Cultural Routes and Heritage Trails 21

2 Cultural Routes and Heritage Trails

Introduction

This chapter commences an examination of the component parts of the conceptual model introduced in Chapter 1. The focus of the chapter is the supply side of routes and trails, and in this case cultural routes and heritage trails, probably the most popular type of tourist trail. In short, these are organized ways for cycling, walking, driving or riding that draw on the cultural heritage of a region and provide learning experiences and visitor enjoyment. They are marked on the ground with signs or other interpretive media and on maps that help guide visitors along their course (MacLeod, 2004). Heritage routes and trails tend to be most prevalent in areas with already high levels of tourism and, while there are many heritage trails in the less-developed parts of Africa, Latin America and Asia (e.g. the Slave Route, the Inca Trail and the Silk Road), their preponderance tends to be in the developed parts of the world, particularly in North America, Europe, Australia, New Zealand and Japan. As a result, and given the availability of information and data, the majority of trails mentioned in this chapter are from the developed world. Where available, information is also presented about examples from less-developed regions. This emphasis on more affluent countries does not imply that these types of routes and trails do not exist elsewhere, or that other places are less important. It simply reflects a greater abundance of information and empirical examples. There are literally thousands of cultural heritage-based routes in all parts of the world. Some are more famous and well-trodden than others, and they exist on many different scales. While this chapter cannot possibly examine all of them, or even mention them by name, it does highlight a multitude of Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright major trends from the supply perspective and elucidates a number of heritage trails in considerable detail. Although both culture and nature trails are

important tourism resources, there are several different characteristics that separate them. The next chapter will examine nature trails in greater detail. This chapter is structured as follows. First is a discussion on the purposes of cultural heritage trails, including enjoyment, preservation, image enhancement of place, economic development and as instruments of power and per- suasion. Second, a typology and model of cultural heritage trails is introduced, which categorizes trails into two defined types: organically evolved and purposive routes. Organically evolved routes include trade routes, explorer- settler-migration routes, religious routes/pilgrim trails, and intentionally built linear resources such as historic railways, canals and relict boundaries. In contrast, purposive cultural trails are composed of short trails at historic sites or gardens, maritime routes, urban heritage ways, literary, film and music trails, industrial trails, agricultural trails, food and wine routes, and inorganic religious trails that are products of collaborative networks developed between individual nodes.

Purposes of Cultural Heritage Trails

Cultural resource-based routes provide considerable public enjoyment and recreation, both for residents and tourists. In addition, they serve a variety of important social, economic and political purposes. One of the leading roles of heritage trails is the preservation of historic values and conservation of cultural resources and historic routeways, including migration routes, explorer trails, railways and logging paths (Hayes & MacLeod, 2007; Ramsay & Truscott, 2003; Snowball & Courtney, 2010; Timothy, 2014). In common with cultural heritage-based tourism in general, these routes provide information about, and commemorate, past historical events, places and peoples. They are interpreted with a variety of tools, including signs, plaques, audio guides, maps and leaflets, or human guides. Interpretation is a well-recognized method of increasing public awareness and education, and according to interpretation specialists, knowledge begets respect, which has a tendency to translate into increased public appreciation for resources and boosted efforts to conserve (O’Brien & Curtis, 1979; Tilden, 1977; Timothy & Boyd, 2003). Part of the Council of Europe’s rationale for initiating the Cultural Routes Programme was to help protect Europe’s cultural heritage (Moulin & Boniface, 2001). Likewise, the 1968 National Trails System Act was imple- mented to protect cultural and natural resources in the United States (US). In Belize, the Punta Gorda Trail was set up for tourists in large part to help protect traditional Garifuna and Maya cultures, including houses, agriculture, food and language (Boucher, 1990). Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright A second purpose of cultural routes is image enhancement and boosting a sense of place. There are many examples of cities that have utilized urban

trails as a way of improving their images. Mayfield, New South Wales, Australia, developed a heritage walk to convert its persistent negative stereo- type of an old, industrial suburb into a more visitor-friendly destination. This was enacted at the local level to achieve a more positive image and cultivate a sense of community pride (Markwell et al., 2004: 462). Such efforts have an ability to empower communities socially, psychologically and politically so that they are better able to determine their own future development options, including tourism (Timothy, 2007). Trail development also contributes to a deeper sense of place (Hayes & MacLeod, 2007) as important local events and cultures are highlighted for outside consumption. This leads to the third purpose of cultural trails: economic development (Garcés Feliú, 2011). In addition to strengthening a sense of place and enhanc- ing a regional image, trails can also serve in place promotional efforts. They often feature in tourism marketing campaigns and can be prominently showcased on destination websites and in books and brochures. In addition to their conservation ethos, heritage routes were recognized by the Council of Europe as being important in encouraging the growth of European heritage tourism (Hitrec, 1996; Moulin & Boniface, 2001). Much of the rationale for establishing trails is their economic potential for bringing income to the destination, providing jobs for locals and creating tax revenues. As stimula- tors of local economies, people are hired not only to manage the trails themselves, but participating organizations, retailers, attractions and other service providers along the trails see important economic outcomes as well. This appears to be especially true in the case of purposive cultural trails, which are often linked assemblages of individual businesses and heritage sites along a planned corridor, such as wineries, vineyards or viticulture museums along a wine route. Finally, like other cultural heritage attractions, trails are sometimes bred to become political pawns or other instruments to exercise power and per- suasion (Timothy & Boyd, 2003, 2006). Their very role of conserving and interpreting elements of the human past renders them political by default, for the people or organizations that establish a given route are the ones who dictate the content of the events it aims to commemorate. They emphasize the dominant culture or people in power and are selective in what they por- tray to users. In the words of Shaw and MacLeod (2000: 173), visitors are ‘set on a prescribed route designed to convey a particular story or place image’. According to Teather and Chow (2003), the Sun Yat-sen Heritage Trail in Hong Kong makes a loud political statement in commemorating the relin- quishment of colonial power in the former British colony. It intentionally ignores most references to the colonial past and connects sites in Hong Kong that were critical to the Sun Yat-sen revolution. Several trails focus on telling a more holistic truth about heritage by Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright emphasizing the peoples, places and events that have been, through the gen- erations, written out of official history. For instance, the Clerkenwell Historic

Trail in London emphasizes the heritages that have been largely ignored or written out of the official narrative of the city. In this case, the Clerkenwell Trail stresses the marginal places and peoples of immigrants who helped build the city (Shaw & MacLeod, 2000). A related trend has occurred in the southeastern US. In recent years several black history, Civil War and civil rights trails have appeared on the map to re-interpret a more balanced view of slavery, the African American plight in the southern US and the essential role of African Americans in the development of the American nation (Ebony, 1990; Geiger & Werner, 2009; Kammen, 1993; Mahoney, 1999; Sevigny, 1992). Another political use of trails is to help create a sense of regional, national or supranational identity. The European Cultural Routes Programme aims to further the cause of a united Europe, pan-European dialogue and the ‘European ideal’ (Moulin & Boniface, 2001: 237). The program was initiated, in part at least, to embolden the common European identity through a network of cultural routes (Hitrec, 1996; Moulin & Boniface, 2001).

Cultural Heritage Trails as Tourism Resources

The ‘evolved’, ‘designed’ and ‘associative’ cultural landscapes in the World Heritage Convention’s Cultural Landscapes Operational Guidelines were adapted by Ramsay and Truscott (2003: 32–35) to classify trails as linear cultural landscapes. According to their assessment, evolved trails are tracks that began in ancient days as linear access routes for native peoples. From there, they morphed into migratory and resource extraction tracks, and eventually into motor vehicle routes. Designed tracks, according to Ramsay and Truscott, are purpose-built courses, including railways, bridges, timber industry lines and fire management trails that have had important social development implications. Associative tracks are historic in nature and still highly valued by native peoples for their religious or heritage values, and by others for their recreational potential. The associative value also connects people with folklore, spirituality, romanticized images of place and past ways of life. Similar to Ramsay and Truscott’s (2003) typology, the development of heritage trails is observed in this book from two broad perspectives (Figure 2.1). The first of these is ‘organically-evolved cultural routes’, which today follow the original tracks of a true historic trail of some sort, or a more recent intentional corridor, many of which were based upon traditional indigenous hunting and migration routes. Some of these also follow linear-shaped natural resources, such as rivers, escarpments or coastlines (Schutt, 1997; Timothy, 2009) but are, nonetheless, cultural in origin. The key element of note here in the conceptual diagram is the movement from ‘original’ track to ‘devel- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright oped’ track, where many of the original areas of tracks have been converted from ones of interest to ones of use, represented in Figure 2.1 as nodes of

(i) Organically-evolved Routes

Phase 1 Original areas of interest

Original track/route

Phase 2

Start Intervening Opportunity Finish

Developed track/route

(ii) Purposive Routes

Phase 1

Zone of thematic interest

Thematic nodes within a defined geographic area

Phase 2

Start Developed Thematic Nodes Finish

Designed track/route

Figure 2.1 Types of cultural heritage trails

intervening opportunity. In terms of real-world application, organic tourist trails can be reduced into several subtypes: long-distance routes that were part of an original trade route (e.g. the Silk Road); explorer, settler or migration routes (e.g. the Cabot Trail); ancient pilgrimage routes (e.g. Camino de Santiago); and human-created linear courses that were not developed specifically to be a tourist trail but function as one anyway. This last category includes railway lines, highways, international borders, canals and other such features. As noted in the introductory chapter, many original hunting, trading and migratory paths have evolved into the highways and motorways of today; many remain in rural or wilderness areas and function as recreational foot- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright paths. Some long-distance tourist routes were once part of an original trade or migration route (Goodey, 1975; MacLeod, 2004). There are numerous

examples of cultural trails that follow natural features and may have originally been used for other migratory purposes. As well, a number of highways have been officially designated scenic routes/byways for tourism, and heritage railways are important linear cultural resources for tourism. Examples of each of these will be examined in this chapter. An evolutionary model presented by Murray and Graham (1997) helps illustrate the phenomenon of organically developed heritage corridors, as they evolved from being original tracks to developed routes (Figure 2.2). They used the Camino de Santiago pilgrimage trail in Europe to illustrate how an original cultural route, in this case one developed over several centuries by Roman Catholic pilgrims, can evolve spatially, temporally and pur- posefully from its original function into a more generalized touristic role. According to Murray and Graham (1997: 522), the original medieval route resembled a zone of movement wherein people circulated along a general route from end to end, between the origin and the destination. During stage two, support infrastructure began to appear, such as marked paths, bridges, hostels, inns and other sojourner services. The end-to-end goal of the path became less important as travelers adapted to the incursion of new intermediate points and attractions along the way. During stage three, the spatial format changes to a multi-entry configuration; voyagers are able to access the trail from different locations and participate in the experience in different forms, depending on time constraints and accessibility options. During this phase, the ancient emphasis on the origin and destination is superseded by multiple entry points, increased mobility, a greater diversity of trail users, and more varied uses of the corridor, although trail use still stresses a unidirectional movement toward the destination. The number of intermediate nodes increases. Historic cities and towns begin to dominate stops and entry points along the way, and more services are offered to trail users, including lodging, dining and tourist information. User numbers increase and the less attractive portions of the route are bypassed in favor of more interesting locales. During Murray and Graham’s stages four and five, for many visitors, the places along the way become more important than the end destination. The route has become multi-use in nature and its original purpose becomes secondary to its touristic use. During the fourth phase, the trail not only becomes peppered with multiple entry points, it is also characterized by multiple directions to and from the origin and destination, as well as between trail nodes. Loops and multi-directional use are now common- place, as are multiple transportation modes, including walking, horseback riding, bicycles and motor vehicles. The amenity servicescapes now extend far beyond the physical trail, even though they are developed in relative proximity because their raison d’être is the trail. The final stage in the Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright evolution is typified by product diversification through new products and market expansion efforts. The route becomes a ‘spine of information’ and

