The ··Muslim Problems :and the Government's Response

MOHAMMED FATTHY MAHMOUD*

1" I

Introduction the people found a rallying point, a ·SLAM, the. r~li~ion of peace, came source of identification. I to the Philippines "fully two cen­ The spread of Islam in the Philip­ turies before the first Westerner set pines can be attributed to the impor­ foot in the islands. In fact, when the tant role it played in the politics of the Spaniards arrived in 1521, Islam the era. This political role acquired already had many adherents in Lu­ greater significance at the beginning zon, Visayas and Mindanao. In Ma­ of the sixteenth century and there­ nila, several Muslim settlements exist­ after with the appearance of the Euro­ ed under the leadership of Rajah La­ peans, among them the Portuguese kandula, Rajah Matanda, and Rajah and the Spaniards, who came not only Sulayman, among others. Pampanga, with the intent of monopolizing the .~, another Luzon province also. had a spice trade but also of spreading .... small Muslim settlement. In Minda­ Christianity; In fact, their arrivalin nao, two powerful Muslim sultanates Southeast Asia was in many respects - Sulu and Maguindanao - were an extension of. the struggle which had founded. already been going "on in Europe for centuries and subsequently carried in­ Prior to the coming of the Spaniards to the Indian Ocean between Chris­ in the Philippines, the Muslims al­ tians and Muslims. Shortly after the ready possessed a highly developed Portuguese captured Malacca, they and workable socio-political system, a sent their first missionaries to the system of writing, an informal albeit Moluccas. The one and a half cen­ religious 'educational system, and a turies which followed might be des­ progressive economy. The religious­ cribed as a race between Islam and political organizations which went be­ Christianity to convert people of the yond vlllage levels resulted in political region.1 groupings that were strong because they were broadly-based, In Islam, With the landing of Ferdinand Magellan (a Portuguese explorer un­ * D.P.A. candidate, College of Public Ad­ der the employ of Spain) in the Philip- ministration, University of the Philippines; currently Director-General, Public Rela­ 1 D.J.M. Tote, The Making of Modern tions Department, Supreme Council for Is­ Southeast Asia (New York: Oxford Uni­ lamic Affairs, Arab Republic of Egypt. varsity Press, 1971), I, p. 34.

215

.. PHILIPPINE JOURNAL"OF ·PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIOi-f 216 \. . . ~ . : " ------~=---'---'----'-"-'--'-'---'---, . '. pines in 1521, the archipelago gradual­ represertted centralized political in: ly came under Spanish rule and re­ stitutions more complex than the sim­ mained so until 1898 when, by the ple village-type barangay organiza­ provisions of the treaty of Paris, so­ tions found in the Northern Philip­ vereignty was transferred to the pines. Soma sultans ruled over scores United States. The Spaniards, like of settlements under subordinate ru­ the Portuguese, came to convert the lers and thus, the loss of one did not inhabitants of the Philippines into necessarily spell the loss of the others. Christianity as well as subjects of the Another factor was that Islam served Spanish King. The Muslim settle­ as a rallying point, a source of identi­ ments of Manila under Rajah Matan­ fication. As. it was, patriotism became da and Rajah Sulayman fell into their firmly fused with religious duties. De­ hands in 1571. The Spaniards waged fense of land, home, wife and' children centuries of protracted war against became in effect an Islamic duty.. the Muslims. of Mindanao and Suhi in order tosubjugate them but to no Muslim Problem vis-avis avail. National Governments The Muslims, fighting under the From the preceding discussion, one Sulu Sultanate,. the Maguindanao can trace the Muslim- problem to the Sultanate, or as individual warriors, time when the Spaniardscarne for the determinedly resisted the Spanish in" purpose not only of 'subjugating them cursions into their territory until the but also of converting them to Chris­ Americans, another colonial group, ar­ tianity. This .started in .~565. rived in the 1900's to replace them. Through the years, the Muslim prob­ Likewise, the Muslims resisted· the lem continued to plague the govern­ Americans, thinking that they had ment. the same plans as the' Spaniards. However, with the Americans' shift of 2 We use the term Muslims in' the Phil­ policy from that of open war to' that ippines to refer to the islamized Filipino of attraction," many Muslims put groups in the country rather than the term Muslim Filipinos, which though more down their arms. The "war" there­ popular, is historically incorrect. This fore shifted from the battlefield to is because the term Muslim which means other areas of human life such as edu­ "a' person who follows the religion. of is­ cation, culture, economy, agriculture lam or a person who submits completely and the like: Nevertheless, the Mus­ to th~ will of God" antedates the term lim resistance to colonization.. and Filipinos or Philippines. The second rea­ son for the choice, is that in. Islam, all westernization continued. ' Muslims are brothers, regardless of race., The Muslims' determined and 'con­ color, ;'country, of origin, or .political be­ liefs.' IIi other words, -in' the concept, of tinued resistance is attributed to a a 1\1 uslim, every. Muslim belongs .to: a 'l1Wnber of factors, the most signifi­ world brotherhood called Dar-uI-Islam .or cant being thatthe Muslim sultanates Islamic 'World. , .. " ,.".: ." July • MUSLIM ·PROBLEMS AND GOVERNMENT'S :RESPONSE· 217

