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Masterthesis Thomas Jacobs Faculteit Letteren & Wijsbegeerte Thomas Jacobs The Spectacle of Terrorism A Topic Modeling Approach to the Discursive Construction of Violence Masterproef voorgedragen tot het behalen van de graad van Master of Arts in de Geschiedenis 2014-2015 Promotor: Prof. Dr. Christophe Verbruggen, Vakgroep Geschiedenis 2 THE SPECTACLE OF TERRORISM: A TOPIC MODELING APPROACH TO THE DISCURSIVE CONSTRUCTION OF VIOLENCE 3 They stack the bodies a thousand high A carnal monument to touch the sky They crown the peaks So far estranged But down in the dirt, nothing has changed Into the rabble, the panic seeps One target hisses, another weeps They scale the walls, their minds deranged But down in the dirt, nothing has changed - Refused 4 Samenvatting Deze thesis gaat over terrorisme, of liever over dat wat we in het algemeen als terrorisme bestempelen. Ik ga er immers van uit dat er niet zomaar een vast omlijnd fenomeen uit de realiteit is dat terrorisme heet. Terrorisme is in de eerste plaats een ‘label’ dat we met z’n allen toekennen aan bepaalde uitingen van geweld. Met deze constructivistische stellingname sluit ik me aan bij een relatief kleine maar groeiende niche in het onderzoek die als ‘ Critical Terrorism Studies ’ door het leven gaat. In het eerste deel heb ik geprobeerd om de complexe processen van betekenisgeving rond terrorisme te bestuderen, in onze maatschappij in het algemeen en binnen de academische wereld in het bijzonder. Het discours waarmee we aan terrorisme betekenis geven, noem ik hegemonisch omdat het ons collectieve denken en spreken domineert. Typisch aan dit discours is dat het terrorisme voorstelt als een objectief gegeven, als iets tastbaars. Het maatschappelijk discours over terrorisme is uiteraard afhankelijk van de specifieke culturele, sociale en politieke context waarin het gehanteerd wordt en dus heb ik ook de historiek geschetst van wat we met de term terrorisme benoemen. De methode die ik hiervoor hanteer, valt onder de noemer van discoursanalyse te situeren. Als data heb ik een staalkaart uit het publieke debat van de laatste decennia en van het recente wetenschappelijk onderzoek bestudeerd. Maar er zijn ook tegendraadse interpretaties van geweld mogelijk, die niet overeenstemmen met wat de goedgemeente terrorisme noemt. Hier gaat het om een niet-hegemonisch discours en het zijn bij uitstek de zogenaamde terroristen zelf die hier aan het woord zijn. Vreemd genoeg zijn hun pamfletten, manifesten en perscommuniqués tot nu toe nog maar nauwelijks onderzocht. In het tweede deel van mijn thesis heb ik daarom een uitgebreid corpus van teksten bestudeerd die in de jaren zeventig, tachtig en negentig werden geproduceerd door een twaalftal communistische groeperingen in het westen, onder andere de Duitse R.A.F., de Italiaanse Rode Brigades en de Belgische C.C.C. Vanwege de grote omvang van de data gebruik ik topic modeling . Deze methode maakte het mogelijk om snel een gedetailleerd beeld te vormen van het discours dat deze groepen hanteren over geweld en om zowel synchrone nuances als diachrone evoluties te bestuderen. Het opvallendste resultaat van deze historische analyse is dat de teksten na verloop van tijd op een soort ‘ideologische vermoeidheid’ gaan wijzen. Het is mijn hypothese dat die het gevolg is van de inspanningen die de verschillende groeperingen ondernemen om hun acties via de massamedia uit te leggen. Door het hegemonische discours van het grote publiek over te nemen raken de “terroristen” immers vervreemd van hun oorspronkelijk project. Dit blijkt uit de statistische analyse maar het ruchtmakende gesprek van Jean-Paul Sartre met Andreas Baader in de gevangenis van Stammheim en het allerlaatste pamflet van de R.A.F. wijzen evenzeer in diezelfde richting. De conclusie in deel drie is dat het discours over terrorisme uiteindelijk een impact heeft op de realiteit. Door over geweld te spreken als “terrorisme” maken we het onszelf moeilijk die realiteit te begrijpen, maar hinderen we ook de communicatie van groepen die we als terroristisch omschrijven. De interactie tussen onze conceptie van terrorisme en de manier waarop organisaties als de R.A.F. geweld als revolutionair begrepen, verklaart hun ondergang. 5 6 Acknowledgments Above all, I would like to sincerely thank my supervisor, Professor Verbruggen. He introduced me to topic modeling, gave me the opportunity to familiarize myself with the method, he let me the freedom to pursue my interests yet was available at all times when I needed feedback or ideas. I would also like to express my gratitude Thomas D’haeninck, who helped me on my way with AntConc and provided me with ample feedback. I am grateful to Professor Pluchinsky (Georgetown University) for providing me with a wide set of data. Finally, my family, friends and Audrey, for putting up with my incessant talk about discourse, violence and this thesis. 