FOUNDERS Ph.D., Chairman Emeritus George F. Bass, ◊ NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAM Jack W. Kelley ◊ FACULTY, TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY John Baird † Michael Katzev † Deborah N. Carlson, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Sara W. and George O. Yamini Fellow OFFICERS/ADMINISTRATION Luis Filipe Vieira de Castro, Ph.D. Ph.D., President* Deborah N. Carlson, Professor, Frederick R. Mayer Faculty Cemal M. Pulak, Ph.D., Vice President Fellow of Nautical Archaeology Kevin J. Crisman, Ph.D., Vice President Tamara Hebert, Office Manager Kevin J. Crisman, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Nautical Dive Safety Officer Jim Jobling, Archaeology Faculty Fellow

Donny L. Hamilton, Ph.D. BODRUM RESEARCH CENTER Professor, George T. & Gladys H. Abell Tuba Ekmekçi, Director Chair in Nautical Archaeology Özlem Doğan, Finance Manager Yamini Family Chair in Liberal Arts

Cemal Pulak, Ph.D. BOARD OF DIRECTORS & OFFICERS Associate Professor, Frederick R. Robert Atwater • Oğuz Aydemir • Gordon W. Bass* • José L. Bermúdez, Ph.D.* Mayer Faculty Professor of Nautical Archaeology Edward O. Boshell, Jr. • John Cassils, MD • Gregory M. Cook • Lucy Darden* Thomas F. Darden • John De Lapa,Chairman * • Elmer Doty • Carl Douglas C. Wayne Smith, Ph.D. Claude Duthuit † • Danielle J. Feeney* • James A. Goold, Secretary & General Associate Professor Counsel* • Marc Grodman, MD • Jeff Hakko • R. Bowen Loftin,Ph.D . • Greg INA Faculty Fellow Maslow, MD • Alex G. Nason • Terry A. Ray • George E. Robb, Jr. • Jason Sturgis* Shelley Wachsmann, Ph.D. ◊ Frederick H. van Doorninck, Jr., Ph.D. • Robert L. Walker, Ph.D.* • Lew Ward Meadows Professor Robyn Woodward, Ph.D., Vice Chairman* • Sally M. Yamini • Kenan Yılmaz of Biblical Archaeology

ASSOCIATE DIRECTORS NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY PROGRAM Ercan Acikel • Raynette Boshell • Allan Campbell, MD • Stephen Chandler EMERITUS FACULTY TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY William C. Culp, MD • Glenn Darden • Nicholas Griffis • Robin P. Hartmann Faith Hentschel, Ph.D. • Susan Katzev • William C. Klein, MD • George W. Lodge George F. Bass, Ph.D. Thomas McCasland, Jr. • Dana F. McGinnis • Jeffrey Morris • Michael Plank George T. & Gladys H. Abell Chair Avery Battle Russell • Anne Darden Self • Lynn Baird Shaw • Betsey Boshell Todd in Nautical Archaeology, Yamini Family Chair in Liberal Arts, Mary Tooze • Ken Trethewey, Ph.D. • Garry A. Weber • Roger A. Williamson, MD. Distinguished Professor, Emeritus

Frederick H. van Doorninck, Jr. Ph.D. BODRUM RESEARCH CENTER STAFF Frederick R. Mayer Faculty Bilge Güneşdoğdu Akman Seçil Kayacık Adem Şirin Professor of Nautical Archaeology Miray Olcay Ata Gülser Kazancıoğlu Murat Tilev Emeritus Mustafa Babacık Orkan KÖyağasıoğlu Aysel Tok J. Richard Steffy † Esra Altınanıt Biçer Nurgül Külah Edith Trnka Sara W. and George O. Yamini ü ü Professor of Nautical Archaeology Mehmet Çiftlikli Sheila Matthews S leyman T rel Emeritus Zafer Gül Muammer Özdemir Güneş Yaşar

Executive Committee * Non-voting Board ◊ Deceased †

i INA The Institute of Nautical Research Associates Archaeology is a non-profit organization whose mission J. Barto Arnold, M.A. Berta Lledó is to continue the search for Piotr Bojakowski, Ph.D. Colin Martin, Ph.D. the history of civilization by Lilia Campana, M.A. Veronica Morriss, M.A. fostering excellence in underwater archaeology. Chris Cartellone, M.A Robert Neyland, Ph.D. Alexis Catsambis, Ph.D. Ralph K. Pedersen, Ph.D. Published by INA each year, Katie Custer, Ph.D. Charlotte Minh Hà Pham, M.A. The INA Annual examines projects and research conducted Joshua Daniel, M.A Robin C. M. Piercy by INA Research Associates, Fabio Esteban Amador, Ph.D. Juan Pinedo Reyes Affiliated Faculty and the Matthew Harpster, Ph.D. John Pollack, M.Sc., F.R.G.S Nautical Archaeology Program Heather Hatch, M.A. Mark Polzer, M.A. faculty at Texas A&M University, in the previous calendar year. As Kenzo Hayashida, M.A. Kelby Rose well as being offered in printed Rebecca Ingram, M.A. Donald Rosencrantz form, The INA Annual is available Akifumi Iwabuchi, Ph.D. Jeffrey Royal, Ph.D. online and is one of the many benefits of INA membership. Michael Jones, M.A. Randall Sasaki, M.A. More information on becoming Jun Kimura, Ph.D. George Schwarz, M.A. an INA member can be found at Justin Leidwanger, Ph.D. Ulrica SÖderlind, Ph.D. inadiscover.com or by contacting Margaret E. Leshikar-Denton, Ph.D. Kate Worthington INA at (979) 845-6694.

President & Editor Deborah N. Carlson, Ph.D. Art Direction & Design Affiliated Scholars Po Wan and Sandy Robson Blackberry Creative Kroum Batchvarov, Ph.D. Frederick Hocker, Ph.D. University of Connecticut Vasa Museum Please address all submissions John Broadwater, Ph.D. Robert Hohlfelder, Ph.D. Tidewater Atlantic Research University of Colorado and reprint requests to The INA Annual, Arthur Cohn, Ph.D. Mark Lawall, Ph.D. University of Manitoba The Institute of Nautical Lake Champlain Maritime Museum Archaeology Mariá del Pilar Luna Erreguerena, M.A. John McManamon, S.J. P.O. Drawer HG National Institute of Anthropology and History Loyola University College Station, Texas Ben Ford, Ph.D. Harun Özdaş, Ph.D. 77841-5137, USA or email Indiana University of Pennsylvania Dokuz Eylül Universitei [email protected]. Jeremy Green, M.A David Stewart, Ph.D. Western Australia Maritime Museum East Carolina University © November 2012 Elizabeth Greene, Ph.D. Peter van Alfen, Ph.D. by the Institute of Nautical Brock University American Numismatic Society Archaeology. Jerome Hall, Ph.D. Wendy van Duivenvoorde, Ph.D. University of San Diego Flinders University All rights reserved. Faith Hentschel, Ph.D. Cheryl Ward, Ph.D. Central Connecticut State University Coastal Carolina University Nicolle Hirschfeld, Ph.D. Gordon P. Watts Jr., Ph.D. Trinity University Tidewater Atlantic Research

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The INA Annual 2011 ii iii A Letter from the President

I hope you enjoy this fifth volume of theINA Annual, showcasing 10 major projects carried out under the INA flag in 2011. Dr. Deborah Carlson Those readers acquainted with INA’s work around the world will recognize President, INA that more than a few of the projects in this issue are familiar—they are some of the many ongoing, in-depth, multi-year projects that characterize INA’s 2011 commitment to thorough excavation and meaningful scholarship. It is not uncommon for an INA excavation to last for many field seasons, drawing upon the expertise and dedication of colleagues and supporters around the globe. Two major INA shipwreck excavation projects in the Mediterranean drew to a close in 2011 after multiple summer field seasons: the Phoenician shipwreck at Bajo de la Campana, Spain, and the Hellenistic column wreck at Kızılburun, Turkey. The directors of these two projects are well aware what awaits them: years in Review in the laboratory overseeing the conservation and reassembly of the artifacts they recovered; years in the library poring over publications from other sites to find the best parallels to help narrow the date of their own assemblages; many more years studiously measuring, examining, sampling and analyzing every last fragment of material culture in an effort to reconstruct the last voyage of the ship that has become a consuming passion of their own lives. As INA excavation directors, we know what awaits us at the post-excavation stage because our own colleagues—INA Research Associates and Affiliated Scholars—are living it every day, whether they are scrutinizing the construction techniques of exquisitely preserved ships from the Byzantine harbor at Yenikapı, Turkey, diving deep into the dusty manuscripts of the Venetian Archives, or recounting the heartbreaking loss-of-life that occurred when an Ottoman frigate was destroyed by a typhoon in the Sea of Japan at the end of a year-long voyage. Other INA projects are consuming and challenging for other reasons, whether it be the ongoing search for remnants of a battle that represents a defining moment in Vietnamese history, or the seemingly insurmountable task of recording, preserving, and protecting the riverine relics of one of North America’s most evocative spectacles—the Yukon Gold Rush. Whatever aspects of maritime history or nautical archaeology speak to you most, I am confident that you will find something of interest in this volume of theINA Annual. When we’re not in the field, we’re working hard to improve the INA experience and grow our membership. In the last year we’ve made key improvements to the INA website, including online access to past issues of the INA Quarterly, new project blogs, more content highlighting relevant publication titles, and an in memoriam page honoring those who have shaped both the field and the organization. We have revived our photographic and video fulfillment system with a dedicated archivist, have added new merchandise to INA’s online store, and we are continuing the conversation with friends of INA around the globe through our social media efforts on Facebook. As always, I value your support of INA research; history depends on INA and we depend on you.

The INA Annual 2011 iv Contents

The Final Season of the Claude and Barbara Duthuit Expedition to Bajo de la Campana, Spain: Excavation of a Late Seventh-century B.C.E. Phoenician Shipwreck Mark E. Polzer and Juan Pinedo Reyes...... 6 The Yenikapı Project: Continuing Research on Two Byzantine Shipwrecks from Constantinople’s Theodosian Harbor Rebecca Ingram and Michael Jones...... 18 Reluctant Stones from the Sea: The Final Season on the Column Wreck at Kızılburun, Turkey Deborah Carlson...... 23 In the Shadow of La Repubblica Serenissima: New Discoveries from Archival Research in Venice Lilia Campana...... 31 To learn more about the Beans, Beavers and Bustles: The 2011 Yukon River Steamboat Survey growing record of projects John Pollack and Robyn Woodward ...... 36 undertaken by INA over more than five decades The Second Excavation Season ofWarwick : of exploration, go to An Early 17th-century Company Ship at Bermuda inadiscover.com. Piotr Bojakowski, Katie Custer, Michael Gilbart, Douglas Inglis and Maureen Merrigan...... 42

Nevis Shipwrecks: Project Solebay Chris Cartellone...... 50 The City Point, Virginia Shipwreck Survey: A Remote-sensing and Photographic Investigation Joshua A. Daniel...... 54 Color Plates...... 65

Frigate Ertuğrul Project 2011 Berta Lledó...... 73 Archaeological Survey at the Bạch Đằng Historical Battlefield Randall Sasaki and Jun Kimura...... 80 The Woven Basket Boats of Vietnam Charlotte Minh Ha Pham...... 93

Institute of Nautical Archaeology 2011 Donors and Sponsors...... 103

v THE FINAL SEASON OF THE Claude and Barbara Duthuit* Expedition to Bajo de la Campana, EXCAVATION OF A LATE SEVENTH-CENTURY B.C.E. Spain PHOENICIAN SHIPWRECK

Mark E. Polzer, M.A. University of Western Australia/INA

Mark Polzer holds degrees in Chemi- cal Engineering and Anthropology (Nautical Archaeology) from Texas A&M University, and is a Prescott Doctoral Candidate at the University of Western Australia. His dissertation research is focused on Phoenician maritime trade and colonial activity in Iron Age Spain. Mark’s expertise is in Archaic seafaring and early shipbuilding in the eastern Mediter- ranean. He is a National Geographic Explorer and multiple grantee of the Society’s Expedition Council, and is currently a Research Associate and part-time lecturer in the Dept. of Archaeology at Flinders University.

Sometime towards the end of the seventh century B.C.E., a modest-size vessel carrying a mixed cargo of raw and finished goods set sail from a Phoenician port along the south coast of Spain and headed east (Fig. 1). The voyage progressed uneventfully until the ship rounded Cabo de Palos, a rocky spit of land jutting out into the sea where the coast turns northward. There the ship ran headlong into an unexpected, strong easterly wind, the Levante, which forced its bow leeward and pushed the vessel in closer to shore. The helmsman did well to avoid Juan Pinedo Reyes, INA the shallow shoals and rocky islets of Las Hormigas and to steer the ship past Isla Grosa and El Farallón rock. But the final hazard, the lurking shoal of La Laja, From 1987–1995, Juan worked for better known today as Bajo de la Campana, proved to be the ship’s doom. Spain’s National Museum of Maritime The vessel struck the top of the shoal on its eastern side, where three large Archaeology (ARQUA) in Cartagena where he co-directed the excavation heads of rock reach up to the surface and form one side of a large fissure. The of the Mazarrón 1 shipwreck at Playa collision tore a gaping hole in the bottom of the hull, through which much of the del Isla. Since 1995, he has engaged ship’s heavy cargo spilled out and into the rock crevice beneath. The ship itself in commercial archaeology through likely was bashed several more times against the rocks before sinking and coming his company Arqueomar, highlighted to rest a short distance from the base of the shoal on the rocky seafloor some by the excavation of six shipwrecks 18 meters below. off the island of Escombreras. These There the shipwreck remained for two and a half millennia, battered wrecks span the 1st century B.C.E. repeatedly by violent winter storms, pieces of it strewn across the seabed and to the 13th century C.E. and objects larger sections dashed up against the shoal by the churning turbulent sea. Most from the site are featured in the of the ship itself—the wooden hull, upper works, mast, rigging, and sail—was ARQUA Museum in Cartagena. Juan is currently assisting ARQUA staff with quickly swept away or broken up and devoured by marine organisms. But small their survey and documentation of bits and pieces were trapped in the shallow cave at the base of the shoal or submerged sites along the Murcia caught in small cavities between the rocks on the seabed. Here also sediment coast. collected, providing a protective covering for the meager fragments. Elsewhere, pottery vessels and resilient objects of stone and metal lay scattered across the

The INA Annual 2011 6 site. Gradually, much of the area was covered with a thin layer of sediment and overgrown by a large meadow of sea grass. In the recent past, human intervention further altered the site. Explosive demolition of the top of the shoal, to increase the depth of water over it, sent FACING PAGE tons of boulders and rock debris tumbling down onto the surrounding seabed, FIG 1 smashing pottery and breaking other remnants of the ship and its cargo. The Bajo de la Campana ship- subsequent dynamiting of iron hulks from modern shipwrecks further damaged wreck location and sites the ancient remains, leaving only the most sturdy or deeply buried artifacts mentioned in the text 1 (M. Polzer). intact. Such is the account of this shipwreck that has emerged based on observations 2 of the site and the condition of materials recovered during excavation. The last ABOVE excavation campaign took place from June to September 2011, with financial FIG 2 and logistical support from INA directors (past and present) and friends, (L) Looking downslope namely Claude and Barbara Duthuit, the project’s namesakes, Lucy Darden, across the main portion of the site. (R) View of the David Hadley, and Peter Way, the National Geographic Society, and the Bajo and crevice. July 2011 Center for Maritime Archaeology and Conservation at Texas A&M University. (S.H. Snowden). Due to the diligent efforts of the expedition team, the Phoenician shipwreck excavation was finally brought to completion after five consecutive seasons of fieldwork. The conservation, research, and analysis of the many finds continue, however, and are now providing the data and information needed to illuminate additional questions about the ship’s story—where did the ship come from and where was it going; who was onboard; what type of commercial venture does it represent; for whom was the merchandise intended? The 2011 Campaign Based on last year’s finds and fieldwork, the plan for 2011 was 1) to finish clearing boulders from the crevice and complete its excavation, and 2) to push 3 farther down slope at the opposite end of the site. Significant discoveries in that area in 2010 pointed to a continuation of wreck material to the east and the need to expand the site in order to reach its lower limits. Once again, this meant that the team would have to move a large quantity of rocks and boulders—some of considerable size—to clear the way for excavation (Plate 1-p. 65). Work commenced on June 6 and lasted 16 weeks (Fig. 2, Plate 2-p. 65). Over the course of the summer, the expedition team made more than 1,300 dives on the site and spent over 1,000 hours working under water, while excavating 240 m² of seabed (Plate 3-p. 65). As expected, the crevice and cave contained deep sand and boulders and were rich in archaeological material. The downslope sectors had varying levels of overburden, with deep pockets of sediment scattered around the site, but a generally thinner covering farther

7 Bajo de la Campana—Spain down slope. In spite of this, these Shape characteristics of the Bajo de la areas yielded a surprising amount of Campana examples seem to date the material. vessels to the seventh century B.C.E., and probably towards the end of that The Finds century. Approximately 1,300 lots of artifacts Additionally, the team raised were raised by the team in 2011, an impressive assortment of tripod representing almost 12,000 individual bowls from the crevice and from fragments and objects. Highlighting sectors farther down slope. These the finds are an assemblage of well- dishes generally are thick coarse ware preserved ceramic vessels, several and stand upon three legs that are tools and implements, and a variety of triangular or trapezoidal in section. luxury items, all of which include new The type evolved from stone mortars object types for the wreck. that are commonly found on first millennium sites B.C.E. in the Near 8 Ceramics East. Tripod bowls are emblematic The pottery encountered in 2011 of the western Phoenician pottery continued a trend observed the repertoire and have been found across previous year, with substantial southern Iberia and along the entire numbers and varieties of vessels. One east coast; from Mogador to Carthage in North Africa; and at colonial sites of the first discoveries of 2011 was an 9 intact Phoenician dipper juglet found on Sardinia, Sicily, and Malta. Like in the crevice (Fig. 3; Plate 4-p. 65). the oil bottle, this vessel type is rather A second, smaller juglet, with a single, rare in the East. However, tripods large ring handle that rises beyond found in Iron Age levels at several the lip of the vessel, came to light Near Eastern sites firmly establish the stylistic origins of western tripod later in the season at the uppermost 10 extent of the cave (Fig. 4). These bowls. The bottom exteriors of vessels are the first of their kind found two large specimens discovered this on the wreck. Similar small jugs are summer are decorated with incised fairly common in both the western concentric circles, an archaic motif commonly found on earlier painted and eastern Mediterranean, but no 11 examples from Spain so far show pottery (Fig. 7). While tripod bowls these exact body shapes. The crevice are widespread, they are not typically also yielded an intact oil lamp with found in large numbers, which makes two nozzles (Fig. 5), another first, the shipwreck’s collection noteworthy. and several more globular oil bottles Other ceramic vessel types 4 (Fig. 6). Lamps with two nozzles represented in the pottery assemblage are found almost exclusively in the include transport amphoras, cooking western Mediterranean, and this one pots, jars, pitchers, plates, bowls, is similar to examples from Doña and urns. These were found mostly Blanca (Cádiz), Laurita (Almuñécar), as broken sherds, and few complete, and Trayamar (Morro de Mezquitilla) so their forms and numbers will 5 along Spain’s southern coast. Several not be known for certain until they are known on Ibiza, from the site emerge from conservation and can be at Sa Caleta and from tombs in the reconstructed and studied further. 6 necropolis at Puig des Molins. The globular bottles were containers Bulk Cargo, Implements, Tools, for scented oils, perfumes, or and Miscellaneous Finds 7 ointments. These ceramic vessels are A good many of the finds from 2011 distributed widely across southern duplicated what had been excavated in Spain and were imported from the previous seasons. The team recovered East specifically for indigenous trade. nine more elephant tusks, bringing

The INA Annual 2011 8 the total consignment of ivory to well represent more than one set, since 12 over 60 pieces. One interesting and there are multiple pan weights of the unique example from this season is same denomination. However, the a cut section of raw ivory, whereas pieces have lost some or all of their all others have been whole tusks. outer bronze casing, and many are Excavation produced seven more missing much of their lead core as ingots—all circular, plano-convex well. The original volume—and thus types, five of which are tin and two mass—of each weight will have to copper—along with numerous be reconstructed accurately before a additional fragments. This was a definitive metrological analysis can be dramatic departure from the number made. of ingots raised in the last couple of The team recovered six stone rods seasons, and brings the total number similar to one found in 2008, except of whole ingots to 154 of tin and that two of them are only about 13 of copper. Galena was again prolific two-thirds the length of the others 17 in all regions of the site, but especially (Fig. 10). The type is generally within the confines of the crevice. cylindrical, but its diameter tapers Excavation there exposed a thick layer slightly towards each end; it is finely of large galena nuggets that delimited turned from dull gray-green stone and the wreck stratum. Approximately has beveled ends. A second type that 2,000 pieces were collected by came to light early in the excavation summer’s end (Fig. 8). A wooden stave is slightly longer and much larger in and fragmentary remains of basketry, diameter, has simple rounded ends, found in association with the galena, and is cruder in appearance, although suggests that the lead ore, and probably it seems to be the same type of stone. FACING PAGE FROM TOP metal ingots as well, was stowed in It closely resembles whetstones from sturdy baskets within the ship’s hold FIG 3 Luristan, in western Iran, where a rich Dipper juglet recovered and was some of the first material metalworking tradition flourished from the crevice. July 2011 to spill out when the ship’s hull was from the turn of the millennium to the (N. Puckett). opened. 18 seventh century B.C.E. The slimmer FIG 4 Pan-balance weights were found all types from the shipwreck find a good Tiny juglet recovered from around the site, but predominantly parallel in a late seventh-century the upper portion of the across its eastern edge. The assortment B.C.E. tomb in the necropolis at La cave. August 2011 (J. Guillén Medina). included 44 cubic composite weights Joya, near Huelva, in southwestern 19 made of lead cores encased in bronze, Spain. These pieces may in fact be FIG 5 with a small, tripartite projection on burnishing stones used in jewelry Phoenician oil lamp with two 13 nozzles. July 2011 (J. Guillén top (Fig. 9; Plate 5-p. 65). Lead- making, rather than whetstones for Medina). bronze composite weights are not sharpening metal implements (like uncommon, and cubic metal weights the larger type). If so, they could link FIG 6 14 Ceramic bottle for perfumed in form are typical in Phoenicia. the shipwreck to Phoenician jewelry oil. August 2011 (J. Guillén Several Phoenician dome-shaped workshops known to have operated Medina). balance weights from the East show within indigenous centers in the similar top projections to the cubic Alicante region just north of Bajo de la 20 THIS PAGE FROM TOP type from the shipwreck, except Campana. they are much larger and have been As was the case in 2010, the FIG 7 15 Arianna Villani excavates described as handles. 2011 season saw the recovery of an around a large tripod bowl. The recovered weights are exciting, intriguing assortment of worked July 2011 (S.H. Snowden). since Phoenician weight system(s) pieces of wood and metal, although FIG 8 are not particularly well understood the fragmentary nature of most Simon Claeys holds a due to the limited number and sizes of these has so far precluded their handfull of galena. July 2011 of known weight sets and the small identification. Materials from the (S.H. Snowden). quantity of meaningfully marked ship’s hold include many small twigs 16 weights. The cube weights probably and larger branch fragments of the