Stage 1: Original route

Origin

Destination Stage 2: Original route modified

Origin Destination

Stage 3: Formalized routes (walking & touring) with stops

Origin Destination

Stage 4: Formalized routes with recognized links between stops

Origin Destination

Stage 5: Mini routes within formalized routes developed and promoted

Origin Destination

Stage 6: Developments take place beyond the recognized route

Origin Destination

Figure 2.2 Evolution of trails from original tracks to developed routes Source: Adapted from Murray and Graham (1997)

a corridor for tourism services, but the spatial scope of tourism extends quite far beyond the original trail. The second type of cultural heritage track presented in this chapter is Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright referred to here as ‘purposive cultural routes’, referring to heritage trails that were not necessarily original paths or travel routes but have been intentionally

developed and assembled for modern recreational and touristic use. These routes are shown as schema (ii) in Figure 2.1. Conceptually, the position taken is that a designed tourist track/route was developed from a defined geographic area that had nodes of common thematic interest contained within. Purposive routes are typically delineated not by their historic association with a set route but rather by thematic content to link sites, establishments and communities together that have similar pasts and similar products which appeal to comparable demand cohorts. Of this sort of trail, Logan (2002: 23) noted that they must ‘possess a set of values whose whole is greater than the sum of the parts’ and that points along the route must be understood holistically as an entire thematic collection, not the parts individually. Derrett and St Vincent Welch (2008) illustrated this notion in their examination of farm shed clusters in Australia’s Outback that could be catalogued and connected by a drivable scenic route to preserve the rural landscape and highlight a nos- talgic network of farm buildings that illustrate the ‘spirit of the Australian Outback’. Likewise, Smith et al. (1986) examined the potential for this sort of route to join small, rural communities in northern California under the theme of ‘Highway 89: California’s scenic mountain route’. Each community lacked the financial resources to promote themselves individually; the route was proposed as a way of promoting the villages together for the common good as a regional destination. The lines between these two types of heritage trails are often blurry and ill-defined. However, there is little mistaking that nearly all, if not all, cultural tourism routes fit within the parameters of either organic or purposive heritage trails.

Organic cultural routes As stated earlier, there are a few different varieties of organic cultural routes that are commonly used and promoted as tourism and recreation trails today. This section presents a number of examples of heritage trails that include a mix of indigenous, trade, migration, engineering trails of the modern world, and cultural paths that follow linear natural features.

Trade routes For millennia, humans have traveled away from home for commerce. Buying and selling agricultural produce, manufactured items or the products of hunting and fishing, people have long traveled great distances by foot, horse, carriage and watercraft for trade. Many trade routes became famous and provided the fodder of great literary works and worldwide legends. Some ancient channels of commerce functioned for centuries until modern transportation methods replaced traditional corridors, while some still function Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright today. Several historic and well-known market routes have garnered the attention of supranational alliances. These organizations (e.g. the World

Tourism Organization or UNESCO) aim to establish long-distance cultural routes based upon the commercial activities that once defined them. Perhaps one of the longest and most complicated trade routes (gold, ivory, silk and bronze) to have existed in recorded history was the Silk Road, which operated between 300 BC and the 14th century AD. Spanning nearly 7000 km from China in the east to southern Europe in the west, the Silk Road comprised many interconnected branches and sub-routes (Misra, 2011; Tang, 1991). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (1996) and UNESCO (Shackley, 2003) have since the early 1990s had an interest in developing the Silk Road as a viable tourism product through Asia and the Middle East to afford modern travelers the opportunity to walk in the footsteps of Marco Polo and the trade routes that connected Asia and Europe in the past. The Silk Road has been a longstanding project of the UNWTO since 1994, today involving 24 countries all linked by a special promotional logo. There have been three circles of involvement as to how the project has been promoted and developed over time. The first circle of involvement focused on encouraging the Central Asian countries to open their borders to tourism. The UNWTO has been able to help these countries prepare for tourism through the development of action plans, assisting with tourism work- force training, as well as working with government bodies to write legislation that affords ease of movement across borders. The second circle involved working with countries that have relatively open borders with respect to tourism, including in particular China, Pakistan and to some extent Iran. The focus here on sections of the Silk Road that traverse these countries is to strengthen tourism development. The last circle of involvement focused on countries at the start and end of the ‘road’, namely Japan, the Koreas and Southeast Asian countries at one end, and the Arab and European countries at the other. Here the UNWTO has focused on creating greater awareness of the Silk Road in the main and emerging tourism-generating markets. Efforts have been made by the UNWTO to market various sections of the route, particularly through China and the countries of Central Asia, using package tours, flight connections, train services and automobile travel on major road- ways. China and Uzbekistan are the two countries most dependent on Silk Road-based tourism (Shackley, 2003; Tang, 1991). The Frankincense Route is a similar long-distance trade route with ancient origins (Blair, 2003). Frankincense is a balm generated by certain trees that grow in arid regions of the Middle East and Africa. Owing to its aromatic features, in the ancient world it was one of the most valuable trade commodities. Many merchants and traders set out to harvest, purchase and deliver frankincense to their customers in the Mediterranean region and Asia. Ancient records show the development of frankincense trade routes, many of which were still in use in medieval times (Shackley, 2003: 12). Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright In the last 20 years or so, primarily before the onset of large-scale terror- ist activities, a handful of countries on the Arabian Peninsula (e.g. Yemen

Timothy, Dr. Dallen J., and Prof. Stephen W. Boyd. Tourism and Trails : Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues, Channel View Publications, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/natl-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1868422. Created from natl-ebooks on 2019-05-04 06:41:08. 26 Tourism and Trails cance corridor native Hawaiian culture Hawaiian native Settler trail settler trail and Explorer trail Explorer migration Settler trail/forced route Settler trail/trade Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon, Oregon, Nevada, Missouri, Nebraska, Wyoming Utah, Virginia Maryland, Dakota, North Nebraska, Montana, Washington South Dakota, Oregon, Wyoming Utah Mexico, New 200620042000km 4800 Columbia, of District Delaware, km 4150 Texas Louisiana, km 650 Texas Mexico, New 1986 settler trail and Explorer km 1880 settler trail and Explorer Wyoming Montana, Oregon, Idaho, migration Settler trail/forced

Designated National Historic Trails in the US, 2013 Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright Adentro NHT Chesapeake NHT Chesapeake NHT Tejas NHT Table 2.1 2.1 Table nameTrail established Date Length Location Primary historic signiﬁ El Camino Real de Tierra Tierra Real de El Camino NHTIditarod 1978Old Spanish NHTkm 3780 Alaska 2002km 4300 Nevada, Colorado, California, Arizona, Settler trail/transport Ala Kahakai NHT*Ala Kahakai NHTCalifornia 2000 Smith Captain John los Real de El Camino 1992km 287 Hawaii Anza NHT Bautista de Juan km 9117 Clark NHTLewis and Kansas, Idaho, Colorado, California, 1990 NHT Pioneer Mormon 1978 (Nee-Me-Poo) Perce Nez km 1900 1978 California Arizona, km 6000 interprets and Preserves Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Illinois, Idaho, km 2100 Utah, Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, settler trail and Explorer

Timothy, Dr. Dallen J., and Prof. Stephen W. Boyd. Tourism and Trails : Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues, Channel View Publications, 2014. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/natl-ebooks/detail.action?docID=1868422. Created from natl-ebooks on 2019-05-04 06:41:08. Cultural Routes and Heritage Trails 27 communications route communications military route march Settler trail war trail Revolutionary corridor/ Transport route/ Settler trail/trade Military route migration Settler trail/forced Military route Oregon, Wyoming Oregon, Virginia Tennessee, Wyoming Utah, Nevada, Nebraska, Oklahoma Mexico, Virginia Carolina, Missouri, North Kentucky, Tennessee Oklahoma, Massachusetts, Maryland, Columbia, Pennsylvania, York, New Jersey, New Virginia Island, Rhode

