Loving and Hating America in Turkey and Iran: a Cold War Story of Alliance Politics and Authoritarian Modernization, 1945-1980
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Loving and Hating America in Turkey and Iran: A Cold War Story of Alliance Politics and Authoritarian Modernization, 1945-1980 Barın Kayaoğlu Ankara, Turkey B.A., Bilkent University, 2001 M.A., Bilkent University, 2002 M.A., Bilkent University, 2005 M.A., University of Virginia, 2006 A Dissertation presented to the Graduate Faculty of the University of Virginia in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of History University of Virginia December 2014 © Copyright by Barın Kayaoğlu All Rights Reserved December 2014 To Lara, Arda, Ayla, Hasan, Barkın, and Demet and Mel Leffler, the captain with the mighty heart Abstract This dissertation is a study of U.S. relations with Turkey and Iran during the Cold War and the rise of anti-Americanism in the two countries. The dissertation explores why pro-American sentiments in Turkey and Iran in the 1940s and 1950s turned into vicious anti-Americanism in the 1960s and reached a crescendo by the 1970s. The study argues that, rather than individual events such as the CIA-sponsored coup d’état against Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq in 1953 or the successive coups in Turkey, authoritarian modernization in the two countries and their turbulent alliances with the United States led to anti-Americanism. Although U.S. officials encouraged economic and social development in Turkey and Iran – building schools, hospitals, dams, factories, and roads – they remained mostly silent on the question of political change for the sake of stability. While authoritarianism undermined the political institutions that could have ameliorated economic and social ills in the two countries, Ankara and Tehran’s geopolitical interests began to diverge from Washington’s global and regional priorities by the 1960s. As their publics became visibly anti-American, even the normally pro-U.S. leaders in the two countries became skeptical of the United States. Keywords: U.S. foreign policy, Turkey, Iran, anti-Americanism, authoritarianism, modernization, development iii Table of Contents Abstract iii Table of Contents iv Acknowledgments vii Chapter 1 – Concepts, Backgrounds, Structures 1 Introduction 1 Modernization as Theory and Practice 5 Defining Anti-Americanism 8 Authoritarian Modernization in Turkey and Iran Before 1945 12 The United States as a Model of Liberal Modernization 25 Organization and Methodology of the Study 29 Chapter 2 – The Curious Case of Pro-Americanism, 1945-1954 35 Introduction 35 From Confrontation in the Near East to Containment in Europe and East Asia 37 The United States and Turkey’s Orderly Transition to Democracy 46 The United States and Iran’s Troublesome Political Economy 53 “Welcome, Our Dear Friends”: Turkey’s Volatile Pro-Americanism and Entry into the Western Alliance 62 “The Great and Friendly Land of the United States of America”: The Oil Crisis and Iran’s Cautious Pro-Americanism 71 Conclusion 85 iv Chapter 3 – Pro-Americanism Subsides, Anti-Americanism Rises, 1955-1963 87 Introduction 87 “We Can Do These Things Without Going Broke”: The Eisenhower Administration and the Developing World 89 The Eisenhower Administration and the Turkish Turbulence 95 The Eisenhower Administration and the Iranian Imbalance 103 “Let Us Begin”: Modernization Theory and the Kennedy Administration 111 Old and New Frontiers in Ankara 116 Turkey’s Transition from Pro-American to U.S.-Skeptic 120 Iran: The New Frontier with an Authoritarian Flavor 129 The Steady Rise of Anti-Americanism in Iran 135 Conclusion 143 Chapter 4 – Targeting America, 1964-1973 146 Introduction 146 “Let Us Continue”: The Relative Decline of U.S. Power in the Age of Détente 148 The United States Deals With an Autonomous, Prospering, and Unstable Turkey 154 Pandora’s Box Opens: Cyprus, the Radical Left, and Violent Anti-Americanism in Turkey 165 The United States Deals With an Autonomous, Autocratic, and Stable Iran 178 Autocracy, Militant Radicalism, and Anti-Americanism in Iran 189 Conclusion 198 v Chapter 5 – Anti-Americanism Consolidates, 1974-1980 201 Introduction 201 The Decade of Shocks: Détente Ends, the Cold War Resumes 204 Pahlavi Iran: The Making of a Regional Superpower, the Unmaking of a Regime 211 “The Americans Can’t Do a Damned Thing”: The Revolution, the Hostage Crisis, and the Collapse of U.S.