9 Bajo de la Campana—Spain brushwood dunnage used to pack the of the eighth century until the sixth stowed cargo and protect the hull, as century B.C.E. They had prestige well as some 300 large, egg-shaped significance beyond mere practical ballast stones. Finally, foodstuffs usage or the intrinsic value of the on board, whether merchandise or ivory and metal from which they were provisions for the crew, are represented fashioned. They represented the social by pine nuts, pinecone scales, almonds, elite as evidenced by their depiction and olive and fruit pits. in Eastern art as symbols of power and authority worn (often in pairs) Luxury Goods by kings, supernatural beings, and Previous finds have already established 26 important court officials. that the ship was carrying a second cargo of luxury or prestige objects, The upper portion of the crevice mostly singular pieces. Every campaign yielded another new item to the since 2007 has produced double-ended excavation collection, a small pin combs, each carved from a single carved from antler (Fig. 13). It was found in close proximity to two oil piece of boxwood (Buxus sp.) and decorated with simple, incised lines bottles and has a thin, flat shape with 21 within the central field. Several more two holes through its blunt end. were recovered in 2011, and the total Similar pins of bone have been found consignment now comprises more on several Roman period shipwrecks, 22 than a dozen combs. including the so-called San Ferreol Another repeat find is represented wreck located close by, off the beach of La Manga del Mar Menor, where by three small lumps of raw amber 27 (the ancient electrum) towards the the expedition house is located. They south side of the site (Fig. 11). These have been interpreted as clothespins, are the only such finds since the initial hairpins, and even needles (when they site survey in 2007, which produced are perforated), although the size, two similar nodules. Chemical analysis shape, and double holes in the Bajo of one of those pieces determined de la Campana example make the that the amber comes from the Baltic latter identification less likely. The pin could be a cargo item or, alternatively, FIG 9 region of northern Europe, an area Detail of the top feature of exploited since pre-history for its the personal possession of someone 23 one of the cubic pan-balance fossilized tree resin. Amber was a onboard the ship, but no other such weights. August 2011 property has come to light. (J. Guillén Medina). popular material for making beads and for inlay in jewelry and carved A particularly intriguing find is 24 FIG 10 ivory. a long and slender wooden handle The two smaller burnishing with a cylindrical, curvilinear shape stones. August 2011 Two fragmentary ivory knife or (S.H. Snowden). dagger handles were added to the (Fig. 14). One end is flared and has a inventory, these from the bottom central hole drilled into it. The piece FIG 11 may be the handle of a wisp or fan, Three lumps of raw amber. portions of the crevice, while a similar, August 2011 (S.H. Snowden). more complete example came to light but further investigation is required to 25 in 2009 (Fig. 12). The handles have a establish a firm identification. Fans and simple, but elegant, curved shape with flyswatters, and related parasols and a rounded and expanded pommel. standards, were common symbols of On the latter example are preserved royalty and prestige in Egypt and the seven rivets centrally aligned along Near East, and this object may have the length of the slot where the blade had similar connotations. tang was fastened. The slot runs half The last group of finds consists the length of the handle and extends of more exotic pieces, beginning with across its full width, being open along a carved ivory ring base (Fig. 15). both edges. Knives such as these are It stands almost 3 cm high and has relatively common in the western an outer diameter of about 8.5 cm. Mediterranean from the latter half The base has a spool shape, with The INA Annual 2011 10 symmetrical, outward flaring rim jars are original Egyptian pieces and 35 and base, and a raised ridge running some have hieroglyphic inscriptions. around its center. A circular, blue-glass Finally, the expedition team disc with a similar profile from the recovered several pieces of a bronze Late Bronze Age Uluburun shipwreck cauldron or other vessel, and the has been identified as the base for upper portions of two bronze stands 28 an ostrich eggshell. The Bajo de la for incense burners, or thymiateria 36 Campana piece may have served the (Fig. 16). The latter are of Cypriot same purpose, as several fragments of type, while other examples have been eggshell—presumably ostrich—were found in Phoenicia and Northern recovered in 2011. Syria, the Aegean, Etruria, and on Malta, Sardinia, and the Iberian The Phoenicians revived the use of 37 ostrich eggshells as objects of art and Peninsula. Their importance is ritual in the eighth century B.C.E., and evident from the inclusion of two spread it across the Mediterranean to examples among the grave furnishings of Tabnit, a sixth-century B.C.E. their colonies and the local cultures 38 they encountered. Ostrich eggs have Phoenician king of Sidon. The appeared on sites dating from the pieces were manufactured from the eighth to the second century B.C.E., end of the eighth to the beginning but are concentrated in the seventh of the fifth century B.C.E., and those and sixth centuries. Some have been from Sardinia and Iberia are some of the earliest, assigned mainly to found in habitation contexts, but the 39 vast majority by far come from burial the seventh century. At least three deposits. similar examples have been recovered In Iberia, finds of whole eggshells from sites along the Guadalquivir and fragments are distributed across River valley in south-central Spain. the southern and eastern regions, None of these, however, is particularly in both Phoenician and indigenous well provenanced, so the Bajo de FIG 12 29 la Campana examples will prove Ivory dagger-handle contexts. The Phoenician/ raised in 2009. March 2011 Punic necropolis of Villaricos, in important for better understanding (M.S. Crespo Ros). the chronology and production southeastern Spain, has produced 40 locations of these objects. FIG 13 well over 700 examples, representing Antler pin. August 2011 the largest collection of these objects (J. Guillén Medina). 30 anywhere in the Mediterranean. Discussion FIG 14 Ceramic bases for ostrich eggshells, Many of the objects raised in 2011 Wooden handle? September with shapes similar to the ivory can be added to an impressive 2011 (M.S. Crespo Ros). ring base from the shipwreck, have assortment of prestige goods that the been found in graves along with the ship was transporting, which include 31 eggshells. a limestone pedestal, bronze and Several pieces of alabaster jars also boxwood furniture pieces, a bronze were among the 2011 finds. Alabaster arm-shaped fixture, additional oil jars of various types have been found bottles, combs, and a dagger, along at Sidon, in Phoenicia proper, and at with wine and perhaps olive oil carried 41 other sites in the East, as well as in in amphoras. Bronze furnishings, 32 Etruria and at Carthage. Some 50 jars eggshell and alabaster vessels, fine and 20 alabaster fragments, dated to wine, and perfumed oils the seventh century B.C.E., have been proclaimed the affluence recovered from sites in the southern and social 33 Iberian Peninsula and on Ibiza. They standing were highly prized, and all but a few of their fragments were found as graves goods, owners wherein they served as cremation urns when alive, 34 in high-status burials. Many of these and served

11 Bajo de la Campana—Spain them in death as ritual equipment, raw material on its way to a colonial grave goods, and cinerary urns, workshop, along with supplies of raw con firming in perpetuity their elevated metals and ores, the latter probably status. Moreover, trappings such as the for the cupellation of silver in a 47 ceremonial stave, fan, and daggers region where lead was inaccessible. symbolized rank and power, par- Whereas the amount of ivory would ticularly through their connection seem considerable, the total weight of to ancient Eastern traditions. The metals (less than a quarter ton) is rather families of such elites would have modest, and could represent an order cherished these items and passed them from a specific workshop rather than 48 on to their descendants as heirlooms. bulk supply. Indeed, the Egyptian alabaster vases As for the pottery cargo, preliminary adorned with hieroglyphs have been inspection of some pieces indicates a interpreted as heirloom possessions production zone along the southern 49 brought west by aristocratic coast of Andalusia. Certainly during Phoenician colonists and handed this time, the repertoire of potteries 42 down across generations. Similar in settlements like Cerro del Villar practices have been recognized with included all of the ceramic types 43 thymiateria; the lineage and antiquity found at Bajo de la Campana, save 50 of these objects enhanced their perhaps for the few eastern imports. prestige and, consequently, that of The region reached the height of its 44 their owners. economic prosperity in the seventh During the so-called Orientalizing century B.C.E., with settlements period, from the eighth to the sixth evolving into specialized centers for century B.C.E., Phoenician demand production and export of agricultural FIG 15 for raw materials sparked an economic and fish products, pottery, purple dye, 51 Ivory ring base for an boom for the indigenous inhabitants oil, wine, and unguents. The metals ostrich eggshell. July 2011 of the Iberian peninsula that led trade also flourished here, thanks to the (S.H. Snowden). to profound social and cultural opportune location of settlements like transformations. Indigenous societies Morro de Mezquitilla and Toscanos assimilated Phoenician practices that provided convenient access to the 52 and came to prize such items as mining regions of the interior. status objects and use them as class Just to the north of Bajo de la 45 delineators. This can be seen in their Campana was another area surging personal adornment, social practices, with economic and industrial activity. and burial customs, predominantly The Phoenician colony of La Fonteta, via the cultural materials they left situated at the mouth of the Segura behind—largely in tombs. The River at Guadamar, had active iron, consignment of luxurious goods from copper, and bronze working industries, 53 the Bajo de la Campana shipwreck and silver and lead production as well. represents a collection of quintessential The archaeological record of the region orientalizing objects—oil bottles, attests to Phoenician industrial enclaves tripod bowls, amphoras, alabaster jars, in nearby indigenous townships, such and fine works of wood, ivory, and as at Saladares and Peña Negra, that 54 bronze—that is nearly replicated in produced ceramics and exotic jewelry. various tomb assemblages in Iberia, And although pottery was being from both indigenous and Phoenician produced locally by the end of the 46 necropoleis. seventh century, the area maintained a The ship’s cargo of raw materials continuous import of assorted ceramics may represent a two-fold venture. from workshops along the southern 55 While raw elephant ivory could be coast. viewed as a luxury commodity, it This was also true for the young is probably better understood as colony at Sa Caleta on Ibiza, which

The INA Annual 2011 12 probably was inhabited between the colonies in the far west (Gadir), North final third of the seventh century and Africa, and the central Mediterranean. the very early sixth century B.C.E., It would appear that the Bajo de la after which the colonists abandoned Campana ship was engaged in this the site for another to the northeast, flow of goods when it sank. It probably 56 on the Bay of Ibiza. All the wheel- originated at a southern emporium made pottery found at Sa Caleta is with a cargo of luxury goods for trade imported from the south coast of in the environs of La Fonteta, and Andalusia, and the types represented with ivory and other materials perhaps are typical of this production and for workshops in the same vicinity. almost identical to those in the The ore and pottery carried on board shipwreck assemblage—transport may have been destined for Sa Caleta, amphoras, carinated bowls, lamps from where the ship was meant to with two nozzles, plates, globular oil head further north. For this final leg 57 bottles, and tripods. Also present of its voyage, the ship may have been are ovoid amphoras from the region transporting some type of perishable encompassing Carthage, Sicily, and bulk commodity, such as foodstuffs 58 Sardinia; again like those on the ship. or cloth. Not only would this be Besides the ceramics, excavators found consistent with known agricultural large quantities of galena scattered production in the south, but it would through many rooms and outdoors also help explain the low tonnage all across the settlement, as well as of the combined cargo recovered by 59 bronze and iron knives. It would excavation. However, beside several appear that the colonists at Sa Caleta thousand pine nuts and a handful FIG 16 were importing pottery, wine, and lead of other nuts and fruit pits, there is One of two thymiateria ore (and possibly other scrap metal), no other material evidence for the stands recovered from which they smelted into lead for resale presence of any such payload. Given the wreck. August 2011 60 (M.S. Crespo Ros). in ingot form to areas further east. the site conditions and turbulent post- Archaeological finds of transport depositional history of the wreck, this amphoras from numerous excavations is not too surprising. in the northeast suggest that trade Work continues on the identifica- in that region was largely focused on tion and characterization of the myriad agricultural products, including wine, archaeological material from the olives and olive oil, fish products, shipwreck. We expect the analytical and salted meats, rather than on data and other results generated will 61 luxury goods. Nevertheless, ceramic provide answers to these questions and tablewares and other dishes (oil shed new light on this dynamic time in bottles, tripod bowls, red-glazed plates Spain’s Phoenician history. and carinated bowls) do appear in necropoleis in the region, as do more In memory of Claude Duthuit— prestigious objects such as a chandelier friend, mentor, benefactor. 62 and decorated ostrich eggshells. All of these products could have Works Cited come from the southern colonies, Ampolo, C. 1984. “Il lusso nelle perhaps via La Fonteta. What emerges società arcaiche. Note preliminari is an eastern Iberian circulation of sulla posizione del problema.” Opus commodities that linked southern 3:469–76. Andalusia to the east coast—Ibiza Astruc, M. 1951. La necropolis de included—and northeastern corner Villaricos. Informes y Memorias – of the peninsula. Southern seaports Comisaría General de Excavaciones and, in the east, La Fonteta or Ibiza Arqueológicas 25. Madrid: would have served as nodal points for Ministerio de Educación Nacional. material exchanges with Phoenician Aubet, M.E. 2001. The Phoenicians

13 Bajo de la Campana—Spain and the West: Politics, Colonies, and Elayi, J. 2006. “An Updated Higgins, R.A. 1980. Greek and Roman Trade. Translated by M. Turton. Chronology of the Reigns of Jewellery. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge Phoenician Kings during the of California Press. University Press. Persian Period (539–333 BCE).” Jiménez Ávila, J. 2002. “Timiaterrios, ———. 2002. “Some Questions Transeuphratène 32:11–43. lampadarios y material asociable.” Regarding the Tartessian Oriental- Elayi, J. and A.G. Elayi. 1997. In La Teoreutica Orientalizante en izing Period.” In The Phoenicians in Recherches sur les poids phéniciens. la Península Ibérica, edited by J. J. Spain. An Archaeological Review of Transeuphratène Supplément. Paris: Ávila, 165–212 (catalogue 162–85). the Eighth-Sixth Centuries B.C.E.: Gabalda. Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia. A Collection of Articles Translated Frankenstein, S. 1979. “The Joncheray, J.-P. 1975. L’épave “C” de la from Spanish, edited by M.R. Bier- Phoenicians in the Far West: Chrétienne. Vol. 1, Supplément aux ling and S. Gitin, 199–224. Winona A Function of Neo-Assyrian Cahiers d’archéologie subaquatique. Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns. Imperialism.” In Power and Gap: Publications scientifiques et Ballard, R.D., L.E. Stager, Propaganda. A Symposium on littéraires. D. Master, D. Yoerger, D. Mindell, Ancient Empires, edited by M.T. Keesmann, I., F. Golschani and H.G. L.L. Whitcomb, H. Singh, and Larsen, 263–94. Copenhagen: Niemeyer. 1983. “Schlackenfunde D. Piechota. 2002. “Iron Age Akademisk Forlag. von Toscanos.” Madrider Mitteilungen Shipwrecks in Deep Water off Gamer-Wallert, I. 1973. “La 24:65–75. Ashkelon, Israel.” American Journal inscripcíon del vaso de alabastro de Kletter, R. 1994. “Phoenician (?) of Archaeology 106(2):151–68. la tumba número 1 de Almuñécar Weights from Horvat Rosh Zayit.” Barceló, J.A. 1995. “El área de (Granada).” In XII Congreso ‘Atiqot 25:33–43. producción alfarera de Cerro del Nacional de Arqueología, Jaén, 1971, ———. 1998. Economic Keystones: Villar (Guadalhorce, Málaga).” 401–8. Zaragoza: Universidad de The Weight System of the Kingdom of Rivista di Studi Fenici 23:147–81. Zaragoza. Judah. Journal for the Study of the Bass, G. 2011. “Claude Duthuit Garcia i Rubert, D. and F. Gracia Old Testament Supplement Series (1931–2011): A Tribute from a Alonso. 2011. “Phoenician Trade 276. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Friend.” INA Quarterly 38(1–2):8–9. in the North-East of the Iberian Press. Buchholz, H. 1963. “Steinerne Peninsula: A Historiographical Kroll, J.H. 2008. “Early Iron Age Dreifusschalen des ägäischen Problem.” Oxford Journal of Balance Weights at Lefkandi, Kulturkreises und ihre Beziehungen Archaeology 30(1):33–56. Euboea.” Oxford Journal of Archaeoogy zum Osten.” Jahrbuch des Deutschen Garrido Roiz, J.P. and E.M.a Orta 27(1):37–48. Archaologischen Instituts 78:1–77. García. 1978. Excavaciones en la Lipinski, E. 1984. “Vestiges phéniciens Craddock, P.T., I.C. Freestone and necropolis de “La Joya” Huelva. Vol. II d’Andalousie.” Orientalia Lovaniensia M.H. Ortiz. 1987. “Recovery of (3a 4a y 5a Campañas). Excavaciones Periodica 15:81–132. Silver from Speiss at Rio Tinto Arqueológicas en España 96. López Castro, J.L. 2001–2002. “Vasos (SW Spain).” Institute for Archaeo- Madrid: Ministerio de Educación y de alabastro de Abdera y Baria.” Ocnus Metallurgical Studies Newsletter Ciencias. 9/10:137–153. 10/11:8–11. González Prats, A. 1986. “Las ———. 2006. “Colonials, Merchants Culican, W. 1970. “Phoenician Oil importaciones y la presencia and Alabaster Vases: The Western Bottles and Tripod Bowls.” Berytus fenicias en la Sierra de Crevillente Phoenician Aristocracy.” Antiquity Archaeological Studies 19:5–18. (Alicante).” Aula Orientalis 4:279– 80(307):74–88. ———. 1982. “The Repertoire of 301. López Malax-Echeverría, A. 2006. Phoenician Pottery.” In Phönizier González Prats, A. and E. Ruiz Segura. “Manual Tipológico y Cronológico im Westen: die Beiträge des 1999. “Una zona metalúrgica de de la Cerámica Fenicia del Sur de Internationalen Symposiums über la primera mitad del siglo VII en España.” Historia Digital 6(11):1– “Die Phönizische Expansion im la ciudad fenicia de La Fonteta 139. Westlichen Mittelmeerraum” in Köln (Guardamar, Alicante).” In XXIV Maaß-Lindemann, G. 1982. Toscanos: vom 24. bis 27. April, 1979, edited Congreso Nacional de Arqueología die westphönikische Niederlassung by H. G. Niemeyer, 45–82. Mainz (Cartagena, Octubre 1997), 355–7. an der Mündung des Río de Vélez. am Rhein: Zabern. Murcia. Madrider Forschungen 6. Berlin: Curtis, J.E. 1990. Ancient Persia. Hamdi, O. and T. Reinach. 1892. Une Walter De Gruyter. Cambridge: Harvard University nécropole royale à Sidon: fouilles de ———. 1985. “Vasos fenicios de los Press. Hamdy Bey. París: Ernest Le roux. siglos VIII–VI.” Aula Orientalis

The INA Annual 2011 14 3:227–39. Faktorei an der Mündung des Río de Underwater Archaeology Proceedings ———. 1999. “La cerámica de las Vélez. Berlin: De Gruyter. 2011, edited by F. Castro and primeras fases de la colonización Niemeyer, H.G. 1983. “Phönizische L. Thomas, 84–93. Raleigh, N.C.: fenicia en España.” In La Cerámica Blasebalgdüsen? Die Funde Advisory Council on Underwater Fenicia en Occidente: Centros de im spanischen Toscanos im Archaeology. Producción y Áreas de Comercio: Actas zeitgenossischen Vergleich.” Pulak, C. 2008. “The Uluburun del 1 Seminario Internacional sobre Anschnitt 35(2):50–58. Shipwreck and Late Bronze Age Temas Fenicios, Guardamar del Segura Padró, J. 1980–1985. Egyptian-Type Trade.” In Beyond Babylon: Art, 21–24 Noviembre de 1997, edited Documents from the Mediterranean Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second by A. G. Prats, 129–48. Valencia: Littoral of the Iberian Peninsula Millennium B.C., edited by J. Aruz, Direcció General d’Ensenyaments Before the Roman Conquest. Leiden: K. Benzel and J.M. Evans, 288–305, Universitaris i Investigació. Brill. 306–10, 313–21, 324–33, 336–42, Más García, J. 1985a. “El Polígono ———. 1984. “Materiales egipcios del 345–8, 350–8, 366–78, 382–5. New Submarino de Cabo de Palos. Sus Cerro de San Cristóbal, Almuñécar York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, aportaciones al estudio del tráfico (Granada). Hallazgos de la campaña Yale University Press. marítimo antiguo.” In Arqueología de 1963.” In Almuñécar, Arqueología Ramón, J. 2002. “The Ancient Submarina: VI Congreso Internacional e Historia II, edited by F.M. Fajardo, Colonization of Ibiza: Mechanisms de Arqueología Submarina, Cartagena 11–78. Granada: Fundación Banco and Process.” In The Phoenicians in 1982, edited by M. Galasso, 153–71. Exterior. Spain. An Archaeological Review of Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura. Pellicer Catalán, M. 2002. “Phoenician the Eighth-Sixth Centuries B.C.E.: ———. 1985b. “Excavaciones en and Punic Sexi.” In The Phoenicians A Collection of Articles Translated from el yacimiento submarino de ‘San in Spain. An Archaeological Review of Spanish, edited by M.R. Bierling and Ferreol’ (Costa de Cartagena).” the Eighth-Sixth Centuries B.C.E.: A S. Gitin, 127–52. Winona Lake, Ind.: In Arqueología Submarina: VI Collection of Articles Translated from Eisenbrauns. Congreso Internacional de Arqueología Spanish, edited by M.R. Bierling and Reade, J.E. 1999. Reprint. Assyrian Submarina, Cartagena 1982, edited S. Gitin, 49–77. Winona Lake, Ind.: Sculpture. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard by M. Galasso, 189–224. Madrid: Eisenbrauns. University Press. Original edition, Ministerio de Cultura. ———. 2007. La Necrópolis 1983. Mederos Martín, A. and L.A. Ruiz Laurita (Almuñecar, Granada) Renzi, M., I. Montero-Ruiz, and Cabrero. 2004. “El pecio fenicio en el Contexto de la Colonización M. Bode. 2009. “Non-ferrous del Bajo de la Campana (Murcia, Fenicia. Cuadernos de Arqueología Metallurgy from the Phoenician España) y el comercio del marfil Mediterránea 15. Barcelona: Site of La Fonteta (Alicante, Spain): norteafricano.” Zephyrus 57:263–81. Edicions Bellaterra. A Study of Provenance.” Journal of Molina Fajardo, F., ed. 1983. Polzer, M.E. 2011. “Phoenician Finale: Archaeological Science 36(11):2584– Almuñecar, Arqueología e Historia. The Claude & Barbara Duthuit 96. Granada: Caja Provincial de Ahorros Expedition to Bajo de la Campana.” Roldán Bernal, B., M. Martín Camino, de Granada. INA Quarterly 38(1–2):16–9. and A. Pérez Bonet. 1995. “El Molina Fajardo, F., and J. Padró. 1983. Polzer, M.E. and J. Pinedo. 2007. yacimiento submarino del Bajo de “Nuevos materiales procedentes “Phoenicians in the West: The la Campana (Cartagena, Murcia): de la necrópolis del Cerro de San Ancient Shipwreck Site of Bajo de la catálogo y estudio de los materiales Cristóbal (Almuñécar, Granada).” In Campana, Spain.” The INA Annual arqueológicos.” Cuadernos de Almuñécar, Arqueología e Historia, 2007:57–61. Arqueología Marítima 3:11–61. edited by F. Molina Fajardo, 35–55. ———. 2008. “Phoenicians Rising: Ruiz Mata, D. 1989. “El túmulo 1 de Granada: Caja Provincial de Ahorros. Excavation of the Bajo de la la necrópolis de «Las Cumbres» Moorey, P.R.S. 1974. Ancient Bronzes Campana Site Begins.” The INA (Puerto de Santa María, Cádiz).” In from Luristan. London: British Annual 2008:5–10. Tartessos: Arqueología Protohistórica Museum. ———. 2009. “Bajo de la Campana del Bajo Guadalquivir, edited by M.E. Neve, P. 1983. “Die Ausgrabungen 2009 Phoenician Shipwreck Aubet Semmler, 287–95. Sabadell in Bogazköy-Hattusha 1982.” Excavation.” The INA Annual (Barcelona): Editorial AUSA. Archäologische Anzeiger 1983:427– 2009:3–14. San Nicolás Pedraz, M.P. 1975. Las 454. ———. 2011. “Excavating an Iron cáscaras de huevo de avestruz fenicio- Niemeyer, H.-G., and H. Schubart. Age Phoenician Shipwreck at Bajo púnico en la Península Ibérica y 1969. Toscanos: die altpunische de la Campana, Spain.” In ACUA Baleares. Cuadernos de Prehistoria y