2009km 970 of District Delaware, Connecticut, Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright Revolutionary Route NHT Revolutionary Oregon NHTOregon 1978km 3490 Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Idaho, areas. cultural assembled to link Hawaiian route, *This is a purposive cultural Note: (2013a). Service Park National US Source: Overmountain Victory NHT Victory Overmountain NHT Express Pony 1980 Fe NHTSanta NHT to Montgomery Selma 1992km 443 NHT Banner Star-Spangled 1996 South Carolina, Carolina, North NHT Tears of Trail 2008 1987km 3164 Washington-Rochambeau Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, California, km 87 1987km 1936 km 470 Alabama Missouri, New Kansas, Colorado, Maryland, Columbia, of District km 3500 Illinois, Georgia, Arkansas, Alabama, trail/political Civil rights

and Oman) began developing frankincense-themed cultural attractions that link sites (e.g. frankincense trees, remnants of caravan oases and ship ports) together with routes that are believed to have been part of the original frankincense commerce trails (Shackley, 2003: 12). While there is considerable interest in the world of tourism, for these frankincense trails to gain more widespread appreciation, political instability and religious conflict will need to be resolved before tourist routes can successfully be developed through the region. Explorer, settler and migration routes The original paths taken by early frontier settlers, the routes in Africa used by slave traders in the 17th through 19th centuries and migratory routes, whether forced or voluntary, have become important linear resources which, owing to their scale, nearly always have to be traveled by motorized vehicle. Explorer routes crisscrossed North America from the 1500s to the 1800s, as the Spanish, French and British ‘discovered’ the Americas and began explor- ing for land, wealth and trade passages to Asia. Many of these tracks were critical to the development of American and Canadian society and the settlement of the western frontier (Kaplan, 1997; La Pierre, 1998; Laugesen, 2000; Nickens, 1995; Parfit, 1993; Phillips, 1991; Ross, 1989; Seher, 1991; Staski, 2004; Webster & Webster, 2003; Willingham, 1994). In 1978 in the US, the National Parks and Recreation Act authorized the establishment of National Historic Trails as part of the National Trails System. Today there are 19 National Historic Trails, most administered by the US National Park Service or the Bureau of Land Management in collaboration with the US Forest Service and a number of local non-profit associations (Table 2.1). Nearly all of these are based upon original explorer, settler or migration routes. The Mormon Trail In 1844, after the assassination of Mormon Church leader Joseph Smith, most members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints left Nauvoo, Illinois, on a westward trek to the Valley of the Great Salt Lake, which was at that time a part of Mexico. For the Latter-day Saints (Mormons), leaving US territory would provide the freedom to practice their religion without mob persecution or government interference. The first group of settlers arrived in July 1847. The next year, the territory was ceded by Mexico to the US following the Mexican-American War. The 2092 km track was used as an important migration route for approximately 70,000 Mormons and other westbound settlers until the transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869 (Hill, 1996; Wahlquist, 1994). In 1978, the Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail was established under the auspices of the US National Park Service. While most of the original trail had deteriorated or was covered by roads, buildings and farmland, Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright researchers were able to identify 1150 km of trail segments and nearly 100 significant historic sites along the way. Today, 64% of the land along the trail

is privately owned. Some 20% is owned by the federal government, and 16% is owned by state and local governments. Management of the trail is shared between federal agencies (Bureau of Land Management and US National Park Service), local and state offices, private landholders and trail associations (Threlkeld, 1997). Like most long-distance trails, many people use sections of it for day hikes or weekend trips, although traveling its entire length by car is a very popular holiday option among Latter-day Saints and others today (Hudman & Jackson, 1992; Kimball, 1988; Olsen, 2006). The auto tour route is marked with official National Historic Trail logos and extends 2665 km from Nauvoo, Illinois, to Salt Lake City, Utah (Threlkeld, 1997: 42). The Chilkoot Trail In 1896, gold was discovered in the Klondike region of Canada. Between 1896 and 1899, some 100,000 gold prospectors made their way via different routes to mine and pan for gold in Canada’s Yukon Territory. One of the primary routes was over the Chilkoot Pass, traveling from the now- abandoned village of Dyea, Alaska, to Bennett, British Columbia, also now abandoned, on their way to Dawson City, Yukon – the center of the gold trade (Rennicke, 1997a). While this popular migration route led many miners to the gold fields, it only lasted three years, but it has lived long in North American folklore in books and movies related to the Klondike Gold Rush. Today, this 53 km cross-border hiking trail is part of the Klondike Gold Rush International Historic Park, which connects the Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park (USA) and the Dawson Historical Complex National Historic Site (Canada). On the Canadian side of the border, the Chilkoot Trail is a National Historic Site and is administered by Parks Canada. On the US side, it is a National Historic Landmark and protected by the US National Park Service (Jackson et al., 2003; Masson, 2001).

Case Study: Historic Route 66 Route 66 (nicknamed the Main Street of America and The Mother Road) was one of the original long-distance highways in the US. It was created in 1926 and extended 3940 km through eight states from Chicago, Illinois, to Santa Monica, California (Figure 2.3). Route 66 became one of the most famous and infamous thoroughfares in the nation, and was popularized in fiction writing, music, television and motion pictures. Even today, Route 66 invokes feelings of adventure, nostalgia and the rural American idyll (Caton & Santos, 2007; Wallis, 1992). With increasing numbers of households owning automobiles after the 1920s, the highway became a popular holiday route in the 1920s

and 1930s. During World War II it was an important route for soldiers Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright (Continued)

Case Study: Historic Route 66 (Continued)

2 3 7

5 6 4 1. Chicago 2. St. Louis 3. Tulsa 4. Amarillo 5. Albuquerque 6. Flagstaﬀ 7. Los Angeles

Figure 2.3 Route 66: Illinois to California

heading westward for deployment from California. Perhaps its most famous role, however, was as a migratory route for people escaping the Great Depression, exacerbated by the Dust Bowl of the Midwest, which caused the failure of many farm operations. Approximately 200,000 people left their farms in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, Colorado and New Mexico to find work in California. Route 66 is most closely associated with this natural disaster and the displacement of thousands of Americans seeking survival. With the advent of the Interstate Highway System in 1956, the importance of Route 66 diminished rapidly as many of the settlements and towns along 66 were bypassed entirely by new motorways. Some parts of the old road are covered by interstate highways; many additional pieces have been abandoned or covered over, while some parts are still used as side roads. Today, The Mother Road is experiencing a unique reincarnation. Its iconic status in US history and the burgeoning ‘nostalgia industry’ have brought about the resurgence of Route 66 as a focal point of tourism development (Carden, 2006). Some parts of the road have been designated National Scenic Byways, and many of the towns along its length have begun to brand themselves with the Route 66 trademark. Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright Businesses, historic landmarks and other attractions have also begun

reinventing themselves to serve the increasing number of heritage trail tourists who are retracing the way of Route 66 (DuVal, 2001; Wallis, 1992). Owing to Route 66’s historic importance for the country, several organizations have been established to help in its preservation. In 1999 US Congress enacted a bill to establish the Route 66 Corridor Preservation Program to help protect the deteriorating road and its associated landscape features. It provides logistical support and small grants to help renovate and protect historic properties along the road. The program is administered by the National Park Service and based in Santa Fe, New Mexico. Similarly, the Route 66 Alliance is a non-profit organization that aims to preserve, protect and promote the historic auto corridor. It assists the eight states and communities to develop historic thoroughfare-based tourism and economic development.

Dark migration trails While most of the migration trails already noted have a dark historical element to them, there are a number of forced migration routes that have also come to commemorate dark heritage specifically. Dark tourism has become a common buzzword in academic writing and in the tourism industry in recent years (cf. Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005a; Hartmann, 2014; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Seaton, 1996; Sharpley & Stone, 2009; White & Frew, 2013). Dark tourism rallies around sites and events of human suffering, and the related notion of thanatourism fixates on death-related tourism. While there are murder tour circuits, haunted hikes and ghost routes in Europe, the United Kingdom (UK) and North America (Ashworth & Hartmann, 2005b), which would qualify as dark tourism trails, they are more or less purposive and recently designed tour circuits that aim to guide crime or supernatural enthusiasts between places associated with a specific murder or other tragedy. This section, however, describes more organic dark tourism trails that commemorate events associated with human suffering and other dark histories. Foremost among these are several forced migration routes that denote a dark heritage. Deracination, or forced migration, occurs when groups of people are violently coerced to leave their homelands and migrate to new areas. Perhaps the most pervasive and best-known of these is the African slave trade. While African slavery has existed for more than two millennia, the most extensive and pervasive phase occurred during the 400 years leading up to the 20th century and led from West Africa to European colonies in Asia and the Americas. Others include the coerced relocation of Native Americans by the US government in the 1800s. Several of these types of long-distance migratory routes of darkness are now significant heritage trails. Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright The Slave Route was established by UNESCO in 1994 to document, commemorate and bring to light the sorrowful events of the trans-Atlantic slave

trade. Beginning in villages, slave forts and monuments in West Africa (Teye & Timothy, 2004; Timothy & Teye, 2004; Yankholmes & Boakye, 2010), the Slave Route connects countries, locations and organizations into various itineraries (Shackley, 2003), some of which can be traced by vehicle or foot, although much of it is trans-oceanic and therefore figurative and inaccessible directly to individual travelers. In addition to locations in Africa, North America and the Caribbean, some parts of the route emphasize sites in the metropolitan countries of Europe (e.g. the UK and France) that colonized the Americas (Casbeard et al., 2010). The Slave Route Project aims to fight racism and other intolerances and build international understanding about the malevolence of slavery. As noted by UNESCO (2012), the threefold purpose of the Slave Route is:

• To encourage a better understanding of the causes, forms of operation, issues and consequences of slavery, especially in Africa, Europe, the Americas, the Caribbean, Asia and the Middle East; • To shed light on the global transformations and cultural relationships that have resulted from the history of slavery; and • Contribute to a ‘culture of peace’ by commemorating cultural pluralism, intercultural dialogue and the promotion of new identities.

In 1830, to make way for increased European settlement in the eastern US, the government passed the Indian Removal Act. This law resulted in the forced removal of thousands of Chickasaw, Cherokee, Seminole, Muscogee and Choctaw Indians from their native lands in the southeastern US to the newly created Indian Territory (most of today’s state of Oklahoma) (Gaines & Krakow, 1996; Simms, 1992). Members of each tribe were removed in suc- cessive waves from 1831 until 1838. Numerous of these American natives perished from disease, starvation and exposure during their coerced foot journey westward. Today, a series of original routes used by the US government to relocate Native Americans in the 1830s was combined to commemorate the involuntary exodus and the thousands of deaths that occurred on the trail into the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail. It comprises roads, highways, rivers and walking trails in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma and Tennessee (Gaines & Krakow, 1996; Stewart-Spears, 1993).

