: History, Geography and Culture

Nishat Bagh garden on , . " MUGHAL GARDENS: HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE (!

James L. Wescoat Jr

Few cultures have as strong a connection among gardens, territory and identity as the of South and Cen- Asia in the late +ifteenth to the mid nineteenth century. It is interesting to re+lect on how Mughal gardens continue to be a de+ining part of that heritage in the twentieth and twenty-+irst centuries. The emphasis on gardens in the Memoirs of the +irst Mughal ruler, (/>6;–/2;1), established a strong founda- tion | / |. The recalled the garden legacy inherited from Timur (/;;4–/>12) in Samarkand and Babur’s descendants in Herat whom he consciously emulated in Kabul. Grand sur- viving sites, beginning with ’s Tomb-Garden in , built upon that foundation in enduring ways. The hasht bihisht (eight paradises) layout of Humayun’s Tomb-Garden was spa- tially intertwined with the shrine of the fourteenth-century Su+i saint Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (/32;–/;32). Nizamuddin’s close disciple, Amir Khusrau, also buried here, composed a famous Hasht Bihisht poem ( The Eight Paradises ). / The signi+icance of gardens in Mughal culture continued to resonate with garden enthusiasts in and elsewhere long after the Mughal Empire was defeated by the British, inspiring contemporary as well as conservation efforts. All of these factors, along with a modest body of scholarship, help explain the continuing salience of Mughal garden heritage in modern cultures. # The Historic Cities Programme ( HCP ) projects in this volume present the state of the art in garden and urban heritage con- # servation. They also prompt new research questions about the history, geography and culture of Mughal gardens. How exactly were these gardens sited, laid out and designed? How did they relate to larger territorial projects and processes? How were they experienced by different social groups? It is challenging to return to the historical sources with these questions in mind. Not all Mughal garden events bespoke beauty, grandeur or virtue.

| @ | Babur’s Tomb-Garden, known as Bagh-e Babur, in Kabul, Afghanistan. | V | Babur’s Lotus Garden at Dholpur, India. () PART II THE MUGHAL EMPIRE THROUGH THE AGES

Some were associated with conquest and refuge in Mughal as to a historic garden event occurred in a tenuous context: “When well as modern terms. % However, most Mughal garden history the accident happened to Umar-Shaykh Mirza [his father], I was remains unknown, literally buried under metres of silt, as was the in the chahar-bagh of Andhizan”. * His father’s death triggered Moonlight Garden (Mahtab Bagh) in until it was excavated a precarious succession that led Babur on his path towards in the /991s; or lying unexamined in collections of manuscripts, Samarkand and beyond. paintings and poetry. While all of the arts change over time, gar- The origins of Mughal garden culture began much earlier. dens are especially dynamic, over the seasons of the year and The immediate historical precedents came from Babur’s famous the lifespans of plantings, disappearing rapidly in the absence of ancestor Timur (/;;4–/>12). References to gardens in Timurid care. At present, one can only scratch the surface of these dy- histories are usually metaphorical or poetic, but a near-contem- namic processes when surveying the history of Mughal gardens. porary biography by Sharafuddin Ali Yazdi, known as the Zafar- nama , recorded Timur’s orders to construct a massive square Origins and Antecedents Dilkusha Bagh garden with symmetrical paths, tile-covered cor- The earliest reference to gardens in Mughal history occurs in ner dovecotes and a central building. This garden was built out- the +irst pages of The Baburnama , which offer a sumptuous side Samarkand in honour of a new wife in /;94, and it was fol- geographic description of Fergana province in what is now lowed by charitable philanthropy at a shrine and a spontaneous Uzbekistan. “The Andizhan River passes through the area around garden project called the ‘Takht-i Qaracha’, which was “… laid Osh and goes on to Andizhan. On both its banks are gardens, out there in such a way that the sweet waters of the river would all of which overlook the river. The violets are beautiful, there +low through the garden in remembrance of the divine words is running water, and in the spring when many tulips and roses ‘beneath which rivers +low’”. ' This recurring phrase in the Qur’an blossom, it is quite nice.” & This memory of a childhood land- underscores that the original garden was that of the creation scape would be replicated in Babur’s garden designs in Kabul and the +inal one would be that of paradise. European travellers and India, culminating in Agra. The Baburnama’s +irst reference ampli+ied the description of Timur’s gardens in this world.