When the .Philippines was working When the Americans introduced a for its independence, the Muslims pe­ universal system of primary educa­ tion, most Muslims refused to send titioned to form a separate govern­ their children to school for fear that ment patterned after the Muslim Sul­ they might be converted to Christiani­ tanates but their petition was not ty. When the American authorities offered scholarships, the leading fami­ heeded. This is indicated in the Dan­ lies refused to send their children to salen Declaration which said that: oblige the Americans.s .With regards to the forthcoming Phil­ Given their low standard of living, ippine independence we foresee what poor health and sanitation, and high conditions we will be in and those of our children when independence is rate of illiteracy, the Muslims scarce­ granted these islands. This condition ly improved. But worst of all, the will be characterized by unrest, suf­ cultural and religious animosity which fering and misery. the Spaniards engendered in their minds under their policy of "divide Should the American people grant the Philippines independence, the is­ and rule" deepened. lands of Mindanao and Sulu should The chronic problems of the Mus­ not be included in such independence.3 lims in the Philippines alarmed the However, with the assurance of 'government so it conducted several Christian Filipino leaders, the Mus­ studies in its desire to identify these lims grudgingly acknowledged citizen­ problems and seek solutions. Thus, ship in the new Republic of the Philip­ the so-called "Muslim Problem'" or pines whose government is patterned what was earlier erroneously known after the Western countries, It was as "Moro Problem" with its long his­ partly this Muslim desire to form a tory, dating back as it does to the separate government like the one they coming of the Spanish colonizers to had before the coming of the Spa­ the Philippines since 1521, finally be­ niards which propelled them to con­ came an official government concern. tinue with their struggle in preserving However, much as it wanted to solve • their culture, religion, and society. the problem of the Muslims, the gov­ ernment was handicapped by certain . The early years of Philippine Inde­ prevailing factors and conditions such pendence saw the problems of the as crisis of leadership among the Mus­ Muslims aggravated further by their lims, too much politics, and ignorance refusal to send their children to school of the culture of the Muslims. As a for fear that they would become Chris­ 'result, only stop-gap measures. were tians. employed. Every time, the Muslims

3 From the Dansalan Declaration, which 4 Cezar Adib Majul, ISlamic Iniluence in was forwarded to the U.S. Congress through the Philippines and Cultural and Reli­ the President of the' United States, "The gious Responses to Development and So­ Philippine Muslim News," Vol. II, No.2, cial Change (Manila: CONVISLAM, 1971), July 1968. P. 15.