Religious routes/pilgrim trails One of the oldest types of organic cultural trails is pilgrimage routes. These have existed for centuries, millennia in some cases, and are popular tourist tracks in Asia, Europe and the Americas (Cerutti & Dioli, 2013; Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright Digance, 2006; Kušen, 2010; Rizzello & Trono, 2013). In India there are customary trails along which Hindu pilgrims make their journeys to the

Ganga or to participate in the Kumbh Mela (Singh, 2006). The pilgrimage circuit between Lumbini, Nepal, and Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar, India, is an important religious route still popular among Buddhists but also among other cultural tourists. As well, in Saudi Arabia there are prescribed paths and routes that Muslim pilgrims must negotiate as part of their pilgrimage rituals in Mecca, although these are not usable by general tourists (Timothy & Iverson, 2006). The Via Dolorosa is a street in the Old City of Jerusalem thought to be the passageway Jesus walked with his cross on the way to Galgotha to be crucified. This short route (approximately 600 meters) became the focus of pilgrims’ attention during the Byzantine era and roughly followed the cur- rent route from the Mount of Olives to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Today, there are 14 Stations of the Cross, or artistic depictions, along the route that commemorate various occurrences during the last hours of Jesus’ life (Bowman, 2000). Via Dolorosa and the stations are an important pilgrimage route for many Christian sects especially during Lent, on Good Friday and Easter. While the Mormon Trail was discussed earlier in this chapter, it is worth mentioning again in the context of religious trails. Although Mormons do not practice any form of official pilgrimage, they are avid travelers to ancient Biblical sites in the Holy Land and to church history sites associated with the establishment of the church in the 1800s in the US and the pioneers’ westward migration to Utah (Olsen, 2006). Part of their passion for faith heritage includes the Mormon Trail, together with its folklore and stories of faith and human tragedy. Since 1997, the Mormon Trail has seen a surge of pioneer trek re-enactments – where thousands of participants dress in period (19th century) clothing, push handcarts and drive wagons along parts of the trail where managing land agencies will allow these activities (Langelo, 2006). The sesquicentennial anniversary of the first wagon train arrival in the Salt Lake Valley was celebrated in 1997 by approximately 10,000 re-enactors (Mormons and non-Mormons), who took part in all or a portion of the 1640 km trek from Omaha, Nebraska, to Salt Lake City (Hill, 1998). Some 43 covered wagons and 400 people traveled the entire distance (Underwood, 1997). For most of the re-enactors, retracing the very paths their forebears created was a highly spiritual experience that built faith and congealed their religious and personal identities (Hill, 1998; Hinckley, 1997). Not all who follow the trail by foot seek a religious experience, although its existence is most certainly a result of religious history and an important part of one Christian denomination’s heritage. Although hundreds, if not thousands, of pilgrimage paths-cum-tourist trails exist throughout the world, some are very noteworthy and have been widely researched in academic writing. Certainly one of the most famous of these is the Camino de Santiago, or Way Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright of St James. According to ancient tradition, St James (Santiago), an apostle of Jesus, was buried in Spain. The case study below provides more details.

Case Study: The Way of St James (Camino De Santiago De Compostela) The remains of St James were purportedly found in 819 AD in northwest- ern Spain in what is today Santiago de Compostela, and a church was built over the tomb. During medieval times, the roads that led to the shrine were enhanced, and the shrine became accessible to larger masses of pilgrims who came to venerate the location. During the Middle Ages, Santiago was the third most visited pilgrimage destination in the world for Roman Catholics, following Rome and Jerusalem. By the 12th century, pilgrims had begun traveling on set routes through France and Spain from all over Europe. The main line and most popular path of the Way of St James (Camino de Santiago) starts in France (Figure 2.4), although there are many secondary routes in Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Portugal, England, and a handful of other countries in Europe (Murray & Graham, 1997; Przybylska & Sołjan, 2010). The French Way is several hundred kilometers in length and requires at least a month to complete (Figure 2.5). It crosses the Pyrenees Mountains into Spain and through the cities of Pamplona, Longroña, Burgos and León. Most people follow the trail on foot, although it is possible to bicycle or ride a horse. Humble lodging is available along the way in pilgrim rest houses, or hostels. Less adventuresome travelers can choose hotel options in villages or towns along the way. Approximately 2.5 million people visit the holy site of Santiago de Compostela each

year, but only about 190,000 approach the destination along the more Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright Figure 2.4 Sign marking the Way of St James in France

Figure 2.5 Way of St James and secondary routes

traditional route. A credential or ‘pilgrim passport’ is given to pilgrims who walk at least 100 km or cycle at least 200 km (Gonzáles & Medina, 2003). After getting it stamped at key locations along the way and after arriving at the destination, an official certificate of completion (compostela) is given, thus confirming the pilgrim status of a trail user (Murray & Graham, 1997). Statistically, these are the ones counted by the pilgrimage office at Santiago de Compostela. The Camino is seen as an important economic driver for the Galicia region of Spain and for all of the communities along its course. As well, the establishment of the route was seen as an important tool for urban renewal in the villages, towns and cities it passes through (Gonzáles & Medina, 2003). Despite the route’s popularity in the Middle Ages, by the 1980s, only a few hundred people walked the trail each year (eturbo News, 2008). However, the Holy Year of 1993 was seen in Spain as a critical time for promoting the trail and using it as an economic engine through tourism. Additional pilgrim hostels were erected, cultural events were planned and delivered, and cities and towns were regenerated (Gonzáles & Medina, 2003). Promotional initiatives by the Spanish government and the Galician regional government, as well as the route’s 1993 inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a Council of Europe Cultural Route have increased trail use dramatically (eturbo

News, 2008; Gonzáles, 2006). It is today much more than a pilgrimage Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright (Continued)

Case Study: The Way of St James (Camino De Santiago De Compostela) (Continued) route; it is also a significant heritage trail for cultural tourists who traverse it for its scenery, its rural landscapes and the villages and towns through which it passes (Santos, 2002). A number of private organizations have been working to help preserve and promote the Camino, with the most salient of these being the Friends of the Way Associations, numbering more than 150 throughout the world. Their goal is to foster networks of inexpensive or free hostels, food and information services, volunteers and research (Gonzáles, 2006).

Intentionally-built linear resources As noted at the outset of this chapter, human-made linear innovations have been created throughout history. Fortifications and political borders are one ancient example. In the contemporary world, railways, highways and canals developed as transportation corridors. Given the interesting heritages associated with all of these linear features, many of them have become important tourist trails.

Historic railways Railway travel is a popular option in many parts of the world, including Asia and Europe. However, in geographically large countries, such as Canada, US and Australia, trains are much less popular as a long-distance transportation option. Rather, they have become important modes of travel where they are in themselves a significant attraction (Loverseed, 1994). Transcontinental train trips are for many passengers the ultimate holiday experience. Heritage railways are another prevalent route-based tourist attraction. The examples illustrated in Table 2.2 reveal the extent of their global appeal. Histo- rically, these have gained considerable popularity since the 1970s, after many railways fell into disuse and dereliction. With this trend, conservation groups, railway hobby enthusiasts and volunteer organizations began to protect existing lines and restore others that had fallen into disrepair (Conlin & Bird, 2014; Prideaux, 1999). Historic railways were not originally linear heritage attractions. They were constructed for the transportation of raw materials from mines and forests to processing plants, manufactured products from factories to markets, or human passengers to their destinations. The attractiveness of historic railways derives from the uniqueness of the old-fashioned machinery, the reputation of well-known rail routes, and the natural and cultural landscapes through which they meander (Henderson, 2011; Orbaşli & Woodward, 2008; Rhoden et al., 2009; Timothy, 2011a). Certain long-distance rail routes Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright that served as crucial transport corridors in the past have become very nostal- gic heritage ways for pleasure or adventure travelers today (Loverseed, 1994).

Table 2.2 Examples of tourism-oriented heritage railways

Heritage Railway Location Alishan Forest Railway Taiwan Verde Canyon Railroad USA Pilatus Railway Switzerland Bieszczadzka Forest Railway Poland End of the World Train Argentina Urskog–Høland Line Norway Sagano Scenic Railway Japan Steamtrain Hoorn Medemblik Netherlands Cˇierny Hron Railway Slovakia Gulbene-Alu¯ksne Railway Latvia Whangaparaoa Narrow Gauge Railway New Zealand Cepu Forest Railway Indonesia Le Petit Train Jaune/Ligne de Cerdagne France Šargan Eight Serbia Kalka-Shimla Railway India Mecklenburgische Bäderbahn Molli Germany Jokioinen Museum Railway Finland White Pass and Yukon Route Canada/USA Peak Tram Hong Kong Victorian Goldﬁ elds Railway Australia

The Trans-Siberian Railway, the Orient Express and the Qinghai-Tibet Railway are three prominent examples (Hall, 2005; Qin & Zheng, 2010; Shackley, 2006). Medium-distance train lines are also popular attractions. The Grand Canyon Railway (Figure 2.6) and the Verde Canyon Railroad, both in the US state of Arizona, are two good examples (Loverseed, 1994). The Verde Canyon Railroad was originally opened in 1912 to transport raw copper from Jerome to a smelter in Clarkdale, and then to link them both to the Santa Fe Railway. The track is now a 33 km heritage rail corridor that runs between Clarkdale and Perkinsville, Arizona. In 1990, the railway, under new ownership, began to run as a four-hour tourist attraction, which passes through interesting natural landscapes, bypasses historic areas where famous western movies were filmed, and ends up in an old mining ghost town before returning to its departure point at Clarkdale (Verde Canyon Railroad, 2013). Short-distance rail lines are a novelty attraction in many places. They range from only a few hundred meters to several kilometers. The Alderney Railway on Alderney, one of the Channel Islands, was built in the 1840s to haul stones from a quarry on the east end of the island to center-island con- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright struction sites in St Anne and Braye. Today the railway runs 3 km and func- tions as a tourist attraction on the island during summer months and

Figure 2.6 The historic Grand Canyon Railway

holidays (Alderney Railway, 2013). The tiny 400-meter Great Laxey Mine Railway on the Isle of Man was abandoned in 1929 with the closure of the Great Laxey lead mine, but it was re-opened in 2004 to carry visitors along a restored train line in replica train cars (British Heritage Railways, 2013). Canals and towpaths Canals were developed in North America during the 18th and 19th centuries to provide water-based access between lakes and oceans, and around non- navigable waterways, for the shipment of goods and people. In Europe, canal networks have existed much longer, providing irrigation water to villages and their fields, as well as to afford adequate drainage for lowlands, such as in Holland and parts of Belgium. Included in the world’s canal systems were towpaths, which paralleled the water channel itself. Horses, mules, oxen or humans used these towpaths to pull barges and help rafts along the canals. While many of these historic waterways are still used for cargo-carrying barges, many of them now serve a dual purpose, including tourism/recreation. One fairly recent trend is the designation of historic canals as important heritage routes (Means, 1999). Similarly, many original towpaths have become recreational canal trails in North America and Europe (Banister et al., 1992). Canada’s Welland and Rideau Canals are heritage waterways that origi- nated as transportation corridors to bypass shallow river waters and waterfalls. The 26 km Welland Canal links Lake Ontario with Lake Erie in Canada. Its lock system allows ships to ascend and descend the Niagara Escarpment by bypassing Niagara Falls. It was extremely instrumental in the develop- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright ment of industrial North American cities such a Detroit, Montreal, Cleveland, Toronto and Windsor during the 19th and 20th centuries, and rendered the