15 Bajo de la Campana—Spain Arqueología 2:75–100. 1990, 28, 29 fig. 34. Notes 19 Schubart, H. 2002. “The Phoenician * The excavation was officially named Garrido Roiz and Orta García 1978, Settlement of the 8th Century B.C. for Claude and Barbara Duthuit in 140 fig. 88, 143, pls. LXXX.2 and in Morro de Mezquitilla (Algarrobo, XCVII.1. 2011, after Claude’s untimely passing, 20 Málaga).” In The Phoenicians in to honor their primary sponsorship of González Prats 1986; Aubet 2001, Spain. An Archaeological Review of 340. the project and Claude’s pioneering 21 the Eighth-Sixth Centuries B.C.E.: A and longtime involvement in INA. Polzer and Pinedo 2011, 88; wood Collection of Articles Translated from For more on Claude’s remarkable life, species identification by Yolanda Spanish, edited by M.R. Bierling and Carrión. see George Bass’ tribute article in the 22 S. Gitin, 3–29. Winona Lake, Ind.: Spring/Summer 2011 issue of the INA The poor and fragmentary Eisenbrauns. Quarterly (Bass 2011). preservation of the majority of these ———. 2002. pieces makes establishing an exact count Toscanos y Alarcón: 1 El Asentamiento Fenicio en la Más García 1985a, 279–301; Roldán impossible. 23 Bernal et al. 1995. Amber analysis by Curt Beck Desembocadura del Río de Vélez: 2 Excavaciones de 1967–1984. Polzer and Pinedo 2007, 2008, 2009, and Edith Stout, Amber Research Cuadernos de Arqueología 2011; Polzer 2011. Laboratory, Vassar College. 3 24 Mediterránea 8. Barcelona: Edicions See Polzer and Pinedo 2008, 6 fig. 2 Higgins 1980, 35. 25 Bellaterra. for a plan of the site. Polzer and Pinedo 2009, 6–7, fig. 6; 4 Stager, L.E. 2003. “Phoenician Several of these came to light in the Polzer and Pinedo 2011, 88. 26 Shipwrecks in the Deep Sea.” 2009 and 2010 campaigns; see Polzer See, e.g., the carved ivory deity from In and Pinedo 2009, 5–6, fig. 5. Temple VII at Bogazköy (Hittite, PLOES... Sea Routes... 5 Interconnections in the Mediterranean López Malax-Echeverría 2006, 77–9 14th–13th century B.C.) (Neve 1983, nos. 3, 5, and 8. 447 fig. 22); the limestone stele of Baal 16th–6th c. BC (Proceedings of the 6 International Symposium Held at Ramón Torres 2002, 133, 135 fig. 4.1 (Ugarit, Late Bronze Age) (Yon 1991); Rethymnon, Crete, September 29th – (Sa Caleta) and 136, 145 fig. 9.1 (Puig and especially Assyrian bas-reliefs, such edited by V. K. des Molins). as those from the North-West Palace of October 2nd 2002), 7 Nicholas Chr. Stampolidis, 233–47. Aubet 2001, 288; Maaß-Lindemann Ashurnasirpal II (Nimrud, 9th century Athens: Eisenbrauns. 1999, 130; Culican 1970, 6. B.C.) (Reade 1999). 8 27 ———. 2005. “Phoenician Buchholz 1963; Culican 1970, 11; Más García 1985b; and see Joncheray Shipwrecks and the Ship Tyre López Malax-Echeverría 2006, 104. 1975, photo 8 (upper) for a pin from 9 (Ezekiel 27).” In Terra Marique: See Culican 1970, 11, 14–6; Maaß- the Chrétienne C shipwreck that has a Studies in Art History and Marine Lindemann 1985; Vives-Ferrándiz similar shape as the Bajo de la Campana Archaeology in Honor of Anna Sánchez 2007; and Garcia i Rubert example. 28 Marguerite McCann on the Receipt of and Gracia Alonso 2011 for sites and Pulak 2008, 294, 324–5, no. 194b. associated bibliographies. Rather than a ring, the glass base is solid the Gold Medal of the Archaeological 10 edited by J. Culican 1970, 15–6. throughout, although the thin center is Institute of America, 11 Pollini, 238–54. Oxford: Oxbow For examples, see Culican 1982, figs. worn through. 29 Books. 3–7, 9. San Nicolás Pedraz 1975, 77 pl. I; 12 Torres Ortiz, M. 1999. Sociedad Seven tusks bear Phoenician votive Pellicer Catalán 2007, 65. 30 y Mundo Funerario en Tartessos, inscriptions while another three are Astruc 1951; Pellicer Catalán 2007, Bibliotheca Archaeologica Hispana. marked in some way. 65. 13 31 Madrid: Real Academia de la Sixteen of these were found in 2010. San Nicolás Pedraz 1975, 96, 96 pl. 14 Historia. Kletter 1998, 61. VIII. 15 32 Vives-Ferrándiz Sánchez, J. 2007. Elayi and Elayi 1997, 74 and pl. VI, See López Castro 2001–2002, 79 fig. “Trípodes, ánforas y consumo de nos. 122 and 124, 77 and pl. VIII, no. 3 for map showing the find locations. 33 vino: acerca de la actividad comercial 134. López Castro 2006, 78 and 80 fig. 4 16 fenicia en la costa oriental de la Kletter 1994, 1998, 61, 122–124. for the distribution map; see also, e.g., Península Ibérica.” Rivista di Studi See Kroll 2008, 41 for a summary of Pellicer Catalán 2002, 65–70. 34 32(2):9–33. the various Phoenician mass standards. Lipinski 1984, 126–7; López Castro Fenici 17 Yon, M. 1991. “Notes sur la sculpture Two of the stone rods are broken. 2001–2002; López Castro 2006, 78, 84. 35 de pierre.” In Arts et Industries de la See Polzer and Pinedo 2008, 9 fig. 6 López Castro 2001–2002, 78–79, edited by M. Yon, 345–53. for the earlier find. 81 fig. 5; see also Gamer-Wallert 1973; Pierre, 18 Paris: Recherche sur les Civilisations. Moorey 1974, pl. IV, A–C; Curtis Padró 1980–1985, 1984.

The INA Annual 2011 16 36 49 The bronze vessel fragments include Mederos Martín and Ruiz Cabrero a flanged handle loop with rivets, and 2004, 266–7. 50 possibly part of a rim. Barceló 1995. 37 51 See Jiménez Ávila 2002, 171–3, 178 Niemeyer and Schubart 1969; fig. 122 and included bibliography for Frankenstein 1979, 283; Maaß- the individual finds. Lindemann 1982; Molina Fajardo 38 Hamdi and Reinach 1892, 90 fig. 35. 1983; Schubart 2002; Aubet 2001, 39 Jiménez Ávila 2002, 173–4. 315–7. 40 52 Jiménez Ávila 2002, 174. Keesmann et al. 1983; Niemeyer 41 Polzer and Pinedo 2008, 8–9, fig. 1983; Schubart 2002, 7–9. 53 5 for the pedestal; Polzer and Pinedo Excavation produced metal scraps, 2009, 6 figs. 7–8, 7 figs. 9–10 for the slag, and bellow nozzles (tuyeres) and furniture elements; and Polzer and crucible fragments, along with galena Pinedo 2009, 8 fig. 11 for the bronze nuggets and cupellation remains arm fixture. (González Prats and Ruiz Segura 1999, 42 López Castro 2006, 84. fig. 2; Renzi et al. 2009, 2584–7, figs. 43 Jiménez Ávila 2002, 174. 2–3). 44 54 Ampolo 1984, 471–3; López González Prats 1986, 279–301; Castro 2006, 84. Some of the jars Aubet 2001, 340. 55 were repaired (Molina Fajardo and González Prats 1986, 299. 56 Padró 1983, 45), and in other cases, Ramón 2002, 148. 57 even mere fragments of alabaster jars Ramón 2002, 133–4, figs. 3.1, 4, 137 were deposited with the dead (both fig. 5, 139 fig. 6. 58 Phoenician and indigenous), attesting Ramón 2002, 133 fig. 3.2, 134, 136, to the great value placed on these 146; Polzer and Pinedo 2009, 5. 59 objects (López Castro 2001–2002, Ramón 2002, 134. 60 147). Ramón 2002, 150, who argues 45 Torres Ortiz 1999, 155–6; Aubet that the colonists were not yet Semmler 2002. exploiting the local source of galena 46 See, e.g., the grave goods from La at s’Argentera, which is located on the Joya (Garrido Roiz and Orta García opposite end of the island. 61 1978), which include a votive ivory Luxury goods do not appear to any casket and ivory support frame with significant degree in the archaeological bronze fittings and silver hinges (106– record until the mid-sixth century B.C. 10, figs. 65–7, pls. LXXI–LXXII), (Garcia i Rubert and Gracia Alonso an amber bead (44 fig. 20.3, 45, pl. 2011, 38–9). 62 XXVI.2), burnishing stones (140 fig. Garcia i Rubert and Gracia Alonso 88, 141 fig. 89, 143, pls. LXXX.2, 2011, 41, 45. XCVII.1, XC.2, XCVII.2), a mirror with ivory handle (91, 95, 100 fig. 60, pls. XLVII.1, XLVIII), a bronze thymiaterion (91, 97–9, figs. 57–9, pls. XXXVIII.2, LXI, LXII.1–2, LXIII), alabaster jars (110, 111 fig. 68), and similar Phoenician ceramic vessels. 47 Craddock et al. 1987, 11 fig. 14. 48 Assuming, of course, that the ship was a lone transporter and not part of a convoy, presumably others of which were carrying the greater portion of metals. See Ballard et al. 2002; Stager 2003; Stager 2005 for shipwreck evidence of merchant fleets.

17 Bajo de la Campana—Spain The Yenikapı Project CONTINUING RESEARCH ON TWO BYZANTINE SHIPWRECKS FROM CONSTANTINOPLE'S THEODOSIAN HARBOR

The post-excavation documentation date have been found. The eight of two Byzantine merchantmen from shipwrecks being studied by Dr. Pulak Rebecca Ingram, M.A. the Theodosian Harbor excavations and his team date from the seventh to Texas A&M University at Yenikapı continued throughout early-11th centuries C.E. Ph.D. Candidate/INA 2011 at the Institute of Nautical The timbers of shipwrecks YK 11 Archaeology (INA)’s Bodrum Rebecca Ingram has been and YK 14 were transported to participating in archaeological Research Center in Bodrum, Turkey. INA’s Bodrum Research Center in research on ships and shipwrecks These two ships, YK 11 (c. seventh 2008, where the post-excavation in Turkey since 2001 under the century C.E.) and YK 14 (c. 900 C.E.), documentation of the shipwrecks guidance of Dr. Cemal Pulak. She were excavated and dismantled in 2008 was begun in the summer of 2009. worked with the Institute of Nautical and 2007, respectively, at the Yenikapı This detailed documentation of the Archaeology team at the Theodosian excavation in Istanbul, Turkey. They component pieces of both shipwrecks Harbor excavations at Yenikapı in are part of a group of eight shipwrecks has been ongoing since June 2010, Istanbul between 2005 and 2008; from the Yenikapı site being studied thanks in part to generous funding she is writing her dissertation on the by a team of archaeologists under from INA. The goal of the 2011 construction of ship YK11, a seventh- the directorship of Dr. Cemal Pulak, century merchantman found at the season was to continue this year-round associate professor at Texas A&M effort to produce an exhaustive record site. 1 University and Vice President of INA. of each timber for a reconstruction The Theodosian Harbor, perhaps and study of the vessels’ design the largest harbor of the ancient city and use in antiquity, which will be of Constantinople, was discovered presented by the authors as Ph.D. near the district of Yenikapı in dissertations. The dormitory, staff, Istanbul during archaeological and laboratory facilities at INA’s salvage excavations preceding the Bodrum Research Center have been construction of a major transfer essential for completing a long- station between a new metro line and term, comprehensive study of these Istanbul’s Marmaray Rail Tunnel, a important ship timbers on a relatively submerged tunnel which will cross modest budget. Michael Jones, M.A. the Bosphorus Strait and connect Texas A&M University The post-excavation documentation Ph.D. Candidate/INA the European and Asian sides of of YK 11 and YK 14 follows the the city. Due to the sheer volume of methodology established by Fred Michael Jones has participated in archaeological finds, excavation by van Doorninck and J. Richard Steffy archaeological projects in Turkey, the Istanbul Archaeological Museums in their groundbreaking studies of Spain, Portugal, and Massachusetts. has continued non-stop since 2004, Byzantine shipwrecks, especially the In Turkey, he has worked under covering more than 58,000 m2 11th-century shipwreck found at Serçe Cemal Pulak since 2003 on ships and 2 shipwrecks dating from the Bronze of the urban center of Istanbul Limanı. The documentation includes Age to the Ottoman period. Between and yielding tens of thousands of a written catalog, measurements, 2005 and 2008, Michael was part artifacts dating from the Neolithic photographs, sketches, and 1:1 of Dr. Pulak’s team at the Yenikapı to late Ottoman periods. The largest scale drawings which will be used to excavations in Istanbul, assisting collection of material is associated create plans and scale models of the in the recovery of eight Byzantine with the city’s Theodosian Harbor, surviving sections of the ships’ hulls. shipwrecks. One of these ships, a built on the southern shore of the Sea These data will also serve as the basis merchantman dating to c. 900 C.E., of Marmara (Propontis) in the late- for reconstructing parts of the hull is the topic of his dissertation. 3 fourth century C.E. In addition to and rig which have not survived. harborworks built of stone, concrete, In 2011, many of the shipwrecks’ and wood, loose ship timbers, and several hundred timbers were fully ship’s equipment, 36 Byzantine documented; this process was finally shipwrecks of fifth- to 11th-century completed in the summer of 2012. The INA Annual 2011 18 Results of the 2011 curved upward to support the sides Research Season of the vessel; this framing pattern had been in use in Mediterranean ship YK 11 construction for about 1,000 years by Shipwreck YK 11 is a merchantman of the time YK 11 sank. seventh-century date (Fig. 1). The ship During 2011, post-excavation was found near the harbor’s western documentation of YK 11 focused on extremity, the first area to suffer the the framing of the ship, a task which effects of siltation from sediment required eight months to complete. deposited in the harbor by the Lycus Understanding the YK 11 framing River (Plate 6-p. 66). The shipwreck proved to be particularly challenging was found in a muddy layer full of due to the extensive repairs which debris and discarded objects such as had been made over the course of broken pottery. Damage to timbers the vessel’s lifetime. In addition from woodboring shipworms to the documentation of framing, (the Teredo navalis or teredo worm) a large portion of the ship’s keel, suggests that the upper section of this several stringers, and numerous UM ship was exposed for a period after (Unidentified Members, or loose sinking, although much of the lower ship timbers found on the wreck site) hull was extremely well preserved by were documented during the 2011 the anaerobic mud. Such exposure, season (Fig. 2). While some UM combined with the significant repairs timbers are impossible to identify present on this hull, indicate that this beyond a certain type of timber, the ship was a worn-out vessel abandoned original positions on the ship of some as a derelict, which slowly sank into UM timbers— particularly elements a shallow, forgotten corner of the of framing—have been identified harbor. The ship was originally around after thorough study and analysis of FIG 1 12 m in length and 4 m in beam. It fastener patterns and have contributed Seventh-century ship- was built primarily of Turkish pine important details regarding the wreck YK 11 prior to dismantling. July 2008 (Pinus brutia) with a three-part keel of 4 construction of poorly preserved (O. Köyağasıoğlu). Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris). YK 11 sections of the vessel. was constructed using a combination of traditional ancient techniques and newer methods developed during the later Roman Empire. The hull was built with thin planks edge-fastened with unpegged mortise-and-tenon joints, similar to the contemporary seventh-century Yassıada ship excavated by INA on the Turkish coast near Bodrum between 1961 and 1964. Also like the seventh-century Yassıada ship, YK 11 was built with mortise-and-tenon joints only to the waterline; above the waterline, pre- erected frames were used to determine the shape of the upper portion of the hull, a shipbuilding technique which had been developed in the Late Roman 5 period. The ship’s framing followed an ancient pattern of alternating floors, which spanned the bottom of the hull, and paired half-frames, which

19 Yenikapı—Turkey YK 14 seventh century. The upper part of and cataloging of the timbers. The YK 14, a medium-sized cargo ship, was the hull was built around pre-erected documentation of planking and keel uncovered in the central area of the frames to which planks (without timbers has provided important Yenikapı excavation in a stratigraphic coaks) were fastened. Both ships are new details on the construction layer of gray sand with shell and examples of some of the last stages of methods and repair of the ships, ceramic inclusions very different the ancient Mediterranean method as well as the positions of frame from the deposits in the western end of planking-first ship construction. timbers which were not preserved. of the harbor (Fig. 3, Plate 7-p. 66). By the 11th century, if not earlier, In the colder winter months, the The absence of damage from marine this tradition was supplanted by scale drawing and cataloging of the borers to nearly all of the surviving ‘skeleton-first’ shipbuilding methods, ship’s 62 frames was begun in the hull timbers indicates that it was which have been used in wooden Hethea Nye Wood Conservation buried quickly, probably in a storm shipbuilding into modern times. Laboratory. The drawings of these which deposited a thick layer of sand In 2011, the cataloging of the hull timbers are particularly important for onto the ship. Although the ship planking and keel timbers of YK 14 the reconstruction of the hull because was found without a cargo (which was completed. Many of the largest the curvature of each frame provides may have been salvaged soon after its planking and keel timbers, which are the shape of the ship’s hull in a specific sinking), ceramic finds in the same up to 7 m in length, were removed area of the ship. Due to the excellent stratigraphic layer as the shipwreck intact from the wreck site. The preservation of the ship’s frames, date the loss of the vessel to around documentation of these timbers, which these records can be used to produce 900 C.E. Almost 12 m of the ship was begun in 2009, was completed a highly accurate reconstruction of was preserved; originally, the vessel at INA’s Bodrum Research Center much of the ship’s hull. was approximately 14 m in length between June and November of 2011 and 4 m in beam. The ship was built (Fig. 4). YK 14’s large timbers are primarily of Turkey Oak and Sessile stored in a pair of 27-metric tonne Future Plans for the 6 Oak (Quercus petraea). Like YK 11, (30-ton) capacity freshwater-filled Yenikapı Ships YK 14’s lower hull planking was timber storage tanks, with each The cataloging phase of the study edge-joined, but with regularly-spaced large timber in a foam-lined crate. of YK 11 and 14 was completed in wooden pegs called coaks rather than Detachable wooden molds were built the summer of 2012; data collected mortise-and-tenon joints, reflecting to support curved pieces, which can be during this phase will form the basis a change in Byzantine shipbuilding raised out of the water in the storage for the authors’ dissertations on technology that occurred after the tanks for the drawing, photographing, the analysis and reconstruction of

The INA Annual 2011 20 these well-preserved and historically archaeology, a mission begun by significant vessels. Results from George Bass and continued by many the study of shipwrecks YK 11 and other INA researchers over the past YK 14, combined with those of other 50 years. shipwrecks and artifacts from the Yenikapı site, promise to revolutionize Acknowledgments our understanding of Byzantine We would like to thank Cemal seafaring technology and the role of Pulak, Vice President of the Institute maritime trade between the imperial of Nautical Archaeology (INA) CLOCKWISE FROM capital of Constantinople and other at Texas A&M University, and the FACING PAGE areas of the Mediterranean in the early director of the INA excavation team FIG 2 Middle Ages. Once our study of the at Yenikapı, for the opportunity Rebecca Ingram preparing shipwrecks is completed, the timbers first to work with him at the site as to photograph a UM of YK 11 and 14 will be conserved contract archaeologists and later timber from YK 11 outside at INA’s Bodrum Research Center the Hethea Nye Wood for the incredible opportunity to Conservation Laboratory in Polyethylene Glycol (PEG), a research two of these shipwrecks for at INA’s Bodrum Research water-soluble wax used to conserve our dissertations under his guidance. Center. Column drums from waterlogged archaeological wood, in the Kızılburun shipwreck are We would also like to thank the visible in the background. a process that will take several years. Istanbul Archaeological Museums, March 2012 (M. Jones). After conservation, the timbers will especially directors Zeynep Kızıltan be returned to Istanbul, where a and İsmail Karamut, and assistant FIG 3 Late ninth- or early tenth- planned archaeological museum will director Rahmi Asal; Yenikapı century shipwreck YK 14 be devoted entirely to exhibiting the site archaeologists Sırrı Çölmekçi, during excavation. April 2007 shipwrecks and artifacts from the Gülbahar Baran Çelik, Metin Gökçay, (M. Jones). Yenikapı site. A museum dedicated and Yaşar Anılır; as well as the other FIG 4 mainly to shipwreck finds in Turkey’s archaeologists and museum staff Michael Jones cataloging the largest city promises to showcase at the Yenikapı excavation. Special main keel timber of YK 14 in the freshwater storage tanks the wealth of Turkey’s incredibly thanks are due to the archaeologists at INA’s Bodrum Research rich maritime heritage and expose and staff who assisted in the initial Center. September 2011 the wider public to the methods excavation and in-situ recording of (R. Ingram). and results of research in nautical YK 11 and YK 14, especially Yasemin

21 Yenikapı—Turkey Aydoğdu, Korhan Bircan, Murat Byzantine Merchant Ships from the Bircan, Mehmet Çiftlikli, İlkay İvgin, Yenikapı Excavations in Istanbul, Orkan Köyağasıoğlu, Sheila Matthews, Turke y.” The INA Annual 2010:8- and Asaf Oron. We are grateful to the 17. Institute of Nautical Archaeology for Liphschitz, N. and C. Pulak. its continued financial and logistical 2009. “Shipwrecks of Portus support, especially for the use of the Theodosiacus. Types of Wood Used Bodrum research facilities, which in Some Byzantine Roundships have made possible our long research and Longships found at Yenikapı, periods in Turkey on a project of this Istanbul.” Skyllis: Zeitschrift für scale. We wish to thank INA Bodrum Unterwasserarchäologie 9(2):164-71. Research Center’s current director Pulak, C. 2007. “Yenikapı Byzantine Tuba Ekmekçi, former director Tufan Shipwrecks.” In Istanbul: 8000 Years Turanlı, and all INA staff members Brought to Daylight. Marmaray, who continue to provide assistance Metro, Sultanahmet Excavations, in this study, especially Orkan 202-15. Istanbul: Vehbi Koç Köyağasıoğlu and Esra Altınanıt Foundation. for assistance with scanning timber drawings and Sheila Matthews for help Notes 1 and advice on the hull reconstructions. Pulak 2007; Ingram and Jones 2011. 2 Financial support for our research Bass et al. 2004, 73-169. 3 has been provided by the Institute A more detailed overview of the of Nautical Archaeology; the Center post-excavation documentation may for Maritime Archaeology and be found in Ingram and Jones 2011, Conservation (CMAC) and the 11-3. 4 Nautical Archaeology Program at Wood identification was carried out Texas A&M University; the American by Nili Liphschitz of the Institute Research Institute in Turkey (ARIT) of Archaeology, The Botanical and U.S. Department of State, Laboratories, Tel Aviv University. 5 Educational and Cultural Affairs; Bass and van Doorninck 1982, 55-6. 6 the American Philosophical Society’s Liphschitz and Pulak 2009, 168. Lewis and Clark Fund for Exploration and Research; and the College of Liberal Arts, the Department of Anthropology, and the Melbern G. Glasscock Center for Humanities Research at Texas A&M University.

