7; October 4, 1972, p. 4. 3 "An Interview With Dr. Kambiz Mahmoudi, " Tamasha, No. 277, 1976, pp. 22-23. Dr. Mahmoudi was the General Manager of the Iran Television. Later he transferred to NIRT. 223

Telecommunication Satellite

In September 1969, after extensive research and study by

National Iranian Radio and Television, the use of a telecommunication

satellite was finally adopted and added to the other features of the broadcasting system in Iran. Upon the completion of the satellite system, Iran began to receive international programs through the earth-station at Asadabad, a city sixty-five kilometers from Hamedan 4 in western Iran.

Thus Iran became a member of the International Telecommunica­ tion Satellite Consortium (Intelsat), the first country in the Middle East to own and operate a satellite telecommunication earth-station (see Table

16). The earth-station receives from two satellites over the Indian and

Atlantic Oceans. The Indian Ocean satellite covers most of Europe and

East Asia. The Atlantic Ocean satellite covers the United States and the

Middle East. The earth-station began with a capacity of sixty direct telephone channels and one color and one black-and-white television circuit. Currently it has a capacity of ninety-six direct telephone channels. It operates on the 5, 925 to 6, 425 megahertz and the 3, 700 to 5 4, 200 megahertz frequency bands.

4NIRT, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), p. 24.

8Zhila Sazegar, ed., A Report of National Iranian Radio and Television (Tehran: Mardomsara, 1977), p. 105. 224

TABLE 16

SATELLITE EARTH STATIONS IN THE MIDDLE EAST* (as of March 1976)

Atlantic Ocean Date of Indian Ocean Date of Region Establishment Region Establishment

Algeria 1975 Algeria 1977 Iran 1969 Bahrain 1967 Egypt 1976** Iran 1975 Iraq 1976 Iraq 1976 Jordan 1971 Jordan 1976 Kuwait 1977 Kuwait 1969 Lebanon 1976 Lebanon 1971 Morocco 1969 Oman 1976** Saudi Arabia 1976 Qatar 1976 Sudan 1974 Saudi Arabia 1975 Turkey 1977 Syria 1977 Dubai 1975 Ras al-Khaimah 1977

*Global telecommunication coverage is achieved by three satellites in orbit over the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. Each of the satellites can "see" one-third of the world, and any two earth-stations within the field of a satellite can arrange to communicate directly with each other.

Since parts of the Middle East are within the vision of Indian and Atlantic satellites some countries can operate to both.

**Existing station standard B (non-standard).

Source: Iran Almanac (Tehran: 1976), p. 269. 225

The station is connected to Tehran through a 1,200-circuit

microwave network handling most of the nation's communications.

Through this station Iran maintains direct telephone, telegraph, and

telex communication with England, France, Germany, Italy,

Switzerland, and the United States.

Iran also has direct satellite communication with Japan, Kuwait,

and Lebanon, in addition to indirect connection with most countries in the

world. The Asadabad station is capable of exchanging live television

broadcasting in color and black-and-white with most countries.

By 1971 Iran had increased its investment in the International

Telecommunication Satellite Consortium from $400 million to 6 $550 million. The plan to take advantage of world-wide communication

by satellite has been among the Iranian government's most successful

ventures. Recently there has been considerable progress in this matter,

so that Iran may continue as an active member of the international

communication brotherhood.

Among Iran's achievements in satellite communication was the

1970-71 Apollo 13 mission. Iran was able to provide people of the country with live coverage of the event. It also televised the World Cup football match in Mexico, Shahanshah Aryamehr's visit to the United States for

6NIRT, op. cit., pp. 24-25. 226

his meeting with President Richard Nixon, the Apollo 14 moon landing, and the heavyweight championship fight between Mohammad Ali and

Joe Frazier. Since then many international events have been presented for Iranian viewers and it is a common practice now to transmit and 7 receive major events in Iran.

In October 1971 the celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire had satellite coverage from

Persepolis, a ruined capital of ancient Persia, about thirty miles north­ east of Shiraz. Millions of viewers all over the world watched live coverage of this event.3

The establishment of satellite telecommunication in Iran was the starting point for international broadcasting and a big step toward a nation-wide network of broadcasting.

7NIRT, op. cit., pp. 24-25.

8Ibid. 227

Summary

Since its beginning National Iranian Radio and Television has been an active participant in international telecommunication and broadcasting.

NIRT is an active member of European Broadcasting Union (EBU),

Asian Broadcasting Union (ABU), United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and many other organizations.

In September 1969 Iran established its telecommunication satellite; an earth-station in Asadabad, becoming the first country in the Middle East to own and operate a satellite telecommunication earth- station. By this action NIRT became a member of the International

Telecommunication Satellite Consortium (Intelsat). The establishment of satellite telecommunication in Iran was the starting point for international broadcasting and included receiving foreign programs for broadcast by National Iran Radio and Television. 228

CHAPTER VII

THE FUTURE OF IRANIAN BROADCASTING

Implementation Plan for Program Assessment

For several years National Iranian Radio and Television has been

operating with the assistance of Arthur D. Little, Inc., of Cambridge,

Massachusetts. During this time various reforms and re-organizations

in operational and structural activities of NIRT have occurred. A decade

of almost constant progress culminated in December 1976 with a major

decision to divide Iran's broadcasting system into two entirely separate

radio-television networks, Program I and Program II. The new

organization was to begin operation during 1977.

In January 1977 Arthur D. Little, Inc. submitted to National

Iranian Radio and Television its Draft Working Memorandum 1977-2, entitled, "NIRT Network Development: Implementation Plan for Program

Assessment. " The plan offers an exhaustively researched and thoroughly detailed prospectus for the implementation of its decision concerning network development.

Essential to an understanding of the intent and extent of the implementation plan, according to the memorandum, is that: 229

From the outset, the principle of personal accountability had been an important consideration in planning these organizational changes. Since accountability requires measurement of performance against objectives, i.e., evaluation, organizational structure, and procedures which facilitate evaluation of actions taken by NIRT, managers have always been prominent in the plans for the new networks. 4

That the personal accountability by the managers is not only essential but also directly dependent on evaluation of actions taken by them is stressed:

As the implementation date for the new network draws near, planning for evaluation and control mechanisms is moving from the conceptual to the practical so that vital feedback about performance will be available to network management from the start of network operations.

Because "aspects of evaluation and control which are new to

NIRT. . .require the longest lead times and the most thoughtful preparation, "° they "have the highest priority for operational planning at this time."4 The importance of the implementation plan is obvious, then, in that the: (Actual quote follows on p. 230)

^Arthur D. Little, Inc., NIRT Network Development; Implementation Plan for Program Assessment, National Iranian Radio and Television Draft Working Memorandum 1977-2 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1977), p. 1.

2 • q a Ibid., p. 1. °Ibid., p. 1. rtbid., p. 1. 230

. . . plan for the evaluation and control of network broadcast program output builds upon earlier concepts of an Evaluation and Control Unit for NIRT and translates them into a plan for action. The plan considers both the requirements of the new task and the resources NIRT has available to carry them out.5

The thorough detail of the implementation plan seemingly affirms the conviction of its Iranian and American designers that it:

. . .will guide the managers of the two networks as they strive to incorporate the principle of accountability in the evaluation and control of broadcast program output.6

Consequently, the implementation plan focuses on program assessment:

Given NIRT's internal and external accountability, and given what is known of techniques for enhancing broadcast effectiveness, program assessment for • NIRT's two new networks would be well to emphasize . . .four types of evaluational control activities.

(First, pre-testing, which) refers to small-sample experimental audience research early inlhe program development cycle, (providing) program producers with relatively simple evaluation results of specific program elements.

(Second, content analysis, which) refers to the systematic analysis of any communication medium for the existence of general themes and specific aspects of plot, characterization, and subject treatment of interest to the producer and the production manager, (an analysis which) will remind NIRT's managers and producers of the degree to which they are paying attention to Iran's national objectives in their program output, (to) assist them in being accountable.

5Little, Inc., op. cit., p. 1. 6Ibid., p. 1. 231

(Third, post-testing, which) refers to small-scale, in-depth assessment of the effects of programs on the audience. While content analysis establishes what is contained in a program, post-testing establishes the effect of the content on the audience, (and is) a means of checking that assumptions underlying content analysis are valid. . . (and) that themes and program elements intended to support national objectives actually have the intended effect.

(Fourth, impact analysis, which) refers to large- scale national surveys designed to assess program effectiveness, (studies which) will typically provide less detailed information than post-testing, but (whose) results will be representative of the entire nation and more valid from that point of view. . . . Impact analysis by NIRT and the Institute for Public Opinion and Social Research will be the ultimate check of the more limited evaluation and control activities carried out within the two networks them­ selves, ... (and) will one day give managers and producers answers about the ultimate effectiveness of their programs.7

The memorandum continues with a discussion of the requirements and available resources for the implementation plan, and finally presents the plan itself in thorough detail (for some thirteen pages):

. . .the implementation plan. . .first describes an overall plan for the phased development of program assessment, beginning with what is possible, given current resources, and culminating with a full operational capability after five years. The steps needed to develop the manpower, technical skills, and organizational structures necessary to meet the plan are then described. Finally, the schedule for these development activities, with primary emphasis on those steps which must take place in the first year of the new networks is discussed.

8 Little, Inc., op. cit., pp. 3-5. Ibid., p. 14. 232

That the last section of the memorandum considers possible alternatives to the course of action outlined in the implementation plan may be taken as another indication of the admirably comprehensive scope of the "organizational development activities carried out by NIRT 9 with the assistance of Arthur D. Little, Inc." Thus, the memorandum suggests itself as a model for other similar projects as it will undoubtedly serve as a guide in realizing the highest potential for

National Iranian Radio and Television.

Personal Observation and Analysis

The overall aspect of the plan seems to be helpful in solving some of the major problems of NIRT by dividing the broadcasting into two separate networks—at least in theory. From the personal observations of this writer during the initial study in Iran and some personal contact with NIRT's operations, it seems that decision and policy-making in

NIRT is highly centralized and basically occurs by the executives in higher offices. Once a policy is made it becomes almost a law. Lower- ranked officials seldom have authority to make any changes or to exercise the policies in accordance with their particular situations. Consequently the inflexibility of policies along with the lack of authority of the lower- ranked officials results in misuse of the policy, delay in procedures, and existence of an enormous amount,of paperwork and "red tape."