-Iranian Relations 223 The Turkish Military Solves Ankara and Washington’s Opium, Cyprus, and Chaos Problems 232 Opium, Cyprus, Gladio: Anti-Americanism Strikes Back in Turkey 244 Conclusion 255 Chapter 6 – Conclusion 258 Bibliography 270 vi Acknowledgements This Ph.D. dissertation is the product of six years of sweat, tears, laughter, heartbreak, and everything in between. It is also the culmination of thirteen years of graduate study – a long time during which I accumulated many debts of gratitude. So if these acknowledgements come to you as long, I can assure you that this is the brief version. No project of international history can be pursued, much less completed, without generous sponsors. I would like to thank the Dwight D. Eisenhower Foundation, the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Foundation, the Lyndon B. Johnson Foundation, and the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation for their travel grants, which allowed me to conduct research at the presidential libraries of their namesakes in Abilene, Ann Labor, Austin, and Boston. The Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR) awarded me the Michael J. Hogan Foreign Language Fellowship, which, together with a grant from the University of Virginia’s Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, enabled me to start learning Persian at the University of Tehran’s Dehkhoda Institute in the summer of 2008. The Graduate School’s Malone-Gallatin Fellowship paid for the research in my native Turkey while SHAFR’s Samuel F. Bemis Grant funded part of my research in Iran. The following institutions have supported me with fellowships and publishing opportunities: The Lynne and Harry Bradley Foundation Fellowship covered my research trips to Iran, the U.S. National Archives in College Park, and the Nixon and Carter libraries. It also enabled me to start writing in 2011. The John Anson Kittredge Educational Fund extended a generous hand so that I could continue writing in the summer of 2012. With a Smith Richardson Foundation Predoctoral Fellowship in International Security Studies at Yale University and the Eisenhower Institute’s Clifford Roberts Fellowship, I wrote most of the chapters in 2012-13. I am grateful to these institutions and their benefactors and administrators for their support. Parts of vii the second and fifth chapters previously appeared on the journals Cold War History and Iranian Studies and they are used here courtesy of the Taylor & Francis Group. Archivists and librarians in the United States, Turkey, and Iran were incredibly helpful. In College Park, at the Carter, Eisenhower, Ford, Johnson, Kennedy, and Nixon presidential libraries, and at the Hoover Institution Library and Archives, archivists patiently handled my requests and gave sage advice on which collections I should focus. The employees of the National Library in Ankara, the National Library and Archives in Tehran, and the staff of the libraries at Yale and Virginia were equally supportive. Few places present as congenial an environment for graduate studies as the University of Virginia. Starting with the members of my dissertation committee – William Quandt, Elizabeth Thompson, and Philip Zelikow – I am thankful to the many mentors who oversaw my transition from an easy-going student into a serious-looking historian. Stephen Schuker, who forced me to read a host of books on prose in spring 2007, deserves special praise. Other faculty members at UVA helped me hone my skills as a learner, teacher, and public speaker: Brian Balogh, Julian Bond, David Coleman, Ronald Dimberg, Gary Gallagher, Max Gross, Zjaleh Hajibashi, Michael Holt, Alireza Korangy, Ted Lendon, Allen Lynch, Chuck McCurdy, Farzaneh Milani, Joseph Miller, Ruhi Ramazani, Sophie Rosenfeld, Jeff Rossman, Marc Selverstone, John Stagg, and Fariba Zarinebaf. Sabri Ateş, now at Southern Methodist University, encouraged me to take my first steps into Iranian history with his groundbreaking work on Ottoman-Iranian borderlands. Beyond Charlottesville, others, too, were generous with their time and feedback. Nur Bilge Criss, Yüksel İnan, and Walter Kretchik, mentors from my Bilkent days, turned my fuzzy ideas into something much better – just as they had done in the past. James Matray’s comments on the second chapter at the SHAFR conference in 2011, the many email correspondences with Tom Schwartz, and a chance meeting with Abbas Milani in Palo Alto gave the dissertation a viii much-needed reality check. Malcolm Byrne, Jim Goode, Vicky de Grazia, Jim Hershberg, John Limbert, James Edward Miller, Christian Ostermann, and Salim Yaqub helped to improve the end product with their comments and critiques on chapters and proto-chapters. Although administrative staff gets much flak in academic circles these days, I have found little to complain about UVA in that regard. Over the years, folks at the International Studies Office (ISO), especially Richard Tanson and Adrienne Kim-Bird, made sure that my slips with documents and course registration deadlines would not get me deported from the United States. Molly Angevine, Jewel Courtney Hay, Kent Merritt, Kathleen Miller, Liz Smith, and Ella Wood, the History Department’s able and amiable administrators, helped mortals like me with The University’s labyrinthine procedures. In this category, Jenni Via deserves special recognition: without her patience and resourcefulness, I may not have finished the Ph.D. program. Colleagues at UVA’s Alderman Library, where I worked as a reference librarian, made the job feel like a long intellectual conversation (or occasional moments of clowning on my part) for which I happened to get paid. Thank you, Anne Benham, Bryson Clevenger, Patricia Courtney, Haynes Earnhardt, Warner Granade, Alli King, Jared Loewenstein, Elizabeth Margutti, Rich Miller, Tim Morton, Arlyn Newcomb, Irene Norvelle, Barbie Selby, Keith Weimer, and Muhammad Sajjad Yusuf.