7 8 Table of contents Introduction: On language, constructivism and terrorism ................................................... 11 1. Terrorism in society .......................................................................................................... 31 1.1 The construction of terrorism as an ontological category .................................... 32 1.2 The discursive functioning of terrorism ................................................................ 44 1.3 Terrorism and narrative ........................................................................................ 53 2.Researching terrorism ....................................................................................................... 59 2.1 Orthodox terrorism research ..................................................................................... 60 2.2 The influence of societal terrorism discourse on scientific research ......................... 71 2.3 Academics, philosophy and non-hegemonic conceptions of “terrorism” ................. 83 3. Historical dimensions of terrorism discourse ................................................................... 89 3.1 The conceptual history of the term “terrorism” ........................................................ 91 3.2 Evolutions in the ideology produced by terrorism discourse .................................. 100 3.3 Terrorism and mass media ....................................................................................... 104 4. A topic model of the revolution ..................................................................................... 117 4.1 The monistic nature of violence to the perpetrators ............................................... 118 4.2 Delineating a non-hegemonic ontology ................................................................... 119 4.3 Methodology and heuristics…………………………………………………………………………….121 4.4 Topic modeling militant discourse ........................................................................... 136 4.5 A theory of the ontology of revolutionary violence ................................................. 155 5. Diachronic analysis of militant discourse ....................................................................... 159 5.1 Topic modeling, framing and discourse ................................................................... 159 5.2 Frame development over time ................................................................................. 177 5.3 Analysis of frame time series ................................................................................... 190 5.4 Evidence of “ideological fatigue” ............................................................................. 192 5.5 Developments in militant ontological discourse ...................................................... 208 6. Towards a theory of the discursive construction of violence ........................................ 213 6.1 Interaction of hegemonic discourse and non-hegemonic discourse ....................... 215 6.2 The interaction of discourses in speech situations .................................................. 230 6.3 Conclusions on the discursive battle for the meaning of violence .......................... 235 Appendix A: Topic models .................................................................................................. 241 Appendix B: Corpus content ............................................................................................... 257 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 265 Literature ........................................................................................................................ 265 Sources ........................................................................................................................... 288 9 10 INTRODUCTION On language, constructivism and terrorism Researching terrorism seems to be like flogging the dead horse. Dozens of works have been devoted to the subject in recent years 1, many definitions have been constructed 2, and nobody has come any closer to giving a meaningful answer to the simple question what terrorism is. Still, more often than not, one perspective is underrepresented, namely a historical one. The concept of terrorism is in fact highly ahistorical, many scholars have argued over recent years 3. It is based on the assumption that certain standard elements, unchanged regardless of time, place and context, allow for the identification of wide-ranging social and political realities in one unchanging category. A terrorist is a terrorist in 1890 Tsarist Russia, in 1980 Peru
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