References Bass, G.F. and F.H. van Doorninck, Jr. 1982. Yassı Ada. Vol. I, A Seventh- Century Byzantine Shipwreck. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. Bass, G.F., S.D. Matthews, J.R. Steffy and F.H. van Doorninck, Jr. 2004. Serçe Limanı. An Eleventh-Century Shipwreck. Vol. I, The Ship and Its Anchorage, Crew, and Passengers. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. Ingram, R. and M. Jones. 2011. “Yenikapı—Documenting Two

The INA Annual 2011 22 Reluctant Stones from the Sea THE FINAL SEASON ON THE COLUMN WRECK AT KIZILBURUN, TURKEY

Deborah Carlson, Ph.D. President, INA

Dr. Carlson is a tenured Associate Professor at Texas A&M University holding the Sara W. and George O. Yamini Professorship in Nautical Archaeology. She became President of INA in March 2011. A classical archaeologist specializing in trade and seafaring in the ancient Mediterranean, Dr. Carlson earned an M.A. in Classical Archaeology from the University of Arizona, where she participated in terrestrial excavations in Greece and Italy. Her archaeological fieldwork has been funded by the Archaeological Institute of America, the American During the month of June 2011 a small crew of one dozen divers and Philosophical Society, the Samuel H. archaeologists, most of them chiseled veterans of past seasons on INA’s Kress Foundation, and the American Kızılburun column wreck excavation, returned to the site to recover the Research Institute in Turkey; she is a remaining six column drums and close the site permanently. Two years earlier, National Geographic Explorer and an a larger team had successfully raised two (the largest and smallest) of the eight Expeditions Council grantee. total column drums and the Doric column capital, which were transported to the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology where they stayed until March 2011, when they were moved to the courtyard of INA’s Bodrum Research Center (Fig. 1). The sizeable goals and short duration of the final 2011 season at Kızılburun required a team with purpose, professionalism, and proven skills in efficiency and safety, and this group exceeded expectations in every category. The shorter season, however, still left plenty of time for surprises and adversity, for although we succeeded in raising all six drums only half of them came willingly. In the interests of saving both time and money, we opted not to rebuild portions of the terrestrial base camp designed by Robin Piercy and Mehmet Çiftlikli which had served us so well since the inaugural excavation campaign in 2005. Instead, we would dive from and live aboard INA’s 58-year old ABOVE RIGHT research vessel Virazon (Fig. 2) which, although equipped with bunks for eight, accommodated our team of 12 very comfortably. Apart from myself, the 2011 FIG 1 The two drums and Kızılburun team (Fig. 3) included Project Director Dr. Donny Hamilton (Texas capital raised in 2009 were A&M University) and Turkish Co-Director Dr. Harun Özdaş (Dokuz Eylül transferred to the courtyard University), Virazon captain Zafer Gül, INA engineer Murat Tilev, Dive Safety of INA’s Bodrum Research Officer John Littlefield (Texas A&M University), hyperbaric physicians Dr. Center in March 2011 (R. Ingram ©INA). Matthew Partrick (Southern Ocean Medical Center) and Dr. David Lambert (University of Pennsylvania Hospital), INA archaeologists Sheila Matthews

ABOVE and Orkan Köyağasıoğlu, and Kızılburun project veterans Dr. Kristine Trego (Bucknell University) and Marilyn Cassedy (Texas A&M University). Emre Savaş FIG 2 of the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology served as our 2011 Turkish INA’s research vessel Virazon was our work platform for commissioner and governmental representative. the 2011 season at Kızılburun Among the final tasks at the close of the 2009 excavation season was wrapping (M. Partrick ©INA). the six drums that remained on the seabed in a protective layer of polyester

23 Kızılburun—Turkey FIG 3 The 2011 Kızılburun team (standing L to R): Sheila Matthews, Orkan Köyağasıoğlu, Marilyn Cassedy, Zafer Gül, Debbie Carlson, Kris Trego, Donny Hamilton, Emre Savaş, Harun Özdaş (kneeling L to R): Murat Tilev, David Lambert. Not pictured: John Littlefield (J. Littlefield ©INA).

FIG 4 Drum 3 being flipped on the seabed in 2009 (D. Frey ©INA).

sheeting so as to minimize the inevitable accumulation of marine plants and animals. So upon our return to Kızılburun on June 1, 2011, we knew that one of our first assignments following the installation of the necessary underwater safety equipment would be to unwrap each like a giant, submerged, 7-ton marble birthday present. We also knew that each of the six drums would need to be flipped 180° so that they could be properly rigged for raising to the surface – we had already flipped each drum 180° on the seabed in 2009 in order to expose the cleaner, concretion-free bottom face. When the last six were hoisted from the bottom and loaded on a ship bound for Bodrum we wanted to be sure that they would be resting securely on the cleanest, flattest possible surface. Within one week of our arrival on site, the safety equipment was in place, most of the drums were unwrapped, and we were ready to attempt the first flip, of Drum 3. The drum-flipping process depends on the strategic placement of a single lifting sling rigged in a choker hitch and set down low on the leading edge of the drum (Fig. 4); the working end of the sling is attached to either one or two 1,800 kg (4,000 lb) lift balloons, depending on the size and weight of the drum. If all goes well the buoyancy of the filled balloon(s) creates enough upward lift on the sling to roll the drum 180° onto its opposite face and the sling arrives at the surface moments later attached to the lift balloon(s). Unfortunately, that is not what happened to Drum 3, which came off the seabed at a provocative 120° angle but then became wedged in the sand with sling and balloon still attached (Fig. 5). When deflating the balloon did not cause the drum to budge, we reattached the

The INA Annual 2011 24 FIG 5 Sheila Matthews inspects the situation of Drum 3, wedged in the sand with sling and balloon still attached (D. Carlson ©INA).

25 Kızılburun—Turkey sling and balloon to the edge buried in Furthermore, in our attempt to flip the sand in order to sweep the drum Drum 8, the lifting sling pulled the back into its original position. The straps off the face of the drum, and the first lesson we learned from Drum 3 is entire package arrived at the surface in that it’s well worth the time needed in a gnarled mess, while on the bottom advance of the flipping to remove sand the drum lifted up briefly and fell back from the drum’s intended path in order down. We might have smelled defeat to create a clear and impediment-free in the air had we not been so distracted trajectory. by the sound of a ticking clock. Drum 3 was flipped the next day Fine tuning our procedure once but this too did not go as planned again, we ensured that the lifting sling because the drum missed its mark for flipping Drum 8 could not make and did not land on the crisscrossed contact with the straps secured to the lifting straps that lay waiting for it. face of the drum by rolling up the loose As a result we decided it was wiser to ends of those straps to keep them out secure the lifting straps to the exposed of the way, thus preventing the lifting drum face before flipping it over sling from pulling all the rigging off onto the seabed. In other words, after the drum in the process of the flip working non-stop for over a week, (Figs. 7and 8). The tide turned on we still had not successfully rigged a 14 June, two-thirds of the way into our single column drum in preparation very short season, with the successful for raising. Undeterred, we moved on flipping of Drum 8. Over the next to Drum 6, attaching the two lifting two days, we flipped the remaining straps onto the face of the drum three drums (Drum 1, Drum 2, and before attempting to flip it. In the Drum 5), our speed due in part to end Drum 6 was flipped successfully the fact that the rigging on Drum 1 but in the process the lifting sling became snagged on a concretion and snagged a piece of concretion on the never went to the surface, hence saving drum wall, which tore both the sling us the time and hassle of hauling all and one of the balloons that was those straps and lines back down to the attached to it (Fig. 6). Humbled but seabed one more time (Plate 8-p. 67)! not discouraged, we set our sights As a gentle reminder that the on Drum 8 about the same time the ancient Greeks were routinely weather worsened and we were forced punished by the Gods for exhibiting to relocate Virazon in the shelter excessive pride or hubris, on 16 June of a nearby cove. On the next day the sea conditions worsened yet again, we yielded to Mother Nature and accompanied by thunder and lightning conceded a three-day break so that (especially unwelcome aboard a boat Turkish team members could return filled with diesel fuel, gasoline, and home to vote in the Parliamentary oxygen). Earlier that day, INA’s HD elections. video camera and Gates underwater One advantage of the brief election housing inexplicably floated away from hiatus was that it allowed team the decompression stop and after hours members returning to Bodrum to fetch of searching, miraculously reappeared a replacement 1,800 kg (4,000 lb) alongside Virazon. With the crane lift balloon from INA’s Turkish boat due to arrive in just a few days, we headquarters. Unfortunately, when we still had to rig the obstinate Drum 3. resumed diving on 13 June, with just Of course, because we had already one week left before the arrival of the flipped Drum 3 once (but missed the crane boat that would hoist the drums rigging), it would have to be flipped to the surface, we found that one of twice in order to expose the clean the three functioning lift balloons had face, rig that face, and then flip the a leak, so we were left with only two. drum onto the rigging in preparation

The INA Annual 2011 26 FACING PAGE FROM TOP

FIG 6 Archaeological Director Deborah Carlson and Dive Safety Office John Littlefield inspect the torn rigging that came off of Drum 6 (D. Hamilton ©INA).

FIG 7 Drum 2 (K. Trego ©INA).

FIG 8 Marilyn Cassedy and Orkan Köyağasıoğlu make the final inspection of Drum 1 in preparation for flipping (J. Littlefield ©INA).

LEFT

FIG 9 Virazon and 19 Mayıs from the Kızılburun camp site (K.Trego ©INA). for hoisting. We accomplished this June 20 began with the pre-dawn incredible feat by flipping Drum 3 arrival of our long-awaited crane twice in one day! boat (Fig. 9), paradoxically named For the next two days we made 19 Mayıs (Turkish for 19 May, which final preparations to hoist more than marks the start of the Turkish War of 40 tons of ancient marble column Independence in 1919). Captain Eray parts that hadn’t seen the light of day informed us that they would be using for 2,000 years. This meant shackling a crane and not a winch, which meant together the four ends of the two that each drum might take as much as straps on each drum and attaching 30 minutes to reach the surface since buoy markers to help the crew of the each could only be lifted in increments crane boat locate the six drums that lay as the crane was raised. We organized scattered on the seabed 46 m (150 ft) quickly into five buddy pairs and below the surface. In the process we prepared for dives of 15 minutes. Each located and raised two lead anchor dive team would attach two lines from collars and an anchor stock, while the crane boat to the single shackle several other stone stocks observed on holding the ends of the lifting straps the seabed almost certainly belong to (Fig. 10), and then send a small yellow vessels earlier than the column wreck. lift balloon to the surface to signal that

27 Kızılburun—Turkey RIGHT

FIG 10 John Littlefield shackles the lifting lines to Drum 6 in preparation for hoisting to the surface (M. Cassedy ©INA).

FIG 11 Drum 8 is hoisted to the surface aboard 19 Mayıs (J. Littlefield ©INA).

lifting could begin; a second balloon Drum 5 was finally safely on deck. would be held in reserve in the event Drum 8 came up next without a of a problem, to signal that lifting must hitch (Fig. 11), but Drum 3 seemed stop. determined not to be bested in the Unfortunately, the mechanical degree-of-difficulty category. Sadly failures began almost immediately another mechanical failure—this upon lifting Drum 5, when a hose time in the ship’s generator—brought ruptured and sprayed hydraulic fluid the lifting of Drum 3 to a dramatic all over the crew and deck of 19 Mayıs. halt and forced an excruciating delay With the crane now powerless, and the of six hours while Captain Eray vessel not anchored, she began to drift telephoned Izmir to find the necessary with the current as Drum 5 dangled replacement part and a mechanic to in the water column. We watched in install it. agony for over an hour, with the ship Later that afternoon, with the being repositioned occasionally, before arrival from Izmir of the necessary the necessary repairs were made and part and the mechanic, came Ibrahim

The INA Annual 2011 28 FIG 12 Project Director Donny Hamilton bids farewell to the drums (J. Littlefield ©INA).

FIG 13 The remains of the Kızılburun camp and an impromptu Turkish sign advertising free lumber (D. Carlson ©INA).

Eliböyük, representative of the Bodrum There was little on-site work left Museum of Underwater Archaeology, for our small but superlative team in who would accompany the drums back the days that followed, as most of the to Bodrum. When the drum lifting datum towers, airlift pipes, tools, hoses, resumed around 6 pm, our topnotch and usable lumber had been sent back team was ready; diving back-to-back the to Bodrum aboard 19 Mayıs. We raised three remaining teams rigged Drums 1, the phone booth dome and spare 2, and 6; the last dive team, comprised safety tanks from the seabed for the of INA veteran archaeologists Sheila last time since initiating the excavation Matthews and Orkan Köyağasıoğlu, six years earlier. We dismantled the surfaced just as the sun was setting. fragmentary camp buildings and Before the day was over we managed to declared the remnants publicly organize a group photo on the deck of available for the taking (Fig. 13). The 19 Mayıs (Plate 9-p. 67)—just in time six column drums traveled overnight to to bid farewell to the last six column Bodrum and were relocated by truck drums from Kızılburun (Fig. 12). to the courtyard of INA’s Bodrum

29 Kızılburun—Turkey Research Center, where they joined Additional Reading the two drums and capital raised Aylward, W., D.N. Carlson, in 2009 (Plate 10-p. 66-67). Their D. Laroche, J.-C. Moretti and residence in Bodrum is temporary, S. Pike. 2009. “The Temple of however, pending an official decision Apollo at Claros and the Kızılburun about their final destination. Until that Shipwreck: Preliminary Analysis of decision is made we will spend as much Isotopic Data.” In Interdisciplinary time as possible acquainting ourselves Studies on Ancient Stone: Proceedings with their features and attempting of the IX Association for the Study of to unravel the peculiar history of the Marbles and Other Stones in nine majestic marble blocks from Antiquity (ASMOSIA) Conference, Kızılburun. (Tarragona 2009) edited by A. Garcia-M., P. Mercadal, I. Rodà de Acknowledgments Llanza (2012) 540-548. It is with profound gratification, Carlson, D.N. 2010. “Old Stones Find gratitude, and sadness that I write a New Home: The 2009 Excavation this final excavation report forThe Season at Kızılburun, Turkey.” INA Annual. This project could not The INA Annual 2009:25-30. have happened without the financial Carlson, D.N. 2009. “Kızılburun and logistical support of the Institute 2008: Shipwreck Research at the of Nautical Archaeology, the Center Bodrum Center.” The INA Annual for Maritime Archaeology and 2008:11-14. Conservation, and the College of Carlson, D.N. 2007. “An Uplifting Liberal Arts at Texas A&M University; Summer: The 2006 Excavation the National Geographic Society, Season at Kızılburun, Turkey.” INA the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, Quarterly (34)1:3-10. Spiegel Television, the International Carlson, D.N. 2006. “A Monumental Catacomb Society, the American Cargo: The Roman Column Philosophical Society, LiftAll Inc., and Wreck at Kızılburun, Turkey.” INA Subsalve, Inc. Among the numerous Quarterly 33(1):3-10. private donors who lent their support Carlson, D.N. and C.E. Atkins. 2008. to this project, the generosity of “Leaving No Stone Unturned: Mr. David Koch was unparalleled. I am The 2007 Excavation Season at and will forever remain profoundly Kızılburun, Turkey.” The INA grateful to each and every individual Annual 2007:22-28. participant who donated his or her Carlson, D.N. and W. Aylward. 2010. time, sweat, patience, hard work, good “The Kızılburun Shipwreck and humor and unanimity to this project the Temple of Apollo at Claros.” over the course of six years (2005- American Journal of Archaeology 2011) including each and every staff 114(1):145-159. member of INA’s Bodrum Research Partrick, M.S. and D.N. Carlson. Center. For now, I look forward to “Technology off the Turkish Coast.” the discoveries that await my own The Explorers JournalSummer research, undertaken in collaboration 2012:45-51. with French and Turkish scholars working at the Temple of Apollo at Claros and funded by a grant from the Partner University Fund and Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, courtesy of the French American Cultural Exchange.

The INA Annual 2011 30 In the Shadow of La Repubblica NEW DISCOVERIES FROM ARCHIVAL Serenissima RESEARCH IN VENICE

Quis unquam orbicularem illam ac plane perfectam eruditionem...felicius imbibit? G.B. Egnatio, De exemplis (1554), iii Lilia Campana, M.A. Texas A&M University Ph.D. Student/INA “Who has ever been happier than I Among my more exciting discoveries, Ms. Campana received her M.A. from to be immersed in that completely is a biography of Vettor Fausto by Texas A&M University’s Nautical perfect erudition?” This introduction an unknown author. This biography Program and her B.A. in Archaeology, of De exemplis (1554) by the Venetian yields fresh information about Fausto’s History, and Classics from the Libera humanist Giovanbattista Egnatio life and literary activity, and is more Università degli Studi in Urbino (Italy). (1478-1553) well describes my complete than the one published by Since joining the Nautical Archaeol- 3 ogy Program in 2006, she has worked enthusiasm every time I set foot in Paolo Ramusio in 1551. Prior to this with Dr. Filipe Castro as a research Venice at the beginning of the summer. discovery, we knew of only three works assistant in the J. Richard Steffy Ship Sitting in silence inside the Archives, edited and published by Fausto: his Reconstruction Laboratory, and since while the sun is shining on the sea, and Latin translation of the Aristotelian 2009 has been assisting Dr. Cemal reading for hours, musty manuscripts Mechanics, an edition of the comedies Pulak with various research projects that were written by different hands of the Roman playwright Terence, in the Old World Laboratory. over the course of centuries, may seem and an edition of some works by 4 tedious. And yet, there is nothing more Cicero. However, this new biography engaging to me than archival research, provides a list of all Greek and Latin FIG 1 especially when investigating Venetian works published by Fausto during The State Archive of Venice on a sunny morning. maritime history, shipbuilding his lectureship at the School of Saint practices, and naval architecture Mark. The significance of this discovery (Fig. 1). lies in the fact that, during the The 2011 research season was Renaissance, authors usually dedicated particularly eventful and rich in their printed books to their patron, and discoveries. From June to August, Fausto’s literary works are no different. I spent three months in the State The dedications written by Fausto in Archives of Venice devoting my the preface of his books reveal new energy and time to the search for details about his life and solve, once new manuscripts related to my Ph.D. and for all, the vexing question about dissertation entitled “TheImmortal his date of birth. Ennio Concina, Fausto: The Life, Works, and Ships following Degli Agostini, notes that of the Venetian Humanist and Naval Fausto was born “at the beginning of 5 Architect Vettor Fausto (1490-1546).” 1480s,” whereas Francesca Piovan Vettor Fausto attracted the attention suggests that Fausto’s birthdate should 6 of many naval historians, and earned be placed slightly later. One of the a place of honor in the pantheon editions printed by Fausto indicates, of Renaissance innovators with his however, that he was born in 1480. construction of a unique quinqueremis This information is confirmed by 1 (quinquereme, or five-er). The French additional archival material related to historian Fernand Braudel noted, the School of Saint Mark. “Venice […] designed its own ships, and The documents so far collected 2 it is not very prone to change them.” from the Venetian Archives, and The conception and construction from other Italian and European of Fausto’s new vessel type—the libraries, enable us to trace the quinquereme—therefore, deserves complete life of Fausto, disclosing careful investigation with regard to its new episodes about his career both as technical features. a humanist and as a naval architect.

