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Maar De Hoop Domineert Maar de Hoop Domineert Een transnationale studie naar de Nederlandse vredes- en antikernwapenbeweging, 1955-1965 Eline Groenewegen van der Weiden 11895896 MA Geschiedenis van de Internationale Betrekkingen Universiteit van Amsterdam, Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen Begeleider: Dr. P.H. van Dam Tweede lezer: Dr. R. van Dijk 18 ECTS Aantal woorden: 17.973 Ingeleverd op: 29 juni 2018 INHOUDSOPGAVE Lijst van afkortingen 4 Inleiding 5 Hoofdstuk 1 22 Internationale organisaties en conferenties Hoofdstuk 2 39 Nationale protestacties Hoofdstuk 3 60 Internationale protestacties Conclusie 74 Bibliografie 78 Verantwoording afbeeldingen 82 2 “Demonstreren wij uit wanhoop? Demonstreren wij uit hoop? Ik antwoord: uit beiden. Maar de hoop domineert.” - Krijn Strijd (1963)1 1 Krijn Strijd, ‘De Vredesmars in Amsterdam’, Militia Christi 18:4 (1963) 32. 3 LIJST VAN AFKORTINGEN AAA Anti Atoombom Actie ANJV Algemeen Nederlands Jeugd Verbond ANVA Algemene Nederlandse Vredesactie ASA Atomic Scientists’ Association BB Bescherming Burgerbevolking CND Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament CNVA Committee of Non-violent Action CPN Communistische Partij Nederland DAC Direct Action Committee EFNA European Federation against Nuclear Arms FAS Federation of American Scientists ICDP International Confederation for Disarmament and Peace IFOR International Fellowship of Reconciliation IISG Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis ILCOP International Liaison Committee of Organisations of Peace IBP International Peace Bureau IPRA International Peace Research Association MLF Multilateral Force NAVO Noord-Atlantische Verdragsorganisatie NPK Nederlands Pugwash Komitee NVR Nederlandse Vredesraad OCV Onafhankelijke Contactcommissie voor Vredeswerk OVL Onafhankelijke Vredesliga PSP Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij SANE Campaign for a Sane Nuclear Policy SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institution SJN Socialistische Jeugd van Nederland WAS Werkgroep Antimilitaristische Studenten WILPF Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom WPC World Peace Council WRI War Resisters’ International WRL War Resisters League VWO Verbond van Wetenschappelijke Onderzoekers 4 INLEIDING Het einde van de jaren zeventig en het begin van de jaren tachtig werden gekenmerkt door massale antikernwapenprotesten in grote delen van de Westerse wereld. Het einde van een periode van detente tussen de Verenigde Staten en de Sovjet-Unie zorgde voor toenemende spanningen en verontrusting over de mogelijkheid van een kernoorlog tussen de twee grootmachten. Vanaf 1977 vonden er protesten plaats tegen de neutronenbom, welke in omvang groeiden na het NAVO-dubbelbesluit van 1979, dat de plaatsing van middellangeafstandsraketten in vijf West-Europese landen zou betekenen. Nederland liep wat betreft de antikernwapenbeweging voorop en er werden omvangrijke demonstraties georganiseerd (zo kwamen in 1981 in Amsterdam 400.000 personen bijeen om te demonstreren). Deze massale Nederlandse volkswoede tegen kernwapens wordt ook wel aangeduid met de term Hollanditis.2 De antikernwapenprotesten van de jaren zeventig en tachtig hebben door de tijd heen aanzienlijke wetenschappelijke belangstelling genoten. Dit is, gezien de omvang van deze protestbeweging, ook zeker niet verwonderlijk. Beduidend minder aandacht hebben historici daarentegen besteed aan een eerdere fase van antikernwapenprotesten die tijdens de tweede helft van de twintigste eeuw plaatsvond, namelijk tussen 1955 en 1965. Deze protestbeweging was een reactie op de kernproeven die destijds op grote schaal door de Verenigde Staten en de 2 April Carter, Peace Movements: International Protest and World Politics since 1945 (New York (NY), 1992) 110-112 en 121; Christie Miedema, ‘Struggling Against the Bomb or Against the Bloc Divide? The Dutch Peace Movement and Eastern Europe’, Dutch Crossing 39:3 (2015) 261-274, aldaar 261-262; De term ‘Hollanditis’ werd in 1981 aan de beweging toegekend door de Amerikaanse historicus Walter Laqueur in zijn artikel ‘Hollanditis: A New Stage in European Neutralism’ (gepubliceerd in Commentary). 