1974 218 PHILIPPINE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION, complained, the government urider­ ever, that whilethere seems to 'be a took 'some kind of' reforms' only .to general agreement 'on the outward abandon them after some. time. manifestations of the Muslim prob­ lem, the fundamental problem is not Several studies' of the so-called very clear., In other words, the peri­ Muslim problem' were undertaken, one pheral problems or symptoms are ob- of Which was authorized by the Philip­ OJ; pine Congress." More recently; a pri­ .vious but the core problem is. not. vate .foundation, the Filipinas Foun­ Differences in the proposed solutions dation, Inc.valso came up with. what spring from .this difficulty: All this it considers an in-depth study of the appears to stem from a lack of a the­ problems of the Muslims in the Philip­ oretical framework with which to view and analyze the Muslim problem. pines. In addition to these studies, several position papers on the prob­ Theoretical Framework lems of the Muslims in the, Philip­ pines were prepared by both experts The Muslim problem is not a simple and laymen. 'The'1'(~ were also individ­ one. There arevarious aspects involved ual researches made by Mus'lim in defining the problem. The first scholars on specialized aspects of the deals with the origins of the Muslim Muslim problem.t One notes, how- problem. It involve.s a long history of attempts to impose alien sovereignty 5 Philippines (Republic) Congress, Report over the fiercely freedom-loving Mus­ of the Special Committee to Investigate the Mora Problem, especially with regard lims. Coupled with those attempts,. to peace and order in Mindanao, 3rd at least during the Spanish colonial Congress, 2nd Session, 1954. Please see period, was an intention to convert also Report on the Problems of Philippine the Muslims into Christianity. The' Cultural Minorities, Senate, Manila, 1963, p. 36. Muslims in the South, however, were' 6 An Anatomy of Philippine Muslim Af­ rabid adherents of Islam so that the fairs: A Study in Depth on Muslim Affairs politico-military program ~£ imposing in' the Philippines (Makati, Rizal: Filipi­ sovereignty acquired a religious color. rras Foundation; Inc., 1971), p; 226. In fact it seems that the Muslims per­ • 7,On the religious aspects, we have the works of Ahmad Alonto, Cesar Adib Ma­ ceived an amalgamation of the polit­ jul, and Kunug Pumbaya; on the educa­ ical and religious ambitions of the tional aspects, we have Salih Utuhtalum, colonizers. As perceived by the Mus­ Masur M. Mangabang, Abdullah T. Ma­ lims, .the imposition, of sovereignty dale,' Juanita Bruno, Indin Nooh, Nunggo would have facilitated their conversion Pahm, Mauyag M. Tamano, land Samuel N. lba; on the legal. aspects, we have of Christianity .and conversion to Marnintal A. Tamano, Macapanton Abbas, Christianity would have opened the J t.,: Michael 'Maatura.rPangalian Balin­ door to the Imposition of sovereignty dong, and Mama D. Busran; and on the over them. Thus', it can be said that socio-cultural .aspects, we have, Mamitua Saber, Cesar Adib Majul andPanfilo E. there would not have been a Muslim Figueras. problem if there were no attempts to'

'July MUSLIM' PROBLEMS AND: GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSE '219

impose alien sovereignty on the Mus­ eyes of the colonizers-proselytizers, a lims. "problem." The second aspect involves the res­ The Muslim problem may, thus, be ponse of the Muslims to the attempts understood from two vantage views: to colonize (and also Christianize) from the point of view of the Muslims them. The problem at this levelarose 'and from the point of view of the col­ from the nature of the Muslim res­ onizers-proselytizers. These two per­ , ponse. Although Islam is a religion of ceptions of the same problem provides peace, Muslims are morally bound to a framework with which to' analyze resist any attempt to convert to any government programs in the' Muslim other religion. Thus, although Islam areas. The Muslim problem as thus is perceived as bringing about unity conceived is diagrammatically. repre­ and peace under the concept of univer­ sented in Diagram I. sal brotherhood, the intrusions of The problem had its historical be­ other religions are resisted with fierce ginnings when the Spaniards tried if not fanatical determination. It is to impose their sovereignty in Min­ to be expected that the nature of the danao and Sulu and to convert the resistance depends on the form of in­ Muslim to Christianity. The policy of trusion, so that when the colonizers Spain against the Muslims stemmed utilized force to achieve their objec­ from her having been able to drive tives, the Muslims countered with the "Moros" from the Peninsula force. This counter move was in the and her success in other areas like

Diagram I - The Theoretical Framework

(Ist level) (3rd leve.) t .. (2na levetj

...... 1-, r // Muslim " ..: I desire to .v" I preserve , , political, , \ cultural, I \ religious I , I " integrity ./ ...... - -_/ .. 1974 ... PHILIPPINE· JOURNAL': OF JPUBLIC, ADMINISTRATION

