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The Implementation of Quotas: African Experiences Quota Report Series The Implementation of Quotas: African Experiences Quota Report Series Edited by Julie Ballington In Collaboration with This report was compiled from the findings and case studies presented at an International IDEA, EISA and SADC Parliamentary Forum Workshop held on 11–12 November 2004, Pretoria, South Africa. © International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance 2004 This is an International IDEA publication. International IDEA publications are independent of specific national or political interests. Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of International IDEA, its Board or its Council members. Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of this publication should be made to: Information Unit International IDEA SE -103 34 Stockholm Sweden International IDEA encourages dissemination of its work and will promptly respond to requests for permission to reproduce or translate its publications. Graphic design by: Magnus Alkmar Cover photos: Anoli Perera, Sri Lanka Printed by: Trydells Tryckeri AB, Sweden ISBN: 91-85391-17-4 Preface The International Institute for Democracy and a global research project on the implementation and Electoral Assistance (IDEA), an intergovernmental use of quotas worldwide in cooperation with the organization with member states across all continents, Department of Political Science, Stockholm University. seeks to support sustainable democracy in both new By comparing the employment of gender quotas in dif- and long-established democracies. Drawing on com- ferent political contexts this project seeks to gauge parative analysis and experience, IDEA works to bolster whether, and under what conditions, quotas can be electoral processes, enhance political equality and par- implemented successfully. It also aims to raise general ticipation and develop democratic institutions and awareness of the use of gender quotas as an instrument practices. The inclusive and responsive nature of these to increase the political representation of women and to institutions is considered to be of particular importance show that they can, and are, being applied successfully. if there is to be effective governance, benefiting a wide As a means of generating comparative information spectrum of groups in society. In this context, IDEA is on quotas, IDEA is convening a series of regional work- committed to promoting the participation and repre- shops. The first two workshops were held in Asia and sentation of women in political life. Latin America. This regional report documents the The increase in women’s participation on the findings of the third in the series, The Implementation African continent in the past few years has been greater of Quotas: African Experiences. It is followed by work- than that experienced at any other time in the past four shops in Europe and the Arab World. decades, rising ten-fold to over 14 percent in 2003. Many individuals and organizations in Southern Gender quotas are now increasingly viewed as an Africa supported IDEA’s workshop on quotas in Africa, important policy measure for boosting women’s access and we are grateful for their enthusiasm and expertise. to decision-making bodies throughout the world. We thank Professor Drude Dahlerup of Stockholm Experience from Africa is very encouraging: over 20 University, Ilona Tip and staff members from the countries on the continent either have legislated quotas Electoral Institute of Southern Africa (EISA), or political parties that have adopted them voluntarily. Rumbidzai Nhundu and the Southern African These measures have contributed directly to the Development Community Parliamentary Forum increase in the number of women who have accessed (SADC PF) for their contributions and expertise. We the legislature: The average representation of women in also thank the speakers, authors and the editor, Richard sub-Saharan Africa in 1995 was 9.8 percent which has Jones, who made this report possible. increased to 15.1 percent in 2004. From IDEA we are especially grateful for the expert- The introduction of gender quota systems has been ise and untiring efforts of Julie Ballington, Manager of influenced to a great extent by recommendations from the Women in Politics Project, and Yee Yin Yap, international and regional organizations, and support- Programme Assistant, who pulled the event and the ed by actors working at the country level. The United report together. We also thank Dr Patrick Molutsi, for- Nations (UN) International Women’s Conference in mer Director of the Political Parties and Institutions Nairobi, Kenya, in 1985 provided a mobilizing oppor- Programme, Dr Abdalla Hamdok, Director of the tunity for women on the continent, especially in East Africa