31 Venetian Manuscripts—Italy Most importantly, we are now able to An even more exciting discovery identify Fausto’s political, social, and from the summer of 2011 is a new cultural connections in Venice. This is manuscript entitled “Vettor Fausto’s a primary consideration for my project, Quinquereme” by an unspecified since these connections are pivotal author. This document provides a in understanding how a newcomer comprehensive account of Fausto’s like Vettor Fausto, a Venetian citizen vessel, and gives detailed instructions of humble origins, was able, first, to of how to build his quinquereme. Given be appointed a lecturer in Greek at the accuracy of the measurements the prestigious School of Saint Mark, recorded in these folios, and the and, later in life, to work as a master completeness of the shipbuilding shipbuilder in the Arsenal, which was instructions, it is likely that the author a closed environment not accessible to of this manuscript witnessed the outsiders. Regrettably, Vettor Fausto’s construction of Fausto’s quinquereme, contribution to Venetian Humanism or perhaps the author of the document has been overlooked by philologists was Fausto himself. More importantly, 7 and historians of Italian literature. this document is the only one among Thus, as part of my dissertation, I those that have surfaced to date, to have undertaken a comprehensive explicitly note in its title that the study of all of Fausto’s writings, both recorded instructions pertain to in Latin and Greek. The only known Fausto’s quinquereme (Fig. 2). Greek poem written by Fausto is that Another important discovery published by Legrand, in his two- from 2011 that should not pass volume work Bibliographie hellénique unmentioned is a document dated (1885). Over the years, I have collected to the first half of the 16th century. nearly a dozen Greek and Latin This long manuscript discusses in poems signed by Fausto. These works detail the rowing style of light galleys, are scattered in various Italian and which was a source of heated debate European archives, and libraries, and among shipbuilders in the Venetian remain unpublished. I also discovered Arsenal at that time. Toward the a letter that proves Fausto was a friend mid-16th century, a new rowing of Fra’ Giocondo from Verona (1433– style (alla scaloccio, “in the ladder 1515), the celebrated architect who, in way”), consisting of three men on 1500, left Venice after his appointment the same bench pulling a single long as royal architect in the French court of oar, replaced the old rowing style alla FIG 2 Louis XII. This friendship might have , “in the simple way,” which had The so-called “galleass ship sensile sheds.” been the stimulus for Fausto to engage three men sitting on a single bench in his study of naval architecture. each pulling a separate oar. Who introduced this new style of rowing on Venetian galleys is not certain, and historians have been debating it for a long time. This seemingly unimportant innovation revolutionized the medieval Mediterranean galley into a modern war machine by allowing it to be built much larger, more durable, and, most importantly, suited for outfitting with heavy ordnance; earlier galleys could carry only a few small guns. This new document is an extremely significant discovery, since it reports that Vettor Fausto introduced the Venetians to the alla scaloccio manner of rowing! The

The INA Annual 2011 32 earliest evidence for the introduction It is rare to be able to reunite with of the long and heavy alla scaloccio oar certainty, a drawing that has been is to be found in a document dated stored separately from its original to 30 July 1534, which discusses the manuscript; and, indeed, on the day dispatch of 60 long oars for a certain of my discovery there was a lot of 8 sea captain. A senatorial decree dated excitement in the archive! to 19 January 1542 asserted that This past summer, I had the good “Dominus Vettor Fausto, who has been fortune to be visited by Dr. Gregory always faithful and helpful, and always Maslow and his wife Laurie, who purported to provide us with the are consummate travelers and have benefit of his clever inventions that he visited Venice many times, being made in the past and that are worthy avid connoisseurs of Venetian art, of praise, since [Fausto] improved our architecture, and history. Dr. Maslow, galleys. In this present day, he devised who recently became a director of the a new system to arrange the crew of Institute of Nautical Archaeology, is the galleys, so that both the rowers exceptionally knowledgeable about hired from the mainland and those Venetian maritime history. With the from the Levant would be able to row help of Guglielmo Zannelli, a former 9 easily.” It has been suggested that Admiral of the Venetian Navy, an the alla scaloccio rowing system was expert on Venetian maritime history, introduced at a time when the shortage and a good friend, we visited the of trained and professional rowers, Arsenal. Guglielmo kindly guided us who are essential for rowing alla sensile, into the secret world of the Arsenal, compelled the Venetian navy to press providing us with an excellent and FIG 3 slaves and convicts (forzati) into service most informative tour. We first visited Former Admiral Guglielmo as rowers aboard galleys. The above the Old Arsenal, and then, the New Zanelli with Dr. Gregory document is cited also by the historian and the Newest, and the shipsheds Maslow in the Naval Museum. Alberto Tenenti, who explains that the as well, including one shipshed still FIG 4 term “rowers from the Levant” actually preserving its original roof. He later Dr. Gregory and Mrs. Laurie denotes convicts and slaves from invited us to a lunch at the Navy Maslow with former Admiral 10 Guglielmo Zanelli in front Dalmatia. Fausto also referred to le Officers Club where we visited the only of the Arsenal fountain built zurme di terra ferma, “rowers from the two surviving ovens used to make hard- from the melted iron of mainland,” meaning that they were not tack (biscuits) for the crew of Venetian dismissed cannons. trained rowers. ships (Figs. 3 and 4). Over the years spent in the State Over the years, I have received Archives of Venice, I have established several scholarships and grants in order excellent working relationships with to carry out my research in the archives the archivists. In 2011, one of the of Venice and in other libraries. I wish archivists located a new manuscript to thank INA’s Board of Directors with shipbuilding instructions to and Archaeological Committee for build a light galley. This significant providing funding for my project document was given to me for study since 2007. In particular, I am deeply and publication. This certainly was grateful to INA’s new President Dr. an incredibly good stroke of luck that Deborah Carlson, as well as Drs. does not happen very often, and I Cemal Pulak and Shelley Wachsmann. was extremely grateful for this most Dr. Pulak deserves special thanks, for valuable present. During my research he not only agreed to serve as Chair in the Archives, I also discovered of my dissertation committee, but also elsewhere, the original drawing carefully and thoroughly read my M.A. depicting the light galley described in thesis, and provided me with helpful the new manuscript; the drawing was insight, suggestions, and constant preserved in a folder different from support. One of the important lessons that of the shipbuilding manuscript. I have learned working as a graduate

33 Venetian Manuscripts—Italy student assistant is: “The more you e letterarie dell’Ateneo di Venezia, censura cujusdam sane eruditi viri, know, the more you realize how little 2:307–55. sumptibusque assiduis imprimendas you know!” Keeping in mind this wise Concina, E. 1984. L’Arsenale della Lazarus Soardus curavit. Venice: Socratic teaching, I have been exposed repubblica di Venezia. Milan: Electa. Apud Lazarum Soardiis. to a wide variety of Dr. Pulak’s projects ______. 1987a. “La fascination de ______. 1511a. M. T. Ciceronis tres ranging from the Bronze Age to the l’antique en fait d’architecture de officiis libri, et aureum illud de Ottoman Turkish period, all of which navale. Une lettre de Vettor Fausto.” amicitia senectuteque volumen una have broadened my knowledge and In Amphion. Études d’hidtoire de cum paradoxis hoc habentur pugillari. challenged me in most unexpected techniques, edited by G. Acques, Venice: Lazarus Soardus. ways. I am also very thankful to Dr. 23–28. Paris: Picard. ______. 1517. Aristotelis Mechanica Filipe Castro for serving as Chair of ______. 1987b. ‘“Marina architectura’ Victoris Fausti industria in pristinum my M.A. thesis committee and for his e ‘fabrilis peritia’: l’iconografia habitum restituta ac latinitate donate. advice, time, and patience. Working in reinterpretata di un desegno Lyon: In aedibus Iodoci Badii. the Ship Reconstruction Laboratory mantegnesco e gli atteggiamenti ______. 1551. Victoris Fausti veneti as his assistant from 2007 to 2009, and culturali del primo ‘500 Veneto.” orationes quinque eius amicorum cura helping students with their projects, In Cultura, scienze e techniche nella quam fieri potuit diligenter impressae. was among my most challenging and Venezia del cinquecento, edited by Venice: Apud Aldi Filios. rewarding experiences. I am most A. Manno, 387–405. Venice: Istituto Hodius, H. and S. Jebb. 1742. De thankful to Dr. Robyn Woodward for Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti. graecis illustribus linguae graecae her warm encouragement and financial ______. 1988a. Pietre, parole, storia: literarumque humaniorum support of my many trips to Italy. I glossario della costruzione nelle fonti instauratoribus, eorum vitis, scriptis thank also Dr. Gregory Maslow and veneziane (secoli XV-XVIII). Venice: et elogiis libri duo. London: Apud his wife Mrs. Laurie Maslow for their Marsilio. Hodium. enthusiasm in supporting my research ______. 1988b. “Humanism on the King, M. 1986. Venetian Humanism and for the rewarding day we spent Sea.” Mediterranean Historical Review in an Age of Patrician Dominance. together in Venice. I am most grateful 3(1):159–65. Princeton: Princeton University for the education and encouragement I ______. 1990. Navis. L’umanesimo sul Press. have received from the entire Nautical mare (1470–1740). Turin: Giulio Lane, F. C. 1965. Navires et Archaeology Program faculty at Texas Einaudi Editore. constructeurs à Venise pendant la A&M University, and for making my ______. 1991b. “La costruzione Renaissance. Paris: J. Touzot. stay in the program a great experience navale.” In Storia di Venezia dalle Legrand, É. 1885. Bibliographie that has enriched me in many ways, origini alla caduta della Serenissima. hellénique. Ou description raisonnée both as a scholar and as a human Temi: il mare, edited by A. Tenenti des ouvrages publiés par des Grecs being. In many ways, the Nautical and U. Tucci, 211–58. Rome: Istituto au XVe et XVIe siècles. 2 vols. Paris: Archaeology Program is much more della Enciclopedia Italiana. Ernest Leroux. than my intellectual home; the ______. 2006. Venezia e Istanbul: Lowry, M.C.J. 1979. The World of professors and my fellow students have incontri, confronti, e scambi. Udine: Aldus Manutius: Business and become my family in the United States. Forum. Scholarship in Renaissance Venice. Cosenza, M.E. 1962. Biographical Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Bibliography and Bibliographical Dictionary of the Piovan, F. 1995. “Vittore, Fausto.” In Aymard, M. 1980. “L’Arsenale e le Italian Humanists and of the World Dizionario biografico degli italiani. conoscenze tecnico-marinaresche. Le Classical Scholarship in Italy, 1300– 72 vols., edited by A.M. Ghisalberti, arti.” In Storia della cultura veneta. 1800. 6 vols. Boston: G.K. Hall & 398–401. Rome: Istituto della Dal primo Quattrocento al concilio di Co. Enciclopedia Italiana. Trento, Vol. 3, edited by G. Arnaldi Degli Agostini, G. 1752–1754. Notizie Sanuto, M. 1466–1536. I diarii. 58 and M. Pastore Stocchi, 289–315. istorico-critiche intorno alla vita, e le vols., edited by R. Fulin. Bologna, Vicenza: Neri Pozza. opere degli scrittori viniziani. 2 vols. Italy: Forni Editore. Braudel, F. 1976. Civiltà e imperi del Venice: Occhi. Tenenti, A. 1962. Cristoforo da Canal. Mediterraneo nell’età di Filippo II. 2 Fausto, V. 1511. Hoc pugillari La marine Vénitienne avant Lépante. vols. Torino: Einaudi. Terentius numeris concinatus, et L. Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N. Casoni, G. 1838. “Dei navigli poliremi Victoris Fausti de comoedia libello Tiraboschi, G. 1822–1826. Storia della usati nella marina degli antichi nova recognitione, litterisque novis letteratura italiana. 9 vols. Milan: veneziani.” Esercitazioni scientifiche continetur. Hasce Terentii fabulas Società tipografica de’ classici italiani. The INA Annual 2011 34 Wilson, N. W. 1988. “Vettor Fausto, 161r: Invigilando Domino Vettor Professor of Greek and Naval Fausto con ogni studio, et diligentia al Architect.” In The Use of Greek and beneficio delle cose nostre per la molta Latin: Historical Essays, edited affitione, et fideltà soa verso de noi, by A.C. Dionisotti, A. Grafton, oltra le altre cose ingeniose, et degne and J. Kraye, 89–95. London: The di laude dallui fatte per il passato di Warburg Institute. utilità grande nelle nostre galee, al presente ha escogitato un modo di Notes acconciar talmente esse galee, che le 1 Brief biographical information on zurme di terra ferma le potrano vogare Fausto’s life appeared in the works by commodamente come fanno quelle di levante. Degli Agostini (1752–1754, 2:448– 10 72), Tiraboschi (1824, 7:1487–89), Tenenti 1962, 91, n. 19. Casoni (1838, 2:307:401), Cosenza (1962, 2:1363–64), Lane (1965, 59–65), and Wilson (1988, 89–95). Recently, the entry “Vettore Fausto,” edited by Francesca Piovan, was added to the prestigious Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (1995, 45:398–401). The most authoritative and comprehensive account on the life of Fausto is, however, that of the distinguished historian Ennio Concina, Navis: Humanism on the Sea (1990). Concina also mentioned Fausto in other publications (1984, 99–125; 1988a, 228–45; 1988b, 159– 65; 1987a, 23–28; 1987b, 387–405; 2006, 99–125). Aymard (1980, 3:302) wrongly identified Vettor Fausto with Fausto Venanzio da Sebenico, who is the author of the mechanical treatise titled Machinae novae. 2 Braudel 1976, 1:311: Venezia […] ha i suoi tipi di vascelli e non cambia volentieri. For a most helpful overview of the types of ships built in the Venetian Arsenal during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, see Concina 1991b, 211–58. 3 Fausto, 1541. Paolo Ramusio wrote an introductory letter. 4 Fausto, 1511, 1511a, and 1517. 5 Degli Agostini 1754, 2:448; Concina 1990, 26; Piovan, 1995, 45:398–401. 6 Piovan 1995, 398. 7 Hodius and Jebb 1742, 32; Legrand 1885, 1:102–5 and 115; Lowry 1979, 54; and King 1986, 72. 8 ASVe, Patroni e Provveditori all’Arsenale, reg. 8, fol. 37v. 9 ASVe, Senato mar, reg. 26, fols. 160v–

35 Venetian Manuscripts—Italy Beans, Beavers and Bustles THE 2011 YUKON RIVER STEAMBOAT SURVEY The rivers of northern Canada offer water this year, there was a unique a short and unpredictable season for complication—a colony of beavers had field work. The summer of 2011 was buried Columbian in logs and mud. unusually wet, and the result was Our field work, outreach, and pub- John Pollack, M.Sc. record water levels on the Yukon lication efforts will be discussed in that Project Director/INA River. Accordingly, the Yukon River order. Steamboat Survey encountered An INA Research Associate and difficult conditions, low visibility Field Work independent Canadian researcher and fast-moving water during the The 2011 field rkwo consisted of based in British Columbia, John three-week campaign in August 2011. three separate phases located near is also a former President of While the first two phases of field Dawson City, downstream of Car- the Underwater Archaeological Society of B.C., a fellow of three work were conducted successfully macks at Rink Rapids, and upstream scientific exploration organizations, as planned, river conditions forced of Carmacks at the Columbian Slough and an affiliate member of the the cancellation of the third phase: (Fig. 1; Plate 11-p. 68). B.C. Association of Professional a detailed in-water assessment of the The prior six years of field work have Archaeologists. His predominant most famous steamboat accident on generated data for two major papers work has been in Jamaica and the Yukon River—the Columbian on both the range of vessel designs western Canada with expertise in disaster. The remains ofColumbian’s used in the Yukon stern wheel steam- “high-tech” mapping of foreshore and hull were located in 2010 after a boat fleet, and the factors related to underwater sites, and sternwheeler three-year search, but the August their abandonment as the population construction and nomenclature. 2011 conditions were dangerously of the area declined after the gold rush. similar to a 2008 flood that delayed During the first phase of the 2011 field work on the wreck of Klondike 1 for a season, Robyn Woodward and John full two years. In addition to the high Pollack worked out of Dawson City to

Robyn Woodward, Ph.D. Project Archaeologist Simon Fraser University/INA

Dr. Woodward holds her degrees from Simon Fraser (Ph.D.), Texas A&M University, University College, Cardiff, and Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario. Her fields of research are underwater archaeology and maritime history. Aside from her work on the Yukon River Survey, Robyn also directs the excavation of Sevilla la Nueva in Jamaica. Professor Woodward is the AIA’s 2012/2013 McCann/Taggart Lecturer.

The INA Annual 2011 36 produce a manuscript for the abandon- ment paper, and to confirm conclu- sions related to the engineering and construction techniques employed on different classes of steamboats used on the river. Evenings were spent writing and refining observations, while days were spent at the old shipyard across the river at West Dawson, crawling through the remains of seven great steamboats (Fig. 2). In this manner the conclusions from the night before could be checked in the field the next day. Any disagreements or new ideas were debated while standing within the holds or on the decks of various ships, and a few missing measure- ments were obtained as well. We also spent many hours at the Dawson City Museum Archives. While the abandonment paper was the primary objective for Phase One, a wonderful and unexpected discovery occurred at West Dawson. For years the Survey and our collaborators in Western Canada and the United States have sought evidence of vessels that incorporated an advanced hull design with bustles or skegs as sometimes seen on the aprons (e.g. raked sterns) of American western river steamboats. One known example is Montana on the Missouri River, documented by Corbin and Bradford in 2008. During our 2011 work at West Dawson, we removed the Montana. While the forward parts of FACING PAGE debris from the stern of the open hull Victorian were salvaged extensively FIG 1 of Victorian, to reveal three recessed after abandonment, the stern frames Location map for the Yukon. elliptical “apron pockets” forward and planking, the bustles, and the 2011 (J. Pollack). of the rudder stocks, protecting the associated rudders, tillers, transom leading edges of the three balanced and false transom are intact and in ABOVE rudders (Fig. 3). This stern design situ. The scribed layout marks of the FIG 2 is also referred to as a “bustle.” shipwrights are still clearly discernible The collapsed superstructures Victorian was built by Mississippi on the frames of the false transom. of Schwatka, Seattle No. 3, and Julia B in the old shipyard pilot and shipbuilder John H. Todd This discovery will allow for a case at West Dawson. 2011 at Esquimalt, British Columbia in study of the migration of shipbuilding (R. Woodward). 1898. Not only is its bustle stern technology from the Midwestern FIG 3 unique in Canada, it is a more complex USA, onto the Missouri River, north Robyn Woodward and the and sophisticated design than the to Saskatchewan, and finally to British bustle stern of Victorian. 2011 structures described on the stern of Columbia and the Yukon, by the Todd (J. Pollack). 37 Yukon River—Canada family of captains and shipbuilders ration revealed two additional solid who were also involved in the keelsons. The 1.23 m long forged iron construction of Montana. Research tillers are largely intact and the circular into the history of the Todds and their rudder posts, bearings and forged Canadian-built vessels is ongoing. linkage arms remain affixed to the The second phase of the 2011 field transom. We were unable to determine work involved a 100 km riverboat trip whether this was a three- or four- out of Carmacks to place a six-person rudder system due to ice damage. All team in a wilderness camp below of the other machinery components Rink Rapids-a major hazard between from this vessel including the engines, Whitehorse and Dawson City and the boiler(s), paddlewheel shaft, capstan scene of numerous steamboat wrecks. and fittings, are missing. A large scatter Sean Adams, Doug Davidge, Donnie of siding planks and debris from the Reid, Robyn Woodward and John upper decks was found on the steep Pollack accompanied Tim Dowd of riverbank above the band of willows the Yukon Government to this famous that borders the side channel. navigational obstacle. We quickly The next day the team located a located the second hull of Casca (it terrestrial site 1.5 km upstream of had been rebuilt and rehulled before Casca II on the western shore of the being lost at Rink Rapids). river where abandoned ship compo- The wreck ofCasca is a foreshore nents attest to a major salvage effort of site in a side channel on the western a second vessel tentatively identified FIG 4 Robyn Woodward shore of the river below Rink Rapids. as Dawson (Fig. 5). The hull of this excavating the stern Overall length of the visible hull vessel has not been located and may of Casca. 2011 (D. Reid). remains was 49.64 m, with the bow lie submerged in fast-moving water facing south into the current. The immediately offshore of the salvage FIG 5 Dawson prior to wrecking at superstructure is entirely missing site. The salvage site itself is a scatter Rink Rapids fall 1926. (Yukon and the majority of the deck beams of 63 artifacts comprising mainly iron Archives 5195 HC Barley and main deck planking have been steam pipe located on the western side fonds ca 1901). destroyed or heavily damaged by river of the rapids. A dugway or horse trail ice. The port side of the vessel has cut through the riverbank suggests been destroyed by ice above the turn the salvaged material was moved onto of the bilge; however the floors and land, sorted, and then moved either up lower hull sheathing are intact and or down river to a more protected site submerged in up to 1 m of water. The where it could be loaded onto barges. majority of the extant hull is buried The salvaged artifact scatter under gravel and cobbles, except for included 33 sections of 5.0 to 7.5 cm the port side lower hull planking and diameter steam pipe, a large section of floors which are located below water. double-riveted boiler shell, a hog chain The portion of the starboard side of plate, and a 3.04 m long by 0.74 m the hull that is on the shore is covered diameter steam drum associated with by small willow trees up to 2.5 m tall. the boiler (Fig. 6). We also found a Moving inland from the shore massive 1.06 m long horned cleat still we encountered the starboard, solid attached to a small section of deck longitudinal bulkheads as the hull beams and main hull planking. Addi- is progressively more intact and tionally the team located fragments three-dimensional. Deck beams and of galvanized iron hull sheathing, a deck planking are in situ toward the section of a high-pressure engine or starboard stern section of the vessel steering cylinder, a clamp assembly for (Fig. 4). The engine cylinders were a boiler clean-out hatch, and miscel- supported by trusses and held in laneous wooden debris including a tension by tie rods. A 6.1 m width of 2.20 by 0.59 m portion of a cylinder beam is preserved, and further explo- timber supporting what appears to be

The INA Annual 2011 38 an engine bed. The fragmentary nature Arriving at the site, we found of some of the large machinery and a conditions had changed from 2010. dynamite box found near the remains High water, fast current, and a large of a landing stage (?) suggests explo- accumulation of wood debris and silt sives may have been used in the 1926- now covered the wreck site. The debris 27 late salvage effort. An assessment accumulation was due to increased report of the salvage site including a beaver activity and the expansion of a GPS map and a photographic inven- beaver lodge immediately downstream tory with measurements of all debris of the site. This obstacle has acted as has been prepared for the Government an efficient trap for logs and floating of Yukon. debris. While most of the team combed A single diver was put into the water the shore mapping the debris field, and he found the wreck buried under Doug Davidge ran a side-scan traverse debris and mud. Visibility was 30 cm through the shallow eddy immediately or less, with swift water and a log jam offshore of the salvage site. No evi- consisting of sharp, protruding beaver- dence of a hull was found. We did not cut logs (Fig. 8). This combination put a diver into the eddy due to the of factors made the site unworkable, unseasonably high water, the proxim- and all further efforts were cancelled. ity of the rapids, and low visibility. Doug Davidge did side scan the main Any hull in this proximity to the channel and the slough with a Hum- rapids would have been buried quickly mingbird 1197. He located a 5 m long by gravel such that only the tops of the rectangular target and scour hole, uppermost timbers and some tie rods mid-channel and immediately off the might still be visible. In such a situ- campsite on the eastern riverbank. ation a downstream scour would be Likely, the mid-channel current will prohibit any diving on this target. FIG 6 expected, but no such scour was seen Boiler steam drum from on the scans. With our Phase 3 plan deemed Dawson. 2011 (D. Reid). The third phase of the 2011 project impossible, a disillusioned team returned to camp, and after a solid FIG 7 involved the same team moving 75 km October 1906 aftermath of upriver to the site of Columbian for bean and steak dinner around the the explosion and fire on what was anticipated as the major field campfire we shared our diminished Columbian (Yukon Archives, component of the season. This famous appreciation for our national symbol– Muirhead Collection). shipwreck occurred in 1906 upstream the beaver. Yet again we had been of Carmacks, when three tons of blast- reminded that nautical archaeology in ing powder were ignited on the bow of northern Canada, no matter how well the vessel en route to a mine, result- planned, was subject to the vagaries of ing in a number of fatalities. Heroic a short season, an ever-changing cli- actions by the captain, engineer and mate, unpredictable river conditions, crew prevented a larger loss of life and in this case—overly industrious (Fig. 7). wildlife. The hull was located by an INA The best strategy for theColumbian team in August 2010, after several site will be patience. The mass of earlier attempts. At the time of the debris now covering the wreckage may original find, the lower hull lay at the naturally clean itself out during the head of a side channel in less than 2012 and 2013 spring floods. We can a meter of low-velocity water. We reassess the site in the fall of 2012 and expected similar conditions in 2011, make a decision at that time about and the research objectives were to organizing a second attempt to map prepare a complete total station map and document this famous wreck of the remains of the hull, and search and its associated debris fields, in late for and map any debris fields at the September 2013. grounding and salvage sites.