9Ibid., p. 1. 233

The recent technical development of NIRT, the expansion of

facilities and the increased number of personnel has made NIRT a giant

organization. In the past, most efforts of NIRT have been focused on

expansion of technical facilities and betterment of the equipment.

Naturally because of that, organizational structures, personnel

management, and programming have not been given much consideration.

It appears that in the area of programming there is a gap between

NIRT's initial goals and promises ascribed in the Law Establishing NIRT

(see Appendix D) and the degree to which they have been achieved. NIRT has promised "to broadcast wholesome entertainment programs” and "to assist in safeguarding, developing and propagating Iranian culture, " but

so far most of its programs are not chosen for the general public and are of foreign origin. The result is that NIRT contributes’less than it could to the safeguarding of the Iranian culture.

Lack of sufficient feedback from the audience and insufficient data and information about them have made the programming a one-way channel of communication from NIRT to the audience. Obviously the public watches whatever comes on their receivers but regard for viewers is the obligation of the NIRT's programming authorities, and should have higher priority.

Since NIRT is a government-financed organization and does not have to rely on the sale of commercial advertising for its revenues, it is in an important position to serve the country in a most effective way. 234

It is generally accepted that broadcasting can be used as a powerful

medium for educational purposes. Therefore this potential should be

recognized and a large part of NIRT's effort should be focused "to

raise the level of awareness and information of the public, and to

develop arts and talents" as it has been ascribed in the Law Establishing

the NIRT.

Presently Iran is undergoing massive industrial reforms and

social changes. Developing from an agricultural to an industrial

society often accompanies a certain degree of cultural shock, which may

create negative public side effects, such as undesirable changes in

morality, ethics, and values. While these side effects are inevitable,

they can be dealt with through educational programs on radio and

television. Since the Iranian government is helping the country to become an industrial self-sufficient nation, NIRT's task is to help the public to keep up with the reforms and changes and to aid them in coping with these changes. 235

CHAPTER VIII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Iram* indeed is gone, with all its Rose, And Jamshyd's Sev'n-ring-d Cup where no one knows; But still the Vine her ancient Ruby yields, And still a Garden by the water blows. —Edward Fitzgerald Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam of Naishapur

In 1971 Iran celebrated the 2,500th anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire. The magnificently staged event was televised throughout the world and photographed and reported by the international press. During the commemorative festivities, His Imperial Majesty

Shahanshah Aryamehr said, "The name of Iran still has the prestige which Cyrus gave it; the country remains the bearer, in a world living in anguish, of the eternal message of humanism on which he based his whole empire."

Indeed, geophysical and geopolitical pecularities of Iran have made it a land of international importance throughout recorded history, beginning with Cyrus the Great, who ruled the Persian Empire from

550-529 B. C. Although the fortunes of ancient Persia and modern Iran

*Earthly paradise. 236

have risen and fallen many times during the ensuing centuries, Iran

has once again emerged as a dominant power among the nations of the

Middle East.

Nearly one-fifth the size of the United States, with similar

extremes of geography and climate, and a population now approaching

35 million, Iran remains a monarchy, though, since the Constitutional

Revolution of 1906, it has been a constitutional monarchy. In 1941

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi succeeded his father, Reza Shah the Great, and he was named Shahanshah Aryamehr. Since then, he has sought to restore and preserve the cultural heritage of ancient Persia. All the while, he has also promoted the rapid westernization and modernization of Iran, including the establishment and development of a radio and television broadcasting system second only to that of Japan among the nations of the Middle East and Asia.

The purpose of this study was to amass and present a compre­ hensive body of knowledge concerning the history and development of broadcasting in Iran, including a review of current operations and plans for further development. In order that the establishment and development of broadcasting might be seen in proper perspective and be more fully appreciated, a short history of ancient Persia and from Islamic Persia to modern Iran was presented. It was followed by a brief description of modern Iran—its geography, population, language, and government. 237

Also presented was a general survey of mass communication in Persia

and Iran, stressing the period beginning with the advent of electric

telegraph and wireless telegraph in Iran.

In the literature of Persia and Iran, and in a number of works

of world literature, an image of a World-Revealing Cup has persisted

in which world and human affairs are revealed. This historical image is

regarded by many Iranians today as being made manifest with the advent

of television.

Nearly one-fifth the size the United States, with similar extremes and barriers, Iran is located in southwestern Asia. It has an area of

628, 000 square miles (1, 648,000 square kilometers). Known to the

West as Persia until 1935, Iran was occupied by Persians, a group of closely related Aryan tribes, as early as the 9th century B. C. Iran has a population of approximately 35 million. The official language,

Farsi, is spoken by the majority of the Iranians. The government of

Iran has been a constitutional monarchy since 1906. Iran has a bicameral legislature and cabinet system. Shahanshah Aryamehr is the present ruler and the head of the state.

In 1853-56 during the outbreak of the war between the Russians and the Turkish, which developed into what is identified as the Crimean

War, the British realized the importance of the telegraph communication between their embattled troops and England. Among the possible 238

alternate routes that they had to extend the telegraph lines from England

to India, the route through Iran was by far the best and the cheapest.

At first, Nasir ed-Din Shah, the ruler of Iran at that time, was not

enticed by the British offers, but finally he became convinced. Thus,

the electric telegraph was established in Iran. After World War II

the wireless telegraph gained much popularity among the nations of the

world. Iran too adopted the new wireless system. Reza Shah was

mainly responsible for the introduction of the wireless telegraph in

Iran. In April 1926 Iran's wireless telegraph was officially inaugurated

by Reza Shah.

In 1940 Iran's first radio station was inaugurated in Tehran by

His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr, then the Crown Prince.

In 1958, a private sector established Iran's first television

station, Iran Television (ITV), in Tehran. The station was designed

after the American commercial system. In 1969, however, the

Iranian government purchased the station and took over television broadcasting in Iran.

National Iranian Television (NITV) began broadcasting on

October 26, 1966 while Iran Television was still in operation. On

March 20, 1967 National Iranian Television was officially inaugurated by His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr in a formal ceremony, which was held in the presence of their Imperial Majesties, the Shahanshah

Aryamehr and Shahbanu Farah. 239

In 1971 National Iranian Television merged with National Iranian

Radio to create National Iranian Radio and Television (NIRT).

NIRT expanded its nation-wide operation with extraordinary

speed. In spite of difficulties, NIRT managed to build stations and

broadcasting centers all over the country. NIRT is involved in other

activities as well as broadcasting, among them the Center for the

Preservation and Propagation of the Traditional Music, the Music

Workshop for Children and Young People, and the Theater Workshop.

NIRT is also a member of the International Telecommunication

Satellite Consortium (Intelsat).

At the present time, Iran is undergoing tremendous change.

On one hand, attempts are being made to restore and preserve its old

traditions and cultural heritage. On the other hand, the country is

moving "full speed ahead" toward westernization and modernization.

Any society undergoing similar change with so many re-organizations

would naturally experience some difficulties, and Iran is no

exception. While conditions in the country are improving economically and technologically, other important areas—such as human rights—

have suffered. The question which most concerns sociologists and political scientists is: How well will the Iranian people cope with so many changes which have comeiboth too rapidly and too soon ? Iranians

are now impatient with any delay and suffer a number of "growing pains" with change. 240

Except for the short period of activity by ITV, the establish­

ment and development of all mass communication media in Iran have been sponsored by governmental rather than commercial or industrial interests. This government control has provided political security and stability for the nation so that the westernization and modernization might proceed rapidly without unnecessarily sacrificing or threatening the cultural values of ancient and Islamic Persia. Consequently, advances in mass communication and related fields have far outstripped those in other areas.

While radio and television broadcasting in Iran are rather sophisticated and are undoubtedly the most professional in the Middle

East, rural electrification is both limited and primitive and urban electrification far from complete, even in Tehran. Running water and sewage, which have been taken for granted in most Western nations since early in this century, are almost non-existent in rural areas and rare even in urban areas such as Tehran.

The wired telegraph system in Iran was completed before gaslight was introduced, and it is likely that for some time to come

His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr will maintain a high priority for the continued development of radio and television broadcasting. But inevitably the Iranian people, having experienced higher and higher quality and greater and greater variety in radio and television 241

programming, will be inspired or impelled to seek a comparable quality

and variety in their everyday lives. Considering the manifest leadership

of His Majesty Shahanshah Aryamehr and the equally manifest energy

of the Iranian people, that day may be at hand.

During the last decade the development of broadcasting

has been given top priority by the government because of its overall

importance. Since its establishment as a governmental department, the

National Iranian Radio and Television organization has enjoyed a great

deal of support and has achieved much, expanding from one modestly equipped station in Tehran to a nation-wide system of broadcasting centers with a link to the entire world-wide communication network.

Today broadcasting has become Iran's most important and significant communication medium. No country in Asia, except for Japan, possesses such an extensive broadcasting system. But that achievement has not yet been fully recognized. Not only has broadcasting played a most vital role in the progress of Iran during recent years; it also continues to be the most effective agency in Iran for the promotion of culture and national unity.

Until now, most of the efforts of National Iranian Radio and

Television have been devoted to expansion of its facilities. Broadcasting centers and stations have been built throughout Iran. Transmitting antennae and towers have been erected atop mountains and in other 242

nearly inaccessible places. But insufficient attention and effort have

been given to the development of effective and varied programming.

Due to the rapid development and modernization of the country in

virtually all respects, there is a shortage of expert workers and

professionals for many positions in management and production. Perhaps

broadcasting has suffered more than other areas because it is new to

Iran and the number of Iranians who have the requisite education or

appropriate technical training for it is severely limited. Although

NIRT has an extensive program for training its personnel, with

over 7, 000 employees, it still lacks essential human resources.

As an organization established to promote culture and general knowledge, provide entertainment, develop and improve educational methods, disseminate information, and strengthen national unity, NIRT has undertaken to complete a great task demanding even greater responsibility.

While very impressive, the rapid expansion of NIRT has left many areas undeveloped or underdeveloped. Naturally, no system in the world is perfect, .and NIRT is no exception—it has its weaknesses.