Great Lakes navigable from west to east, and toward the Atlantic Ocean. Although the canal itself has not been an important transport corridor for tourists, its heritage value has emerged during the past half century, and efforts have been devoted to utilizing it as a corridor for parks and trails. It has become an important linear heritage attraction in the Niagara region of Southern Ontario (Shipley & Beaudet, 1996). Since the 1830s, the Rideau Canal has connected Kingston, Ontario (Canada), with Ottawa, Canada’s capital city, by bypassing elevation differ- ences and waterfalls on the Rideau and Ottawa Rivers. Although it was built nearly two centuries ago as a precaution against war with the US limiting access to parts of Canada, the waterway today is managed by Parks Canada and is used only for recreational boating (including canal cruises), skating during winter and as a venue for major festivals (Ballinger, 1994; Donohoe, 2012). The Rideau Canal is one of Ontario’s most significant heritage tourist attractions and the oldest operating canal system in North America, win- ning it a coveted inscription on UNESCO’s World Heritage List in 2007. In addition to its salience for winter activities, summertime boating and mega- events, the Rideau Waterway is also considered an important greenway with walking trails and parks along its length. Similar conditions exist in the US along the Erie Canal and other human- built waterways of the New York Canal System that have evolved from commercial shipping passageways to tourist destinations (Tang & Jang, 2010). In 2000, the US government designated the Erie Canal a National Heritage Corridor to commemorate the role of the waterway in settling the midwestern and western US and its importance as one of the earliest feats of civil engineering. Various sections have been designated heritage sites by various counties and municipalities in the state of New York, while newer sections that have not collapsed or been infilled are still used for tourist cruises. As well, many of the original towpaths of the Erie Canal are now utilized as multi-use trails, including the longest: the Erie Canalway Trail. One of the most impressive human-made waterways in Europe is the Saimaa Canal, which begins in Finland at Lake Saimaa and exits into the Gulf of Finland near Vyborg, Russia (Pitkänen & Vepsäläinen, 2006). The waterway was opened in 1856, at which time it was completely in Finland. During World War II, however, Finland lost a great deal of its southeastern territory to the Soviet Union, so that today, the canal traverses Finland and Russia. It was built to connect Finland’s densest lake area with the Baltic Sea and is 43 km in length, and between 34 and 55 meters wide. At Lake Nuijamaa, the Saimaa Canal enters Russia. While the entire canal is Russian territory on the Russian side of the border, Finland leases the canal and a narrow strip of land along its length, which is largely treated like Finnish territory. While Russian visas are unnecessary for passing through the canal, passports are Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright required and recorded at the border crossing (Finnish Transport Agency, 2013). For Finns, the Saimaa Canal has special historical meaning as an

engineering achievement, but more importantly because it passes through Russian territory that was until 1940 a part of Finland. Another European example is the vast canal system of the Netherlands and Belgium. Holland’s waterways have long exuded much intrigue among tourists and contributed to the overall urban appeal of Amsterdam and the rural idyll of the Dutch countryside (Bakkal & Scaperlanda, 1991) (Figure 2.7). The canals are an important part of the stereotyped Dutch cultural landscape and in essence have become intentional and unintentional pro- jected images of the Netherlands (Dahles, 1998; van Gorp & Béneker, 2007). According to Waterman et al. (1998), there are more than 2400 km of pass- able inland waterways in the Netherlands, which form an intricate network of aqua-trails that can be navigated by recreational boats and small cruise ships. Hundreds of these canals are paralleled by bicycle and walking trails, forming a unique and interdependent relationship between canal towpaths and the waterways themselves (de Vink, 1989). Like the Netherlands, Belgium is home to many navigable canals. One of the most popular destinations in Belgium is Bruges – a city admired for its medieval canals which, like the case of Venice, double as urban ‘streets’ and byways. Bruges’ canal network not only provides a means of transportation for residents, it also is one of the city’s most visited tourist attractions (Vanhove, 2002).

Political borders There are many trails crisscrossing international and subnational political borders. There are also a number that use international boundaries and their demarcations as the basis for their trailmarkings. The Haute

Figure 2.7 A small-scale navigable canal in the Netherlands

the Spanish–French border from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and takes 45 days on average to complete. While much of this experience involves weav- ing to and fro across the border and appreciating the border landscapes, it is as much a nature-based trail as it is a cultural trail. There are, however, other border-based trails where the borderline itself is the main attraction. There are several different types of political borders, but their discussion is beyond the scope of this book. One type, however, is necessary to mention in the present discussion: relict boundaries. These are former borders that no longer function as political divides, but their imprint on the earth is still vis- ible in the cultural landscape. There are a number of relict boundaries that function as heritage attractions in Europe, Asia and Africa (Timothy, 2001). Many of these relict boundaries and their remnants have become prized resources for heritage routes today. Among the most perceptible are Hadrian’s Wall, the Berlin Wall and the Great Wall of China. Hadrian’s Wall was erected between 122 and 127 AD as a barrier between the Romans and the ‘barbarians’ to the north. It functioned as a fortification and political border to mark the northern limits of Rome in Great Britain. Some historians believe it functioned then much as international borders function today, as lines separating states, as filters for people and products coming through, as a defensive rampart, and as a point to levy customs duties on imports into the Empire (Everitt, 2009). Today, the wall is for the most part well preserved and one of England’s most popular heritage attractions. It meanders across the width of northern England from Bowness-on- Solway to Wallsend. Its ruins comprise stone walls, tower footings, fortress remnants, berms and turrets. Much of the wall is owned and managed in a collaborative effort between the National Trust and English Heritage. Hadrian’s Wall is one of the UK’s most important cultural corridors (Coleman, 1994; McGlade, 2014; Usherwood, 1996), and in the 1990s, the Heri- tage Lottery Fund provided a sizable grant to the Countryside Commission (England) to develop a 140 km pathway along the wall as a tourist attraction and venue for leisure walkers (Leisure Management, 1997). Hadrian’s Wall was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987, and Hadrian’s Wall Path National Trail was subsequently opened in 2003. Since that time, the trail has become one of England’s most popular long-distance footpaths. On average, walking the entire route takes seven days. Following the 1989–1990 dismantling of the Berlin Wall and the subse- quent reunification of the two Germanies, several pieces of the wall and many of the fortifications associated with it were preserved as tourist attractions and political memorials to the divided heritage of Germany. Beyond Berlin, some parts of the former border between East and West Germany have also been preserved, and several border museums (Grenzmuseum) have been developed to remember and interpret the 41-year division of Germany. Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright There have been several movements since the 1990s to promote the former Iron Curtain as a tourist trail, beginning in the far north where Finland

borders Russia, and along the former East–West split in Europe to the Black Sea (Arizona Republic, 2005). While a comprehensive trail has yet to be established, owing to a variety of reasons, some segments of it have emerged. The Berlin Wall Trail (Berliner Mauerweg) was started in 2002 and completed in 2006. It traces the course of the former boundary that enclosed West Berlin from the surrounding German Democratic Republic (East Germany) (Tölle, 2010). In total the trail is 160 km in length and is designed for pedestrians and bicycles. Most of the trail follows the former West or East German border patrol roads, but in the most built-up portions of the city, the trail is marked with red bricks and brass placards embedded in the pavement (Cramer, 2013). The Mauerweg is divided into 14 different sections of between seven and 21 km that are accessible by public transportation. The trail features preserved sections of the anterior wall, multilingual interpretive displays, guard towers, former customs offices, fence remnants and signs that mark locations where people were killed by East German guards for trying to escape. Museums, maps and informational displays also help create memorable experiences on this geopolitical heritage trail (Senate Chancellery, 2013). Google Earth 3D technology and global positioning system (GPS) applications for mobile phones are readily available to help tourists navigate the course of the former border and explain its meaning and individual sites on their own hand-held devices. Although China has not established walking routes or cycling trails along the Great Wall the way trails are conceptualized in the West, the wall is frequently used by adventurers as a long-distance hiking route. Built between the 3rd century BC and the 17th century AD (although some early portions were built as early as the 8th century BC), the Great Wall of China is actually a series of walls, trenches, fortifications and other barricades that total more than 21,000 km of length. The wall and fortifications were built as defensive barriers against northern invaders, and eventually much of it served as a political border for the emerging Chinese state (Slavicek, 2009). The Great Wall is one of China’s most visited tourist attractions and stands out as an iconic image of China (Su & Wall, 2012; Timothy & Boyd, 2003). It was added to the World Heritage List in 1987. Beijing residents frequently use the wall for recreational walking, to get out of the city on weekends. Tourists by the thousands visit the wall on a daily basis at various access points, usually near large cities such as Beijing. Select points along the wall are accessible by public transportation, and large numbers of outfitters provide guided hikes on, or alongside, the Great Wall in various sections (Hessler, 2007). These treks typically go beyond the worn touristy zones into areas of the wall that few tourists see. The hiking treks last from a single day to multi- day walking tours and have become quite popular among adventure travelers Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright who desire to experience the built heritage of China, its geopolitical history and the cultural landscapes through which the wall traverses.

Purposive cultural routes Early examples of purposive routes can be found throughout the world. One forerunner to these was the medieval Grand Tour, where young British and French elites followed somewhat prescribed routes on their journeys through Italy, France and other countries to learn high culture from the masters and via visits to the art cities of Rome, Venice, Florence and others. Likewise, some of the earliest picturesque tours of the British Isles during the 1700s led cultured travelers on prescribed walking and buggy routes through regions of high literary and artistic value (Hayes & MacLeod, 2007: 48). An interesting and useful trend to note here is that some types of purposive heritage trails come and go. While there are presently thousands of these trails in all parts of the world, and some of them have existed for decades, many will certainly dissipate in the years to come. As well, additional trails will assuredly appear on the tourism map. Purposive trails fizzle out for several reasons, but the most common cause is a lack of will to cooperate for the greater good of the connected region or community. A common feature among failed routes is that some businesses or locations fail to do their part in espousing the goals and purposes of the trail, thereby allowing the developed network to collapse (Scott et al., 2008). A few villages or individual firms end up carrying a heavier marketing or management load than others, creating conflict within the circuit. Other partners forsake trail programs because they feel they are not receiving the promised rewards outlined at the trail’s inception. Regardless of the ephemeral nature of some planned routes, they are an important tourism resource. Unlike organic trails, which demonstrate some common characteristics and for which certain types can be identified based on their historical contexts, purposive routes can don any form and be concocted along any cultural heritage theme. As a result, there are as many purposive heritage trail types as there are types of heritage resources! The rest of this chapter aims to describe some of the more prominent ones found in the literature and in regional promotional campaigns.

