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British Dilemmas: Arms Sales and Human Rights in Anglo-Iranian Relations (1968-1979)

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British Dilemmas: Arms Sales and Human Rights in Anglo-Iranian Relations (1968-1979) British Dilemmas: Arms Sales and Human Rights in Anglo-Iranian Relations (1968-1979) Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy At the University of Leicester By Okhan Erciyas Department of Politics and International Relations University of Leicester December 2019 British Dilemmas: Arms Sales and Human Rights in Anglo- Iranian Relations (1968-1979) Okhan Erciyas Abstract This thesis examines the impact of the arms trade and human rights on British perceptions of and foreign policy towards Iran (1968-1979). This thesis aims to further understanding of Britain’s commercial interests in Iran and how this affected the UK’s response to developments leading to the fall of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in 1979. By critically analysing archival documents, the thesis explains how inter-departmental perceptions of Iran varied. After presenting the historical background and methodological considerations in the Introduction, Chapter One discusses the UK’s dilemma with regard to promoting British defence sales and contributing to Iran’s foreign indebtedness by analysing the views of both the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The chapter also highlights British views on the Shah’s personality and the lack of planning in Iranian arms procurement. Chapter Two explores Britain’s efforts to keep its share in the Iranian arms market. It also discusses the UK’s dilemma in terms of balancing arms sales with public criticism of Iran’s poor human rights record. Chapter Three looks at Iranian discontent with the Shah’s regime. The chapter shows how Iran’s response to demands for political freedom caused a dilemma for the FCO authorities. Chapter Four, which examines the dilemmas described in Chapter Three, highlights the fundamental difference between the FCO and the Home Office (HO) in the case of the student occupation in 1975. It also discusses Foreign Secretary David Owen’s exchanges with the Iranians on the issue of human rights in 1977. The primary finding of this thesis is that the UK’s emphasis on its commercial interests in Iran blinded it to the rise in discontent with the Shah’s rule and the possible consequences of this. Secondly, it argues that the FCO adopted a norm of promoting British arms sales to Iran and avoiding criticism of the human rights record of the Iranian regime. 1 Acknowledgements This research is the outcome of a long journey during which I immensely enjoyed discussing opinions and exchanging views. Without having the necessary funds, however, I could barely dare to consider pursuing a PhD degree in the United Kingdom. I am indebted to Turkish taxpayers and the Ministry of Education for providing generous funds for the first two years of my research project and the University of Leicester for waiving tuition fees for the third year. My sincerest thanks go to my supervisor Prof. Mark Phythian for his endless support during every stage of my research. His guidance has immensely contributed to my academic skills and the completion of this thesis. I thank Dr Robert Dover for his comments which clarified the contribution of this research project. Gratitude goes to my lecturers from my both undergraduate and master’s degree who both inspired and supported me to pursue a PhD degree. I am also thankful to the staff at the University of Leicester, whose help was most valuable in overcoming challenges. My special thanks go to the staff at both David Wilson Library and Kimberlin Library for maintaining a lovely place to study. Most importantly, I thank my extended family for being by my side during my studies. My deepest gratitude goes to my beloved wife Fatoş and our precious daughter Defne Büşra for their patience and love, which made completion of this research possible. 2 List of Abbreviations AI: Amnesty International AIOC: Anglo-Iranian Oil Company APOC: Anglo-Persian Oil Company BAC: British Aircraft Corporation BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation BP: British Petroleum CENTO: Central Treaty Organisation DA: Defence Attaché FCO: Foreign and Commonwealth Office FO: Foreign Office HDS: Head of Defence Sales at the Ministry of Defence HIM: His/Her Imperial Majesty HMG: His/Her Majesty’s Government HO: Home Office IIAF: Imperial Iranian Air Force IIGF: Imperial Iranian Ground Forces IIN: Imperial Iranian Navy MED: Middle East Department at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office MinTech: Ministry of Technology MoD: Ministry of Defence MP: Member of the Parliament NA: Naval Attaché NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation PM: Prime Minister RAF: Royal Air Force RN: Royal Navy UK: United Kingdom UN: United Nations 3 US: United States USSR: United States of Soviet Russia SAVAK: Sazeman-i Ettela'at va Amniyat-i Keshvar (in Persian: National Organization for Security and Intelligence) 4 Contents INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 7 1. Research Context and Objectives ..................................................................................... 8 2. Historical Background ..................................................................................................... 11 3. Scope of the Thesis ......................................................................................................... 16 4. Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 19 5. Methodology ................................................................................................................... 21 6. Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 23 6.1. Anglo-Iranian Relations: Withdrawal and its Aftermath ......................................... 23 6.2. Arms Trade .............................................................................................................. 33 6.3. Human Rights .......................................................................................................... 38 7. Contribution to the Literature ........................................................................................ 42 8. Organisation of Chapters ................................................................................................ 43 CHAPTER ONE Getting a Share in the Iranian Arms Market ....................................................... 46 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 46 1. First object: Breaking the American Domination ............................................................ 47 2. British Dilemmas During Major Arms Sales Negotiations ............................................... 49 2.1. Rapier Air Defence System ...................................................................................... 62 2.2. Chieftain Main Battle Tank ...................................................................................... 72 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 86 CHAPTER TWO Dilemmas in Re-Defining the UK’s Arms Sales Policy Towards Iran................... 88 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 88 1. Developments in the UK-Iran Arms Sales Relationship, 1976-1977 ............................... 89 2. British Dilemmas in Defending Arms Sales Policy ......................................................... 102 2.1. Dilemma in Supplying Internal Security Equipment ............................................. 106 2.2. How to Handle Growing British Public Scrutiny and the Shah’s Fall ..................... 114 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 118 CHAPTER THREE Student and Guerrilla Movement in Iran: Origins of British Dilemmas ......... 121 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 121 1. Student Protests: Focusing Global Attention on Iran ................................................... 122 1.1. Increase in Protest Movements ............................................................................ 130 1.2. Iranian Attempts to Cloak Student Protests ......................................................... 133 2. Urban Terrorism and Questions on Treatment of Prisoners in Iran ............................. 137 2.1. Early British Dilemmas During Violent Disturbances in Iran ................................. 142 5 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 149 CHAPTER FOUR British Dilemmas in Responding to Public Criticism of Iran’s Human Rights Record ....................................................................................................................................... 151 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 151 1. Iranian Student Occupation of the Iranian Embassy in London: Uneasy British Experience of Iranian Criticism ............................................................................................. 152 1.1. The FCO Respond to the Iranians .........................................................................
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