% &

Babur tried to emulate Timur’s garden model during his brief defeating the Lodi dynasty in /234. This decision faced oppos- capture of Samarkand, but he failed to sustain it, +leeing and ition from local people and his own nobles who were unused to taking refuge in gardens before settling in Kabul. Another set the heat and plains. In response, Babur and other nobles “…built of Timurid relatives in the city of Herat created a garden culture geometric and beautifully planned gardens and ponds […] they that Babur enjoyed but did not fully respect. They inspired him made running water with waterwheels […] Since the people of to combine garden construction with territorial expansion – link- India had never seen such planned or regular spaces they nick- ing gardens and geography – +irst in the Kabul region and then named the side of the Jumna on which these structures stood eastward in the territory known as Hindustan. At least two of ‘Kabul’.” ) Over the course of the next two centuries, Mughal Babur’s small gardens survive, one known as the Takht-i Baburi riverfront gardens extended along both sides of the (throne of Babur) in the Salt Range of , Pakistan, and River at Agra, which foreign travellers compared with Paris and another called the Lotus Garden (Bagh-i Nilufar) at the village of London. ( Dholpur in northern India | 3 |. ! This burst of garden building at the end of Babur’s short life Unlike Timur’s sack of Delhi in /;96 after which he returned in India cycled back to his early gardens at Kabul, and to even to Samarkand, Babur chose to relocate his capital to Agra after earlier childhood memories of Fergana and the inherited legacy

| [ | , , India. | \ | The central axis of Humayun’s Tomb complex, Delhi, India. * MUGHAL GARDENS: HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE "$"

from Samarkand. Kabul was the main reference place for early provides a possible model. "# Design of the project has been Mughal garden design, and it thus seems +itting that Babur was convincingly attributed to a family of landscape architects from reburied in Kabul in the Bagh-e Babur garden. Bagh-e Babur Herat and Bukhara. "% They were associated with the only surviv- has gone through many transformations since that time, most ing Timurid horticultural treatise known as the Irshad al-Zira’a , recently in its restoration as an HCP project that serves as a one chapter of which describes the chahar-bagh layout of a haven for contemporary Afghan society | / |. The second and garden. Scholarly efforts to reconstruct the chahar-bagh layout third Mughal rulers, Humayun and , also passed through diverge from the conventional square fourfold garden, and from Kabul during precarious periods of their lives. each other. Humayun’s Tomb-Garden thus established a new model for Early Garden Experimentation Mughal funerary gardens. It was unique in its integration of the Humayun’s garden legacy is one of ephemeral innovation. chahar-bagh (fourfold) and hasht bihisht (eightfold) garden Although few of his historical gardens survive, Humayun’s experi- layouts, a synthesis that was repeated in the tomb’s architecture ments with garden form, experience and meaning imaginatively and ornamentation. Variations on this design recurred through- broadened the art of garden design for those who followed. He out the Mughal Empire, culminating in the . The last commissioned +loating gardens, a zodiac carpet and a circumci- monumental version of this genre occurred at Safdarjung’s sion garden party outside Kabul to name a few. "$ tomb-garden (/016–2>) at the opposite end of Lodhi Road from Poor governance led Humayun to spend much of his time in Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi. other people’s gardens, most notably his brother and archrival Akbar’s second major contribution brought Mughal garden Kamran, the site of whose garden survives on an island in the design into the cities and citadels of Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and Ravi River in Lahore, where it has been renovated often from Lahore. "& Earlier gardens had been temporary encampments at Mughal to modern times. While in exile in Shah Tahmasp’s Persia, favourable sites. Akbar’s urban gardens had strong architectural Humayun experienced +irst-hand a garden legacy that would frames and paved courtyards. They were graced with water fea- become linked with that of Mughal India through garden arts, tures and carved vegetal decoration, as at the Jahangiri Mahal poetry and design. "" in and the Anup Talao in Fatehpur Sikri | ; |. Recent research at Fatehpur Sikri has documented over two dozen Monumental Tomb-Gardens and Citadels garden remnants in a range of settings from central courtyards Humayun’s accidental death shortly after returning to Delhi to suburban plots. "* Garden-like paved courtyards continued opened the way for monumental urban gardens and geographic throughout the later history of Mughal architectural and urban expansion during the reign of his son Akbar (r. /224–/412). Two design. They may not have been gardens per se, but their major developments stand out, the +irst of which was the con- features evoked garden forms and aesthetics. "' On a grander struction of Humayun’s Tomb-Garden with its bold scale and lay- geographical scale Mughal rulers regarded their empire as a out | > |. There were earlier partial precedents, such as Sikandar garden. "! Lodi’s square tomb-garden in Delhi, but nothing like the scale Gardens and Exquisite Naturalism or design of Humayun’s Tomb-Garden. The Garden was com- missioned and overseen by Humayun’s son Akbar and wife Haji Akbar’s son and successor (/249–/430) could not hope Begum, who brought back scholars from the Hadhra maut who to match his father’s extraordinary state-building accomplish- may have resided in the Arab ki Serai near the tomb. Academic ments over the course of half a century. But, like his father, debate continues over the respective roles of Akbar and Haji one of his +irst projects upon succession was to supervise Begum, but the joint patronage of Timur and his noble women construction of Akbar’s tomb-garden at Sikandra, a fascinating