'Latin America. Hence, she. assumed the areas in' Mindanao, Sulu, and Pa­ that the Muslims of Southern Philip­ lawan which were occupied by the pines would also bow before the sharp­ Muslims, Since they recognized the ness and might of "Toledor blades.i" intentions of .the' Americans as not This arrogant attitude ~ resulted in very different from those of theSpa­ probably the most costly colonial ven­ niards, the Muslims again resisted for .tureof Spain..' It also meant the im­ as long as. they could in what is now position of burdensome taxes on Chris­ known as the. "pacification" campaign tian Filipinos to finance the "Moro" in 'Mindana::. and Sulu, wars and the mobilization of thena­ The armed confrontation between tives to augment-the Spanish forces, government troops (most of whom The Muslims interpreted this partici­ later on were Christian Filipinos) and pation, albeit forced, of the Christian thaMuslims had subsided when the Filipinos as -an act of hostility and Commonwealth was established. The created in them a long-nurtured hat­ Muslims protested their inclusion, but red, resentment, and suspicion." The to rio avail. It was during this period Christian Filipinos, in turn, became that the late President Quezon. ini­ so' ignorant about their 'Muslim bro­ tiated his policies of Mus-lim assirriila­ thers that the rule of the latter in the tion 'and the settlement of Mindanao history of the Philippines, until lately, through a' massive influx of. Christian has been relegated to the background, Filipinos. The Muslims resisted mild­ Indeed, the term "Mora" up to now ly and' this manner of resistance con­ is used by the Christian Filipinos in a tinued even when the Republic came derisive and derogatory sense. '. into 'being in 194(".' The pressure of The Muslim problem up to the early Christian settlers and other factors years of this century did not go be­ directly or indirectly related to this yond the second level. The pattern, eventually resulted in armed conflicts between Christians and government nevertheless, continued arid even ac­ quired a third level with. 'the coming troops and.Muslim groups, It was at of the Americans. By virtue' of the this. period when the policy of na­ • provisions of' the Treaty of Paris tiorialintegration was implemented. of 1898, the Spaniards ceded the Phil- The almost four' centuries of resis­ ippines to the United States, Thetance against the 'intentions and ac­ Americans had to effect their sov-" 'tua"tions of various :administration left ereignty, initially by force of arms, in the Muslims in a state of "backward­ the territory ceded to them including' "ne'ss" vis-a-visthe 'Christian Filipinos. ------. ". -. This condition of d e p r,i vat ion S Samuel "((. Tan, "Sulu Under American prompted the implementation of pro- Military Rule, 188J}-1913," Philippine So- "rams and' projec...ts .intend,ed to ac- ciai and Humanitarian Review, Vol. t> XXXII, No. 1. (March 19~7), p. 5. celeratethe socio'-economic and politi- 9 Ibid., p. 6." cal development, of. the Muslims so MUSLIM PROBLEMS AND GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSE 221

they could be more easily and rapidly the government's line of reasoning incorporated into the Philippine body while the broken lines stand for the politic. Muslims' perception. Both percep- ,tions are alike in terms of the proxi­ It should be noted at this juncture mate cause of the Muslims' condition that since the Americans inaugurated of deprivation. However, because of their policy of attraction, through the government's assumption regard­ Quezon's policy of assimilation, and ing the political affiliation of the Mus­ up;to the Republic's policy of integra­ lims, it has paid all its attention to tion, the Christian political leaders proceeded fr~m the premise that the programs and projects designed to Muslims were also Filipinos. A corol­ solve specific "problema" of the Mus­ lary to this is the participation of the lims. On the other hand, the Mus­ Muslims in political processes. In lims have viewed the government's time, the historical roots of Muslim succession of intentions (subjugation, resistance slowly faded away from the colonization and christianization by minds of policy-makers and adminis­ the Spaniards, colonization and incor­ trators. It was not surprising, then, poration into the body politic by the that the government programs and Americans, assimilation and integra­ projects soon came to be regarded as tion by the Christian-dominated gov­ measures to solve specific socio-cul­ ernment of the Commonwealth and tural, economic, and political prob­ the Republic), as threats to their tra­ lems, the totality' of which has come ditional political concepts and to the to be known in current thinking as integrity of their culture and religion. the Muslim Problem. At this point in It is the desire to preserve what they time, the third-level problem surfaced. hold 'dear which explains theirresis­ This is with reference to the question tance. This implies, therefore, that of appropriateness and adequacy of the appropriateness and adequacy of \ ) the solutions to specific aspects of the government programs and projects are Muslim problem. measured by the Muslims in terms of • The lack of congruence between this desire whereas the policy-makers' the government's perception of the and the administrators' measures of I the same things do not go as deep. t Muslim problem and the Muslims' own perception' became pronounced This, therefore, is. the crux of the lack I when policy-makers and public ad­ of congruence of perception of the problem. . ' t• ministrators assumed that 'the Mus­ Iims are Filipinos who, because of Such lack of congruence may be il­ force of circumstances and historical lustrated by the' following diagram. accident, lagged behind the Christian The government perceives the Mus­ Filipinos in the context of moderniza­ lim problemin terms of its basic so­ tion.. This' can 'be seen in Diagram I, cio-cultural, economic, and political The solid lines in the diagram indicate aspects which are interrelated; . The

