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Xun in Huíla Province

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Xun in Huíla Province DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2018-015 Sociolinguistic Survey of !Xun in Huíla Province Linda Jordan and Isata Manuel Sociolinguistic Survey of !Xun in Huíla Province Linda Jordan and Isata Manuel SIL International® 2018 SIL Electronic Survey Report 2018-015, December 2018 © 2018 SIL International® All rights reserved Data and materials collected by researchers in an era before documentation of permission was standardized may be included in this publication. SIL makes diligent efforts to identify and acknowledge sources and to obtain appropriate permissions wherever possible, acting in good faith and on the best information available at the time of publication Abstract This survey was conducted in the west and central parts of Huíla Province in south-western Angola, specifically in the communities of Kakwa, Mupembati, Derruba, Mapunda, Mume and Hupa. The main focus of this study was the local varieties of !Xun ([vaj] and [knw]), part of a northern Ju macrolanguage that is spoken by San communities in the provinces of Huíla, Kuando Kubango and Cunene. The main purpose of this research was to ascertain the number and location of distinct linguistic variants spoken by the San population in Huíla Province in order to inform potential language development efforts. Language mapping exercises were facilitated in five communities to identify neighbouring speech varieties and discover the relationship between them. The results of this study point to the existence of two major variants of !Xun in Huíla Province. In spite of the linguistic differences, the San in this province have a highly cohesive group identity. The use of !Xun is restricted to the domain of the family and !Xun-speaking neighbours. It is almost exclusively the San people who can speak !Xun, so the San must use either the local Nyaneka variant or Portuguese to communicate with anyone outside their ethnic group. Their language can be considered vital but potentially threatened due to the small population of speakers. ii Contents Abstract 1 Introduction and background information 1.1 Identification of local speech varieties 1.2 Population 1.3 Geography 1.4 Previous research 2 Procedures 2.1 Purpose of the research 2.2 Methodology 2.2.1 Interviews 2.2.2 Language mapping 3 Results and data analysis 3.1 Interviews 3.1.1 Social and cultural considerations 3.1.2 Language contact and shift 3.1.3 The case of Mapunda 3.2 Language mapping 4 Summary and conclusions References iii 1 Introduction and background information This survey was conducted in the west and central parts of Huíla Province in south-western Angola, specifically in the communities of Kakwa, Mupembati, Derruba, Mapunda, Mume and Hupa. The main focus of this study was the local varieties of !Xun ([vaj] and [knw]), part of a northern Ju macrolanguage that is spoken by San communities in the provinces of Huíla, Kuando Kubango and Cunene. Fieldwork took place from 29 July to 7 August 2013 at the invitation of the Instituto de Línguas Nacionais (ILN) and with the support of staff from the provincial culture and education offices. The research was conducted with the kind cooperation of the municipal1 governments in Chibia, Lubango, Cacula and Quipungo and also counted on local support at the communal level. The main purpose of this research was to ascertain the number and location of distinct linguistic variants spoken by the San population in Huíla Province in order to inform potential language development efforts. Information was obtained through observation, informal conversation and group interviews to gain insights on the area’s sociolinguistic situation. Language mapping exercises were facilitated in each of five communities to identify neighbouring speech varieties and probe the relationship between them. Data on the distribution of local variants was also collected to aid in the revision of the Ethnologue mapping database for Angola. 1.1 Identification of local speech varieties In all of the San communities that were visited in Huíla Province, the people identified themselves as !Xun (phonetically realised as [ǃχũ]). This included communities whose speech varieties are not necessarily intelligible. Apparently “!Xun” is the autonym for the ethnic group, while “!Xun thali” ([ǃχũ tʰali]) is the name of their language. For the sake of simplicity, this report will continue to use “!Xun” as the language name. The surrounding Nyaneka people refer to the !Xun as “Kwankala.” The !Xun also apply this term to themselves, at least in the presence of Nyaneka speakers. Nevertheless, it is somewhat derogatory and should be avoided. Another such name given to the !Xun by others is “Kamusekeli,” used farther to the south and east in Kuando Kubango Province and perhaps also in northern Namibia. Those who are called “Kamusekeli” refer to themselves as “!Xun,” just like those who live in Huíla Province. There do appear to be different variants of !Xun even within the confines of Huíla Province, as will be discussed in greater detail in section 3.2. Even though intelligibility may be quite