| ] | Virnag garden waterworks in Kashmir.

"$& PART II THE MUGHAL EMPIRE THROUGH THE AGES

multi-tiered structure centred within a monumental fourfold (Mughal yards; approximately >91 metres) square to smaller garden. Large +loral decoration on its gates was unique among gardens ;11 gaz square with walks, rooms and water channels Mughal tomb-gardens. Jahangir already had a record of patron- that were ten, +ive and one gaz wide respectively. #$ age as a prince at projects such as the ’s tower, water Garden, City and Empire tank and grave for a favourite antelope near Sheikhupura Fort west of Lahore. Mughal garden history and heritage were established for poster- He renewed Babur’s passionate and personal autobiographi- ity by a great period of construction during the second quarter cal writing, and his +inely attuned naturalism and artistic expres- of the seventeenth century. lined the riverfront para- sion. It was this fascination with nature that attained a highly pets of Agra and Lahore Forts with jewel-like garden courtyards re+ined sense of beauty in painting as well as planting. ") Jahangir overlooking the river channels below. Hunting palaces became constructed at least two great garden design projects in Kash- architecturally re+ined, as did the famous gardens of Kashmir. mir at Virnag | 2 | and Shalimar | 4 | // |. At Virnag he wrote of the Rather than survey the wide proliferation of these projects, it historically sacred spring-fed pool at the top of the garden, set seems apt to focus on two of Shah Jahan’s masterpieces. within an octagonal arcade that spilled into a water channel, The Taj Mahal tomb-garden continued the chahar-bagh cascading through garden terraces below. Shalimar Garden was model initiated by Humayun’s Tomb, but it diverged from earlier likewise terraced from the shore of Dal Lake up to its mountain tomb-gardens in several important ways. Its main garden space water source. It realized the Timurid dream of building gardens has a fourfold plan, as does the Taj Ganj village associated with +lanking a running stream, though Timur never had a prospect it to the south and the Mahtab Bagh garden to the north. The as majestic as that overlooking Dal Lake. Jahangir also managed tomb itself was sited on a high riverfront plinth. Scholars have to bring this model down to the plains at a garden near the town debated whether this shift in tomb location from garden cen- of Hasan Abdal, known as Wah (crudely translated as “Wow!”). tre to riverfront had mainly symbolic #" or visual and functional He was accompanied in these garden design projects by his signi+icance. ## It now appears that the Mahtab Bagh pleasure wife and her family, who further transformed Mughal garden across the river was part of the original composition garden form and beauty. Nur Jahan’s mother was said to have that, along with the river’s width, centred the tomb within a developed the production of rose oil (attar) based on her gar- larger terraced landscape context, once again, “beneath which den observations. "( Nur Jahan herself commissioned the +irst rivers +low” | 0 |. #% Plantings at the Taj Mahal garden were stead- white marble riverfront tomb-garden with polychrome marble ily removed in the colonial and independence periods, though inlay in Agra for her parents, known today as Itimad ad-Daula’s there is now greater recognition that historic gardens had more tomb, which provided a partial precedent for the Taj Mahal. trees and less lawn. #& Her brother, Asaf Khan, constructed palace gardens in Lahore The city of Lahore witnessed construction of its own ter- as well as the Bagh in Kashmir that is arguably the most raced Shalimar Garden, originally known as the Farah Bakhsh beautiful of all Mughal gardens (see p. 9>). Its terraces, water and Faiz Bakhsh gardens, fed by a canal diverted from the Ravi channels and majestic rows of chenar (oriental plane) trees pro- River to Lahore | 4 | // |. The family of Wazir Khan, who served as vide a grand hillslope vista that sweeps across Dal Lake. governors of the province, built gardens, mosques and havelis . After the death of her husband, defeated in successional Likewise, the Persian noble Ali Mardan Khan built a small canal struggles, Nur Jahan ended her years supervising construction and garden from a tributary of the Chenab River near Sohdra of the Shahdara tomb-garden complex in Lahore for her hus- and was ultimately buried in a large tomb-garden in Lahore not band, brother and herself, whose dimensions were decimally far from that of Dai Anga, who was Shah Jahan’s wet nurse. This proportioned from the largest garden enclosure of 411 gaz proliferation of monumental tomb-gardens and forts during