',1974 ~.

PHILIPPINE. JOURNAL'OF PUBLIC'· ADMINISTRATION I, 222 1'1 ~. Muslims perceive these aspects and but ultimately linked to certain" ap­ components as not only.interrelated prehensions.

Diagram 11- The Various Aspects of the Muslim Problem . . I..

" ,

~--- ...... ", ".- I" ',I(" I' Psychological ' -4------..,. .r: ~. I Linkages 4 : \ I ,. \ /1..... " / ...... - - _ .... " ")j. Economic

Aspects

The Government's Response this period when President Quezon to the Problem: An Analysis enunciated his belief that the tradi­ tional government among the Mus­ The Spanish colonial government lims should not exist side by side with had a simple formula: subjugation, the civil government and, therefore, colonization and conversion to Chris­ should be eradicated. Then the Ja­ tianity. The American policy was pa­ panese came. The Japanese occupa­ cification, colonization, and tutelage; • tion was short-lived; no clear-cut po­ that is, the Americans tried to prepare licy was-pronounced. Nevertheless the the Muslims for self-government. to­ Muslims were left- pretty much .to gether with the Christian Filipinos so themselves, ' ' that they would become real members of the body politic. The dominant Since'the American regime, the re­ policy during the Commonwealth pe­ sponse of the government to the prob­ riod was assimilation coupled with the lem has' been quite consistent. The encouragement of Christian Filipinos government would react to a specific to settle in: the Miridanao and Sulu situation, relaxing its efforts untilan­ areas' iii order to accelerate the devel­ other crisis since the Americans' came opment of the region. it was during to this 'country, the tendency to treat