39 Yukon River—Canada Outreach and Fleets. The chapter describes the his- Publication tory of the Gold Rush, the influence Two important developments have of railroads in the drainage, the policy occurred related to outreach efforts and competitive factors involved in for this project. Dr. Robyn Woodward the decline of the fleet after 1900, and has been awarded the McCann- a numerical analysis of both the size Taggart Distinguished Lectureship and origins of the fleet and the nature for 2012-13. This endowed lectureship of the losses suffered on the river and is sponsored by the Archaeological during transit to the drainage. The Institute of America (AIA) and is manuscript has been accepted and the entirely dedicated to underwater book is scheduled for publication in archaeology. Robyn will be speaking late 2012. about INA’s Yukon project in late Pollack, Woodward and Davidge October 2012 at six AIA societies produced a second and expanded across the United States. Her stipends revision of the illustrated catalogue will be donated to INA-124 in support entitled A Catalogue of Historic Stern of the project and announcements of Wheel Steamboat Wrecks and Hulks in the lecture dates and venues will be the Yukon. This report is a site manage- featured on the INA website. ment tool directed toward archaeolo- John Pollack was elected to the Col- gists and managers of the Government lege of Fellows of the Royal Canadian of Yukon. The manuscript contains the Geographical Society (RCGS). He specifications, operational histories, is working with an allied council, the Borden Numbers, current status and Canadian Cooperative for Geographic publications associated with each of FIG 8 Education (CCGE) to establish class the 24 known sites. The unexpected log jam modules concerning the Klondike Finally Pollack completed the covering Columbian. 2011 mandatory annual permit (file) report (D. Reid). Gold Rush and steamboat archaeol- ogy for middle and high schools across to the Government of Yukon, on the Canada. Other participants include field work conducted under the 2011 Parks Canada and the other RCGS Class II permit. professionals and now that the project plan has recently been finalized, the The Future CCGE is soliciting donors and grants The year 2012, will be an outreach, for this large initiative. research and writing year focusing on Five reports and publications were the different styles and methods of written in 2011 for release in 2012. construction used on the Yukon River Lindsey Thomas’ substantial M.A. stern wheel steamboats. In the fall of thesis on A.J. Goddard was edited for 2012, we plan to examine possibilities publication in late March 2012. Addi- and, dependent upon the availability tionally a popular booklet entitled The of funding, to continue field work in Wreck of the A.J. Goddard: A Stern- 2013. wheeler from the Days of the Klondike Gold Rush was written by Thomas, The key phases will be: Davidge and Pollack also for release in ▶ Location and preliminary documen- March 2012. Both of these publication tation of the stern wheel steamboats efforts were funded by the Govern- Glendora and Mona, burned 27 March ment of Yukon. 1902 while frozen-in at Steamboat In 2011 Nathan Richards and Sami Slough opposite Dawson City. Seeb invited Pollack and Woodward to ▶ Conducting a detailed assessment of submit a chapter on the Yukon stern the complex stern of Victorian at West wheelers for the Springer book, The Dawson. Archaeology of Watercraft Abandon- ▶ Conducting a detailed assessment ment: Ships Graveyards and Forgotten of Columbian upstream of Carcross, The INA Annual 2011 40 water and debris conditions permit- C. Horrell and M. Damour, 94-102. ting. Austin, Texas. Pollack, J., R. Woodward, L. Thomas Acknowledgments and P. Helland. 2010. “Mapping We wish to thank the current and Hull Construction and Engineering past INA presidents, the INA Board on a Late 19th Century Yukon River of Directors, and faculty of the Texas Steamboat.” In 2010 ACUA Under- A&M University’s Nautical Archae- water Archaeology Proceedings, edited ology Program for their continued by C. Horrell and M. Damour, 173- support in 2011. 182. Amelia Island, Florida. Pollack, J., R. Woodward, N. Easton Selected References and C. Velazquez. 2009. “Ships Affleck, E.L. 2000.A Century of Pad- of the Yukon Gold Rush.” In 2009 dlewheelers in the Pacific Northwest, ACUA Underwater Archaeology the Yukon and Alaska. Vancouver: Proceedings, edited by E. Laanela Alexander Nicolls. and J. Moore, 287-298. Toronto, Corbin, A. and R.A. Rodgers. 2008. Ontario. The Steamboat Montana and the Thomas, L.H. Forthcoming. “The Opening of the West. Gainesville: A.J. Goddard: Reconstruction and University of Florida Press. Material Culture of a Klondike Davidge, D.A., J.C. Pollack, D. Reid, Gold Rush Sternwheeler.” Occasional L. Thomas, T. Dowd and J.P. Del- Papers in Archaeology No. 16. gado. 2010. “The Wreck of theA.J. Whitehorse: Government of Yukon, Goddard.” In 2010 ACUA Underwa- Department of Tourism and Culture. ter Archaeology Proceedings, edited by Thomas, L., D. Davidge and J. Pollack. C. Horrell and M. Damour, 183- Forthcoming. The Wreck of the A.J. 191. Amelia Island, Florida. Goddard: A Sternwheeler from the Easton, N.A. 1987. Yukon Underwater Days of the Klondike Gold Rush. Diving Association Heritage Resources Whitehorse: Government of Yukon, Inventory - Final Report. File report Department of Tourism and Culture. for the Government of Yukon. Waddell, P.J.A. 1979. “The 1978 Whitehorse: Government of Yukon, Yukon Marine Archaeology Survey.” Department of Tourism and Culture. Archaeological Research Division, MacBride, W.D. 1949. “List of File report for the National Historic sternwheelers worked on the Yukon Parks and Sites Branch, Parks River System.” Cariboo and North- Canada. Environment Canada, west Digest Winter 1948 and Spring Ottawa. 1949:94-115 . Pollack, J., R. Woodward and D. Davidge. 2012. “A Catalogue of Historic Stern Wheel Steamboat Wrecks and Hulks in the Yukon.” File report for the Government of Yukon. Whitehorse: Government of Yukon, Department of Tourism and Culture. Pollack, J., R. Woodward, C. Cartonelle and N. Kopp. 2011. “Mapping Hull Construction and Engineering on an Early 20th Century Yukon River Steamboat.” In 2011 ACUA Underwater Archaeology Proceedings, edited by

41 Yukon River—Canada THE SECOND EXCAVATION SEASON OF

AN EARLY 17TH-CENTURY COMPANY Warwick SHIP AT BERMUDA

Since 2008, the National Museum elected Commander and Governor of Bermuda (NMB), the Institute of of Bermuda and Mr. John Dutton, Nautical Archaeology (INA), and the the new bailiff for Warwick Tribe.2 Piotr Bojakowski, Ph.D. Center for Maritime Archaeology and Upon return, it was to collect colonial National Museum of Bermuda/INA Conservation (CMAC) at Texas A&M products, primarily sought-after Originally from Poland, Piotr is an INA University have been investigating the tobacco, for delivery to England. Research Associate and graduate of wreck of the English galleon Warwick. As a protégé of Sir Robert Rich, the Nautical Archaeology Program at Between 4 June and 22 July 2011, an Captain Butler had been promptly Texas A&M University. He specializes international team of archaeologists elected governor. He was sent to in early modern and Atlantic and students conducted a second season Bermuda to replace Captain Miles shipbuilding and ship archaeology, of excavation. Dr. Piotr Bojakowski hull reconstruction, maritime Kendall, who served as an interim history, and preservation of artifacts and Dr. Katie Custer were the project governor after the previous governor, recovered from underwater sites. directors and primary investigators, Daniel Tucker, lost credibility with the He has participated in surveys and while the project staff included Douglas major shareholders and had to depart excavations in the Mediterranean Inglis, assistant director; Michael for England. Although the elections and Northern Europe, North America, Gilbart, divemaster and safety officer; reflected a deep division between and Southeast Asia. Aside from visiting scholars Dr. Kevin Crisman; different factions within the Company, Warwick, he co-directs the Western Dr. Jonathan Adams; Dr. Kroum the vote was cast and His Majesty, Ledge Reef Wreck Project which was Batchvarov; as well as team members James I, confirmed Captain Butler as a focus of his doctoral dissertation. Daniel Scott, Maureen Merrigan, the third governor of Bermuda.3 Rodrigo Torres, Susana Vallejos, At the end of November, after Leah Crisman, James Davidson, re-provisioning and loading colonial Jason Paterniti, and numerous other goods into Warwick’s hold, a hurricane Bermudian, American, and European struck the island of Bermuda. Faced volunteers (Plate 12-p. 69). with a difficult choice, the ship’s Introduction captain gave an order to drop the anchors and secure the ship in Castle On 20 October 1619, Warwick Harbour. It was a desperate decision arrived at King’s Anchorage in Castle Katie Custer, Ph.D. with dire consequences. As the Harbour, Bermuda (Fig. 1). Unlike the INA hurricane hit, all the moorings gave less accessible St. George’s Harbour, way and the ferocious wind and waves Katie obtained her Ph.D. through Castle Harbour (previously known drove the helpless vessel into the cliffs the Nautical Archaeology as Southampton Harbour) was Program at Texas A&M University, surrounding the anchorage.4 considered a superior anchorage for specializing in early modern With the wreck of Warwick came Atlantic seafaring and shipbuilding large oceangoing ships in the early days of the settlement. The only opening in the loss of the chance to export that traditions, ship construction year’s crop of tobacco. Governor Butler and technology, and nautical the defenses formed by a chain of small was uncomfortably aware that the archaeological methods and theory. rocky islands and reinforced by a system Katie is co-director of the Western of redoubts and forts was Castle Roads, owner of the ship, the Earl of Warwick, Ledge Reef Wreck Project and the a channel to the southeast by which and the Lords Adventurers of the Warwick Project. There have been vessels entered and left the bay.1 Company would be disappointed three field seasons of the Warwick The ship was a proud possession of with this turn of events; hence, he Project including a survey in 2008 Sir Robert Rich, the second Earl of made a decision to outfit another and full scale excavations in 2010 Warwick, who was a major ship-owner, ship, Garland, in place of the wrecked and 2011. statesman, privateer, and investor in the Warwick. Garland sailed for England Virginia and Somers Islands Companies with the tobacco and news of the Michael Gilbart Texas A&M University disaster.5 Douglas Inglis Texas A&M University (Fig. 2 ). In addition to passengers and Maureen Merrigan cargo, Warwick’s mission was to deliver Aside from the limited salvage Texas A&M University Captain Nathaniel Butler, the newly attempts during the first few years after

The INA Annual 2011 42 the wrecking, which included rais- ing several cannons and barrels with provision, interest in Warwick was short lived. The ship could not offer the financial rewards to make a more intense recovery viable. From the point of view of Bermudians, the salvage of Warwick was no match for that of the Spanish ships of the Carrera de Indias which occasionally foundered upon the islands’ treacherous reefs. The lack of contemporary interest in the shipwreck and the favorable environmental conditions for timber and artifact preservation produced a unique situation whereas Warwick is one of the largest and most complete English shipwrecks of the early 17th century. Such characteristics together with strong historical merit were also the primary factors driving the archaeological team to continue this project. Summary of the Hull Structure Warwick is preserved from the turn of the bilge, where the hull broke in half, framing elements did not appear to be to just above the first deck. The 2011 fastened to each other. The internal excavations uncovered approximately planking consisted of six common ceil- a 5 m x 5 m portion coinciding with ing planks arranged in an alternating the amidship (Fig. 3). The shipwreck pattern with three stringers and a shelf structure was covered by a thick layer clamp. The stringers were noticeably of sand and silt, as well as an undis- more robust than the ceiling planks. turbed pile of stratified ballast. The top The external planking was composed layer of ballast included large irreg- of three distinct layers separated by ularly-shaped blocks of dolerite that tightly compacted caulking material. were quarried somewhere in the area The innermost layer of planking had of Newcastle, England. Beneath these two significantly narrower and thicker FIG 1 Location of the Warwick larger stones was a mixed layer of small strakes which have been identified as wreck site in Castle Harbour, to medium dolerite rocks, while the the ship’s first and second wale. The Bermuda. October 2011 bottom-most layer consisted of highly second layer of structural planking, (P. Bojakowski and K. Custer). compacted river pebbles mixed with referred to as doubling, was only vis- FIG 2 gray clay-like bilge sludge. ible near the stern of the wreck. The Portrait of Sir Robert Rich, Warwick’s visible framing exposed doubling was protected by a third layer second Earl of Warwick in 2011 included the extremities of sacrificial wooden sheathing. (National Maritime Museum, London). of the floor timbers (wrungheads), Excavation also revealed an intact first futtocks, and third futtocks; the portion of the deck. Observations of second futtocks were covered by nearly the position and arrangement of the undamaged ceiling planks (Fig. 4). shelf clamp, knees, and beams suggest With the exception of two frames they supported the first (or orlop) deck horizontally fastened with treenails, (Fig. 5). The lower remains of gunports the timbers overlapped loosely and the were still discernible, and this deck

43 Warwick-Bermuda FROM TOP

FIG 3 Site plan based on work carried out during the 2010 and 2011 field season. October 2011 (P. Bojakowski and K. Custer).

FIG 4 Rodrigo Torres recording preserved ceiling planks. July 2011 (J. Adams).

FIG 5 The arrangement of the lodging knees, beams, and deck planks. July 2011 (J. Adams).

FACING PAGE

FIG 6 Details of the Plain Scale: front and back sides. October 2011 (P. Bojakowski).

The INA Annual 2011 44 would have most likely been the wooden ruler called a Plain Scale. It line of rhumbs, and a line of leagues. vessel’s gundeck.6 A thick L-shaped was discovered in 2010, the first year These could be used by a navigator waterway (which functioned as a of excavation. The scale was wedged with dividers to determine how far a gutter) was fastened to the hull with between the hull planking and one ship had sailed in leagues, as well as treenails and iron bolts and covered of the frames, protecting it from wear the change in latitude and longitude with deck planks. Directly above the and degradation and preserving intri- of the ship. A Gunter scale, also called waterway there was a run of thick cate markings. Gunter rules, was a wooden scale with planking or spirketting finished with After soaking the scale in continu- lines of logarithms, such as the line filler boards. ous baths of de-ionized water for over of sines, the line of tangents, and the a year, more markings and numbers line of inverse sine. The Gunter rule Significant Artifacts appeared (Fig. 6). Although we might also contain the line of rhumbs, Aside from the single most important initially believed the artifact was a chords, and leagues on it, but the artifact, the ship itself, 492 artifact lots Gunter Scale, the newly revealed mark- main difference was the Gunter scale were recovered during the 2011 field ings matched those of a Plain Scale contained logarithms, while the Plain season. The assemblage of artifacts illustrated and described in Speculum scale did not. from now includes a unique Warwick Nauticum by John Aspley in 1624. Aspley wrote that the scale was navigational instrument called a Plain This treatise, printed only five years “in use with very few”7 before 1624. Scale, remains of the ship’s provi- afterWarwick sank in Castle Harbor, According to Waters, it became more sions, personal possessions including is one of the earliest writings about popular after 1624 because “it was a comb and pipe fragments, rigging a Plain Scale’s use in navigation and simpler than Gunter’s Scale and it elements, ordnance and small arms, astronomy. The markings on the back combined ease of manufacture and lead merchant weights, and even of the Plain Scale indicate the number of manipulation with cheapness.”8 Roman pottery. Samples of ballast, of miles to be sailed upon the eight The significance of the Plain Scale coal, and wooden hull elements were rhumbs of a quadrant in order to raise cannot be understated, as Aspley’s also collected for further analysis and or lower 1° of latitude, as well as the work is listed in two essential identification. Overall, the collection number of leagues to be sailed East- 17th-century navigational books; includes 38 samples of ballast rock, West along a latitude to meet those the first is Captain John Smith’s Sea brick fragments, coal, and other rocks; particular meridians. The scale uses the Grammar and the second is William 198 wooden artifacts and fragments; distance of 4.8 km (3 mi) per league London’s Catalogue of the Most 92 metal objects; 6 leather pieces; and 20 leagues per degree of latitude. Vendible Books, dated to 1627 78 ceramic sherds and glass pieces, as Plain scales and Gunter scales were and 1657, respectively. Plain Scales well as 80 organic, inorganic, or com- both navigational instruments used in continued to be used on ships until the posite artifacts. the 17th century. While both scales second half of the 18th century. Plain Scale had graduated markings on them, the Warwick’s scale was a very advanced The most remarkable and diagnostic markings were very different. The Plain instrument at the time and represents artifact recovered from Warwick is a scale contained a line of chords, a one of the earliest surviving examples; 45 Warwick-Bermuda it is possible more details might be recovered from Warwick a year after known as Arretine or Samian ware, revealed through continued cleaning the wrecking. Warwick is reputed to depending on origin. It was mass- and conservation, which are now have been employed as a magazine produced starting in the first century underway at Texas A&M University’s ship for the Virginia Company B.C.E. and continued to be popular Conservation Research Laboratory. based on historical mentions within in the Roman provinces through It is an artifact that represents the Bermuda archives. It has been the third century C.E.10 Frequently advancements in navigational widely assumed that this vessel was decorated with embossed figures instruments when navigational headed to Jamestown after bringing and lines; this pottery has a strong knowledge was spreading by great Governor Butler to Bermuda. It is chronology based on vessel shapes and leagues and bounds. curious, however, that there is not decorative patterns. Unfortunately, more evidence of cargo and supplies none of the sherds found on Warwick Organic Artifacts for Jamestown within the artifact during the 2011 season are diagnostic. In addition to the Plain Scale, record. The removal of provisions The terra sigillata sherds were mixed other wooden artifacts recovered and possibly cargo from Warwick in with the permanent ballast. Similar include comb fragments, treenails shortly after wrecking should not pieces of Roman ceramics were found and construction wedges, as well as have entirely erased all the evidence in the ballast by the Bermudian diver, fragments of cargo such as stoppers, of the myriad of supplies carried by a Edward B. Tucker during his salvage barrel parts (staves, head boards, and magazine ship to a fledgling colony work on Warwick in 1978-79. These hoops) and withies which were thin such as Jamestown. It is hoped that ceramics were identified in 1980 reeds that held the hoops in place the final season of excavation in 2012 by I. Noël Hume of the Colonial around the barrels. These wooden and the ensuing historical research will Williamsburg Foundation, as two artifacts represent standard shipping reveal more evidence of a potential pieces of Roman Terra Sigillata. In and storage containers (Fig. 7). cargo, cargo manifest, or the intended addition they raised two sherds of They were found in association final destination ofWarwick and its shell-tempered Romano-British with a variety of broken bones and occupants. earthenware and a fragment of a teeth. These have been tentatively potential Roman lead-glazed bottle identified by the authors as the Ceramics from St. Remy in France.11 It was butchered remains of either cows The ceramic assemblage includes Hume’s estimation that this material or pigs. It is possible that together highly deteriorated sherds of ordinary was incorporated by accident during the bones and barrel fragments redware, either glazed or unglazed, the process of dredging shingle ballast represent provisions stored in the stoneware, and pipe fragments. from the bottom of the Thames hold of the ship. Historical accounts Interestingly, a number of sherds have between the Tower of London and of the wreck inform us that most of been preliminarily identified by Adams the London Bridge based on the the readily accessible barrels of beer, as Roman terra sigillata (Fig. 8).9 This common presence of Roman ceramics provisions, and wooden boxes were is a type of fine red slipware, also in this area of the river and contained

The INA Annual 2011 46 FACING PAGE

FIG 7 A broken fragment of the barrel stave displaying a scribe-mark carved on its exterior face. October 2011 (P. Bojakowski). within the ballast of other shipwrecks, the edges were also found in 2011. THIS PAGE FROM LEFT 12 including Sea Venture. Although lead tingles were often used FIG 8 for repairs onboard a ship, there is no Example of a sherd identified evidence that these were used in such as Roman terra sigillata. Lead and Iron Artifacts October 2011 (P. Bojakowski). Three lead pan merchant weights a context on Warwick as they were were discovered on the site. Merchant found loose on the hull of the ship. FIG 9 To date no example of repairs have Lead merchant pan weight weights offer a unique insight into the stamped with three character of the voyage which brought been discovered which is consistent emblems: a Roman numeral Warwick to Bermuda. Although the with the working hypothesis that this “I” surmounted by a crown, assemblage is small, it represents an was a newly built ship when it sank. the sword of St. Paul, and the “angel and scales.” important mercantile collection. Iron artifacts include common ship’s October 2011 (P. Bojakowski). The lead weights bear the ciphers of hardware such as round bolts and English trade guilds, marks, and regal square nails, but also a beautifully stamps. They also tell a human story preserved c‑hainplate with a bolt about life and economic activities of on one end and an iron strop on the early 17th-century England and their other. In addition, the team raised an colonies. The smallest is stamped iron pintle and gudgeon assembly, a with three emblems: the sword of St. possible partial pommel or grip of a Paul, which was the mark of the city sword, and numerous other heavily of London; the “angels and scales,” concreted objects that have yet to be which was the mark of the Plumbers examined. Company; and a letter “I” surmounted by a crown, representing the English Ordnance King James I (reign 1603-1625) Warwick was particularly well armed (Fig. 9). The Plumbers Company based for a magazine ship. When it came to in London was responsible for the rest on its starboard side, loose shot extremely important task of detecting rolled across the deck and piled along false weights being used in the city and the frames (Fig. 10). In addition to for seven miles around. The Plumbers traditional round shot (i.e. cannon Company was stripped of these rights balls), the 2011 excavation revealed in 1599; however, they were re-instated that Warwick carried a wide variety of in 1611 eight years before the sinking fiendish ammunition used to damage of Warwick.13 rigging, kill sailors, and to puncture Long lead strips called tingles with the hull of a ship, including bar shot, regularly spaced nail impressions along expanding bar shot, and spiked shot.