The fact that decision-making is highly centralized, for example, has led to innumerable conflicts and problems on the level of implementation. 243

Employees are not effectively held accountable for the fulfillment of their tasks. Since they are employed by the government, and are not actually concerned about losing their positions, they are often somewhat lax in meeting their obligations to their immediate supervisors, and make only a minimum effort to perform their duties.

Since the average employee does not actually do "a full day's work," his limited efforts lead to far less than is expected of him. Thus, while most departments are nominally "over-staffed," they have a shortage of productive human resources.

While most employees do feel a sense of loyalty to NIRT, they are dependent upon rigorous as well as vigorous management to channel their efforts—if the maximum benefit is to be derived. But those in management are not strict enough in their control, either because they do not feel responsible or because they do not wish to acknowledge any challenge to their authority. Consequently, they are often excessively lenient. Furthermore, the amount of "paper work" and "red tape" is enormous, so that all procedures require an inordinate amount of time to be completed.

Attempts have been made,however, to solve these problems.

The recent establishment of two entirely separate networks in both radio and television broadcasting may be one of the most effective steps 244

taken by the higher management of NIRT, with the expectation that it

will provide necessary competition and ultimately lead to better

programming.

Finally, it is hoped that, under the leadership of Reza Ghobti, the brilliant director of NIRT, progress in program development and in all other departments will be as remarkable as that in nation-wide expansion of facilities has been. NIRT is aware of its ability and its potential, and is striving toward the achievement of its goals. Perhaps too much is expected in too little time, but much is still left to be done and a large part of it may be accomplished by NIRT for the betterment of

Iran. '

While the Iranians have many problems to solve and many obstacles to overcome, they also have a great sense of integrity and national pride. Their love for God, for the Shah, and for their country will inspire them and guide them in the achievement of their current goals. Through their efforts they will make Iran a great nation once again. As Sadi, the greatest Persian poet of all time, once counseled:

Crush not yon ant, who stores the golden grain; He lives with pleasure, and will die with pain; Learn from him rather to secure the spoil Of patient cares and persevering toil. 245

Need for Further Study

Perhaps the greatest reward for this writer would be that some scholar would pursue a further investigation into this study. Historical research mostly provides grounds for further in-depth investigations.

Present study has mainly been concerned with providing a comprehensive body of knowledge about the history and development of broadcasting in

Iran. As in most historical research, there are numerous areas in this study which deserve further in-depth research or perhaps even a separate dissertation. Nevertheless, broadcasting in Iran is a wide-open field for almost any kind of related study. Areas such as: effects of broadcasting on people, audience analysis, and roles of broadcasting in Iran's various areas of national development, are virtually untouched.

While Iran is becoming an industrial country and is on the verge of socio-economic reforms, the need for new studies in all aspects of its development seems necessary and vital to any future advancement.

Broadcasting has played an important role in sociological, economical, educational, and political development of Iran. Its role during the past decades, due to the emergence of NIRT, has been more significant. Unfortunately too little study has been done to bring all

NIRT's activities into full light. 246

Perhaps the greatest contribution of the present study is that it provides a basic ground for further studies. In this respect the difficulty of the task seems rewarding and worthwhile. 247

BIBLIOGRAPHY 248

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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APPENDIX A 256

APPENDIX A

RADIO PROGRAMS, PROGRAM I FOR A SELECTED WEEK JULY 23-29 1977

Saturday July 23

Program Time

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m. Rah-e Shab (Talk) and News 12:30 a.m. Morning Program 06:00 a.m. Children and Youth Program 07:15 a.m. Morning Program (continued) 08:30 a.m. News 09:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (Talk) and News 09:05 a.m. News 10:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (continued) 10:05 a.m. Political News 12:00 p.m. Bazar-e Kar (Work Market) 12:03 p.m. Provincials' Music 12:15 p.m. Workers 12:30 p.m. Religious Program 01:00 p.m. Iranian Music 01:30 p.m. News in Detail 02:00 p.m. Solo Music 02:45 p.m. Chosen Songs (Musical) 03:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Bargozideha 04:05 p.m. Culture of Iran 04:30 p.m. Programming Announcement 04:57 p.m. Political and Art News 05:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (Talk) 05:15 p.m. News 06:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 06:05 p.m. Sport News 07:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 07:15 p.m. Green Belt 08:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. Moshaaereh (Poetry) 09:00 p.m. 257

Saturday July 23 (continued)

Program Time

New Flowers (Musical) 09:30 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. Story of the Night (Drama) 10:05 p.m. Golha-e Rangarang (Musical) 10:30 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. Classical Music 11:05 p.m. Barg-e Sabz (Musical) 11:30 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Sunday July 24

Program Time

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m. Rah-e Shab (Talk) and News 12:30 a.m. Morning Program 06:00 a.m. Children and Youth 07:15 a.m. Morning Program (continued) 08:30 a.m. News 09:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (Talk) and News 09:05 a.m. News 10:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (continued) 10:05 a.m. Political News 12:00 p.m. Bazar-e Kar (Work Market) 12:03 p.m. Provincials' Music 12:15 p.m. Workers 12:30 p.m. Religious Program 01:00 p.m. Golha (Musical) 01:30 p.m. News in Detail 02:00 p.m. Solo Music 02:45 p.m. Chosen Songs (Musical) 03:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Bargozideha (Talk) 04:05 p.m. Culture of Iran 04:30 p.m. Programming Announcement 04:57 p.m. Political and Art News 05:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (Talk) 05:15 p.m. News 06:00 p.m. 258

Sunday July 24 (continued)

Program Time

Cheshm Andaz (continued) 06:05 p.m. Sport News 07:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 07:15 p.m. Green Belt 08:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. World Literature 09:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 09:30 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. Story of the Night (Drama) 10:05 p.m. Iranian Music 10:30 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. Classical Music 11:05 p.m. Barg-e Sabz (Musical) 11:30 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Monday July 25

Program Time

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m Rah-e Shab (TSIk) and News 12:30 a.m Morning Program 06:00 a.m Children and Youth 07:15 a.m Morning Program (continued) 08:30 a.m News 09:00 a.m Rah-e Zendegi (Talk) 09:05 a.m News 10:00 a.m Rah-e Zendegi (Talk) 10:05 a.m Political News 12:00 p.m, Bazar-e Kar (Work Market) 12:03 p.m Provincials' Music 12:15 p.m, Workers 12:30 p.m, Religious Program 01:00 p.m, Iranian Music 01:30 p.m, News in Detail 02:00 p.m, Solo Music 02:45 p.m, Chosen Songs (Musical) 03:00 p.m, New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m, News 04:00 p.m, 259

Monday July 25 (continued)

Program Time

Bargozideha (Talk) 04:05 p.m. Culture of Iran 04:30 p.m. Programming Announcement 04:57 p.m. Political News 05:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (Talk) 05:15 p.m. News 06:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 06:05 p.m. Sport News 07:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 07:15 p.m. Green Belt 08:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. Iranian Music 09:00 p.m. Khorasan War 09:30 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. Story of the Night (Drama) 10:05 p.m. Khorasan War (continued) 10:30 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. Khorasan War (continued) 11:05 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Tuesday July 26

Program Time

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m Rah-e Shab (Talk) and News 12:30 a.m Morning Program 06:00 a.m Children and Youth 07:15 a.m Morning Program (continued) 08:30 a.m News 09:00 a.m Rah-e Zendegi (continued) 09:05 a.m News 10:00 a.m Rah-e Zendegi (continued) 10:05 a.m Political News 12:00 p.m, Bazar-e Kar (Work Market) 12:03 p.m. Provincials’ Music 12:15 p.m, Workers 12:30 p.m, Religious Program 01:00 p.m, Golha (Musical) 01:30 p.m, 260

Tuesday July 26 (continued)

Program Time

News in Detail 02:00 p.m. Solo Music 02:45 p.m. Chosen Songs (Musical) 03:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Bargozideha (Talk) 04:05 p.m. Scream in the Dark (Drama) 04:30 p.m. Programming Announcement 04:57 p.m. Political and Art News 05:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (Talk) 05:15 p.m. News 06:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 06:05 p.m. Sport News 07:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 07:15 p.m. Green Belt 08:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. People's Culture 09:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 09:30 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. Story of the Night 10:05 p.m. Golha-e Rangarang (Musical) 10:30 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. Classical Music 11:05 p.m. Barg-e Sabz (Musical) 11:30 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Wednesday July 27

Program Time

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m. Rah-e Shab (Talk) and News 12:30 a.m. Morning Program 06:00 a.m. Children and Youth Program 07:15 a.m. Morning Program (continued) 08:30 a.m. News 09:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (Talk) 09:05 a.m. News 10:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (continued) 10:05 a.m. 261

Wednesday July 27 (continued)

Program Time

Political News 12:00 p.m. Bazar-e Kar (Work Market) 12:03 p.m. Provincials' Music 12:15 p.m. Workers 12:30 p.m. Religious Program 01:00 p.m. Iranian Music 01:30 p.m. News in Detail 02:00 p.m. Solo Music 02:45 p.m. Chosen Songs (Musical) 03:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Iranian Music 04:05 p.m. Iran's Culture 04:30 p.m. Programming Announcement 04:57 p.m. Political and Art News 05:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz 05:15 p.m. News 06:00 p.m. Cheshm Andaz (continued) 06:05 p.m. Sport News 07:00 p.m. Lottery Draw 07:15 p.m. Green Belt 08:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. Shahr-e Shab 09:00 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. Story of the Night 10:05 p.m. Shahr-e Shab (continued) 10:30 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. Shahr-e Shab (continued) 11:05 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Thursday July 28

Program Time

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m Rah-e Shab (Talk) and News 12:30 a.m Morning Program 06:00 a.m Children and Youth Program 07:15 a.m Morning Program (continued) 08:30 a.m 262

Thursday July 28 (continued)