Short trails at historic sites and gardens As the first chapter made clear, scale is an important principle in the realm of cultural paths. At the smallest scale, perhaps, are the thousands of heritage trails that exist within archaeological sites, historical parks, outdoor museums and heritage gardens (Benfield, 2013; MacLeod, 2004) (Figure 2.8). Nearly all outdoor heritage sites have some sort of planned tracks that lead visitors from one location to the next. These are important heritage management instruments, as they provide excellent venues for interpretive programs

Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright (they are sometimes referred to as interpretive trails), they can help guide visitors away from the most sensitive areas of an archaeological site, facilitate

Figure 2.8 Paths at the archaeological site of Tulum, Mexico

access for people with physical disabilities and provide vistas and photo opportunities at various points on the property (Timothy & Boyd, 2003).

Maritime routes Some maritime routes can only be traversed by sea or air, if at all, and are by definition widespread and distant. These more commonly represent the organic trails discussed earlier in the chapter, such as the proposed Route of the Bounty and the South Pacific Whaling Route (Rice, 2001), because they represent original hunting or migratory courses. More common are planned land-based maritime trails that follow coastal areas and encompass locations, sites and activities of a nautical heritage nature. The Maine Maritime Heritage Trail is one example of a marine way that connects oceanic trade and commerce, archaeological sites, forts, islands, fisheries, lighthouses, naval yards, historic homes, museums, ports and shipbuilding yards (Paine, 2001). This road follows the north-eastern coast of the US in the state of Maine and provides trail followers a unique glimpse into the seafaring heritage of North America.

Urban heritage trails Cities and towns throughout the world are home to a wide range of heritage-focused walking trails. Many of them may also involve driving or public transportation when they include points at considerable distances from one another. Cultural trails are a very important consideration in urban recreation and spatial planning. Not only do they have the ability to help in Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright place-making exercises (Markwell et al., 2004), they also have significant implications for transportation and traffic flow, infrastructure development,

economic development and conservation (Javaheri, 2011; Orbaşli, 2000; Wang & Hji-Avgoustis, 2011). Several types of urban heritage trails can be identified, but the most common type is self-directed interpretive walking tours that thematically link together places of historical or cultural signifi- cance. Brochures, maps and audio recordings are central to helping visitors navigate the physicality of places as they play a crucial role in providing information, interpretation and promotion (Markwell et al., 2004; O’Brien & Curtis, 1979). These trails are typically marked with signs, plaques and walkways. In some historic cities, ancient walls form the basis of heritage walks, resembling some of the characteristics noted earlier in the discussion of organic routes (Ashworth & Bruce, 2009). The ancient walls of Girona, Spain, and Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Germany, are two prominent European examples (Donaire & Galí, 2008) (Figure 2.9). There are as many different types of urban trails as there are urban issues. Some provide overviews of distinct architectural styles, or highlight historic spots associated with a famous resident’s life. Other popular themes include ethnic neighborhoods, nationalistic heritage, early settlers, public art and sculptures, film locations, and various political themes (Hayes & MacLeod, 2007; Hull, 1996). In their case study from Okinawa, Japan, Miyakuni and Vander Stoep (2005, 2006) showed how important historic sites in the city of Shuri are connected by physical, informational, visual, transportation, interpretation, economic and promotional linkages. The Gaudi Trail, a walking tour in Barcelona, Spain, leads tourists to the modernist architectural achievements of Antoni Gaudi, including La Cassa Batlló, La Pedrera, Park Güell and the

Figure 2.9 A trail on the ancient city walls of Girona, Spain

Wales Memorial Walk in London is dedicated to the memory of the late princess. It is marked on the ground with heraldic roses and goes through several parks and greenbelts, and passes by important sites associated with her life (Clarence House, St James’ Palace, Buckingham Palace, Spencer House and Kensington Palace). Boston’s 4 km, red brick Freedom Trail memorializes the colonial and revolutionary heritage of the US by linking 17 sites in the old city where important events occurred in America’s 18th- century independence crusade (Ioannides & Timothy, 2010). It is one of Boston’s most popular tourist attractions and is a substantial part of the Boston National Historical Park. Singapore is home to several urban heritage trails that highlight many elements of the city state’s varied past, including its ethnic heritages, its colonial and administrative past, World War II, nature and industrial development. Eight urban walking trails are currently promoted by the Singapore Tourism Board as the best way to explore the city: Little India Heritage Trail, Fort Canning Trail, Chinatown Trail, Bukit Timah Trail, Peranakan Trail, Kampong Glam Trail and the Civic District Trail (Henderson, 2011; Singapore Tourism Board, 2012).

Literary, ﬁ lm and music trails Literary tourism involves visiting places associated with the actual lives of literary figures, as well as the places and sites mentioned in poetry, novels and other writings (Herbert, 2001; Puczkó & Rátz, 2007; Timothy & Boyd, 2003). It can also be extended to include the arts, music and movies, and the people associated with them. Some literary trails focus on the life stories of the authors themselves, from their birthplaces to their burial plots, including the places that influenced their writings in between. As well, novels can create literary trails based on their descriptions of places, even imaginary places, which fans will want to explore and experience what Johnson (2004: 91) refers to as ‘the urban geographies of everyday life’. When enough places exist within a region that associates with a specific fictional figure or the author himself/herself, literature itineraries are fairly easy to develop. Fans can follow these trails, whether marked and organized or on their own, to understand periods of time in the author’s life or events in a book (Yiannakis & Davies, 2012). Several literary figures have been the focus of the development of literary routes. The Catherine Cookson Trail, the Cromwell Trail and the Robert Burns Trail are popular paths that join elements of the lives of famous authors and poets (MacLeod, 2004). Fans of the Little House on the Prairie books can travel by car through the upper Midwest in the US to discover a mix of locations mentioned in Laura Ingalls Wilder’s series, which were based upon the places she actually lived in Wisconsin, Minnesota and South Dakota. Various Lord of the Rings trails have been developed by a handful of Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright tour operators in New Zealand to provide itineraries that link fans with movie locations and Middle Earth. The Beatles Trail guides visitors to 18 sites

in and around Liverpool that were instrumental in the development of the group’s success and each group member’s life (Fremaux & Fremaux, 2013), and Germany’s Fairy Tale Route links places and fairy tales in the Grimm collection (Hemme, 2005).

Industrial trails Industrial archaeology is one of the most salient tourism resources today. There is an abiding interest among travelers to visit the industrial past to be able to appreciate the engineering feats and industrial wonders of today (Timothy, 2011a; Timothy & Boyd, 2003). This includes growing numbers of visits to factories, ports and docks, railway museums, dams and power stations, historic canals, mines, timber camps, and other such remnants of past industrial stories. As a result of the increased value of such places and artifacts, industrial trails have been initiated since the 1990s (Kerstetter et al., 1998), including the Route of the Clockmakers in Franche-Comté, France, and the Pyrenean Iron Route in Spain, Andorra and France. Most industrial trails are long-distance routes that are best traversed with cars or public transportation, although some can be traveled by foot in certain sections. The Iron Road in Central Europe was inaugurated in 2007 as a Cultural Route of the Council of Europe. Its aim is to trace the ironworks heritage of Europe from prehistoric times until today and involves geology, technology, artistry, folklore and social elements of extraction, transportation, production and trade. It links together individual iron routes in eight Central European countries, namely Austria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Slovenia and Germany (European Institute of Cultural Routes, 2013). Mine trails have become a unique product in areas that are famous for their mining heritage, such as Australia, New Zealand, Canada and many places in Europe (Conlin & Jolliffe, 2011; Drew, 1998; Lemky & Jolliffe, 2011; Timcak et al., 2011). Most of these are drive routes (or horseback trails between some locations) because of the considerable distances between associated sites. In 2000, the Otago Goldfields Heritage Trail was designed as a tourist attraction in the Otago region of New Zealand and is promoted by regional tourism officials. The interpreted circuit commemorates the Otago Gold Rushes of the 1860s and links together more than 20 different goldfield-related sites and field artifacts (Frost, 2005). The Colliery Route in Nova Scotia, Canada, is a well-marked drive route that tracks an interesting circuit of museums, mining town architecture and coal mining monuments (Lemky & Jolliffe, 2011). Most of Australia has a strong mining heritage that has been utilized for tourism purpose for many years, including mines, rail lines, museums and ghost towns (Frost, 2011; Prideaux & Timothy, 2011). Several self-guided drive trails were established in South Australia to link historic copper mining towns together into a single product. The drives Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright emphasize mines, schools, housing, churches, pubs and other artifacts that are important parts of the state’s mining heritage. As well, there are a

number of mining-focused walking trails in national parks and heritage areas (Drew, 1998). Agriculture trails Pellegrini (1999) discussed the viability of developing agritourism routes in Italy and the role of national and international associations in helping to develop a network of farming paths. The main focus is agritourism, and the development of agri-trails could help grow larger scale agritourism in many parts of Europe. Food trails and wine routes, which are discussed below, are closely related to agri-trails. Farm walks are a smaller-scale version of agricultural routes. Farm walks help communicate farming approaches and practices to all audiences, particularly those from urban centers where less is known about farming. There is really a lack of understanding among the general public about what food production entails, so these farm walks are crucial in educating them, especially children (Stansfield, 1985: 32). Food and wine routes Of all types of tourist trails, wine routes are probably the most often discussed in the tourism literature. Plentiful case studies and descriptions of various wine routes throughout the world abound. A great deal of academic attention has been directed toward wine tourism in recent years, suggesting its growing economic importance, regional patterns and images, tourist activities and satisfaction, and many other variables that define wine tourism. Table 2.3

Table 2.3 Top 15 wine producing countries in the world by volume, 2010

Country Volume (liters) France 4,626,900 Italy 4,580,000 Spain 3,609,700 United States 2,653,187 Argentina 1,625,000 Australia 1,073,000 Germany 932,000 South Africa 922,000 Chile 884,000 Portugal 587,200 Russia 540,000 Romania 495,740 China 425,000 Moldova 410,000

Source: Compiled from Wine Institute (2013).