47 Warwick-Bermuda both langrel and cross-bar shot were ineffective when fired directly against the hull of a ship, unless fired form a “very great” piece of ordnance.16 Most of Warwick’s ordnance was salvaged between 1620 and 1621. Bermuda’s governor ordered diving teams to recover cannons from the wreckage. In anticipation of the storm, the ship’s guns had been securely lashed to the deck. Working with their lungs and brute force alone, the 17th-century salvage divers were able raise eight guns. These were used to bolster Bermuda’s colonial defenses against the Spanish and other enemies of the King at Ft. Southampton.17 Working with the Philadelphia Maritime Museum, Edward B. Tucker, raised three more Round shot was used for long distance cannon in 1979. We are hopeful that engagement and creating holes in the some remain on the wreck site. side of a vessel. The others were used Close survey with a metal detector against the rigging and the crew. led to the recovery of small arms In the 17th century, expanding ammunition, including a quantity bar shot was referred to as “langrel of musket, pistol, and grape shot shot,” though in later centuries langrel of various calibers. A number of shot and “langrage” would come to lead powder-holder caps were also mean any shot used for tearing sails discovered; they were originally and rigging, particularly scrap metal associated with wooden powder enclosed in a canister or shoved down flasks (Fig. 11). Each flask would have the barrel of a gun. Langrel shot carried the measured amount of black FIG 10 initially described a type of bar shot powder required for a single shot. This Concretions piled between that expanded and spun wildly when arrangement saved a great deal of time the frames. July 2011 (J. Adams). fired, devastating both rigging and in reloading. Since a soldier would crew. Each end consisted of a metal normally carry 12 of them on his FIG 11 ball or hemisphere cast on a long bar. bandolier, they were referred to as the Lead powder-holder cap. 12 “apostles.” October 2011 (P. Bojakowski). The bars were linked with shackles so the shot would collapse when loaded and expand when discharged.14 Conclusion Spiked shot was referred to as The remains ofWarwick are one of “cross-bar shot” during the 17th the largest and most cohesive extant century. It consisted of an iron or sections of an early 17th-century lead ball cast around an iron spike English ship.18 The wreck is a prime which was sharpened and protruded example of the vessels that played a 15.24 cm (6 in) to 20.32 cm (8 in) fundamental role in supplying the from each side. Captain John Smith nascent English settlements in North (1627) notes that before firing, cross- America and perhaps other less reputed bar shot was “armed” by wrapping functions. Archaeological evidence oakum and canvas around the end suggests that Warwick was built in of each spike.15 Like langrel shot, it a traditional style at a vital time in was used against lines, masts, and English ship design and construction. sails as well as the exposed sailors. It has a unique place in both the history Manwayring (1644) notes that of shipbuilding and the social history

The INA Annual 2011 48 of Bermuda. The ship is an iconic I. Noël Hume of the Williamsburg representation of the many English Colonial Foundation to Dr. Richard business ventures that occurred on K. Page of the Philadelphia Maritime board vessels sailing between England, Museum. Dockyards: National Bermuda, and Jamestown, carrying Museum of Bermuda. colonists, supplies, and tobacco Manwayring, H. 1972. The Seaman’s between Europe and the New World. Dictionary, 1644. Menston: The As such, each season Warwick teaches Scholar Press. us more about the island’s history and Oswald, F. and T.D. Pryce. 1920. An the 17th-century Atlantic world. Introduction to the Study of Terra Sigillata Treated from a Chronological Acknowledgments Standpoint. London: Longmans, The authors would like to express their Green and Co. sincere gratitude for the support the Smith, J. 1968. A Sea Grammar, project has received from the National 1627. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Museum of Bermuda, Institute of Terrarum. Nautical Archaeology, and the Center Waters, D.W. 1958. The Art for Maritime Archaeology and of Navigation in England in Conservation. The project was also Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times: made possible in 2011 due to The Earl of Mountbatten of Burma. the outstanding contributions of New Haven: Yale University Press. Rosewood Tucker’s Point, the Perot Wingood, A. “Sea Venture. An Foundation, Tucker’s Point Dive Interim Report on an early 17th & Water Sports Centre, KPMG century shipwreck lost in 1609.” Bermuda, the Global Exploration The International Journal of Nautical and Oceanographic Society, Jason Archaeology. 11(4):333-347. Paterniti, Jason Carne and other individuals and businesses of Bermuda. Notes 1 Harris 1997, 45–82. 2 Bibliography Bernhard 1985; Craven 1937. 3 Aspley, J. 1977. Speculum Nauticum, Hallett 2007, 102–121. 4 a looking glasse for sea-men,1624. Hallett 2007, 126. 5 Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Ter- Hallett 2007, 125. 6 rarum. Jonathan Adams, pers. comm. 7 Bernhard, V. 1985, “Bermuda and Aspley 1977, 8. 8 Virginia in the seventeenth Century: Waters1958, 445. 9 A Comparative View.” Journal of Jonathan Adams, pers. comm. 10 Social History 19(1):60. Oswald and Pryce 1920, 9–12. 11 Craven, W.F. 1937 (July). “An Hume 1980, 2. 12 Introduction to the History Hume 1980, 2; Jonathan Adams, of Bermuda: III, The Plan of pers. comm. 13 Settlement.” William and Mary Q., Wingood 1982, 344 14 Second Series 17(3):339-340. Smith 1968, 67; Manwayring, 1972, Hallett, H., ed. 2007. Butler’s History 59. 15 of the Bermudas: A contemporary Smith 1968, 67. 16 account of Bermuda’s earliest Manwayring 1972, 31. 17 government, (by Nathaniel Butler). Hallett 2007, 131. 18 Bermuda: Bermuda Maritime Jonathan Adams, pers. comm. Museum Press. Harris, E.C. 1997. Bermuda Forts, 1612-1957. Bermuda: Bermuda Maritime Museum Press. Hume, I.N. 1980. Archived letter from

49 Warwick-Bermuda Nevis Shipwrecks PROJECT SOLEBAY Today, the tiny island of Nevis (less warships. Without alternative options than 93 km2/36 mi2) in the Lesser and fearing capture, Everett ordered Antilles seems insignificant and largely his crew ashore to Nevis as they set unknown in modern geopolitics. Solebay afire. After an hour of burning, Yet, this tranquil and picturesque the flames reached the 160 barrels of Chris Cartellone, M.A. Caribbean island produced gunpowder below deck and exploded. Texas A&M University/INA tremendous wealth from the sugar Despite Solebay’s loss, Hood’s fleet industry during the 17th through secured a tactical victory against the Chris is working in Nevis, West Indies, 19th centuries. Competition for these French. to test the waters for shipwrecks resources fueled imperial conflicts A British naval architect, Thomas using remote sensing technologies. between the British and French in Slade (who designed Admiral Nelson’s He holds degrees from Iowa State Nevis. 1805 during the same period), University in History and East Victory Carolina University in Maritime In October 1781, after Generals drafted plans forSolebay in 1760 Studies. Chris has extensive Washington and Rochambeau as part of the new Mermaid-class Cultural Resource Management defeated General Cornwallis’ army frigate. Built in 1763, by 1782 Solebay (CRM) experience participating at Yorktown, the French navy sailed had spent two decades undergoing in and directing all phases of south into the Caribbean. There, technological updates including investigations primarily on terrestrial French forces aggressively sought to the addition of copper-bottomed sites throughout the Midwestern exploit the conflict by seizing valuable sheathing and the partial substitution United States. Additionally, Chris has British sugar islands before the of carronades for long-guns. Only maritime experience on projects in cessation of hostilities. To this end, in such metal materials appear to have the United States, Bermuda, Canada, January 1782, dozens of French troop survived in the archaeological record. West Africa, and the Caribbean. transports and logistical vessels landed The absence of organics on this 7,000 soldiers on Nevis’ sister island site suggests that the hull has long of St. Kitts to assault and capture the since been destroyed, first from the British fortress at Brimstone Hill, explosion, and subsequently through escorted by 21 ships of the line. Upon the site formation processes that hearing the news, Rear Admiral Sir scattered the debris field and prevented

FACING PAGE FROM TOP Samuel Hood led 22 British warships deposition of timbers in sand. Despite from Antigua to relieve the besieged this archaeological loss, an exciting FIG 1 St. Kitts and Nevis islands. Among story can be told through the material Location of Nevis these vessels was a sixth-rate, 28-gun record. and Solebay. frigate, HMS Solebay. During the For five weeks in 2011, two Texas FIG 2 subsequent Battle of Frigate Bay, A&M University graduate students Archaeologist Lillian Azevedo wrecked off the southwest led a collaborative team of volunteer and Professor James Hewlett, Solebay Finger Lakes Community coast of Nevis. students and professors from San College, documenting During the fighting,Solebay acted Jose State University, Finger Lakes anchor (P. Diamond). as a repeater vessel, meaning she sailed Community College, and local FIG 3 out away from the line of battle, Nevisians to survey and document the Chris Cartellone and Justin assigned to passing signals from the proposed remains of HMS Solebay, Parkoff observing carronade flagship to the rest of the fleet. As the with the objective to study and (P. Diamond). British approached Nevis and rounded delineate the wreck and confirm the the southwest coast, they moved north vessel’s identity. Solebay represents to engage the French. Solebay’s mission an archaeological signature created required sailing dangerously close to as a product of the European wars. the coast to maintain a visible position. The project’s broader purpose was to During this task, Solebay grounded. initiate underwater archaeological As the British and French fought, shipwreck investigations on Nevis Captain Charles Holmes Everett’s crew (Fig. 1). worked to free Solebay. Soon, Solebay The Institute of Nautical attracted cannon fire from French Archaeology (INA) partially

The INA Annual 2011 50 funded the team and permitted use of a variety of INA equipment including underwater cameras, a magnetometer, and a differential Global Positioning System (GPS). With these tools, the team delineated the site and recorded artifacts using basic SCUBA equipment. Standard underwater archaeological recording techniques included direct measurements, bearing-distance measurements, circle searches, metal detecting, photography, and video recordings (Fig 2; Plate 13-p. 69). Archaeologists established a survey grid over the known site and used the magnetometer to locate a larger debris field. By the end of the field season, the team was fairly confident with the site delineation, despite having located only one anchor and six cannon. These included two carronades and four long guns. The site’s location in shallow water, averaging less than 8 m (25 ft), allowed for long dive times, up to two hours each. These ranged from two to three dives per day. Conditions at the site were fairly good, with clear visibility, though afternoon thermal heating often created an environment of underwater surges, clouded visibility, and sometimes a moderate current. Calm morning conditions generally proved ideal for meticulous measurements, notes, drawings, and photographs. The location is vulnerable to seasonal storms and Atlantic hurricanes that scour the seafloor. While the artifacts have provided shelter to some marine life, the site is largely devoid of coral. The hard volcanic substrate offers limited possibilities for buried deposition of cultural materials, as evidenced by the guns and iron ballast sitting proud of the bottom, though a few sandy pockets provide the opportunity for more extensive preservation (Fig. 3). For example, numerous copper tacks, which were easily found with simple

51 Nevis Shipwrecks—Caribbean hand fanning in these sandy pockets, were likely used to secure copper sheathing to the wooden hull. Despite the disarticulated site and dynamic environment, countless artifacts remain (Fig. 4). Notable among the remains were several amorphous encrusted artifacts that appear THIS PHOTO AND BELOW manmade. However, they would require

FIG 4 a&b intensive excavation and conservation Professor Marco Meniketti, to identify. Even then, many of these San Jose State University, may be unidentifiable metal or bleeds recording copper artifact (C. Cartellone). as the original materials likely have disintegrated leaving a hollow cavity. Therefore, after the team used a metal detector to verify the metallic nature of these concretions, attention was shifted to more productive efforts documenting recognizable materials, making optimum use of limited time and resources. The project attracted the attention of Brimstone Hill Fortress manager Mr. Cameron Gill. Today the fortress houses a museum on the grounds as a National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site. INA’s reputation preceded the team and encouraged Gill to support the research. Through the Brimstone Hill Society, the team received funding to recover and conserve close to 70 small diagnostic artifacts, all of copper or lead (Fig. 5; Plate 14-p. 69). Archaeologists selected these items based on their perceived diagnostic value and ease of conservation since any surviving iron is either heavily encrusted or only exists as a hollow cavity concretion. The initial plan of a strictly non- intrusive survey was altered by both adequate funding for recovery and conservation, and assurances of preservation and long-term stewardship by the Nevis Historical and Conservation Society (NHCS). Artifacts have been undergoing conservation at Texas A&M University’s Conservation Research FIG 5 Laboratory (CRL) in College Station, Justin Parkoff and John Schlagheck recovering Texas. Artifacts recovered include copper chain (C. Cartellone). copper tacks, nails, lead weights, a trigger guard likely from a sea service

The INA Annual 2011 52 musket, a lead gun apron, and musket finding another related debris field, Further Reading balls. Most of them have recently it is highly likely that other guns, Hubbard, V.K. 2011. “Lost and finished conservation and are ready for anchors, copper sheathing, and ballast Found: The Discovery of HMS the process of technical drawings and have been salvaged over time. The Solebay at Nevis.” Mariner’s Mirror analysis. Initial observations have noted remaining archaeological evidence 97(2):67. a few broad arrows stamped onto some reveals that Solebay’s crew adapted Hubbard, V.K. 1996. Swords, Ships, of the metal objects which confirms technology newer than when she and Sugar: History of Nevis to 1900. their British origin. was constructed, including copper Corvallis: Premiere Editions. Once conservation and analysis has sheathing and carronades. Cartellone, C., J. Parkoff, been completed, the artifacts will be Future research around Nevis should M. Meniketti, and L. Azevedo. returned for exhibit in the Alexander continue to locate and document “Nevis Shipwrecks: Project Solebay.” Hamilton Museum on the island of other vessels through surveys and local Online project journal. . The Museum of Underwater and artifact images will be provided for swivel guns. Project Solebay is an initial Archaeology, 2011. a second display at the fortress museum step toward the greater effort to reveal on St. Kitts. The two museums may a maritime history of Nevis based on agree to exchange materials for exhibit. underwater archaeology. This arrangement will work well for sharing Solebay’s story with a broader Acknowledgments audience. Project Solebay succeeded due to Additionally, the artifacts will receive generous support from a collaborative high-tech documentation through the group of institutions and individuals. use of a FaroArm 3D laser scanner, At Texas A&M University: the available through the Texas A&M Institute of Nautical Archaeology, University’s Center for Maritime the Center for Maritime Archaeology Archaeology and Conservation and Conservation, the Department (CMAC). This device produces of Anthropology, Professor Donny accurate digital 3D scans which can Hamilton, amd Justin Parkoff; be examined by anyone with access to basic PDF software. Once the Professor James Hewlett and his artifacts are returned to the NHCS, students at Finger Lakes Community these virtual models will complement College in New York, Professor Marco photographs. An online virtual Meniketti and his students at San museum exhibit will permit scholars Jose State University in California, and the general public to access artifact David Small at the University of details including precise measurements. Bristol, Lillian Azevedo at the A global audience that otherwise may University of Southampton, Adnams never have the opportunity to visit Southwold and the many unnamed Nevis or St. Kitts will be able to view folks with the Nevis Historical and the artifacts raised from this historic Conservation Society, Paul Diamond shipwreck. at the Nevis Maritime Archaeology Project Solebay has proven Group, Cameron Gill and the productive in a number of ways. The entire Brimstone Hill Society, Ellis material culture supports the identity Chaderton and his team at Scuba of the shipwreck as Solebay. The telling Safaris, Spencer Hanley and his of this vessel’s history provides a naval officers at the Nevis Air and Sea perspective from the lower echelon, Ports Authority, Envision Mapping, one that transcends the American T. Kurt Knoerl and the Museum Revolution and explores British and of Underwater Archaeology at the French imperial conflict involving University of Rhode Island. foreign colonial possessions with African slaves. While the potential for

53 Nevis Shipwrecks—Caribbean The City Point, Virginia Shipwreck Survey A REMOTE-SENSING AND PHOTOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION

As a river with one of the longest and historic wrecks could date to as early as Joshua A. Daniel, M.A. Institute for International Maritime richest histories in North America, the 1613. Research/INA James River has long been considered Due to the extensive history of an area of high archaeological and the area and the number of wrecks Joshua Daniel serves as a terrestrial historical importance. Centuries visible above the water surface, in and underwater archaeologist for of human habitation have left a rich 2011, I directed a remote-sensing Tidewater Atlantic Research. For over nine years he has participated archaeological record, both above and photographic survey of the tidal in terrestrial and underwater and below the water. Submerged flats east of City Point (Fig. 1). The archaeological projects abroad archaeological sites are threatened by fundamental goal of the City Point and in the United States along the human activities; both looting and Shipwreck Survey was to determine eastern seaboard and the Gulf coast. regular dredging of the ship channel the number of wrecks in the survey As an archaeologist with Tidewater presents threats to the preservation area and identify vessel types and dates, 1 Atlantic Research, he is responsible of the shipwrecks in the river. Among if possible. The diversity of wrecks in for the analysis of remote-sensing a list of threatened sites on the James this area provides a unique resource data, creating GIS projects, recording River, Kevin Foster, former head of the for archaeologists, and this survey is a archaeological sites using the Vulcan U.S. National Park Service Maritime starting point for future archival and Spatial Measurement System, and three-dimensional reconstructions Heritage Program, includes the docks archaeological research. using both Rhinoceros and AutoCAD. and anchorage at City Point, Virginia. Foster describes sidewheel ferries, Historical Background three-masted schooners, and at least Following the establishment of 2 one large wooden ship in the area. Jamestown in 1606, the area at Historical documents also suggest that the confluence of the James and a number of vessels were wrecked or Appomattox Rivers was colonized by abandoned in the vicinity as early as the the English in 1613 when Sir Thomas late-18th century, while undocumented Dale founded the settlement of

FIG 1 The location of the City Point Shipwreck Survey Project. (J. Daniel).

The INA Annual 2011 54 3 Bermuda Hundred. The settlement, complained that the ferry was not letter dated 7 August, Roane reports to 9 located on the James River immediately convenient and had fallen into disuse. Governor Randolph, “[a]t the port of north of the Appomattox, was named Perhaps this abandoned ferry is among City Point there has been about sixty- for the number of days Dale had spent the collection of shipwrecks in the tidal five vessels discharged their cargoes the 16 on the Bermuda Islands after being flats. last Quarter at that place.” 4 shipwrecked on Sea Venture. The Revolutionary War touched In June 1816, the first regular Colonists began to settle the area City Point only briefly. During the steamboat line servicing City Point 17 to the south of the Appomattox Virginia Campaign of 1781, British was created. It was during this period River shortly after the establishment forces under the command of Brigadier that City Point became an important of Bermuda Hundred. The southern General Benedict Arnold twice sailed trading station and with the rise of settlement was called Bermuda City, up the James River in an effort to steamboats, the location became one but was soon renamed Charles City control strategic locations in Virginia. of the original stops on the Norfolk- 18 in honor of Prince Charles (later On the first occasion, Arnold led a to-Richmond run. In 1818, the new Charles I) and became one of four mission from Westover to Richmond steamboat Norfolk began traveling principal cities when the colony was and American militia forced British between Norfolk and Richmond 5 19 divided into four corporations. The ships following the expedition to twice weekly. Norfolk overnighted 10 location, which would eventually retreat from the Appomattox River, at City Point on the trip upstream, become City Point, was selected firing on the British vessels as they and eventually became the primary 11 for several key reasons, including a passed City Point. vessel serving the James River in the defensible promontory, fertile soil, On the second occasion, 24 April 19th century. Other steamboats like and a deep anchorage in the James 1781, British forces used City Point Petersburg, Potomac, and Richmond River, a quality which eventually made as a landing for both supplies and connected City Point with port cities 12 City Point an important port. The men. After destroying thousands of in Washington D.C. and Virginia. initial settlers experienced numerous hogsheads of tobacco, a ship, and a City Point’s growth during this phase difficulties. They received little food number of vessels in the shipyard at of its history led to its incorporation 20 and clothing from the Virginia Petersburg, British forces marched to in 1826. Further development of Company, leading to such a sad state Osborn’s Landing, upriver from City City Point was fueled, in part, by the of affairs that by 1619 the settlement Point. There they captured two ships, arrival of the railroad, making this was reduced to only six decaying three brigantines, fives sloops, and two an important transit point for rail 6 houses. The early settlements in schooners. In addition, four ships, five and river-borne commerce. In 1838, this area were destroyed in the 1622 brigantines, and a number of other the first train linked City Point and 13 21 Powhatan Uprising. vessels were burned and sunk. Petersburg. An article from the 25 In 1635, the lands at City Point A 1787 letter from Christopher August 1827 edition of The Times were granted to Captain Francis Eppes. Roane describes City Point as a mentions the loss of several lighters Although no primary documentation rough and dangerous place. Roane at City Point, but this is the only exists, tradition suggests that he arrived complained that he expected his salary published announcement of pre-Civil with his brother in 1622 aboard to be at least 40 pounds more than War shipwrecks in this area that came Hopewell. Francis Eppes financed the previous year, “as the trouble and to light using searchable newspaper 14 22 passage for himself, his three sons, fatigue is greatly increast.” He goes on databases. and 30 servants to Virginia, where he to state that once in trouble, “it will be During the American Civil War, the received 34 headrights (land grants) too late to apply to a magistrate after James River played a vital role in both equaling 688 hectares (1,700 acres). we get our brains beate out or nock Union and Confederate strategic plans. By the time of his death in 1674, he over board. I can venture to say that In May 1862, Union Commander John owned 800 hectares (1,980 acres) on two-thirds of the people is as much Rogers of the ironclad Galena led a the south side of the James River and alarm’d at a parcel of drunken sailors force, including two other ironclads, 15 230 hectares (572 acres) on what is still as they wou’d be at so many devils.” Monitor and Naugatuck, along with 7 known today as Eppes Island. Describing the condition of the town the propeller-driven sloop of war In 1731, Bermuda Hundred was itself, Roane paints a picture of a bleak Wachusett, the gunboats Port Royal, established as an official tobacco and rough atmosphere with little more Maratanza, and Aroostook, and several 8 inspection station. The following year to offer than scant accommodations smaller vessels, up the James River with a ferry was established at City Point, for seamen, four houses and two rum the goal of forcing the Confederate 23 but by 1770 Richard Eppes, a great- shops. Still, numerous vessels offloaded capital of Richmond to surrender. great-grandson of Francis Eppes, their freight there in 1787, for in a After a very brief exchange of fire