| ^ | Preceding pages: Shalimar Garden in Lahore, Pakistan. | _ | The Taj Mahal from the Mahtab Bagh garden in Agra, India. !

Shah Jahan’s reign constitutes the main surviving buildings of were paved with exquisitely carved white marble water channels the Mughal Empire. and inlay stonework | 6 | 9 |. Wells and Persian wheels served The largest urban design project of all was the construction private residential haveli gardens within the Walled City. #* of Shahjahanabad as the new capital of Delhi in /4;6–>6. This At least several of Shah Jahan’s children and nobles were new city was fed by a large canal drawn from the Yamuna River. passionate garden patrons. A water tank and tomb-pavilion Upon entering Delhi it branched into one channel that ran down built by near the beloved spiritual centre of Mian the middle of an east-west boulevard known as Chandni Chowk, Mir in Lahore is one example. Princess Jahanara is credited with and a second channel that fed massive gardens to the north many gardens, from those of Shahjahanabad to the misnamed of that boulevard built to a large extent by women of the court. Zahra Bagh in Agra. As has shown, (for In addition to these expansive urban gardens, the citadel was whom the Taj Mahal was later constructed) built this garden and graced by elegant garden courts and water channels that ran subsequently bequeathed it to her daughter Jahanara. #' Aurang- north-south, paralleling the River Yamuna below. As with other zeb’s sons emulated Shah Jahan’s Taj Mahal by building the Mughal citadels, some of these courts were planted while others Bibi-ka Maqbara tomb-garden in for their mother. #! "$' PART II THE MUGHAL EMPIRE THROUGH THE AGES

)

Aurangzeb himself was buried in a small grave open to the sky in gardens shows hardly a single empty parcel along the Yamuna the corner of a Chishti pir ’s shrine in , emulating his River. %$ The “twilight of the Mughals,” a common phrase among sister Jahanara at the shrine of Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi. #) colonial writers, was thus experienced at least in part in beau- tiful garden settings. Paintings from the reign of Muhammad The Flowering of Late Mughal Gardens Shah Rangila (r. /0/9–>6), for example, depict a colourful range Ordinarily this would be the end of the narrative as Mughal of garden scenes in Delhi including some in the . One patronage turned in more conservative directions, the state garden painting shows a strong composition of trees, shrubs apparatus became overextended, contracted and declined. and +lowerbeds while another presents a delicate tracery of ink But that would be a mistake. Grand tomb-gardens continued and watercolour plantings loosely intermixed and layered upon to be built by nobles such as the late Mughal vizier Safdarjung one another. One painting of the Yamuna riverbank is a forest (/016–2>) whose tomb-garden lies on axis with that of Hum- while another is an open +ield, another a luscious wetland, and ayun’s Tomb, purportedly scavenging its marble from another yet another a park-like playground. nearby tomb. The Afterlife of Mughal Gardens The weakening central state created space for the +lourish- ing of sub-imperial Mughal gardens in less con+lict-ridden prov- Mughal garden design per se ended with the empire in /620. The inces. Late Mughal gardens were built in cities from Lucknow end occurred very near where Mughal garden design began in to Benares. #( A late eighteenth-century map of Agra riverfront India three centuries earlier, at Humayun’s Tomb-Garden where

| { | Marble water channel in the Red Fort in Shahjahanabad, Delhi, paralleling the Yamuna River. | € | Garden-like marble water pool in the Red Fort in Shahjahanabad, Delhi, India. MUGHAL GARDENS: HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE "$!

