Zeno of Citium Greece 331 B.C. – 256 B.C.

• Started his career as a merchant, was then shipwrecked in Athens. Studied Socrates, Xenophon, and Crates the Cynic; started his own type of philosophy, Stoicism.

• Zeno’s original Stoicism – which sometimes differs from later versions of Stoicism – features the concept of Natural Law. Being rational, humans can discover Natural Law, and live according to it: this is simultaneously being in harmony with nature, and being virtuous. Part of being in harmony with nature is to accept the inevitable, and embrace it – hence the everyday definition of “Stoic” as opposed to the philosophical use of the term. Humans should resist the passions, and prefer reason. Zeno’s four key virtues are: wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. Zeno was opposed to slavery, and emphasized human equality and the idea that people should help each other (mutual aid); perhaps it was for these reasons that he was not popular in Athens. Zeno thought of the universe as a giant life form, with its own mind. Thus there is a link between physics, logic, philosophy, and ethics. Zeno embraced the Aristotle-like notion of moderation and temperance. Stoics participate in society in the mode of “permanent protest” – contrasting to the cynics, who felt no obligation to engage in politics. Zeno thought that men and women should dress alike. All that differs one man from another is virtue. Wrote his own “Republic” which differs markedly from Plato’s. Excessive desire or revulsion cause only pain. The ideal society would need know legal system, if all rational citizens would follow Natural Law.

• Zeno’s Stoicism would become very popular, not in Greece, but centuries later, in Rome. Some Romans developed their own versions of Stoicism, which differ slightly from Zeno’s. Some historians see similarities between Stoicism and Christianity, but other see the two as opposed.

• “There are, thus, two problems: first, if something is described as Stoic, it might have been unrecognizable to Zeno; secondly, even when it is explicitly attributed to Zeno, it may be expressed in a way which is more appropriate to later thinkers than to Zeno.”

• Committed suicide after stubbing his toe, saying, “I’m coming; why do you call me?” He felt that it was a sign that his time had come.