Programme and Nadia Handal Zander from the Africa. This was supported by the recommendations of Publications Unit. Lastly, we would like to thank the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action, which called on IDEA’s member states, for the support that they offered governments to take steps to ensure women’s equal that made this event possible. access to, and full participation in, power structures and decision-making fora. Measures have been success- fully introduced in some countries, with Southern Africa taking the lead. Yet, in others, quotas have not resulted in an increase in the number of women in pol- itics, and, occasionally, have had the reverse effect. KAREN FOGG Gender quotas present us with new challenges, both SECRETARY-GENERAL in practice and academic research. IDEA is engaged in INTERNATIONAL IDEA 3 4 Table of Contents About IDEA’s Project and this Report 8 Opening Session Brigalia Bam, “Welcome and Introductory Remarks” 10 Lulama Xingwana, “Introductory Address” 10 1. Quota Systems: An Overview of Global Trends and Continental Analysis 14 Overview of the Session 14 Case Studies Presented: Drude Dahlerup, “Quotas are Changing the History of Women” 16 Bookie Kethusigile-Juru, “Quota Systems in Africa: An Overview” 22 2. Introducing Quotas in Africa: Discourses and Legal Reform 28 Overview of the Session 28 Discussions from the Floor 30 Case Studies Presented: Rachida Tahri, “Women’s Political Participation: The Case of Morocco” 32 Sylvia Tamale, “Introducing Quotas: Discourse and Legal Reform in Uganda” 38 Gihan Abou-Zeid, “Introducing Quotas in Africa: Discourses in Egypt” 46 Mary Maboreke, “The Quota System within the African Union” 52 3. Political Party Quotas in Practice 56 Overview of the Session 56 Discussions from the Floor 57 Case Studies Presented: Mavivi Myakayaka-Manzini, “Political Party Quotas in South Africa” 58 Alcinda Antonio de Abreu, “Political Party Quotas in Mozambique: The Experience of the FRELIMO Party” 62 Aminata Faye Kassé, “Women in Politics in Senegal” 66 4. Overview of Quotas in Africa 70 Overview of the Session 70 Discussions from the Floor 70 Case Study Presented: Aili Mari Tripp, “The Changing Face of Africa’s Legislatures: Women and Quotas” 72 5 5. Quotas in Practice: Challenges to Implementation and Enforcement 78 Overview of the Session 78 Discussions from the Floor 79 Case Studies Presented: Ruth Meena, “The Politics of Quotas in Tanzania” 82 Liz Frank, “Working Towards Gender Balance in Elected Positions of Government in Namibia” 88 Judith Kanakuze, “The Challenge of Implementation and Enforcement in Rwanda” 96 6. Quotas, Democracy and Governance 100 Overview of the Session 100 Discussions from the Floor 102 Case Studies Presented: Sheila Bunwareee, “Engendering the Mauritian Political Space: The Need for Quotas” 104 Rumbidzai Nhundu, “Implementing Quotas: Experiences from the SADC Parliamentary Forum” 110 Colleen Lowe Morna, “Beyond Numbers: Quotas in Practice” 114 Doris Mpoumou, “Women’s Participation in Peace Negotiations: Discourse in the Democratic Republic of the Congo” 120 7. Conclusion 124 Julie Ballington, “Women’s Political Participation and Quotas in Africa” 124 About the Authors 130 List of Participants 132 6 Terms and Abbreviations ANC African National Congress APRM African Peer Review Mechanism AU African Union BLS Best loser seats CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa COSEF Senegalese Council for Women DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo DTA Democratic Turnhalle Alliance EALA East African Legislative Assembly ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EISA Promoting Credible Elections and Democratic Governance in Africa EMB Electoral Management Body FPTP First-past-the-post electoral system, used in constituency elections FRELIMO Front for the Liberation of Mozambique List PR Proportional representation electoral system, under which political parties submit lists of candidates to contest elections MMP Mixed Member Proportional representation electoral system MP Member of parliament NCOP National Council of Provinces, South Africa NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development NGO Non-governmental organization OAU Organisation of African Unity SADC Southern African Development Community SADC PF Southern African Development Community Parliamentary Forum Swapo South West African People’s Organization TRS Two Round System 7 About IDEA’s Project and this Report The level of political representation of women in dif- and a network of researchers and experts working in ferent legislative bodies around the world varies greatly, this field to be developed. The first workshop in the standing at 15 percent in lower houses of parliament in series examined Asian experiences of quotas, and was 2004 on
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