5 Sovjet-Unie werden uitgevoerd. Men maakte zich vooral zorgen om de gezondheidsrisico’s die deze proeven met zich mee zouden brengen, maar natuurlijk ook om de gevolgen van een mogelijke kernoorlog.3 De oorsprong van dit protest lag bij de wetenschappelijke gemeenschap, maar al snel begon er ook bij het grote publiek een toenemende weerstand tegen kernwapens te ontstaan. Vooral in Groot-Brittannië was de protestbeweging erg sterk. Daar werd, na de beslissing van de Britse overheid om in 1957 bij Kersteiland een eerste kernproef uit te voeren, in 1958 de Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) opgericht, de grootste en meest bekende antikernwapenorganisatie. Maar ook in andere landen, zoals de Verenigde Staten, West- Duitsland, Japan en Australië, werd gedemonstreerd. De CND groeide als kool en na twee jaar waren er al 450 lokale afdelingen opgericht. De jaarlijks georganiseerde mars tijdens het Paasweekend, de Aldermaston march, trok daarnaast steevast vele duizenden geïnteresseerden, zo liepen er in 1960 zeker 100.000 demonstranten mee.4 Het radicalere Committee of Hundred (een afsplitsing van de CND, onder leiding van filosoof en wiskundige Lord Bertrand Russell) voerde daarnaast campagnes van burgerlijke ongehoorzaamheid uit.5 Ook in Nederland was er tussen 1955 en 1965 een beweging tegen kernwapens actief en het is deze beweging die in dit scriptieonderzoek centraal zal staan. Hoewel de Nederlandse beweging een marginale positie had, maakten ook hier activisten zich sterk voor de afschaffing van kernwapens. Omdat de beweging erg versnipperd was, lijkt een kort overzicht van de belangrijkste organisaties hier op zijn plek. Binnen de Nederlandse protestbeweging tegen kernwapens kan onderscheid gemaakt worden tussen organisaties die specifiek protesteerden tegen kernwapens (antikernwapenbewegingen) en organisaties die tegen alle vormen van bewapening en militaire activiteit waren (vredesbewegingen, zowel 3 Carter, Peace Movements, 34-36 en 40. 4 Ibid., 46-48. 5 Ibid., 50. 6 pacifistisch als antimilitaristisch). Organisaties uit de eerste categorie waren onder andere de Anti Atoombom Actie (AAA), het Albert Schweitzer Comité en het Comité 1961 voor de Vrede. Ook actiegroepen zoals lokale ‘ban-de-bom’ groepen vallen in deze categorie. Dit waren jonge organisaties en hun oprichting werd gestimuleerd door de ontstane oppositie en bezorgdheid rondom kernwapens en -proeven. Lang niet alle leden of deelnemers aan deze organisaties waren pacifisten of antimilitaristen, sommigen van hen waren wel voorstanders van conventionele bewapening en het Nederlandse lidmaatschap van de NAVO.6 De meeste Nederlandse vredesbewegingen waren al langer wat actief, in sommige gevallen zelfs al voor de Tweede Wereldoorlog. Voorbeelden hiervan waren de socialistische Algemene Nederlandse Vredesactie (ANVA), de Derde Weg en de Werkgroep Antimilitaristische Studenten (WAS). Op godsdienstig vlak waren er het Protestantschristelijke Kerk en Vrede, het Katholieke Pax Christi, de Doopsgezinde Vredesgroep en het Genootschap der Vrienden (Quakers). Een groot deel van de Nederlandse vredesbewegingen maakte deel uit van de Onafhankelijke Contactcommissie voor Vredeswerk (OCV), welke diende als een overlegorgaan tussen alle verschillende organisaties, maar ook van het Comité 1961 voor de Vrede.7 In 1957 werd daarnaast de Pacifistisch Socialistische Partij (PSP) opgericht, die tijdens de Tweede Kamerverkiezingen van 1959 al twee zetels wist te veroveren.8 Veel personen uit de vredesbeweging waren actief binnen de PSP en stonden op die manier in contact met elkaar. Omdat beide categorieën organisaties, en dus niet alleen antikernwapenorganisaties, betrokken waren bij het protest tegen kernwapens, zal in deze scriptie gesproken worden over de Nederlandse vredes- en 6 Sectie G2 der Hoofdkwartier Koninklijke Landmacht (HKKL), Handboek Vredesbewegingen (plaats onbekend, 1969) 13-16, 63-65 en 94-96; Pamflet Comité Albert Schweitzer tegen Atoombomproeven, februari 1959, Archief Hein van Wijk, Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis, Amsterdam, ARCH01644, 772. 7 Sectie G2 der Hoofdkwartier Koninklijke Landmacht, Handboek Vredesbewegingen, 5-7, 23-28, 41-44, 77-80 en 108-109; I.D. Verkuil, De Grote Illusie: De Nederlandse Vredesbeweging na 1945 (Utrecht, 1988) 35. 8 Sectie G2 der Hoofdkwartier Koninklijke Landmacht, Handboek Vredesbewegingen, 13, 63 en 94; Verkuil, De Grote Illusie, 45-46. 7 antikernwapenbeweging. Deze beweging zal in dit onderzoek benaderd worden vanuit een transnationaal perspectief, wat in dit geval betekent dat er gekeken zal worden naar de verbindingen en relaties tussen Nederlandse organisaties en activisten en geestverwanten in het buitenland en wat de invloed daarvan was op haar activiteiten. De hoofdvraag van dit onderzoek luidt dan ook als volgt: In hoeverre waren Nederlandse vredes- en antikernwapenbewegingen en hun werk onderdeel van een transnationaal netwerk tussen 1955 en 1965? Ondanks dat pacifistische en antimilitaristische bewegingen al vanaf de negentiende eeuw actief waren, begon de wetenschappelijke studie naar vredesbewegingen en het concept ‘vrede’ pas na de Tweede Wereldoorlog enige vorm van betekenis te krijgen. Onderzoeksinstituten zoals het Peace Research Institute in Oslo en periodieken als het Journal of Peace Research stammen dan ook uit deze periode.9 Het aantal studies naar de Nederlandse vredes- en antikernwapenbeweging die ook aandacht besteden aan de antikernwapenprotesten tussen 1955
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