lists the top producing wine countries, where many of the established old world regions have competition from emergent new world regions. With respect to the former, many old time wine-producing regions have long been well- established wine destinations (e.g. France, California and Spain). However, the latter part of the 20th century saw the emergence of many older wine regions as tourist destinations, and even more recently, we have seen many non- traditional wine areas develop and enter the marketplace specifically for tourism (e.g. Arizona, USA). Along with the growth of wine tourism, wine routes have also flourished. Shortly after the collapse of eastern European commu- nism, Hungary put together its first wine route, and Moldova is currently in the process of assembling wine routes to attract international tourists (Sharples, 2002: 46). Other non-traditional wine tourism destinations have joined the bandwagon to promote wine routes as important tourist attractions to increase visitation and keep visitors longer. Prior to discussing a number of examples of wine and later food routes/ trails in the world, it is important first to address the issue of scale when the synergy of food, wine and tourism are involved. Wine and food trails are themed to sell a product; in some situations a singular product such as malt whisky (Scotland) can be strong enough to develop distinctive facilities (supply) around a number of distilleries and the activities these offer for tourists (Martin & McBoyle, 2006). In contrast, food and wine trails exist in other parts of the world (e.g. Australia) where they usually do not have the same advantage, as they more often consist of micro-businesses that do not see themselves as part of tourism supply and have limited capital to invest in specific tourism programs, attractions and activities (Mason & O’Mahony, 2007). Large-scale wine routes have been established in South America, for example, Chile and Uruguay (Alonso, 2013; Sharples, 2002). South Africa’s wine regions have also set up wine roads (Bruwer, 2003; Nowers et al., 2002). In Canada, most notably Ontario and British Columbia (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2003; Telfer, 2000), vini-trails are flourishing, as they are beginning to do in New Zealand (Hall & Macionis, 1998), Israel (Jaffe & Pasternak, 2004) and various parts of Spain and Portugal (López-Guzmán & Sánchez Cañizares, 2008; López-Guzmán et al., 2009; Medina & Tresserras, 2008; Simões, 2008) (Figure 2.10). A common definition of a wine route is ‘a sign-posted itinerary, through a well-defined area . . . whose aim is the “discovery” of the wine products in the region and the activities associated with it’ (Brunori & Rossi, 2000: 410; Gallenti & Galli, 2002: 157). Wine routes developed as important purposive trails that adjoin producers and consumers through visits to wineries, vineyards, cellars, retail shops, restaurants, museums, cheese producers, food vendors, visitor information offices and wine festivals. The entire rural land- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright scape is an important part of the experience in areas where wine helps define the heritage and sense of place. As early as the 1920s, wine roads had been

Figure 2.10 One of Portugal’s wine trails

established in Germany; by the 1970s, each of Germany’s viticulture regions already had its own wine route (Hall & Macionis, 1998; Sharples, 2002). The first wine route in South Africa appeared in 1971 (Bruwer, 2003). Today, most of these have been set up by wine councils, local government councils/ agencies or other viniculture organizations as a way of promoting wine consumption at a regional level. Being part of a wine trail is said to bring benefits to participating producers and providers in a number of social and economic ways. In common with other types of food and drink trails, one of the advantages of joining a wine route is joint marketing through strength in numbers and common participa- tion in special events (Correia et al., 2004; Telfer, 2001a, 2001b), creating clusters of wineries and a brand identity for the region (Correia et al., 2004; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2003). According to Brunori and Rossi (2000: 411),

The creation of a tourist experience around a wine route is not simply the sum of the outputs from individual farms. The integration of farmers’ efforts creates a structured coherence of symbolic and material elements, which adds value to the single products whether it is wine, gastronomic products or accommodation. Farmers make their individual contribution to the . . . experience . . . However, the organization of the overall variety will depend on collective action.

For small or medium enterprises, collective action on a wine route increases their ability to compete on the world stage. These collaborative efforts may enable more wine to be sold through the cellar door and enable producers to Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright decrease their costs and increase revenue at a much lower cost than by acting alone (Brunori & Rossi, 2000; Bruwer, 2003).

Gallenti and Galli (2002: 162) argue that wine trails can increase land values, attract and retain a more highly qualified labor force, diversify regional food supplies and create more employment opportunities. As well, wine routes can help stimulate a healthy and competitive business environment with increased direct sales rather than through wholesalers. Entrepreneurialism might also be stimulated as new products are encouraged and diversification is almost synonymous with trail development. Wine routes can augment a destination’s image and create a brand awareness by adding a new tourism product and diversifying the tourist offer (Gallenti & Galli, 2002; Telfer, 2001b). Part of the Niagara region’s purpose in developing wine routes was to get visitors to see beyond Niagara Falls, namely that this part of Ontario had more to offer than only the falls (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2003). Efforts in Israel are hinting at such a change. In Israel there is a clear link between Biblical heritage and wine, and the country is beginning to capitalize on this by forming wine routes for Christian pilgrims that take them beyond the routine places of most itineraries (Jaffe & Pasternak, 2004; Ron & Timothy, 2013). Wine routes also have several spin-off effects on other types of tourism. Most of them include attractions other than those directly related to wine. For instance, many take in ancillary activities such as hiking, heritage site visits, shopping, arts and crafts, and golf (Correia et al., 2004; Crnjanski, 1998; Gallenti & Galli, 2002). They also stimulate increased interest in festivals and events tourism. Telfer (2001b: 24) described several important events that brought increased visibility to the Niagara Wine Route. These included star gazing, cheese celebrations, gardening, wine seminars, comedy weekends, barbecues, helicopter and hot air balloon tours of vineyards, vine- yard hikes, horseback riding, music festivals, and the like. These were inte- gral parts of the wine route experience, but the wine route itself also stimulated increased numbers of events. An interesting case that illustrates several issues is the Bairrada Wine Route (BWR) in Portugal. The BRW was established with the objectives of increasing wine sales and improving the regional image (Brás et al., 2010). A study undertaken by Correia et al. (2004: 20) soon after the establishment of the route highlights the reasons various wineries joined the trail and their expectations from their membership. The majority (42%) of wineries sur- veyed joined the BWR to enhance the reputation of the region’s wines; the primary purpose of 35% was to increase wine sales. Other important reasons include partnering with other companies and creating a core group of producers to protect the region’s wines. Nearly three quarters (71%) of participating wineries had to make major financial investments, such as upgrading facilities (shops, display rooms, museums) in anticipation of increased tourism. Despite these investments, few new employees were Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright hired. Instead, most operators transferred existing employees from production to dealing with tourists. In the 2004 study, only 29% of route members

felt they had achieved some of the objectives established in the beginning. The limited success was believed to result from several constraints, including funding problems, lack of focus and unwillingness on the part of some partners to participate fully. Only 79% of the service providers demonstrated some satisfaction with the program. These were very preliminary results, but according to several Portuguese tourism websites, the BWR is still func- tioning well and acts as an important tourist attraction in Portugal.

Beer and whiskey trails Wine is not the only beverage of interest to pathfinders. One of the best documented beer trails was the Ale Trail in Ontario, Canada. This circuit was located in southern Ontario and was a self-guided tour of six craft breweries in Waterloo, Guelph and Elora, an area well known for its German immigrant population and beer production. The Ale Trail was open only on selected weekends between April and October, and its planning committee consisted of a chairperson, a general manager, brewery representatives and representatives from the province’s tourism ministry and human resources department. This route provided opportunities to taste different beer types, chat with brew masters, tour brewery facilities and learn about different kinds of beer. During its first year, the trail saw 10,000 visitors (Plummer et al., 2005: 452). Despite its admitted success, the trail was disbanded only three years after its inception for a variety of reasons associated with per- ceived economic costs and a lack of collaboration between breweries (Plummer et al., 2006). This will be discussed in greater detail in Chapter 5 which discusses the impacts of trails. Since the demise of the Ale Trail, others have taken the initiative further and created the Ontario Craft Beer Route, which spans a larger geographic area and includes 29 microbreweries in five craft brewing regions of the province, including the Kitchener-Waterloo region of the original Ale Trail (Post-Trib.com, 2009). Likewise, the city of Stratford, Ontario, also recently picked up where the Waterloo region’s Ale Trail left off and is now offering the Bacon & Ale Trail, combining the region’s pork and beer heritage. Visitors purchase tickets and meander between 10 pubs and pork shops to taste local products. According to the Stratford Tourism Alliance (2012: 1),

Bacon and ale – two of life’s greatest creations. Stratford – home to the Ontario Pork Congress for close to 40 years with an amazing array of celebrated pork producers as well as a brewing history that first began in the 1870s – makes the perfect location to launch a trail dedicated to these two tastes . . . Take a hike on the Bacon & Ale Trail on a self-guided tour of food shops and pubs. From Beer BBQ sauce, to pork terrine wrapped Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright in smoked bacon, to bacon-flavoured toothpaste, you’ll gain a whole new appreciation for your favourite obsessions.

Beer trails have developed in other famous brewing regions, such as France and Germany (Moulin & Boniface, 2001). Aside from wine, beer is a popular drink and cooking ingredient in the Lorraine region of France. Lorraine’s Beer Route directs drivers along a mapped course between breweries, shops, pubs and the well-known European Beer Museum (Musée Européen de la Bière) in Stenay. The Brewery Trail in Bamberg, Germany, similarly encourages tourists to sample famous Bavarian brews from the nine producers within the town itself and 90 additional breweries in the surrounding vicinity. The Bavarian tourism promotion office encourages visitors to create their own beer trails by visiting all, or many, of the 640 breweries (and other attractions) within the state by bicycle (Bavarian Tourismus Marketing, 2013). There are other trail types based upon the production and consumption of alcoholic beverages. Part of Scotland’s iconic image is Scotch whiskey. To play into this image, Scotland’s Malt Whiskey Trail was developed as an important tourist resource to link together the country’s several distilleries (MacLeod, 2004; Martin & McBoyle, 2006). According to the Scottish Tourist Board (2004: 2), Speyside is the home of malt whiskey, and more than half of Scotland’s distilleries are located there, making it ‘the best Scotland has to offer’. Likewise, Mexico’s Ruta de Tequila (Tequila Trail) and its associated Taquila Express, a tourist train that runs passengers through tequila country, were established to increase tourism in Tequila and neigh- boring communities. That the heritage of tequila production and the industrial landscape it created were inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006 has helped congeal the international importance of the beverage that has made this central Mexican region famous. Visitors view the agave landscape, visit distilleries, eat meals and participate in tequila making (Gonzáles-Ávila, 2011; Gonzalez Huezo, 2008).