Program Time

News 09:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (Talk) 09:05 a.m. News 10:00 a.m. Rah-e Zendegi (continued) 10:05 a.m. Political News 12:00 p.m. Bazar-e Kar (Work Market) 12:03 p.m. Provincials' Music 12:15 p.m. Workers 12:30 p.m. Religious Program 01:00 p.m. Golha (Musical) 01:30 p.m. News in Detail 02:00 p.m. Solo Music 02:45 p.m. Chosen Songs (Musical) 03:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Bargozideha (Musical) 04:05 p.m. Iran's Culture 04:30 p.m. Programming Announcement 04:57 p.m. Political and Art News 05:00 p.m. The Afternoon of the Sixth Day (Drama) 05:15 p.m. News 06:00 p.m. The Afternoon of the Sixth Day (continued) 06:05 p.m. Sport News 07:00 p.m. About Toos Festival 07:15 p.m. Solo Music 07:45 p.m. Green Belt 08:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. Mr. Rashed's Speech 09:00 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. The War of Night (Drama) 10:05 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. The War of Night (continued) 11:05 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Friday July 29 (continued on next page) 263

Friday July 29

Program Time

Special Friday Programs

National Anthem and Midnight News 12:00 a.m. Rah-e Shab (Talk) and News 12:30 a.m. Morning Program 06:00 a.m. Children and Youth Program 08:15 a.m. Goichin-e Hafteh (Specials of the Week) 09:00 a.m. Special Friday Program 10:00 a.m. Games and Amusements 12:00 a.m. Drama 12:30 p.m. Announcements, Call to Prayer, and Religious News 01:00 p.m. Golha-e Rangarang (Musical) 01:30 p.m. News in Detail 02:00 p.m. Songs and Memories 03:00 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 03:30 p.m. Familiar Songs (Musical) 04:00 p.m. Sair-o Safar 04:30 p.m. Special Friday Afternoon Program 05:00 p.m. News in Detail 08:30 p.m. Police Story (Drama) 09:00 p.m. The War of Night (Drama) 09:30 p.m. News 10:00 p.m. Friday Night Story (Drama) 10:03 p.m. The War of Night (continued) 10:30 p.m. News 11:00 p.m. The War of Night (continued) 11:03 p.m. Sign-off 11:57 p.m.

Source: Tamasha, 1977, No. 321, p. 51. 264

APPENDIX B 265

APPENDIX B

RADIO PROGRAMS, PROGRAM II FOR A SELECTED WEEK JULY 23-29 1977

Saturday July 23

Program Time

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 06:35 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Morning Concern 08:00 a.m. Today's Singer 09:00 a.m. World's Great Orchestras 10:00 a.m. Music World 10:30 a.m. Jazz Music 11:30 a.m. Introducing the World's Great Musicians 12:00 p.m. Chakheh Gol (Musical) 01:00 p.m. Teaching English 01:30 p.m. Teaching French 01:45 p.m. One Book in One Program 02:00 p.m. Western Music 02:30 p.m. Drama 03:00 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Culture of Iran 04:35 p.m. Latin American Music 05:00 p.m. Welcome to the World of Pop Music 05:30 p.m. Iranian Music 06:30 p.m. Pop 19 07:00 p.m. News 07:30 p.m. Journalism World 07:35 p.m. World of Art 08:00 p.m. Rock'n'Roll Music 08:30 p.m. Book of Night 09:30 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 10:00 p.m. News 10:30 p.m. Concert of the Night 10:35 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m. 266

Sunday July 24

Program Time

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 06:35 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Morning Concert 08:00 a.m. Today's Singer 09:00 a.m. Music From Other Lands 10:00 a.m. Music World 10:30 a.m. Jazz Music 11:30 a.m. Introducing the World's Greatest Musicians 12:00 p.m. Chakheh Gol (Musical) 01:00 p.m. Teaching English 01:30 p.m. Teaching French 01:45 p.m. World and Its Short Stories 02:00 p.m. Western Music 02:30 p.m. Drama 03:00 p.m. News 04:30 p.m. The Book of the Day 04:35 p.m. Music of Films 05:00 p.m. Welcome to the World of Pop Music 05:30 p.m. Iranian Music 06:30 p.m. Pop 19 07:00 p.m. News 07:30 p.m. We Have Read for You 07:35 p.m. The Seventh Art 08:00 p.m. Rock'n'Roll Music 08:30 p.m. The Book of Night 09:30 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 10:00 p.m. News 10:30 p.m. Concern of the Night 10:35 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m. 267

Monday July 25

Program Time

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 06:35 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Morning Concert 08:00 a.m. Today's Singer 09:00 a.m. World's Great Orchestras 10:00 a.m. Music World 10:30 a.m. Jazz Music 11:30 a.m. Introducing the World's Great Musicians 12:00 p.m. Chakheh Gol (Musical) 01:00 p.m. Teaching English 01:30 p.m. Teaching French 01:45 p.m. Nation's Culture 02:00 p.m. Western Music 02:30 p.m. Drama 03:00 p.m. News 04:30 p.m. Culture of Iran 04:35 p.m. Latin American Music 05:00 p.m. Iranian Music 06:30 p.m. Pop 19 07:00 p.m. News 07:30 p.m. We Read For You 07:35 p.m. The World of Thought 08:00 p.m. Rock'n'Roll Music 08:30 p.m. The Book of Night 09:30 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 10:00 p.m. News 10:30 p.m. Concert of the Night 10:35 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m. 268

Tuesday July 26

Program Time

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 06:35 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Morning Concert 08:00 a.m. Today's Singer 09:00 a.m. Music From Other Lands 10:00 a.m. Music World 10:30 a.m. Jazz Music 11:30 a.m. Introducing the World's Great Musicians 12:00 p.m. Chakheh Gol 01:00 p.m. Teaching English 01:30 p.m. Teaching French 01:45 p.m. Immortal Epics 02:00 p.m. Western Music 02:30 p.m. Drama 03:00 p.m. News 04:30 p.m. Lives of Thought 04:35 p.m. Music of Films 05:00 p.m. Welcome to the World of Pop Music 05:30 p.m. Iranian Music 06:30 p.m. Pop 19 07:00 p.m. News 07:30 p.m. We Read For You 07:35 p.m. World Literature 08:00 p.m. Rock'n'Roll Music 08:30 p.m. The Book of Night 09:30 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 10:00 p.m. News 10:30 p.m. Concert of the Night 10:35 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m. 269

Wednesday July 27

Program Time

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 06:35 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Morning Concert 08:00 a.m. Today's Singer 09:00 a.m. World's Great Orchestras 10:00 a.m. World Music 10:30 a.m. Ja® Music 11:30 a.m. Introducing the World's Great Musicians 12:00 p.m. Chakheh Gol 01:00 p.m. Teaching English 01:30 p.m. Teaching French 01:45 p.m. Iranian Stories 02:00 p.m. Western Music 02:30 p.m. Drama 03:00 p.m. News 04:30 p.m. A Look at Literary Publications 04:35 p.m. Latin American Music 05:00 p.m. Welcome to the World of Pop Music 05:30 p.m. Iranian Music 06:30 p.m. Pop 19 07:00 p.m. News 07:30 p.m. We Read For You 07:35 p.m. Knowledge 08:00 p.m. Rock'n'Roll Music 08:30 p.m. The Book of Night 09:30 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 10:00 p.m. News 10:30 p.m. Music of Art Festival 10:35 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m. 270

Thursday July 28

Program Time

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 06:35 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Morning Concert 08:00 a.m. Today's Singer 09:00 a.m. Music From Other Lands 10:00 a.m. World Music 10:30 a.m. Jazz Music 11:30 a.m. Introducing the World's Great Musicians 12:00 p.m. Chakheh Gol 01:00 p.m. Teaching English 01:30 p.m. Teaching French 01:45 p.m. Tanz and Tanzavaran (Literature) 02:00 p.m. Western Music 02:30 p.m. Art of the Week 03:00 p.m. News 04:30 p.m. Book of the Day 04:35 p.m. Music of Films 05:00 p.m. Welcome to the World of Pop Music 05:30 p.m. Iranian Music 06:30 p.m. Pop 19 07:00 p.m. Theater of the Day 08:00 p.m. Rock'n'Roll Music 08:30 p.m. The Book of Night 09:30 p.m. New Flowers (Musical) 10:00 p.m. News 10:30 p.m. Concert of the Night 10:35 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m. 271

Friday July 29

Program Time

Special Friday Programs

National Anthem and Programming Announcement 06:30 a.m. Morning and Music 07:05 a.m. News 07:30 a.m. Morning and Music (continued) 07:35 a.m. Woman Singer 08:30 a.m. Children's Literature 09:00 a.m. Mirror of Friday 09:30 a.m. New Flowers (Musical) 11:30 a.m. News 12:30 p.m. Music—Your Choice 12:35 p.m. Music of Films 01:30 p.m. From Classic to Modern 02:00 p.m. Theater of Program II 03:00 p.m. News 04:00 p.m. Music for Youth 04:05 p.m. Parchin-e Bagh-e Andisheh (Literature) 07:00 p.m. Jazz Music 08:00 p.m. News 09:00 p.m. Classical Music 09:05 p.m. Chosen of the Week 11:00 p.m. Dance Music 12:00 a.m. Sign-off 01:00 a.m.

Source: Tamasha, 1977, No. 321, p. 54 272

APPENDIX C 273

APPENDIX C

PROGRAMS OF IRAN TELEVISION MARCH 26-31, 1967

Sunday March 26, 1967

Program Time

Cartoon 05:00 p.m. To be announced 05:15 p.m. Taj Sport Club 05:45 p.m. Early News 06:00 p.m. Women's Program 06:15 p.m. To be announced 06:30 p.m. Dr. Kildare 07:00 p.m. Fine Art Musical 08:00 p.m. Arj Program 08:30 p.m. Conflict of Thoughts 09:30 p.m. Complete World and Local News Round-up 10:00 p.m. Gunsmoke 10:30 p.m. Sign-off 11:00 p.m.

Monday March 27, 1967

Program Time

Cartoon 05:00 p.m. German By Television 05:30 p.m. Early News 06:00 p.m. Ettala at Front Page 06:15 p.m. Flintstones 06:30 p.m. Try Your Luck (quiz) 07:00 p.m. To be announced 07:30 p.m. Fine Art Musical 08:00 p.m. Danger Man 08:30 p.m. Best of the Past 09:30 p.m. Complete World and Local News Round-up 10:00 p.m. Sea Hunt 10:30 p.m. Bold Venture 11:00 p.m. Sign-off 11:30 p.m. 274

Tuesday March 28, 1967

Program Time

Cartoon 05:00 p.m. Music Conservatory 05:30 p.m. Early News 06:00 p.m. Civil Defense 06:15 p.m. To be announced 06:30 p.m. Sea Ways 07:00 p.m. Fine Art Musical 08:00 p.m. The Nurses 08:30 p.m. Bat Masterson 09:30 p.m. Complete World and Local News Round-up 10:00 p.m. You and Cinema 10:30 p.m. Feature Film 10:45 p.m. Sign-off 12:15 p.m.

