VU Research Portal Private Wildlife Governance in a Context of Radical Uncertainty Kamuti, T. 2016 document version Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record Link to publication in VU Research Portal citation for published version (APA) Kamuti, T. (2016). Private Wildlife Governance in a Context of Radical Uncertainty: Dynamics of Game Farming Policy and Practice in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Vrije Universiteit. 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Sep. 2021 VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT Private Wildlife Governance in a Context of Radical Uncertainty Dynamics of Game Farming Policy and Practice in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa ACADEMISCH PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad Doctor aan de Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, op gezag van de rector magnificus prof.dr. V. Subramaniam, in het openbaar te verdedigen ten overstaan van de promotiecommissie van de Faculteit der Sociale Wetenschappen op woensdag 22 juni 2016 om 13.45 uur in de aula van de universiteit, De Boelelaan 1105 door Tariro Kamuti geboren te Mt Darwin, Zimbabwe promotoren: prof.dr. M.B. Veenswijk prof. G.E. Visser copromotoren: dr. S.J. Brooks dr. M.J. Spierenburg ii Private Wildlife Governance in a Context of Radical Uncertainty: Dynamics of Game Farming Policy and Practice in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa By TARIRO KAMUTI Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements for the Philosophiae Doctor Degree in the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Department of Geography at the University of the Free State Promoters: Professor M.B. Veenswijk Professor G.E. Visser Co-Promoters: Professor S.J. Brooks Professor M.J. Spierenburg Bloemfontein South Africa April 2016 iii DEDICATION To my parents Mariyapera, Revias and the late Rina Kanyera iv DECLARATION I declare that the thesis hereby handed in for the qualification of PhD at the Department of Geography of the University of the Free State, South Africa and Department of Organisation Sciences of the Vrije Universiteit, The Netherlands is my own independent work and that I have not previously submitted the same work for a qualification at/in another university/faculty. Name: Tariro Kamuti Signature: _____________________________ Date: _____________________________ Place: Bloemfontein v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research and the South Africa Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in Development for generously funding me and my studies without which this would not have been possible. I am very grateful to my supervisors: Prof. Shirley Brooks, Prof. Marja Spierenburg and Prof. Gustav Visser who studiously went through my work and being at hand every time that I stumbled along the way. For being away from home I need to acknowledge my kids: Edrick Tashinga and Chelsea Ruramai for bearing my absence but giving me the reason to work hard every day to build their future. A big thank you to the awesome ‘game farming’ team: in addition to Marja Spierenburg and Shirley Brooks, this included Jenny Josefsson, Dr Femke Brandt, Dr Nomalanga Mkhize, Vincent Zungu, Dr Dhoya Snijders, Mnqobi Ngubane, Prof. Harry Wels, Dr. Nancy Andrews and Prof. Lungisile Ntsebeza. I will always carry with me the experiences that we shared in this project. Thanks to Frank Sokolic for the maps and moral support during my difficult times. A big thank you goes to Dr. Charles Barker, the Head of the Geography Department at the University of the Free State for all the support. I would also like to thank all the staff of the Geography Department for their support especially for having concern on how I was doing in my studies. These include Dr. Ruth Massey, Dr. Jay Le Roux, Tobeka Mehlomakhulu, Adriaan Van Der Walt, Nolene Van Dyk, Eldalize Kruger and Sandra Brits. Special mention goes to Mulalo Rabumbulu and Anneri Pretorius for consistently checking on my progress and encouraging me. I thank the staff at the Department of Organisation Sciences, Vrije Universiteit and all my friends during my stint in Amsterdam. The University of the Free State Postgraduate School played a critical role in my studies through their support such as workshops on scientific writing and sharing ideas with the academic community. I would also like to thank the Library staff for their supportive role in making the learning process bearable by securing scarce books and journal articles. I am very humbled and inspired by my brother Menias Kanyera and his family for being there for me as a role