the defeated emperor, II, surrendered to What do historic gardens mean for contemporary cultures? The William Hodson on 31 September /620. It was a pitiful end to a foundations for garden conservation in India and most regions declining trend and a horri+ic con+lict. The afterlife of Humayun’s of the world are tenuous. Many historical gardens have been Tomb-Garden has had many chapters, the most recent of which abandoned or redeveloped. The afterlife of places like Anarkali’s was celebrated in 31/; with the completion of its conservation tomb-garden in Lahore, for example, included use as a house by the Archaeological Survey of India ( ASI ) and the Aga Khan for a European mercenary, a Christian church and presently Trust for Culture ( AKTC ). %" the Punjab provincial archives. %% Sir John Marshall’s otherwise This brief perspective on Mughal gardens shows that there is impressive and in+luential Conservation Manual gave limited no simple beginning to the story. It reaches back into the Cen- attention to gardens. The British conserved some Mughal gar- tral Asian, Persian and Indic histories and the heritage of many dens according to their own standards and purposes.%& They peoples, places and times. Mughal garden research has helped emulated Mughal gardens in the so-called Viceroy’s Garden at stimulate studies of related garden cultures in nearby regions, Rashtrapati Bhawan, as well as exotic garden design, and now for example the Sultanate, and Deccani gardens such as community gardens, back in England. the Qutb Shahi tombs at Hyderabad | /1 |. %# These regional his- It used to be thought that conservation was a +ield of applied tories have broadened our understanding of Central and South history and technology. That view is changing. The Historic Asian garden cultures and raised new questions for research. Cities Programme projects have broken new ground. They pose Nor does there seem to be an end to the story, as designers new questions and challenges for historians and for societies build upon Mughal garden precedents, consciously and subcon- about what these historic gardens were like, how they were sciously, and as diverse societies anticipate the possibility of a originally designed and experienced, what they have meant, paradise at the end of time if not in this world. and how their conservation demands new types of geographic These cultural achievements, losses and hopes set within enquiry and action to address pressing challenges today and for gardens invite deeper re+lection on what is being conserved. future generations.