Wednesday March 29, 1967

Program Time

Cartoon 05:00 p.m. English by Television 05:30 p.m. Early News 06:00 p.m. You and Cinema 06:15 p.m. Traffic and Police 06:30 p.m. Get Smart 07:00 p.m. Sea Hunt 07:30 p.m. Fine Art Musical 08:00 p.m. I-Spy 08:30 p.m. 20th Century Fox Program 09:30 p.m. Complete World and Local News Round-up 10:00 p.m. Film: "South Sea Women" 10:30 p.m. 275

Thursday March 30, 1967

Program Time

Football Match Between Madrid and Milan 03:00 p.m. Cartoon 05:00 p.m. Children's Art Program 05:15 p.m. Early News 06:00 p.m. Vaya Artistic Program 06:15 p.m. Perspective 06:30 p.m. Bus Stop 07:00 p.m. Fine Art Musical 08:00 p.m. Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea 08:30 p.m. Jaz Orchestra 09:30 p.m. Complete World and Local News Round-up 10:00 p.m. Film: "Stranger on a Train" 10:30 p.m.

Friday March 31, 1967

Program Time

Film: "The Charge at Feather River" 03:30 p.m. Music for the Young at Heart 05:30 p.m. Film and Prizes 06:15 p.m. News of the Week 06:30 p.m. Monkeys 07:00 p.m. Branded 07:30 p.m. The Fugitive 08:00 p.m. Among Ourselves 09:00 p.m. Blue Light 09:30 p.m. Complete World and Local News Round-up 10:00 p.m. Iran Television Journal 10:15 p.m. 276

APPENDIX D 277

APPENDIX D

THE LAW ESTABLISHING NATIONAL IRANIAN RADIO AND TELEVISION ORGANIZATION ENACTED ON 19 JUNE 1971*

Article One: In order to centralize all the activities regarding the establishment, management and operation of radio and television centres, and also to prepare and broadcast radio and television programmes, there shall be established an organization named the National Iranian Radio-Television Organization, hereinafter called "the Organization. "

Article Two: The establishment of broadcasting stations and the broad­ casting of radio and television programmes within the country shall be carried out exclusively by the Organization.

All permits previously granted shall be cancelled upon the coming into effect of this law.

Note: The Organization may with the approval of the Council of Ministers authorize limited local broadcasting of radio and television programmes by other institutions.

Article Three: The Organization is a body corporate and shall be managed as a joint stock corporation. This Organization has complete independence and is not subject to general laws, rules and regulations governing institutions owned by or affiliated to the Government, unless the Organization is specifically named in such legislation. The Organization, and its affiliated companies and other organizations, shall be subject to this law and the stipulations of their own articles of association. In situations not covered by the relevant articles of association, the Commercial Law shall apply.

Article Four: Upon the enactment of this law the entire property, movable and immovable, and assets and obligations of the National Television Organization of Iran and the National Radio Network shall be transferred to the Organization. The said property shall be valued according to the stipulations of the Articles of Association of the Corporation and included in the capital of the Organization. Other sources of securing capital shall be specified in the said Articles of Association. 278

Article Five: The Organization, in conformity with its Articles of Association, shall have a General Assembly, a High Council, a Managing Director and an Auditor. The Managing Director shall be appointed by Imperial Firman. The authority and the duties of the High Council, the Managing Director, and the Auditor shall be specified in the Articles of Association.

Article Six: For the purpose of attaining the objectives listed in Article One, the Organization shall have the following functions and powers: A. Functions 1. tbj assist in safeguarding, developing and propagating Iranian culture; 2. to raise the level of awareness and information of the public, and to develop arts and talents ; 3. to prepare the intellectual climate for quickening the rate of growth of the country and the political development of the people; 4. to guide public opinion in the interests of the nation; 5. to broadcast wholesome entertainment programmes.

B. Powers 1. The Organization may at its discretion administer any part of its internal organization, sections, institutions, or branches of activities as commercial corporations and may invest in or asso­ ciate with other public or private companies, or accept investment by and association with persons or bodies corporate in any corporation or corporations that it establishes. 2. The Organization may establish groups involved in cultural, artistic, scientific, study and research activities and institutions of higher education, or accept the association of such groups with the Organization. 3. The Organization may enter into internal agreements concerning the exchange of radio and television programmes or telecommunica­ tions activities. 4. The Organization may produce programmes or films jointly with radio and television organizations in other countries, or persons and institutions from within the country or abroad. 5. The Organization may utilize the services of specialists or consultants.

Article Seven: The financial, commercial, administrative and personnel affairs of the Organization shall be based exclusively on the Articles of Association, which shall be proposed by the Managing Director, approved by the High Council and confirmed by the General Assembly. 279

Article Eight: Those civil servants who will be transferred to the Organization by the implementation of this law shall be treated in accordance with the stipulations of Article 144 of the Civil Service Law and the note thereto, and any subsequent adjustments and amendments to the said article.

Article Nine: The General Assembly of the Organization shall consist of the Minister of Information, the Minister of Finance, and the Minister of Post, Telegraph and Telephone. The Minister of Information shall be the Chairman of the Assembly.

Article Ten: The functions and powers of the General Assembly shall be: 1. to approve the annual budget; 2. to approve the balance sheet; 3. to approve investment in subsidiary companies; 4. to nominate the five elected members of the High Council to the Council of Ministers; 5. to elect the Managing Director; 6. to elect the Auditor.

Note: Other functions and powers of the General Assembly shall be specified in the Articles of Association.

Article Eleven: The High Council shall consist of the following persons: 1. the Minister of Information, as chairman; 2. the Minister of Culture and Arts; 3. the.Minister of Science and Higher Education; 4. the Minister of Education; 5. the Minister of Labour and Social Affairs; 6. the Minister of Cooperatives and Rural Affairs; 7. five noted personalities in cultural, scientific and social fields nominated by the General Assembly, elected by the Council of Ministers, and appointed by Imperial Firman.

Note: The functions and powers of the High Council shall be specified in the Articles of Association of the Organization.

Article Twelve: As aid to the Organization, the Government shall each year make provision in the State General Budget for credits proportionate to the needs of the Organization.

Article Thirteen: Credits for customs duties and fees, and commercial benefit tax on the machinery and equipment to be used for radio and television centres which the Organization imports from abroad for its 280

own use shall each year be provided for in the State General Budget on a contra account basis.

Note: All television equipment that was imported before the end of the year 1346 (i.e., 1961), and after the installation and operation of the television broadcasting unit, dealt with in the single article law enacted on 29/4/37 (i.e., 1958), and released from Customes with the permission of the Ministry of Post, Telegraph and Telephone for •' use by National Iranian Television, is subject to the exemptions of the said single article law.

Article Fourteen: The Organization is exempt from payment of any municipal duties, and is also entitled to the exemption listed in Article 26 of the Urban Renewal and Development Law.

Note: If the registration fee of the Organization and the companies established as a result of investment by the Organization and in which the Organization is a shareholder exceeds one million rials, the excess amount in excess of one million rials shall be exempt from payment in proportion to the shareholding of the Organization.

Article Fifteen: The Organization and those of its affiliated companies whose shares are entirely owned by the Organization shall be exempt from payment of income tax for ten years.

Article Sixteen: The unused balance of 1350 (i.e., 1971) credits of the National Radio Network and National Iranian Television shall be provided as aid to the Organization at the proposal of the Minister of Information and subject to the confirmation of the Council of Ministers.

Article Seventeen: The Organization is authorized to utilize the rights granted to the Ministry of Information by Article Nine of the Law of Protection of the Rights of Authors, Composers and Artists.

Article Eighteen: The Ministry of Information is required to prepare, within three months from the enactment of this law, the Articles of Association of the Organization in accordance with this Law and the Law of Establishment of the Ministry of Information, enacted in Esfand 1342 (i.e., 1963), for execution after confirmation by the Council of Ministers. Until the Articles of Association and the regulations governing the execution of this Law have been confirmed, the Organization shall be administered according to the Articles of Association of National Iranian Television and the related regulations. 281

Article Nineteen: From the date of enactment of this law, those parts of any laws and regulations related to the operation and activities of radio and television and related organizations that may be in conflict with this law are deemed to be null and void.

Article Twenty: The Minister of Information is held responsible to Parliament and the Government for the National Iranian Radio and Television Organization.

The Law concerning the Expansion of the Television Network in the Provinces, enacted on the twenty-third of Tir 1349 (i.e, 1970)

Single Article: For the purpose of expanding the network of television broadcasting stations in provincial area, the Government is authorized to collect from manufacturers of television sets for each television set manufactured in the country the sum of two to three thousand rials proportionate to the price and quality of each set, in accordance with a regulations proposed by the Ministry of Information in consultation with the Ministry of Economy and approved by the Council of Ministers. Proceeds from the implementation of this law shall be maintained in a special account and shall be utilized exclusively for the expansion of the television network and the operation of broadcasting stations in provincial areas.

Articles of Association of the National Iranian Radio-Television Organization Approved by Decree of the Council of Ministers issued on 20 March 1972

Pursuant to Article Eighteen of the Law Establishing the National Iranian Radio-Television Organization, the following Articles of Association of the said Organization are approved as follows:

Section One—General

Article One: The National Iranian Radio-Television Organization, hereinafter called "the Organization, " which was established in accordance with the Law Establishing the National Iranian Radio-Television Organization enacted on June 19th, 1971, shall be administered as a 282

joint-stock corporation for an unlimited period of time in accordance with the said law and the provisions of the present Articles of Association.

Article Two: The main centre of the Organization shall be in Tehran, and the Organization may, if deemed necessary, establish branches, representatives or franchises in any part of the country or abroad.

