Epicurus Epicurus was born in February 341 BCE. He earned his basic education in philosophy after four years of tutoring, and at the age of 18, Epicurus served in the military for two years in Athens. After completing his education, Epicurus began teaching around the Aegean, eventually settling back in Athens. There, he purchased some land and founded a school which was given the name of ‘The Garden’, for its construction in the garden of his house. The Garden soon became a notable institute for the progress of philosophical education, and it also held the exclusivity of being the first philosophical Greek institute that allowed women to take part in learning. Epicurus strongly advocated friendship as an important root for a happy and fulfilling life, and thus, his school provided the community with the opportunity to interact and form constructive relationships. Epicurus has played an extremely vital role in the progress of science as a discipline. Epicurus was the first Greek philosopher to attempt to break free society from religious superstitions by preaching that God does not punish or reward humans, and that a man’s sole objective should be to form a self-sufficient and happy life by surrounding oneself with reliable and cherished friends. Epicurus was a strong advocate of free will. The development of a pleasant and comfortable life, in his view, was the core purpose of life, and good and bad consequences could only be evaluated on the principles of pain and pleasure. Epicurus believed that whatever serves to provide pleasure can be termed as good, and whatever leads to discomfort can be termed as bad. He advocated against any sort of overabundance as he believed, all excesses eventually lead to pain. Epicurus died in 270 BCE at the age of 72 after a prolonged suffrage with kidney stones. Hypatia Hypatia, the first prominent mathematical philosopher was born in 370 A.D. in Alexandria, Egypt. She was born to Theon, an important professor at the University of Alexandria. He raised Hypatia in the disciplines of arts, science, literature and philosophy. Meanwhile, young Hypatia was also trained in physical activities such as swimming, riding and rowing. While attending school in Athens, Greece, her mathematical ability began to spread as she neared the completion of her education. After, Hypatia became a Professor of Philosophy and Mathematics at the University of Alexandria. Hypatia’s speeches were iconic and extremely inspiring, people travelled from far and wide to come and listen to her speak. Hypatia is credited for several contributions to the discipline of philosophy, however the exact number of her works is unknown as they have since been destroyed. In 412, Hypatia’s teachings and dedication to polytheism began attracting criticism and hatred from the dominant Christians. On her way back from the university, Hypatia was chased by an angry mob. They caught up with her, and she was brutally murdered. Her legacy remains as the first woman to earn fame in the fields of mathematics and philosophy. Aristotle Aristotle was born on 384 BCE; he is a famous Greek philosopher. Aristotle was the student Plato and went on to become the teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote more than 200 works on topics such as government, astronomy, and political science. In 335 BCE, Aristotle started a school called the Lyceum. At this school, he taught his students the “golden mean.” The mean is the middle position between two extremes. The idea of the golden mean is that people should leave moderately. For example, individuals should not eat too little or too much. Instead, they should just eat just enough to stay well. Aristotle had many interests, including science. He studied the stars, plants, and animals and carefully recorded what he observed. Aristotle classified living things according to their similarities and differences. Aristotle’s methods were an important step in the development of modern science. Like Plato, Aristotle also wrote about government. He studied and compared the governments of different city-states and hoped to find the best political system. In his book Politics, Aristotle divided governments into three types: The first was monarchy, or rule by one person. The second was oligarchy, which is rule by a few people. The third type was democracy, or rule by many. Aristotle believed the best government had features of all three. A chief executive would serve as head of state. A council or legislature would assist this leader and be supported by the people. Aristotle’s ideas influenced the way Europeans and Americans thought about government. The authors of the US Constitution, like Aristotle, believed that no one person or group should have too much power. Aristotle died in 322 BCE in Eubeo of natural causes. Socrates Although a sculptor by training, Socrates loved philosophy. He lived in Athens and spent most of his time teaching. Socrates did not leave a written record of his beliefs. Information about him is found in his students’ writings. Socrates believed in absolute truth and that all knowledge was within a person. In his search for truth, Socrates created a new way of questioning called the Socratic Method. Today, many university professors use the Socratic Method when they teach. Socrates did not lecture. Instead, he asked pointed questions and waited for his students to respond. He wanted students to find the answers for themselves and form their own opinion. Some Athenian leaders believed that the Socratic Method was dangerous. At one time, Athens had allowed its people to speak freely. They could publicly question their leaders. However, when Athens lost the Peloponnesian War, its new rulers limited this freedom. The Athenians no longer trusted open debate. This method of discussion, however, was exactly what Socrates thought was necessary. He continued to teach his students. In 399 BCE, city leaders – fearing his influence – arrested Socrates. They charged that he had urged young people to rebel against the government. A jury found Socrates guilty and sentenced him to death. Following the verdict of the court, Socrates was given the opportunity to leave Athens and live. Instead, he stayed. Surrounded by his friends and students, Socrates gave his last speech. He said that he was living under the city’s laws. As a result, he stated, he was committed to obeying them. Socrates then drank poison to carry out the jury’s sentence and died. Plato The philosopher Plato was one of Socrates’ students. Unlike Socrates, Plato recorded his ideas in writing. One work Plato wrote was The Republic. It presented his plan for an ideal society and government. Plato had planned a career in government. However, he was horrified by the death of his mentor, Socrates. As a result, Plato left politics and spent many years traveling and writing. When Plato returned to Athens in 387 BCE, he started the Academy, which was a school where students learned using Socrates’ method of questioning. His school attracted young people from Athens and other city-states. He believed that by training the mind, people could discover the truth. In The Republic, Plato organized society into three groups. At the top were philosopher kings. They ruled through logic and wisdom. Warriors, the second group, defended society from attack, using force. The third group included the rest of the people, whose role was to produce society’s food, clothing, and shelter. They lacked the wisdom of the kings and the courage of the warriors. Plato believed that an ideal society must have a just and reasonable government. In The Republic, Plato noted his dislike of Athenian Democracy. He wrote that the common people did not think for themselves and that they could be easily influenced into making foolish decisions. Plato believed that ‘philosopher kings’ were intelligent and well-educated. He felt these kings would place the needs of the community ahead of their own needs. Plato wanted only these philosopher kings to govern the citizens of Greece. Despite his distrust of the common people, Plato was willing to grant more rights to women. He believed that women should have the same opportunities for education and jobs that men have. The circumstances surrounding his death are clouded, though it is fairly certain that he died in Athens around 348 B.C.E., when he was in his early 80s. Some scholars suggest that he died while attending a wedding, while others believe he died peacefully in his sleep. Zeno of Citium A Phoenician thinker named Zeno developed a philosophy called Stoicism. Zeno did not have the money to rent a lecture hall in which to teach. Instead, he taught at a building called “the painted porch.” The Greek word for porch was stoa. The term stoicism thus comes from the Greek word stoa. The Stoics claimed that people who were guided by their emotions lived unhappy lives. They believed that happiness resulted from using reason. Sound thinking, they thought, should guide decisions. Today, the word stoic is used to describe someone who seems not affected by joy or sadness. Unlike Epicureans, Stoics thought people had a duty to serve their community. The ideas of the Stoics would later influence Roman thinkers. Zeno was known for his powers of self- discipline and his serious lifestyle; he was careful with his money, ate food that did not require cooking, and wore thin clothing. He was very much respected by the citizens of Athens for living according to his own teachings, and for setting an example of restraint and virtue for the young men of the city. Zeno died around 246 B.C.E.. There were varying reports about how he died. One follower reported that he fell as he was leaving his school and broke one of his toes; striking the ground with his hand, he repeated a line out of the Niobe, “I come, why call me so?” and died.