July ,MUSLIM PROBLEMS AND GOVERNl\4ENT'~ RESPONSE ~23

the Muslim problem segmentally gra­ ciate the fact that while the Mus­ dually became stronger. In other lims wanted socio-economic-political words, an armed uprising, for ex­ development, they also wanted the ample, was treated as a problem of preservation of the integrity of their peace and order; the Muslims' inabi­ socio-religious and political traditions. lity to read and write in the alphabet, The programs of the CNI, the MSU, as a problem which the educational and the MDA no doubt are premised system could solve. 'I'his :tendency on good intentions but their ap­ became more apparent after the Sec­ proaches are rather simplistic probably ond World War when the Philippines because they are based on unrealistic regained its independence. assumptions.. For example, it would Sporadic armed conflicts punctu­ appear that the CNI program does ated the continuation of Christian Fili­ not consider the fact that the Muslims pino settlement of Mindanao and Sulu. believe they have (and they actually Congressional investigations and other have) a culture and a society which studies resulted in the inauguration of antedate the ones established by the a policy of integration. The psycholo­ Spaniards, The Muslims seem to be­ gical bases of the problem, however, lieve that the concentration of the were not looked into. This seems to CNI on scholarships implies that they \ ~ have been the result of the problem must be as educated as the Christian having existed for over four hundred Filipinos in order to qualify for in­ years during which period its histori­ tegration into the body politic. Con­ cal antecedents and reasons have slow­ sequently, to the Muslims, integra­ ly but surely receded from the fore­ tion becomes anathema because it con­ front. The government only had an notes their abandonment of their tra­ overview while the Muslims had the ditional culture and religion which feel of the psychological dimension of they hold dear. the problem. The MSU, on the other hand, is The establishment or the Commis­ likewise confronted with related prob­ sion on National Integration (CN!), lems. The relevance of its curricular the Mindanao State University offerings to the goals and aspirations (MSU), and the Mindanao Develop­ of Muslims in Mindanao and Sulu can ment Authority (MDA) represent the be questioned, given the Muslim as­ government's attempt to implement piration to earn a decent living. In programs designed to solve the prob­ this connection, there is a feeling that lem. However, the' government's as­ the MDA was established not so much sessment that a massive program on a as an earnest and sincere attempt to broad front was needed to solve the accelerate the development of the Muslim Problem was correct only up Minsupala region but as a political to a point; its principal weakness was ploy. In the first place, its funds have its inability to discover and appre- been duly limited. In the second place, • 1974 its limited fundsapparehtly have been ernment policies and programs wheat expended fbi' irfoj~s which benefit could be done to elevate the quality the .already developed areas: like 'of'life' of aJf the' cultural'coirimurti'ties ,Davao City than the rotal areas where in the Philippines; Among the inno­ ,th'e great majoritY of 'the Mushms live. vative approaches introduced-are the RAD '(Reconstruction and Develop­ ,Whenever the~ is a short-fall Inac­ gov~rrim~ilt'ssin­ ment of Mindanao and Sulu) program, complishments; the thecodification of Nb'sliin traditional eerity likewise take's downturn in a laws, the program to restore the an­ the eyes 01 whose hopes nianyMlli.Hims cestral iands of the Muslims, the es­ haJe been knnoilrice­ 'revived by the' tablishment of the Philippine Amanah ment of progra¢S which 'strikes deep Bank, and the recognition of the im­ into the psychological premises of the portant role played by M~slims in problem. ' '1Vritingthe history of the Philippines. The advent of martial law in the Philippines, however, paved the way . "Conclusion " for the implementation of a compre­ Definitely." however, the Muslim hensive reconstruction and develop­ problem is not yet satisfactorily set­ ment program in 'Mindanao and Sulu. tled or solved. Thismay he partly ex­ J President Marcos, in a more recent plained by the following statement o£ l statement-said that since the begin­ a top-level executive 6£ the govern­ ning of the effort to establish a New ment': Society in the Philippines he has adopted aphilosophy of development Oftentimes in our eagerness to do designed to strengthen all ethno-lin­ , 'something for the Muslim's we devise programs wh'joh we think are good' for guistic cultural communities :in the . them, but which to them are not. Philippines, following three criteria, Therefore, it is:important that before namely, ' a program is proposed, some kind of a survey should be undertaken to find . 1. The preservation and enhance- , out what the people really want, Once , ment 0'£ Islam 'which is the heri- this is identified, then a program can • , tage of. the entire Filipino peo­ be evoived to fulfill it.l0 .ple; The Muslims, who know what their 2. The preservation, 'and advance­ problems areand what should be done ment '0£ Islamic culture and tra­ to solve them, have not meaningfully ditions; and participated in decision-making. Their 3. The promotion :of thewell-being fears; aspirations~expectations and of the Muslim communities in­ ambitions' have not been 'articulated. 'eluding the restoration of their 'ancestral Iarids, lO'Interview with the Honorable Alejandro Melchor, Jr., Executive Secretary of the T6warrl this 'end, 'yigororts steps 'were Republic of the Philippines on August 5, taken too translate intolaws and :gov- 1973.. , ' , • MUSLIM PROBLEMS AND GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSE 225

In this connection, there is a need This article only suggests that the for a pioneering study based on em­ Muslims in the Philippines should be pirical data to include an in-depth in­ given the opportunity not only to say quiry into the historical antecedents what their problems really are but of the problems of the Muslims in the also to express how best they can be Philippines and a thorough presenta­ solved. It is only in this spirit that tion of the socio-cultural and psycho­ the Philippine Government can solve logical motivations of the Muslims. the Muslim problem.

1974