Article Three: The assets of the Organization consist of the entire property and assets, movable and immovable, of the National Iranian Television Organization and the National Radio Network, as follows:

1. The entire assets of the National Iranian Television Organization including real and movable propoerty, receivables, cash, deposits, installations and similar assets. 2. The entire assets of the National Radio Network including movable and immovable property, receivables, cash, deposits, installations and similar assets.

Note 1: The Organization is required to have its non-cash assets valued in accordance with established business practices by assessors nominated by the Managing Director and approved by the General Assembly, and thus determine the value of its assets.

Note 2: The Organization shall be the legal successor to all the rights and commitments of the National Iranian Television Organization and the National Radio Network.

Section Two--Objectives and Functions

Article Four: The Organization is established in order to centralize all the activities regarding the establishment, management and operation of radio and television centres, and also to prepare and broadcast radio and television programmes. Its principal functions are as follows:

1. to assist in safeguarding, developing and propagating Iranian culture ; 2. to raise the level of awareness and information of the public, and to develop arts and talents ; 3. to prepare the mental background for quickening the rate of growth of the country and the political development of the people; 4. to guide public opinion in the national interest; 5. to broadcast wholesome entertainment programmes. 283

Article Five: In order to implement its legal duties the Organization shall have the following powers:

1. The Organization may establish commercial companies to administer any of its activities that it deems necessary, or it may invest in or associate with other public or private companies, or accept investment by and association with persons or bodies corporate in any corporation or corporation that it establishes. 2. The Organization may establish groups involved in cultural, artistic, scientific, study and research activities; institutions for training or higher education; theatres and concert halls; exhibitions and similar concerns ; publish books and periodicals ; and organize festivals. 3. The Organization may enter into radio and television exchange and telecommunications activities internationally. 4. The Organization may produce programmes or films jointly with radio and television organizations in other countries, or persons and institutions from within the country or abroad. 5. The Organization may utilize the services of specialists or consultants from within the country or abroad. 6. The broadcasting of radio and television programmes in any form or shape within the country shall be a monopoly of the Organization, but the Organization may grant individual permits for the limited and local broadcasting of radio and television programmes, operation of closed circuit television stations, broadcasting of other materials or utilization of equipment related to radio and television to persons and bodies corporate, or withdraw such privileges, by virtue of a set of regulations approved by the General Assembly and ratified by the Council of Ministers.

Section Three—Organization structure

Article Six: The Organization shall have the following organizational structure:

1. The General Assembly 2. The High Council 3. The Managing Director 4. The Auditor. 284

Article Seven: The General Assembly of the Organization shall consist of the Minister of Information, the Minister of Finance, and the Minister of Post, Telegraph and Telephone, and its chairman shall be the Minister of Information. The Managing Director and the Auditor shall participate in the meetings of the General Assembly without the right to vote.

Article Eight: The functions and authorities of the General Assembly shall be as follows:

1. to determine the general policies of the Organization; 2. to examine and approve the annual budget; 3. to examine and approve the annual report, the balance sheet, and the profit and loss account; 4. to approve investment in subsidiary companies; 5. to nominate to the Council of Ministers the five elected members of the High Council; 6. to elect the Managing Director; 7. to elect the Auditor; 8. to examine and approve proposals made by the Managing Director regarding changes in the Articles of Association; 9. to decide on proposals regarding changes in capital; 10. to review and confirm financial, commercial, administrative and employment regulations of the Organization and its subsidiary companies which have been approved by the High Council upon the proposal of the Managing Director; 11. to decide on obtaining loans and credits from domestic or foreign banks and financial institutions in accordance with the relevant regulations; 12. to decide on the purchase and sale of stocks and shares of other companies, and the purchase and sale of Government bonds; 13. to review and confirm the articles of association of subsidiary companies and organizations; 14. to determine the salary, allowances and bonus of the Managing Director and the fee of the Auditor; 15. to determine the amount of fees payable to the elected members of the High Council for attending meetings; 16. to decide on other matters within the limits of these Articles of Association which may be presented to the General Assembly by the Managing Director, or matters considered within the responsibility of the General Assembly in accordance with the Commercial Law. 285

Note 1: The General Assembly shall meet at least twice a year by written invitation of the Managing Director. If necessary, extraordinary meetings of the General Assembly shall be held upon the proposal of the Managing Director, any member of the General Assembly, or the Auditor, by written invitation of the Managing Director. The invitation for a meeting of the General Assembly shall include the agenda for the meeting, and the date, time and place of the meeting.

Note 2: The quorum for meetings of the General Assembly shall consist of all members and decisions shall be reached by majority vote.

Article Nine: The High Council shall consist of eleven members, as follows:

1. the Minister of Information; 2. the Minister of Culture and Arts; 3. the Minister of Science and Higher Education; 4. the Minister of Education; 5. the Minister of Labour and ¡Social Affairs ; 6. the Minister of Cooperatives and Rural Affairs; 7. five noted personalities in cultural, scientific and social fields nominated by the General Assembly and elected by the Council of Ministers and appointed by Imperial Firman for a three-year term, to serve until their successor is appointed. They shall be eligible for re-appointment.

Note 1: The High Council shall meet once every three months at the invitation by the Managing Director, and, if necessary, extraordinary meetings may be held at the request of the Chairman of the Council or the Managing Director.

Note 2: The quorum of the High Council shall be eight members, and resolutions shall require at. least six votes.

Article Ten: The functions and authorities of the High Council shall be as follows:

1. to determine the general policies governing radio and television programmes; 2. to express its opinions on the general policies and topics of the programmes of the Organization as proposed by the Managing Director; 3. to express its views on the financial, commercial, administrative and employment regulations for discussion in the General Assembly; 286

4. to examine and express its views on the annual programme of operations of the Organization; 5. to examine and express its views on any matter presented to the High Council by the Managing Director.

Article Eleven: The Managing Director holds the highest executive office in the Organization and is responsible for the management of the Organization and all its affiliated units, and the administration of all centres, branches and representatives of the Organization. The Managing Director shall be elected from well-informed and discerning Iranian citizens having higher educational qualifications in fields related to radio and television, and shall be appointed for a period of five years. The Managing Director shall continue to carry out his duties after the expiration of his five-year term of office until a successor is chosen, and he may be re-appointed to office. The principal functions and powers of the Managing Director shall be as follows:

1. to implement the Articles of Association and the ordinances of the General Assembly and the High Council; 2. to examine the general policies and the main topics of the programmes for presentation to the High Council, and prepare short-term and long-term plans; 3. to determine the executive procedures of the current operations of the Organization; 4. to administer all the affairs of the Organization including technical, artistic, representational, financial and administrative; 5. to manage the personnel affairs and determine the organizational structure of the Organization, and to manage employment affairs including the engagement, termination of service and appointment of personnel of the Organization in accordance with the relevant regulations; 6. to prepare the annual budget, balance sheet, profit and loss account and other financial statements with the assistance of financial specialists for presentation to the General Assembly, and to propose the agenda of the meetings of the General Assembly; 7. to prepare and propose the future plans of the Organization to the High Council; 8. to prepare the annual report of operations of the Organization; 9. to supervise the proper implementation of the administrative, financial, commercial and employment regulations, and to review and approve the internal regulations of the Organization; 287

10. to conclude contracts with persons or bodies corporate, to represent the Organization in administrative or legal tribunals, to select attorneys having one degree of substitution, and to settle claims by compromise or referral to arbitration; any other matter which, within the limitations of the Law of Establishment and the Articles of Association of the Organiza­ tion, are necessary to obtain the objects of the Organization, and to utilize any other authority granted to the Managing Directory by these Articles of Association.

Note: The Managing Director may, on his own responsibility, delegate a part of his authority to any of the employees of the Organizations

Article Twelve: The Auditor of the Organization shall be elected by the General Assembly from among well-informed persons with sufficient knowledge and experience in accounting for a period of one year, and shall be eligible for re-election. The functions of the Auditor shall be as follows:

1. to examine the balance sheet, profit and loss account and other financial statements of the Organization and to prepare the necessary report on the said statements for submission to the General Assembly. 2. to perform other duties assigned to the Auditor according to the Commercial Code.

Note 1: The Auditor has no right to interfere in the affairs of the Organization, and in performing his assigned duties he shall not hinder the normal course of operations of the Organization.

Part Four—Financial Affairs

Article Thirteen: The income and sources of credit of the Organization shall be as follows:

1. proceeds from preparing and broadcasting advertisement programmes on radio and television and granting of broad­ casting and distribution rights; 2. proceeds from the productive and commercial activities of the Organization in the public and private sector, and profits from affiliated organizations ; 3. revenues received from the implementation of the Law of Expansion of the Television Network; 288

4. the financial assistance of the Government from the State General Budget, and other funds that the Government may place at the disposal of the Organization in any other way; 5. credits from the State Development Budget; 6. cash or non-cash assistance from persons or bodies corporate; 7. foreign or domestic loans in accordance with the current regulations of the country; 8. other income that may accrue to the Organization in accordance with other laws and regulations.

Article Fourteen: The financial year of the Organization shall begin on the first day of Farvardin every year and end on the last day of Esfand of the same year, except for the initial year, which shall commence on the date on which these Articles of Association are approved by the Council of Ministers.

Article Fifteen: The Managing Director shall not later than the fifteenth day of Bahman each year prepare the detailed budget of the Organization for submission to and approval by the General Assembly.

Note: If the proposed budget is not approved by the beginning of the financial year, the Managing Director is authorized to expend up to one-twelfth of the budget of the previous year, provided that it does not exceed one-twelfth of the proposed budget, every month to meet the expenses of the Organization until the final approval of the proposed budget.

Article Sixteen: The Managing Director shall present to the General Assembly the balance sheet and the statement of accounts for each financial year before the end of the month of Tir of the following year.

Note: The Auditor shall be provided with a copy of the balance sheet and the statement of accounts at least twenty days before the meeting of the General Assembly.

Article Seventeen: The approval of the balance sheet and the statement of accounts of the Organization by the General Assembly shall constitute the settlement of the budget and accounts for that financial period.

Article Eighteen: All financial documents, cheques and securities of the Organization shall be signed by the Managing Director and the Finance Director of the Organization or by persons to whom this authority has been delegated, and in any case the said documents shall have two signatures. 289

Section Five—Miscellaneous Regulations

Article Nineteen: Proposals for the modification, correction or deletion of, or addition to, these Articles of Association shall be made by the Managing Director, approved by the General Assembly, and presented to the Council of Ministers by the Chairman of the General Assembly.