(

""$ PART II THE MUGHAL EMPIRE THROUGH THE AGES

Endnotes “Beneath Which Rivers Flow: M. Hussain, A. Rehman and of India , Wheeler M. Thackston Water, Geographic Imagination, J. Wescoat (eds.), Ferozsons Press, (trans.), Smithsonian Institution, " See Ebba Koch, Mughal Art and and Sustainable Landscape Lahore, /994, pp. 39–;4. Washington, DC, /999, p. /4;. Imperial Ideology: Collected Design”, in Landscapes of Water: "% See Maria Eva Subtelny, “A Medi- #$ See James L. Wescoat Jr, Michael Essays , Oxford University Press, History, Innovation and Sus- eval Persian Agricultural Manual Brand, and M. N. Mir, “The Delhi, 311/; Laura E. Parodi, “The tainable Design , U. Fratino, in Context: The Irshad al-Zira’a Shahdara Gardens of Lahore: Posthumous Portrait of ‘Hadrat A. Petrillo, A. Petruccioli and in Late Timurid and Early Safavid Site Documentation and Spatial Jannat Ashiyānī’: Dynastic, Saintly, M. Stella (eds.), Uniongra+ica Khorasan”, in Studia Iranica , 33, Analysis”, in Pakistan Archaeol- and Literary Imagery in the Tomb Corcelli Editrice, Bari, 3113, vol. /, /99;, pp. /40–3/0; Id., “Mirak-i ogy , 32, /99;, pp. ;;;–;44. of Humayun”, in , pp. /;–;>. Sayyid Ghiyas and the Timurid #" See Wayne Begley, “The Garden 4, 3119, pp. /39–/26; and Sunil ! See Elizabeth B. Moynihan, Tradition of Landscape Architec- of the Taj Mahal: A Case Study Sharma, Amir Khusrau: The Poet “The Lotus Garden Palace of Zahir ture”, in Studia Iranica , 3>, /992, of Mughal Architectural Plan- of Sultans and Sufis , Oneworld, al-Din Muhammad Babur”, in pp. /9–41; and Id., “Agriculture ning and Symbolism”, in Mughal Oxford, 3112. Muqarnas , 2, /966, pp. /;>–/23. and the Timurid Chaharbagh : Gardens: Sources, Representa- # See James L. Wescoat Jr, “Gar- ) See Babur, The Baburnama The Evidence from a Medieval tions, Places, Prospects , James dens, Pavilions, and Tents: The op. cit., p. ;41. Persian Agricultural Manual”, in L. Wescoat Jr. and Joachim Arts of Shelter”, in Treasures of ( See Ebba Koch, “The Mughal Koch, Gardens in the Time of the Wolschke-Bulmahn (eds.), Dum- the Aga Khan Museum: Archi- Waterfront Garden”, in Gardens Great Muslim Empires op. cit, barton Oaks, Washington, DC, tecture in Islamic Arts , AKTC, in the Time of the Great Muslim pp. //1–/36. /994, pp. 3/;–3;3. Geneva, 31//, pp. 3;2–3>4; and Empires: Theory and Design , "& See James L. Wescoat Jr, “Gar- ## See Koch, “The Mughal Water- Id., “The Changing Cultural Attilio Petruccioli (ed.), E. J. Brill, dens vs. Citadels: The Territorial front Garden” op. cit. Space of Mughal Gardens”, chap- Leiden, /990, pp. />1–/41. Context of Early Mughal Gar- #% See Elizabeth B. Moynihan (ed.), ter in preparation for Companion "$ See Parodi, “The Posthumous dens”, in Garden History: Issues, The Moonlight Garden: New to Asian Art and Architecture , Portrait of ‘Hadrat Jannat Approaches, Methods , J. D. Hunt Discoveries at the Taj Mahal , Rebecca Brown and Deborah Ashiyānī’” op. cit.; James L. Wes- (ed.), Dumbarton Oaks, Washing- Smithsonian Institution, Wash- Hutton (eds.), Blackwell, 31//, coat Jr, “Gardens of Invention ton, DC, /993, pp. ;;/–;26. ington, DC, 311/, pp. 29–00; and pp. 31/–3;1. and Exile: The Precarious Context "* See Nadeem Rezavi, Fathpur James L. Wescoat Jr, “The Colors % See James L. Wescoat Jr, “Gar- of Mughal Garden Design During Sikri Rediscovered , Oxford of Water: Hydrology and Human dens of Conquest and Transfor- the Reign of Humayun (/2;1– University Press, Oxford, 31/3. Experience at the Taj Mahal”, in mation: Lessons from the Earliest /224)”, in Journal of Garden "' See James L. Wescoat Jr, New Geographies: Urbanisms Mughal Gardens in India”, in History , /1, /991, pp. /14–//4; “Mughal Gardens and Geographic of Color , Gareth Doherty (ed.), Landscape Journal , /1, 3, /99/, and Id., “Ritual Movement and Sciences, Then and Now”, in Harvard Graduate School of pp. /12–//>. Territoriality: A Study of Land- Koch, Gardens in the Time of the Design, Cambridge, MA, 31//, & See Zahiruddin Muhammad scape Transformation During the Great Muslim Empires op cit., pp. /0>–/6;. The term ‘landscape’ Babur, The Baburnama: Mem- Reign of Humayun”, in Environ- pp. /60–313. is a modern heuristic for local oirs of Babur, Prince and mental Design: Journal of "! See Ebba Koch, “‘My Garden historical-geographic complexes Emperor , Wheeler M. Thackston the Islamic Environmental is Hindustan’: The Mughal Pad- in Islamic cultures, see James (trans.), Smithsonian Institution, Design Research Centre , /99;, shah’s Realization of a Political L. Wescoat Jr, “Between Garden Washington, /994, pp. ;4–;0. pp. 24–4;. Metaphor”, in Middle East and Geography: Landscape as an * Ibid., p. 21. "" See Laura E. Parodi, “Humayun’s Garden Traditions: Unity and Emergent Concept in the Wider ' Evoking this paradisiacal phrase Sojourn at the Safavid Court”, Diversity , Michel Conan (ed.), Middle East”, in Contemporary in many suras of the Qur’an. in Proceedings of the *th Confer- Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, Urban Landscapes of the Middle See Wheeler M. Thackston ence of the Societas Iranologica DC, 3110, pp. /29–/02. East , Mohamad Gharipour (ed.), (ed. and trans.), “Zafarnama”, in Europaea , A. Panaino and ") See Som Prakash Verma (ed.), Routledge, London, forthcoming. A Century of Princes: Sources on R. Zipoli (eds.), vol. II, Mimesis, Flora and Fauna in Mughal Art , #& See Priyaleen Singh, “Changing Timurid History and Art , Aga Milan, 3114, pp. /;2–/20. Marg, Mumbai, /999. Imagery of the Gardens of Taj Khan Program for Islamic Archi- "# See Lisa Golombek, “Timur’s "( See Nuruddin Muhammad Mahal”, in LA! Journal of Land- tecture, Cambridge, MA, /969, Gardens: The Feminine Perspec- Jahangir, The Jahangirnama: scape Architecture (India), 0, /, p. 66; and James L. Wescoat Jr, tive”, in The Mughal Garden , Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor 3119, pp. ;1–;2. MUGHAL GARDENS: HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE """

""

#* See Stephen P. Blake, “The of the Islamic Environmental to Indo-Persian Studies , The Royal Paintings of Jodhpur . Khanah Bagh in Mughal India: Design Research Centre , 3, /, F. N. Delvoye (ed.), Manohar, Delhi, Smithsonian Institution, Washing- House Gardens in the Palaces /964, pp. ;1–;0. /99>, pp. /;/–/49. ton, DC, 3116. and Mansions of the Great Men #! See Laura E. Parodi, “The Bibi- %$ See Ebba Koch, The Complete %% See John Dixon Hunt, The After- of Shahjahanabad”, in Wescoat ka Maqbara in Aurangabad. A Taj Mahal: and the Riverfront life of Gardens , University of and Wolschke-Bulman (eds.), Landmark of Mughal Power in the Gardens of Agra , Thames & Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Mughal Gardens: Sources, Deccan?”, in East & West , vol. >6, Hudson, London, 3114. 311>. Represen tations, Places, Pros- no. ;–>, /996, pp. ;>9–;6;. %" See Aga Khan Trust for Culture, %& See Jyoti Sharma, “The British pects op cit., pp. /0/–/66; and #) See Carl Ernst, Eternal Garden: Humayun’s Tomb – Sunder Treatment of Historic Gardens James L. Wescoat Jr, “Conserving Mysticism, History and Politics Nursery – Hazrat Nizamuddin in the Indian Subcontinent: The Urban Water Heritage in Multi- at a South Asian Sufi Center , Basti , Urban Renewal Initiative, Transformation of Delhi’s Nawab Centered Regions: An Historical- SUNY Press, Albany, /993. AKTC, Delhi, 31/;. Safdarjung’s Tomb Complex from Geographic Approach to Early #( See Klaus Roetzer and Deokar %# See Daud Ali and Emma Flatt a Funerary Garden into a Public Modern Delhi”, in Change over Khandu, “Mughal Gardens in (eds.), Garden and Landscape Park”, in Garden History , ;2, 3, Time , >, 31/>, pp. />3–/44. Benaras and Its Neighbourhood Practices in Precolonial India: 3110, pp. 3/1–336. #' See Ebba Koch, “The Zahara Bagh in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Histories from the Deccan , (Bagh-i Jahanara) at Agra”, in Centuries”, in Confluence of Routledge, Delhi, 31//; and Debra Environmental Design: Journal Cultures: French Contributions Diamond, Garden and Cosmos:

| @‰ | Preceding pages: the Qutb Shahi tomb complex, Hyderabad, India. | @@ | Shalimar Garden, view from the central takht to the north gate, Lahore, Pakistan.