Food trails Like wine routes, food trails have become popular among culinary tourists as important illustrations of gastronomic heritage (Boyne et al., 2002; Che, 2009; Corigliano, 2002; Croce & Perri, 2010; Hjalager & Richards, 2002; Meyer-Cech, 2003; Timothy & Ron, 2013). Food routes, or taste trails as they are sometimes known, usually integrate rural and urban locations (Beer et al., 2002) and link a variety of resources that have something to do with regional cuisine or a single food staple (e.g. fruit). The experience frequently includes visits to farms, plantations, orchards or ranches to learn about agricultural production and the process of planting, harvesting and consumption. Food festivals are an important part of taste trails, and restaurants or other food providers that prepare regional specialties are highlighted (Canadian Heritage, 2008). These specialized itineraries are important marketing mechanisms whereby new restaurants can be fea- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright tured and older ones renewed. In most cases, taste trails call attention to traditional heritage cuisines, although in recent years, nouvelle cuisines and

other contemporary trends (e.g. slow food) have become the content of many food routes (Telfer & Hashimoto, 2003). The Charlevoix Flavour Trail in Quebec, Canada, is a 143 km linear network that brings together more than 40 farmers and restaurateurs in the Charlevoix region. This agritourism circuit’s focus is local produce (e.g. pâtés, cheeses, chocolates, fruit, vegetables, beers, meats and ciders) and traditional preparation methods that deliver ‘the perfect occasion to discover the Charlevoix’s tantalizing fine cuisine’ (Charlevoix Tourism, 2013). Australia has developed several successful taste trails too, including the Bellarine Taste Trail (Victoria) and the Taste of the Tropics Trail (Queensland) (Australian Tropical Foods, n.d.). The Bellarine route comprises a number of lodging facilities, restaurants, wineries, breweries, cafes, cheese and vegetable producers, fruit farmers, seafood providers, weekend markets and food festivals (Bellarine Tourism, 2013).

Religious trails (inorganic) The first part of this chapter examined pilgrim routes that have become tourist trails in a more organic fashion. There is also a growing interest in developing purposive trails with a religious theme. In most cases, these are used to connect places associated with a religious figure and that person’s ministry. They are not necessarily a set route undertaken by the spiritual leader, but are pieced together by various organizations to highlight the person’s life and influence on others. St Patrick’s Trail in Northern Ireland is a good example of this type of path (Simone-Charteris & Boyd, 2010). The trail was formulated as a tourism product to unite locales in Northern Ireland related to St Patrick, the Patron Saint of Ireland, from Bangor to Armagh, with several essential stops between. The 148 km drive connects 15 key Christian sites and includes a modern visitor center in Downpatrick near the saint’s burial place at Down Cathedral (Figure 2.11). St Patrick’s Trail is one of Northern Ireland’s most prominent heritage attractions (Northern Ireland Tourist Board (NITB), 2013). The trail was designed as a literal and metaphorical series of journeys through landscape and culture, myth and reality that allow the visitor to follow in the footsteps of Patrick’s personal journey from ordinary man to saint (Boyd, 2013). The development of the route was primarily based on the urban centers of Armagh and Downpatrick, with Bangor as a secondary cluster (see Figure 2.12). A three-year action plan was launched by the NITB in 2005, developed around six priority themes: working in partnership; developing a St Patrick’s Trail; creating a memorable experience; developing a coordinated events and festivals program; strong marketing and branding; and developing cross-border activities. The trail is a result of various public bodies, private tourist organizations Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright and community groups working in partnership. Of the 15 stops along the trail, 11 sites have a strong link to St Patrick’s life, legacy and landscape. The

Figure 2.11 St Patrick’s grave in Downpatrick, Northern Ireland

remaining four sites located around the settlement of Bangor are associated with another Saint, St Columbanus, who was educated in Bangor, born in around AD543 and left to set up monasteries in France, Italy and Switzerland. As such, the trail is connected to wider Christian heritage associated with the region. The trail, as shown in Figure 2.12, was designed as a touring route, by car or bus, with key designated stops within the three cluster regions. There are only two stops that deviate from the route itself. These include Saul Church, the site where St Patrick did his first preaching in AD432, and Slieve Patrick, a hill that is a genuine pilgrimage site, climbed once a year on the third Sunday of June, on top of which is erected the largest statue of St Patrick looking out on Carlingford Lough, the place where it is believed he first set foot in Ireland. There are two trails in northern Israel that focus on the life and ministry of Jesus, and there is talk of a ‘Pilgrim Route’ to be developed in the south (Rosenblum, 2008). Founded in 2007, the Jesus Trail is a 65 km walking path in the Galilee area that unites focal points of the life of Jesus, in addition to other historical and religious sites (Ynetnews, 2008). ‘The Jesus Trail offers an alternative for travelers .. . to experience the steps of Jesus in a way that is authentic, adventurous and educational by hiking through the rugged and beautiful landscape of the Galilee in Israel’ (Jesus Trail, 2013). The Jesus Trail organization’s goal is to provide a world-class educational, authentic and significant trek that provides an understanding of the life of Jesus for all nationalities, cultures and religions. It operates on the principles of building understanding, grass-roots ecotourism and positive economic growth for the Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright trail’s communities, and a trek that connects hikers with the natural and cultural world of the Galilee. The second related path is the Gospel Trail

Figure 2.12 St Patrick’s Trail/Christian heritage route with recognized attraction clusters Notes: Key to attraction clusters: • Downpatrick: six key attractions: Down Cathedral and St Patrick’s Grave, St Patrick Centre, Down County Museum, Inch Abbey and outlying attractions of Saul Church and Struell Wells. • Armagh: ﬁ ve key attractions: Armagh Cathedral (Church of Ireland), Armagh Cathedral (Roman Catholic), Armagh County Museum, Armagh Public Library and St Patrick’s Trian. • Bangor: Bangor Abbey, North Down Heritage Centre and outlying attractions of Holywood Priory and Movilla Abbey. Source: Boyd (2013).

(Figure 2.13), which was inaugurated by the Israeli Ministry of Tourism in 2011, also to highlight the ministry of Jesus in the Galilee (Tourism Review, 2011). It has less of an environmental ethos than that of the Jesus Trail and Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright is focused on economic development through tourism. The two trails parallel each other in a few locations and overlap in several places. However, they

Figure 2.13 The head of the Gospel Trail in Israel

begin at different spots in Nazareth and traverse different villages and rural areas for the most part, and tell a slightly different story. The existence of two somewhat parallel trails with similar objectives is confusing to tourists, and there has been considerable criticism levied against the Ministry of Tourism for establishing a second route focusing on the life of Jesus when one already existed in the same region (Mansfeld, 2012), although appar- ently the Gospel Trail was conceptualized earlier. Nonetheless, both con- tinue to function, offering different tours, hiking and camping experiences along the way.

Conclusion

This chapter has set out part of the supply side of trails and routes. While the focus has been on describing myriad cultural heritage trail types in their respective settings, the conceptual model presented in the chapter provides a basis for simplifying this complexity into two distinct trail types: those that have organically evolved and those that have been deliberately designed as tourism opportunities and part of a region’s attraction base. The authors have attempted to balance the discussion of both groups, remaining cogni- zant that even with the sub-categorization for each group it still does not cover the whole gamut of trails that exist. Instead, the focus has been to give treatment to the major subtypes within both categories. In terms of supply what has emerged from this discussion is that any major tourism region can Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright lay claim to having an existing trail that was deliberately developed around key nodes of attraction or that local and regional policies have included the

purposive designing of thematic trails around key features, persons and attractions that provide them with a competitive advantage over others. The way people experience trails and routes is often the result of the way they traverse them, and the extent of the trail they physically cover. With respect to the former, technological developments, in particular GPSs are rewriting how the tourist can experience the trail, where the use of mobile applications on smart phone technology allows them to experience pathways without the use of conventional trail maps. On saying that, Crang (1994) noted that maps have always been an important part of any trail system as they help travelers organize their memories of the route experience. Mobile apps replacing maps may appeal more to a marketplace where technology plays a greater role in people’s travel experiences, but as for organizing memories they will have to be coupled with other web 2-type participatory technology, such as blogs, where people can report their experiences. As for the latter, namely the extent of the trail that travelers frequent, this can often be constrained by a number of factors such as time available, individual interest and curiosity, where they can enter and leave the route, and the scale of trail involved. At the heart of the conceptual model in Chapter 1 was the tourist experience of trails and routes. A number of possible scenarios of experience can and may exist for cultural heritage trails and routes. In developing a conceptual model of trail/route experience, Boyd (2013) suggested the following categorization (Figure 2.14). Scenario A exists where the traveler chooses to experience the entire route, including the intervening attraction nodes within (i.e. individual tourist attractions). This is often the case where small-scale trails are involved, either as walking or touring trails. Scenario B is where only certain nodes (visitor attractions) are visited along the route, while not taking the route itself. Here the scale of trail is important, often involving longer distance trails where certain nodes are used both as entry or egress points. A third scenario (C) occurs when a section of the route is visited, including any intervening nodes along that chosen section. This type of scenario is possible for long-distance trails that are transnational in character and where trail experience is often confined to that part of the trail within a particular jurisdiction. The final scenario (D), meanwhile, is where visitors use the route as a spine from which to deviate and visit other places connected to existing nodes along sections of the route. It is important to recognize that all four scenarios take place within an operating environment of policy, planning, management, as well as institutional arrangements and stakeholders as alluded to in the first chapter. There is a case to be made that individual trails and routes may encapsu- late the experience of all the above scenarios, and that experience is not conditioned by factors such as scale. The Camino de Santiago pilgrimage route is one such example (Graham & Murray, 1997). Scenario A is repre- Copyright © 2014. Channel View Publications. All rights reserved. rights All Publications. View Channel 2014. © Copyright sented by those who choose to experience the whole trail. In this case, the traditions and history become the attraction to travelers, who view traveling

Scenario A: Entire route Small-scale and or long-distance walking trails Scenario B: Certain nodes visited

Transnational Scenario C: Section and nodes visited trails

Scenario D: Nodes connecting other attractions Individual attractions over the trail/route

Figure 2.14 Possible trail/route experience scenarios Source: Modiﬁ ed after Boyd (2013).

the route as undertaking a pilgrimage. Scenario B is represented by those visitors interested in the history and heritage of the various tourist-historic cities (the nodes) along the route, such as Leon and Santiago de Compostela. Scenario C would relate to those travelers interested in experiencing only the eastern side of the route (from Pamplona to Burgos). Finally, Scenario D exists when travelers choose to deviate off the route from one of the principal nodes to visit other heritage attractions, such as the monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos. The next chapter continues the discussion of the supply side of trails and