Article Twenty : The Organization shall remain neutral in political and party affairs, and the employees of the Organization may not participate in any political, party, group or trade union activities within the Organization while in the service of the Organization.

Article Twenty-One: The Organization shall broadcast the announcements of the Government, sent through the Ministry of Information, at the first opportunity after receipt, free of charge.

Article Twenty-Two: The Commercial Law shall apply in situations not mentioned in these Articles of Association.

Source: NIRT, NIRT (Tehran: NIRT Publication Department, 1974), pp. 133-40.

Appendix D has been taken and typed directly with no changes, although the use of the Iranian calendar has been supplemented by notation using the more familiar Gregorian calendar. 290

APPENDIX E 291

APPENDIX E

PROGRAMS OF AMERICAN TELEVISION (AFTV) FOR SELECTED WEEK JUNE 7-13, 1973

Thursday June 7

Program Time

Sesame Street 10:05 a.m. Dusty's Treehouse 11:00 a.m. The Ghost and Mrs. Muir 11:30 a.m. Sanford and Son 12:00 p.m. Room 222 12:30 p.m. Matinee Theater 01:00 p.m. Priority Sports Event 02:35 p.m. The Wide World of Sports 04:20 p.m. Outdoor Sportsman 05:30 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 05:55 p.m. Evening Report 06:00 p.m. Greatest Fights of the Century 06:15 p.m. Hour Information Special 06:25 p.m. Its Movie Time 07:20 p.m. The Lieutenant 09:05 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. Thursday Night at the Movies 10:15 p.m.

Friday June 8

Program Time

Sacred Heart 12:05 p.m. Guidepost 12:20 p.m. Insight 12:25 p.m. Sport for a Friday Afternoon 12:50 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 05:55 p.m. Evening Report 06:15 p.m. Good Grief, The Early Movie 06:30 p.m. The Flip Wilson Show 08:00 p.m. Bonanza 09:00 p.m. 292

Friday June 8 (continued)

Program Time

Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. Peter Gunn 10:15 p.m. Olympic Wrestling Club 10:40 p.m.

Saturday June 9

Program Time

Bonanza 04:05 p.m. Sesame Street 05:00 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 05:55 p.m. Evening Report 06:00 p.m. Concert Films 06:20 p.m. Untamed World 06:35 p.m. This is Your Life 07:00 p.m. Arnie 07:30 p.m. Rowan and Martin's Laugh-in 08:00 p.m. The Bold Ones 09:00 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. Saturday Night at the Movies 10:15 p.m.

Sunday June 10

Program Time

Priority Sports Event 04:05 p.m. Assignment Underwater 05:30 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 05:55 p.m. Evening Report 06:00 p.m. Greatest Fights of the Centuiy 06:20 p.m. Priority Information Film 06:30 p.m. Andy Griffith Show 07:00 p.m. Sanford and Son 07:30 p.m. Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour 08:00 p.m. Mod Squad 09:00 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. The Tonight Show 10:15 p.m. 293

Monday June 11

Program Time

Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour 04:00 p.m. "Welcome”—to the Magic Door on Butternut Square 05:00 p.m. Dusty's Treehouse 05:30 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 05:55 p.m. Evening Report 06:00 p.m. On AFRTS Tonight 06:20 p.m. Camera Three 06:35 p.m. Beverly Hillbillies 07:00 p.m. The Ghost and Mrs. Muir 07:30 p.m. The Carol Burnett Show 08:00 p.m. Laredo 09:00 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. David Frost Review 10:15 p.m. Boxing From the Forum 10:40 p.m.

Tuesday June 12

Program Time

Priority Sports Event 04:05 p.m. Wyatt Earp 05:30 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 05:55 p.m. Evening Report 06:00 p.m. Science Screen Report 06:20 p.m. Medix 06:35 p.m. My Favorite Martian 07:00 p.m. Something Else 07:30 p.m. Dean Martin Show 08:00 p.m. Perry Mason 09:00 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. Tuesday Night at the Movies 10:15 p.m. 294

Wednesday June 13

Program Time

Bill Anderson 04:05 p.m. Harrigan and Son 04:30 p.m. "Welcome"—to the Magic Door on Butternut Square 05:00 p.m. Room 222 05:30 p.m. Evening Report 06:00 p.m. Coronet Films 06:20 p.m. Success Story 06:35 p.m. ‘Country Music Association Award Ceremonies 07:00 p.m. Judd for the Defense 08:00 p.m. Laramie 09:00 p.m. Community Bulletin Board 09:55 p.m. Ten O'clock Report 10:00 p.m. Wednesday Night at the Movies 10:15 p.m. 295

APPENDIX F 296

APPENDIX F

GENERAL RULES REGULATING COMMERCIAL* ADVERTISING ON RADIO AND TELEVISION

1. All the human factors for the production of television and radio advertising such as the writers, announcers, composers, fact actors, musicians, sound, film producers and other technical facilities should be supplied by the advertisers.

2. A detailed and complete form for ordering advertising for both the tapes including the length and time of advertising for both the radio and television should be neatly typed and sent to Tehran and other transmitting centres two and seven days respectively before it could be transmitted.

3. NIRT reserves the right to accept or reject advertisements intended for transmission or make changes in the film or sound that it deems necessary.

4. The advertisers are responsible to submit separate flawless films and tapes and the necessary number of copies to the radio and television centres.

5. If the advertisers after registering and ordering the time of advertising for transmission for any reason change the time or day of advertising or make any change in format of the advertising announcement or for any other reason, causing an overlap in the normal and regular services, all the additional expenses should be borne by the advertisers.

6. An order for the transmission of radio and television advertisement in Tehran and other centres is final and cannot be eliminated under any circumstances unless a request for changes or the elimination of such advertisement is accompanied by an acceptable reason and finally approved by the radio and television centres.

7. The advertisements in Tehran and other centres are transmitted in the same category and about the same time and fixed categories and the transmission of such advertisements does not have to be broadcast during any special shows or programmes unless the advertisers sign a special agreement with NIRT. 297

8. At any time that a special show goes on the air or there is a delay in receiving an order for films and tapes from the provinces which is unavoidable or for any other reasons which cause a delay in the transmission of advertisements, the time for such unannounced advertisements will be reserved and transmitted in the next five days. (The advertisements which for some reason could not be broadcast in the next alloted times or if the advertisers had expressed the wish in the original order form for the elimination of advertisements, do not come under this rule).

9. If the advertisement is not broadcast on changes (sic) an error, on the basis of the reports of the transmission group and the NIRT inspector, if the advertiser's claim is found to be correct, steps will be taken to eliminate the error and transmit the advertisement once again.

10. The time of advertisement airing in Tehran and other centres should be at least 10 seconds and the rate will be the same even if the advertisement is less than 10 seconds. If at any time the advertise­ ment is for less than 10 seconds, the arrangements will be made under a separate agreement. But under no circumstances the said advertisement will be less (sic) than five seconds.

11. Method of advertisement transmission on Television:

A - Before a thirty-minutes programme there would be at least five minutes of advertisements on television.

B - There would be six minutes of advertisements at the beginning of a one-hour programme.

C - Before a special programme which will be announced at least 15 days prior to its transmission by the commercial department of NIRT there will be 12 minutes time alloted to advertisements with an increase rate of 50 per cent for such advertisements.

12. NIRT does not accept any responsibility for advertisements which do not correspond to the fair standards of truth and the advertiser is directly responsible and answerable to any form (of) criticism or any moral or material losses resulting from such action.

13. The advertiser should openly announce that his advertisements have been produced with the knowledge that they do not have the copy rights of writers, authors, composers, artists and similar existing rules and 298

regulations. The advertiser should be responsible for any legal or personal claims in cases that the advertisement disregard the above rules. NIRT will be responsible for compensation if disregarded rules directly concern NIRT.

14. The advertisement should under no condition be similar to music or works copy righted by NIRT. They should also not be similar to music or works copy righted by an imitation of such works or music. NIRT will not undertake the transmission of such advertisements if they do (sic) meet the copy right standards of NIRT.

15. Any direct reference in advertisements against other goods or services which will result in complaints or if the commercial organization according to Article 3 of rules establishes that such references jeopardize other goods or services it will immediately discontinue the transmission of such advertisements.

16. The time for each advertisement to be shown in a film or tape for several showings and separate advertisements which have to be broadcast from the provincial centres should be written in an order form specifying in detail the manner in which they should be transmitted. The advertisements will be finally transmitted after being inspected and okayed by the Commercial Department of NIRT.

17. Beginning in 1354 (i.e., 1975) the progressive rate system of ten by ten pertaining to the time of advertisements (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 seconds) was eliminated and the rate of those advertisements that are less than 60 seconds, with due consideration to No. 10 of the General Articles, will be calculated on per second basis.

18. Commercial discount and paid commission to an advertisement agency and organizations belong to them only and under no circum­ stance could they pay a part of the commission to the owner of goods being advertised.

19. Advertisement charges should be deposited in cash to the General Treasurer's Account No. 710 with the Central Bank of Iran, Bank Melli Iran, or its branches.

20. Advertisement agencies and organizations should submit bank bonds to the extent of the amount of advertisement and after receiving the bill at the end of each month, the amount should be deposited in cash to the Account No. 710. Objections to the way of the transmission of advertisements by the advertisers are no cause to delay the payment or to make no payment at all. 299

Source for the "General Rules” of Appendix F:

NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), pp. 19- 23.

The "General Rules” have been taken and typed from the Commercial Bulletin with infrequent and minor changes for ease of reading in translation. 300

APPENDIX F

TIME AND LEVEL OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS

SPRING AND SUMMER, PROGRAM I

Class Description

Top After news about 9:00 p.m.

First A few minutes before 8:00 p.m. until 10:18 p.m. (excluding 9:00 p.m.)

Second 6:43 p.m. to 7:52 and 10:18 to 11:22 p.m.

Third 3:07 p.m. to 6:43 p.m. (Fridays and holidays 1:17 p.m. to 6:43 p.m.

Fourth 1:17 p.m. to 3:07 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from sign-on until 1:17 p.m.)