model who opened the doors for me. I cannot thank him enough. Many thanks go to my father, who is my hero, for inculcating in me the value of education from a tender age. Your unwavering support and wise counsel in those father-to-son talks gave me a lot of confidence to look at the world in a different way. My mothers made me whom I am today and I shall forever be grateful: Revias, the late Rina and the late Gladys. I wish if all of them were around to witness and cherish this achievement, so I shall forever remember them. I would also like to acknowledge all my brothers and sisters and their families who are my rock bottom supporters. These include Saida, Kudzai, Moline, Tadyiwa, Tinawo, Nyashadzashe, Justin, Lovemore, Abbiot and Nigella. Many thanks to the greater Kanyera family out there for the encouragement and support. There is a big circle of the following people who made a difference to my studies: Mildred Chakabva, Salatial Chikwema, Ignatious Wambe, Patricia Chakabva, Blessing Chakabva, Obediah and Gloria Dodo, Isaac and Angeline Hore, Kennedy and Sukoluhle Mandaza, Dr. Learnmore Kambizi, Rangarirai Mahachi, Richard Manyanga, Dr. Phelex Manyanga, Dr. Lawrence Gadzikwa, Dr. Kumbirai Shumba, Fortune Chakabva, Innocent Kanyemba, Nobert Chiwara, Ariel Deka, Atanas Chiwaya and Taiwona Goteka. The same goes for my Facebook friends and all those who encouraged me along the way. To my friends at the University of the Free State: Dr. Precious Tirivanhu, Dr. Iri Manase, Noel Ndumeya, Kudakwashe Chitofiri, Ivo Mhike, Anusa Diamon, Oliver Mutanga, Tendai Marovha and Tinashe Nyamunda; thank you so much for making the journey lighter through your support, as I was never lonely. Our discussions over ‘one or two’ were uplifting and inspiring. The same goes for the International Studies Group through their seminar series then at the Ramblers Club and now at Shimla Park where I always found refuge when the going was tough. The PhD Club in the Department of Culture, Organization and Management at the vi Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam were so warm to me during my stay in The Netherlands and I would like to thank them for reviewing my work at the formative stages of my thesis. Thank you to Binganidzo Muchara and family for being there for me throughout my odyssey in KwaZulu-Natal. You made my stay in Pietermaritzburg pleasant. We travelled together on a number of occasions, particularly when I was conducting my interviews and you offered me material and moral support in the course of my research. I am humbled with the friends I made during my stay in Pietermaritzburg. I am grateful to Eugene and Zelda Theron for providing me with a home in Bloemfontein during the entire course of my studies. Thanks to Nigel Barker and family, together with my fellow church cell members, my pastors and the whole Christian Revival Church fraternity. There are a lot of people who made my study possible through their assistance in various ways including the interviewees whom I shall not name. Their generosity shall always remain with me as they shaped me in a way that is beyond measure. Above all, I give glory to God for giving me a purpose in life and for making this achievement possible, despite the odds. vii ABSTRACT Conversion from livestock and/or crop farming to game farming has been a notable trend on privately owned land in South Africa over the last decades. This change has been characterised by the fast growth of wildlife ranching, reflected in the annual increase in land enclosed by game fences and the high demand for wildlife which is being traded privately and at wildlife auctions. Key environmental and agricultural legislation has been passed since 1994 that impacts the wildlife sector, for instance, legislation on property rights, (re)distribution of resources, and biodiversity conservation in South Africa. The study sought to investigate the extent to which the state is able to impose effective controls over land use activities related to wildlife conservation on private land, and to explore in detail how governance processes actually work on the ground in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. The study explores how the private game farming industry positions itself with respect to existing agricultural and environmental regulations, as well as how the state is responding to the challenge of competing needs over land and wildlife resources that is posed by the game farming sector. The basis of the study was to unravel findings that show interactions, discourses, policy positions, and power relations of stakeholders in the governance of game farming.