limited between speakers of two different !Xun variants, they may not necessarily share a knowledge of Portuguese or the same variant of Nyaneka. In such cases there is no other option than to converse in !Xun, each in his own variant, restricting the conversation to basic words that both parties understand. The !Xun variant called “Kamusekeli” by the neighbouring ethnic groups in Kuando Kubango Province is identified as “Northwestern !Kung” [vaj] in the Ethnologue (Simons and Fennig 2018), while the Kwankala of Huíla Province is identified as “Kung-Ekoka” [knw]. These both belong to the cluster of speech varieties formerly known as “Northern Khoisan,” though most specialists no longer regard Khoisan to be a single genetic unit. More work is needed to determine how many !Xun variants exist in southern Angola and to properly classify them in relation to those identified for northern Namibia. 1 The administrative structure in Angola comprises the following three main levels in order of decreasing scope: província (province), município (municipality), and comuna (commune). Here the English word “municipality” has been used to translate município, but the reader should be aware that this does not refer to a single city or town. The average município is big enough to contain several population centres, though the largest and most important of them is the municipal seat. “Comuna” also does not usually refer to a single village but rather a group of villages. 1 2 1.2 Population According to the provincial culture office, Lubango, Quipungo, Cacula and Chibia are the municipalities that are home to the major San populations of Huíla Province. Lubango has the greatest number of !Xun at an estimated 1,354, followed by Quipungo with 880, Cacula with 536 and Chibia with 292. Allowing for smaller populations in municipalities that border on neighbouring provinces to the south and east, the total !Xun population in Huíla is likely well over three thousand. The size of individual !Xun communities seems to average around one hundred individuals. 1.3 Geography Map 1 below gives an overview of Huíla Province, the area where fieldwork for this study was conducted. The six communities that were visited belong to the four different municipalities discussed above, as follows: 1. Lubango municipality • Kakwa in Hoque commune • Mapunda neighbourhood in the town of Lubango 2. Quipungo municipality • Derruba in Derruba commune • Mupembati in Hombo commune 3. Chibia municipality • Mume in Kapunda Kavilongo commune 4. Cacula municipality • Hupa in Tchiquaqueia commune Map 1. Map of Angola showing the location of Huíla Province, outlined in red © 2017 Google map data, with overlay The major !Xun communities in Huíla Province are found along an arc that extends from the area around Mume northwest through Mapunda, then northeast through Kakwa, Hupa and Derruba, ending in 3 the southeast with Mupembati and the communities near Bicuari National Park (see map 2). According to the interviewees in Mume, they have no contact with the residents of Mupembati, making this more of a chain rather than a cluster or network of communities. The highest concentration of !Xun settlement can be found around Kakwa, Hupa and Derruba, spanning the borders of three municipalities. Map 2. Map of western Huíla Province with provincial border, featuring the !Xun communities where fieldwork was conducted © 2013 SIL International. Geodata from www.worldgeodatasets.com and Esri. 1.4 Previous research The !Xun (otherwise known as “Ju”2) speech varieties form a chain that stretches from southern Angola to northern Namibia and northwestern Botswana. There is every indication that this is indeed a chain linked by mutual intelligibility, though internal differences are such that speakers of varieties at opposite ends of the chain do not necessarily understand each other (Heine and Honken 2010). An internal classification of !Xun was developed initially by Snyman (1997), distinguishing twelve varieties. This was later refined by Sands and Miller-Ockhuizen (2000) and Sands (2010), who distinguished fifteen varieties. Their classification scheme was based on regular sound correspondences, but König and Heine (2001, 2008) have proposed a somewhat different classification with eleven varieties, based on grammatical features. In both schemes, the Angolan !Xun varieties fall under the northern cluster or dialectal group, which is separate from the groups containing most of the varieties found in northern Namibia and north-western Botswana. The varieties within the northern group are not well documented, so more research is needed to fill in the gaps. 2 The name “Ju” was assigned by linguists to classify it as a macrolanguage. 4 2 Procedures 2.1 Purpose of the research The main goal of this research was to ascertain the number and location of distinct linguistic variants spoken by the San population in Huíla Province in order to inform potential language development efforts. This involved the identification and comparison of the San speech varieties found in the province, with a heavy emphasis on the perspective of mother tongue speakers as gauged by participatory group discussions.
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