Fifth From sign-on until 1:17 p.m. and from 11:22 p.m. until the sign-off

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 4. 301

TIME AND LEVEL OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS

FALL AND WINTER, PROGRAM I

Class Description

Top After news about 8:30 p.m.

First A few minutes before 8:00 p.m. until 10:08 p.m. (excluding 8:30 p.m.)

Second 6:43 p.m. to 7:52 p.m. and 10:08 p.m. to 11:12 p.m.

Third 3:07 p.m. to 6:43 p.m.

Fourth 1:17 p.m. to 3:07 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from sign-on until 1:17 p.m.)

Fifth From sign-on until 1:17 p.m. and from 11:12 p.m. to the end of programs.

NOTE: Changes of the classes are according to changes in the programs.

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran, NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 5. 302

TIME AND LEVEL OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS

SPRING AND SUMMER, PROGRAM II

Class Description

Top From 9:07 p.m. to 9:35 p.m.

First From sign-on to 9:07 p.m. and from 10:00 p.m. to 10:45 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from 7:53 p.m. to 9:07 p.m.)

Second From 10:43 p.m. to 11:12 p.m. (Fridays and holidays sign-on to 7:53 p.m.)

Third From 11:12 p.m. to sign-off

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 41. 303

TIME AND LEVEL OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS

FALL AND WINTER, PROGRAM II

Class Description

Top From sign-on to 9:05 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from 7:53 p.m. to 9:05 p.m.)

First From 9:30 p.m. to 10:23 p.m.

Second From 10:23 p.m. to 11:12 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from sign-on to 7:53 p.m.)

Third From 11:12 p.m. to sign-off

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 41. 304

TIME AND LEVEL OF RADIO PROGRAMS

SPRING AND SUMMER, PROGRAM I

Class Description

Top After news about 9:00 p.m.

First Few minutes before 8:00 p.m. to 10:00 p.m. (excluding 9:00 p.m.)

Second From 6:43 p.m. to 7:52 p.m. and from 10:18 p.m. to 11:22 p.m.

Third From 3:07 p.m. to 6:43 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from 1:17 p.m. to 6:43 p.m.)

Fourth From 1:17 p.m. to 3:07 p.m. (excluding Fridays and holidays sign-on to 1:17)

Fifth From sign-on to 1:17 p.m. and from 11:22 p.m. to sign-off.

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 42. 305

TIME AND LEVEL OF RADIO PROGRAMS

FALL AND WINTER, PROGRAM I

Class Description

Top After news about 8:30 p.m.

First Few minutes before 8:00 p.m. to 10:08 p.m. (excluding 8:30 p.m.)

Second From 6:43 p.m. to 7:52 p.m. and from 10:08 p.m. to 11:12 p.m.

Third From 3:07 p.m. to 6:43 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from 1:17 to 6:43 p.m.)

Fourth From 1:17 p.m. to 3:07 p.m. (Fridays and holidays from sign-on to 1:17 p.m.)

Fifth From sign-on to 1:17 p.m. and from 11:12 p.m. to sign-off

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 42. 306

TIME AND LEVEL OF RADIO PROGRAMS

ALL SEASONS, PROGRAM II

Class Description

First From about 7:30 a.m. to 8:32 a.m. and from 9:50 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. and from 1:00 p.m. to 1:30 p.m. and 5:00 p.m. to9:00 p.m.

Second From about 6:30 a.m. to 7:30 a.m. and from 8:32 a.m. to 9:50 a.m.

Third From about 1:30 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. and 9:00 p.m. to sign-off

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 39. 307

RATES OF ADVERTISING IN RADIO

PROGRAM I

Season Season Class Spring and Summer Fall Winter

First $868.00 $940.00 $1,025.00

Second $736.00 $772.00 $ 856.00

Third $680.00 $702.00 $ 772.00

RATES OF ADVERTISING IN RADIO

PROGRAM II

Class All Seasons

First $112.00

Second $ 96.00

Third $ 68.00

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 32. RATES OF ADVERTISING IN TELEVISION*

PROGRAM I AND II

Spring and Summer Autumn Winter Class Program I Program II Program I Program II Program I Program II

Top 3,857 1,500 4,114 1,642 4,765 1,800

First 3,428 1,285 3,642 1,457 3,685 1,514

Second 2,357 917 2,485 1,054 2,742 1,110

Third 1,557 600 1,650 685 1,834 732

Fourth 1,242 428 1,285 514 1,465 557

Fifth 852 278 900 342 1,007 638

*The prices are in dollars and per minutes.

Source: NIRT, Commercial Bulletin (Tehran: NIRT Publication Dept., 1976), p. 15. 3 0 8 309

APPENDIX G 310

APPENDIX G

TELEVISION PROGRAMS, PROGRAM I FOR A SELECTED WEEK JULY 23-29 1978

Saturday July 23

Program Time

News* 07:00 p.m. Movie (Zorro) 07:05 p.m. Iranian Music* 07:30 p.m. Film (Chahar Divary) 08:00 p.m. Aghai-e Marboteh* 08:30 p.m. Film 08:40 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m.

Sunday July 24

Program Time

News* 07:00 p.m. Film (Long John Silver) 07:05 p.m. Film (Gunsmoke) 07:30 p.m. Aghai-e Marboteh* 08:30 p.m. All From One Family 08:40 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m.

Monday July 25

Program Time

News* 07:00 p.m. Bacheha Bacheha (Children)* 07:05 p.m. Film (Emergency) 07:30 p.m. Aghai-e Marboteh* 08:30 p.m. Film (Griff) 09:30 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m.

*Iranian programs and films. 311

Tuesday July 26

Program Time

News* 07:00 p.m. Film (Every Night at Eight) 07:05 p.m. Aghai-e Marboteh* 07:30 p.m. Film (Soltan-e Sahebgheran)* 08:40 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m.

Wednesday July 27

Program Time

News* 07:00 p.m. Film (Waltons) 07:05 p.m. Iranian Songs* 08:00 p.m. Film (Streets of San Francisco) 08:40 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m.

Thursday July 28

Program Time

News* 07:00 p.m. Film (Rockford Files) 07:05 p.m. Iranian Songs* 08:00 p.m. Aghai-e Marboteh* 08:30 p.m. Film (Marcus Welby, M.D.) 08:40 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m. Sargarmi (Amusement)* 10:00 p.m.

Friday July 29

Program Time

Film (Jason and the Argonauts) 06:00 p.m. Art Festival* 07:30 p.m.

List of Friday's programs continued on next page.

*Iranian programs and films. 312

Friday July 29

Program Time

Film 08:00 p.m. Aghai-e Marboteh* 08:30 p.m. Film (Six Million Dollar Man) 08:40 p.m. News and Sports* 09:30 p.m.

*Iranian programs and films. 313

APPENDIX H 314

APPENDIX H

TELEVISION PROGRAMS, PROGRAM II FOR A SELECTED WEEK JULY 23-29 1978

Saturday July 23

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Film (Little House on the Prairie) 07:15 p.m. Film (McCloud) 08:15 p.m. People's Questions and Officials' Answers* 09:25 p.m. News* 09:30 p.m.

Sunday July 24

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Film* 07:30 p.m. Game* 08:00 p.m. Film (America) 08:30 p.m. People's Questions and Officials' Answers* 09:25 p.m. News* 09:30 p.m.

Monday July 25

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Cartoons* 07:30p .m. Film (The Kansas Raiders)* 07:45p .m. People's Questions and Officials' Answers* 09:25p .m. News* 09:30p .m.

* Iranian programs and films. 315

Tuesday July 26

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Film (The Kid's World) 07:30 p.m. Film (Ryan) 08:00 p.m. Iranian Music* 09:00 p.m. People's Questions and Officials' Answers 09:25 p.m. News* 09:30 p.m.

Wednesday July 27

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Film 07:30 p.m. Film 08:00 p.m. Film 09:00 p.m. People's Questions and Officials' Answers 09:25 p.m. News* 09:30 p.m.

Thursday July 28

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Film 07:30 p.m. Film (Paradise Hawaiian Style) 08:00 p.m. People's Questions and Officials' Answers* 09:25 p.m. News* 09:30 p.m. First Title* 10:00 p.m.

Friday July 29 on next page.

♦Iranian films and programs. 316

Friday July 29

Program Time

Music and Slides* 07:00 p.m. Film (Space 1999) 07:30 p.m. Variety, Rangarang* 08:30 p.m. News* 09:00 p.m.

*Iranian films and programs 317

APPENDIX I 318

APPENDIX I

FOREIGN TELEVISION PROGRAMS, NIRT INTERNATIONAL FOR A SELECTED WEEK JULY 23-29 1978

Saturday July 23

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m. The Practice 07:25 p.m. Storefront Lawyers t- 07:50 p.m. Hollywood and the Stars 08:40 p.m. Perry Mason 09:05 p.m. News Headlines 09:55 p.m.

Sunday July 24

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m. Big Blue Marble 07:25 p.m. Mary Tyler Moore Show 07:50 p.m. Columbo 08:15 p.m. New Headlines 09:55 p.m.

Monday July 25

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m. Bom Free 07:25 p.m. Rhoda 08:10 p.m. N.I.R.T. Special Presentation 08:35 p.m. Manhunter 09:05 p.m. News Headlines 09:55 p.m. 319

Tuesday July 26

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m. 21st Century 07:25 p.m. All In The Family 07:50 p.m. Helen Reddy (Special) 08:15 p.m. Streets of San Francisco 09:15 p.m. News Headlines 09:55 p.m.

Wednesday July 27

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m. Swiss Family Robinson 07:25 p.m. That Girl 07:50 p.m. To be announced 08:15 p.m. Starsky and Hutch 09:05 p.m. News Headlines 09:55 p.m.

Thursday July 28

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m Audubon Wildlife Theatre 07:25 p.m Six Million Dollar Man 07:50 p.m Donny and Marie Osmond Show;-. 08:40 p.m Biography 09:30 p.m News Headlines 09:55 p.m Bronk 10:00 p.m

Friday July 29 continued on next page 320

Friday July 29

Program Time

Evening News 07:00 p.m. Survival 07:20 p.m. Dick Van Dyke Show 07:45 p.m. M.A.S.H. 08:10 p.m. Movie: Phffft 08:35 p.m. News Headlines 10:00 p.m. Charlie's Angels 10:05 p.m.