55 City Point—USA 26 between the flotilla and Confederates for the supply of armies.” He went The bargeMajor-Gen. Meade and at City Point, Rogers continued on to report “[t]here was an average another vessel, J. C. Campbell, sank in upstream. On 15 May the fleet arrived of some 40 steam-boats of all sorts the explosion and a local newspaper at Drewry’s Bluff, where there was a including tugs, 75 sail vessels, and reported that a schooner was among 30 brisk exchange of fire. The Union force 100 barges daily in the James River, those vessels mentioned by McAlpine. was repelled by a battery and infantry engaged in the transportation of Several other vessels were reported in rifle pits, resulting in 12 killed and supplies, and plying between that river lost or sunk in the vicinity of City 27 15 wounded aboard Galena, and the and the Northern ports.” In addition Point. On 27 November 1864, USS fleet returned to City Point (Fig. 2). to mail and passenger service, these Greyhound exploded a few miles below For the next three months, a number ships brought cavalry and artillery Bermuda Hundred. A Confederate coal of small skirmishes took place at City horses, mules, ammunition, clothing, torpedo was blamed for the explosion, 31 Point. By 17 August, when the Union subsistence, and other supplies to but this was never definitively proven. fleet headed downstream to Fort City Point while taking spent horses Another vessel, the canal barge Oliver Monroe, the once-burgeoning port was and unserviceable equipment back to Little, was abandoned at City Point in left in ruins. City Point would not see Washington. August 1864, described as “rotten and 32 Union forces for another two years. An inviting target, the depot became worthless.” By the spring of 1864, Union the victim of what was later discovered Like the rest of the South, tidewater Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant’s to have been an act of Confederate Virginia’s economy following the war plan for a campaign against the sabotage (Fig. 3). On 10 August 1864, was devastated. The previously lucrative Confederate capital of Richmond Assistant Engineer C. L. McAlpine cotton trade was destroyed by four included the return of Union gunboats wrote: years of war, and the triangle of trade to the James River, along with forces We had an excitement here yesterday that existed between the northeast under Major General Benjamin F. at 11:25 a.m…. a Boat loaded United States, the South, and Europe 33 Butler. On 5 May 1864, General with tons of powder, shell and fixed was broken. In addition, import Butler occupied City Point and ammunition of all kinds was laying duties prevented the importation of Bermuda Hundred and a witness to the temporarily at the ordnance wharf, iron and machinery, delaying the use of destruction wrote: “Dr. Eppes’ house when from some unknown cause those materials to manufacture superior [Appomattox Manor]…was perforated an explosion took place, five boats iron steam-powered ships. Steamboat with scores of cannon-shot holes…. in the neighborhood were sunk or service was slow to revive due to the This cannonade had so effectually blown to atoms—180 feet of wharf numerous obstructions and sunken ventilated the house that there was but is entire extinct—440 ft. of our large vessels in the James River. Large-scale one weather-tight room in it….The warehouse was sent up over the bluffs. efforts to remove these navigational wharf at City Point had been burned… The offices built for the Q.M. and all hazards were not made until the 1870s and I found only the charred piles other buildings in the neighborhood and in 1871, John Sylvester was the only 24 remaining.” are blown to atoms. A perfect shower steamer making regular runs on the 34 On 18 June 1864, General Grant of shells in one direction, saddles and river. established his headquarters at City bridles in another. Muskets in another By 1910, the population of City Point, ordering Brigadier General &c &c Masses of Timber. Iron and Point was only 300, almost the same 35 Rufus Ingalls to begin construction of a debris of all kinds were thrown & as it had been before the Civil War. supply depot that would serve both the scattered within a circuit of a mile. Two years later, the E. I. DuPont de Army of the Potomac and the Army of The loss of life has of course been heavy. Nemours Company, attracted by the the James. Within only a few months, The Surgeons reported last night city’s deep port, rail connections, City Point was transformed from a 52 bodies found and about…100 and reliable water supply, purchased 28 town with only a few burned wharves injured. 728 hectares (1,800 acres) from the and warehouses to a port supplying Eppes family to build a dynamite 125,000 troops and 65,000 animals Subsequent reports identified the factory. With the onset of World with the capability of supplying barge Col. E. E. Kendrick as the source War I, operations shifted from the 25 upwards of 500,000 soldiers. It of the explosion. Kendrick reportedly production of dynamite to guncotton, quickly became the second largest city contained 20,000 to 30,000 rounds an ingredient in smokeless powder for in Virginia. General Ingalls described of artillery shells as well as 75,000 firearms. the depot at City Point as “one of to 100,000 rounds of small arms War demand prompted a massive the most convenient, commodious, ammunition and exploded while expansion of the DuPont facilities, 29 economical, and perfect ever provided being loaded with percussion shells. quickly exhausting the local labor pool.

The INA Annual 2011 56 FIG 2 USS Galena after the battle at Drewry’s Bluff showing damage sustained from Confederate batteries. 1862 (J. Gibson).

FIG 3 A photograph of the wharves at City Point after the explosion of the ord- nance barge. August 1865 (Library of Congress).

57 City Point—USA fleet of merchant ships that ultimately 37 numbered 2,247. The cessation of hostilities in 1918, decline in commerce, depression in shipbuilding, and technological advances made many of these ships 38 obsolete. In 1920 and 1921, most of these vessels were taken to Claremont, downstream from City Point on the James River, and attempts were made to auction off the fleet at a fraction of their construction costs. Ultimately, some of the ships made it as far upriver as City Point. A June 1920 issue of The American Marine Engineer notes the difficulties the EFC was having taking care of its ships, “Recently a number of these vessels were taken up the James River to City Point, Virginia, into fresh water, in order to protect the hulls from the destructive salt water borers. A number of these vessels are laid up at City Point, with merely a skeleton crew aboard to look after the property of the 39 government.” With its river, rail, and road connections, Hopewell continued to attract various businesses, including the chemical industry. Operations at the Tubize Artificial Silk Company and Allied Chemical continued 40 through the Great Depression. But the chemical industry at Hopewell did not come without a price. On 24 July 1975, Life Sciences Products voluntarily closed its doors after a By 1916, the population of City Point number of their employees exhibited FIG 4 had exploded to 40,000 to meet the symptoms indicating high exposure 41 Joshua Daniel adjusting the labor shortage, and in the same year the to the chemical kepone. Kepone, sonar record. August 2011 an insecticide, was developed in the (J. Broadwater). General Assembly approved a charter for the City of Hopewell, reportedly 1950s and patented in 1968 by Allied FIG 5 named for the ship that brought Chemical. Subsequent investigation 36 Dr. Broadwater monitoring Francis Eppes to the New World proved the chemical was being the navigation computer. . August 2011 (J. Daniel). City Point was annexed by Hopewell illegally dumped into the James in 1923. River. U.S. Environmental Protection Needing a larger commercial fleet Agency testing detected kepone in to export American goods and to the air 26 km (16 mi) away from the counteract losses from German U-boats Hopewell plant, in the river 64 km

in World War I, the government passed (40 mi) away,and in shellfish up to 42 the Shipping Act of 1916, creating 100 km (64 mi) away. The toxic spill the Emergency Fleet Corporation destroyed the James River’s commercial (EFC). The EFC would oversee the fishing and oyster industry. In 1988, construction and maintenance of a a fishing ban was lifted, although a fish

The INA Annual 2011 58 consumption advisory is still in effect due to the levels of kepone in river 43 sediments. In spite of this setback, the local economy of Hopewell and City Point continues to be supported by the military presence at Fort Lee and an active chemical industry. Survey and Analysis On 11 and 12 August 2011, a team of three archaeologists, including Dr. Gordon P. Watts, Jr., Dr. John Broadwater, and project director Joshua Daniel, conducted a remote- sensing investigation in the James River east of City Point, Virginia. The survey was carried out using a Klein 3900 445/900 kHz digital side scan sonar. Vessel positioning was maintained with a Trimble differential global positioning system used in conjunction with Hypack navigation software. A Geometrics G-858 magnetometer was recorded in the Hypack program along also mounted to the bow of the 7.3 m with photograph numbers for future FIG 6 survey vessel to supplement side scan reference (Fig. 5). A sonar mosaic with the sonar data. The sonar data were processed wrecks outlined (J. Daniel). The side scan sonar survey was with Chesapeake Technology’s conducted around high tide on the first SonarWiz. Analysis of the side scan day of operations. The original survey sonar data identified 42 wrecks near area was modified due to budgetary City Point that have been divided constraints and the presence of shoal into five classifications: ocean-going water both immediately north of an vessels (16 examples), combination unnamed island in the James River barges (15 examples), rectangular and south of Eppes Island. Survey barges or ferries (7 examples), vessels transects were maintained at 100 m, of unknown type (3 examples), except where wrecks and shallow water tugboats (1 example) (Fig. 6). All provided obstructions. The range scale 42 wrecks exposed on the river bottom of the side scan sonar was set to 125 m were outlined in that program and using low frequency, which provided approximate lengths and beams 100% coverage of the survey area. Once were measured. This process was the accessible area was completely complicated by wrecks that were covered, additional high-frequency moored adjacent to each other, side scan sonar data were acquired at blocking the acoustic signals sent by the a 50 m range scale over specific wreck side scan sonar and creating shadows sites, providing a more detailed, higher in the sonar record. Additional vessel resolution sonar record (Fig. 4). measurements were obtained from As the project continued the next high-resolution aerial photographs morning at low tide, when sonar provided by the U.S. Geological Survey. survey is impossible, exposed portions The 16 ocean-going vessels include of the wrecks were photographed wooden wrecks and an iron or steel to record and verify construction vessel that exhibit a wide array of features documented in the side scan dimensions, from 46.0 to 85.3 m sonar data. Survey vessel tracks were (151 to 280 ft) in length and 8.8 to

59 City Point—USA 15.2 m (29 to 50 ft) in beam. The iron FROM LEFT or steel vessel showed signs of partial salvage (Fig. 7). These vessels could FIG 7 A partially salvaged iron or represent any time period from English steel vessel. August 2011 colonization to the modern period. (J. Daniel). However, the dimensions and design FIG 8 characteristics of some of the vessels are A sonar image of a potential indicative of one particular time period EFC vessel. August 2011 in American history. The contracts for type of ocean-going vessel used since (J. Daniel). steamships built for the EFC during this area of the James River was first World War I outlined many specific settled by Europeans. details, including a length between The size and shape of some of the perpendiculars of 81.7 m (268 ft), a vessels located during the City Point beam of 14.0 m (46 ft), four water-tight Shipwreck Survey suggest they were wooden bulkheads, and diagonal iron barges used in the late 19th and early 44 straps (Fig. 8). The length and beam 20th centuries for bulk transport measurements of one of the City Point (Fig. 10). A 1916 report to the U.S. vessels match exactly those specified House of Representatives states in the contracts. Four bulkheads were that this type of barge was called a also identified in the sonar record, and “combination seagoing and inland photographs taken at low tide revealed barge,” because it was capable of diagonal straps between the outer hull handling the work of both types of 45 planking and the frames (Fig. 9). This vessel. Combination barges could is not to suggest that all of the wrecks run along the coast, but they could identified as ocean-going vessels were also operate in canals due to their built under EFC contracts, but it is a light draft and narrow beam. The possibility that some were produced report describes these barges as “about for that purpose. Other wrecks in the 200 feet long, 24 feet in beam, and tidal flat could represent ships, brigs, having from 12 to 16 foot sides and no brigantines, schooners, or any other masts or motive power of their own.

The INA Annual 2011 60 They can carry about 500,000 feet of by Tidewater Atlantic Research lumber or 900 tons of dead weight on archaeologists in 2009. These vessels FROM LEFT a 9-foot draft, but considerably more were resurveyed in 2011 and are FIG 9 when fully loaded to a 10 or 11 foot included among the 42 sonar targets. Diagonal iron straps located on 46 draft.” They provided a cheap means According to historical maps, this the potential EFC vessel. August of transportation, were built at a lower location was the site of the Civil War 2011 (J. Daniel). cost, could carry more on a lighter draft, ordnance wharf. Diver reconnaissance FIG 10 were cheaper to operate compared to identified rubber hose, galvanized pipe, A sonar image of an unknown other open-water vessels, and could run vessel, an ocean-going vessel, at and electrical wiring firmly associated least two combination barges, in both open water and in small creeks with each wreck, suggesting an early and a partially buried rectangu- and rivers. 20th century context. Two proved to lar barge. August 2011 (J. Daniel). Similar vessels were identified by be the remains of steamships while North Carolina archaeologists Richard the other was a tugboat. All had Lawrence and Mark Wilde-Ramsing been salvaged of any machinery and and subsequently studied by students were likely deposited after DuPont from East Carolina University in a abandoned their Hopewell operations ship graveyard near Elizabeth City, following World War I. North Carolina. That investigation revealed that the combination barges Conferences, ranged in length from 60.0 to 62.8 m (197 to 206 ft) with beams from 6.1 Publications, and to 6.7 m (20 to 22 ft). The combination Further Research barges at City Point exhibit similar The preliminary results of the 2011 measurements, construction features, City Point Shipwreck Survey were and hull shapes to those at Elizabeth presented at the Society for Historical City (Fig. 11). Archaeology annual meeting in Seeking proof of a possible Civil Baltimore, Maryland in the Maritime War association, three vessels along Heritage Research session. The the DuPont wharf on the west side of results of the survey have also been the shipping channel were investigated submitted for inclusion as a chapter 61 City Point—USA FIG 11 Diagonal ceiling planking on a combination barge. August 2011 (J. Daniel).

in The Archaeology of Watercraft and World War I. The end of each Abandonment: Ship Graveyards conflict resulted in a flood of unwanted 48 and Forgotten Fleets. Additional vessels. research for the 2012 season will be The goal of the 2011 City Point focused on archival investigations Shipwreck Survey was to identify the in Washington, D.C. and Norfolk, number of ships present in the James Virginia. Research at the National River near City Point. The side scan Archives will center on the Records sonar data revealed 42 shipwrecks. of the United States Maritime Beyond a mere inventory, the data Commission for details pertaining to provide a starting place for further the EFC and ship abandonment at archival and archaeological research. City Point. The Records of the Office These vessels reflect the development of of the Quartermaster General will also technologies created to meet particular be consulted for information about needs and requirements, and the vessels abandoned at City Point during remnants of cargoes could illuminate the Civil War. Historic maps and charts the nature of both local and regional will also be reviewed at the U.S. Army trade. The remains of these ships Corps of Engineers, Norfolk District. represent important elements of trade The final goal of the 2012 season will and transportation in the history of be to conduct limited, non-destructive City Point, tidewater Virginia, and the recording of selected wrecks accessible United States. above water at low tide. Works Cited Conclusions Arnold, B. 1932. “Arnold’s Expedition As part of the continuum of a rich and to Richmond, Virginia, 1781.” The varied maritime heritage, shipwrecks William and Mary Quarterly, 2nd in the James River have considerable series 12(3):187-190. historical and archaeological value. This Brown, A.C. 1942. The Steamboat ship graveyard presents an opportunity Pocahontas, 1893–1939. Newport to study an assortment of ships from News: Mariners’ Museum. varying time periods, however, initial Bullis, R.K. 2011. Images of America: field and historical research suggest that Hopewell and City Point. Charleston: most of these vessels were abandoned Arcadia Publishing. after two specific events: the Civil War Daily National Intelligencer. 1822.

The INA Annual 2011 62 No title. 21 November 1822. Kiernan, L.A. 1975. “Pesticide Plant The American Marine Engineer. 1920. Daily National Intelligencer. 1823a. No Closed by Illnesses.” The Washington “Atlantic Coast Notes.” 16(6): 20. title. 19 March 1823. Post, 13 August 1975. The Congress of the United Daily National Intelligencer. 1823b. No Library of Congress. 1864. “City Point, States. 1984. U.S. Shipping and title. 18 September 1823. Va. Wharves after the explosion of Shipbuilding: Trends and Policy Emmerson, J.C. 1947. The Steamboat ordnance barges on August 4, 1864.” Choices. Washington, DC: Comes to Norfolk Harbor: And a Log Selected Civil War photographs, Congressional Budget Office. of the First Ten Years. Ann Arbor: 1861–1865, compiled by Hirst D. The Sun. 1864. “The Army of the Edwards Brothers. Milhollen and Donald H. Mugridge. Potomac.” 12 August 1864. Ferris, T.E. 1917. Douglas Fir Ship: Library of Congress Prints and The New York Times. 1864. “The Specifications for the Construction of Photographs Online Collection. Explosion at City Point, Particulars a Standard Wood Steamship, Hull http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ of the Disaster—List of Casualties, Only for the United States Shipping cwp2003000551/PP/ &c.” 13 August 1864. Board, Emergency Fleet Corporation. Livermore, T.L. 1920. Days and Events: The Washington Post. 1975. “The Washington, DC: Emergency Fleet 1860–1866. Boston: Houghton Kepone Catastrophe.” 21 December Corporation. Mifflin Company. 1975. Foster, K.J. 1992. “Threatened James Office of Coast Survey. 1877. “James Tyler, L.G. 1900. The Cradle of the River Shipwreck and Historical River, Chart No. 3, from Sloop Republic: Jamestown and James River. Sites.” Historical Archaeology Point to City Point.” Historical Richmond: Whittet and Shepperson. 26(4):58-68. Map & Chart Collection. http:// United States House of Representa- Gibson, J. 1862. James River, Va. Effect historicalcharts.noaa.gov/ tives. 1916. Exempting Barges from of Confederate shot on Federal Ironclad jpgs/401C-8-1877.jpg, accessed 6 Compulsory Pilotage. Washington, Galena. Library of Congress Prints March 2012. DC. and Photographs Online Collection. Palmer, W.P., ed. 1884. Calendar United States Secretary of War. 1866. http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/ of Virginia State Papers and Other “Report of the Secretary of War.” cwp2003001323/PP/ Manuscripts from January 1, 1785, to Executive Documents, Printed by Hagemann, J. 1988. The Heritage of July 2, 1789. Vol. 4. Richmond: R.U. Order of the House of Representatives, Virginia: The Story of Place Names Derr. During the First Session of the in the Old Dominion. West Chester: Raleigh Register. 1811. No title. 28 June Thirty-Ninth Congress, 1865-1866. Schiffer Publishing. 1811. Washington, DC: United States Hopkins, F. 1994. “Emergency Fleet Ritchie, T. 1818. “Steamboat Notice.” House of Representatives. Corporation Ship Construction Richmond Enquirer 17 January 1818. ———. 1868. Vessels Bought, Sold, in World War I in the Pacific Schaff, M. 1990. “The Explosion at and Chartered by the United States. Northwest.” The Northern Mariner City Point.” In Secret Missions of the Washington, DC: U.S. House of 4(4):15-22. Civil War, edited by P. Van Doren Representatives. Horning, A.J. 2004. Cultural Stern, 230-35. New York: Bonanza Virginia Department of Health. Overview of City Point, Petersburg Books. 2012. “James River Basin.” Fish National Battlefield, Hopewell, Shomette, D.G. 1973. Shipwrecks of Consumption Advisories. http:// Virginia. Colonial Williamsburg the Civil War: The Encyclopedia of www.vdh.state.va.us/epidemiology/ Archaeological Reports. Union and Confederate Naval Losses. DEE/PublicHealthToxicology/ Williamsburg: The Colonial Washington, DC: Donic. Advisories/JamesRiver.htm. Williamsburg Foundation. ———. 1994. The Shipwrecks of Mallows Watts, G.P., Jr. 1998. “Historic Huggett, R.J. 1989. “Kepone and Bay: An Historic Overview. Crowns- Propertied Treatment Plan and the James River.” In Contaminated ville: Maryland Historical Trust. Geographic Information System for Marine Sediments: Assessment and Smith, L.S. 2010. “At the Crossroads: the James River Navigation Project.” Remediation, edited by J.P. Kennedy, Maritime Systems in Transition and Contract report. Washington, 417–24. Washington, DC: National the Elizabeth City Ships’ Graveyard, Tidewater Atlantic Research. Academy Press. North Carolina.” Master’s thesis, East Watts, G.P. Jr., D.W. Lewes and Kennedy, J.P., ed. 1906. Journals of Carolina University. J.B. Jones. 2010. “Archaeological the House of Burgesses of Virginia: Stanton, S.W. 1892. “The James River: Reconnaissance Investigation of 1770–1772. Richmond: The A Trip on this Historic Stream.” Underwater Cultural Resources Colonial Press. Seaboard: 475-477. Associated with Historic City Point,

63 City Point—USA 36 City of Hopewell, Virginia, Draft.” Watts et al. 2010, 54. 37 Contract report. Williamsburg: Hopkins 1994, 20. 38 William and Mary Center for Shomette 1994, 48. 39 Archaeological Research. The American Marine Engineer 1920, 30. 40 Notes Watts et al. 2010, 54. 1 41 Foster 1992, 58. Kiernan 1975, B1. 2 42 Foster 1992, 66. The Washington Post 1975, 106. 3 43 Tyler 1900, 130-1; Hagemann 1988, Huggett 1989, 417; Virginia 21; Horning 2004, 34-5. Department of Health 2012. 4 44 Tyler 1900, 130-1. The wreck ofSea Ferris 1917. 45 Ve nture was excavated by Jonathan United States House of Adams, who is involved in INA’s Representatives 1916, 20. 46 ongoing excavation of the Warwick. United States House of 5 Tyler 1900, 130. Representatives 1916, 20. 6 47 Horning 2004, 36. Smith 2010. 7 48 Horning 2004, 44-5. Richards and Seeb, in press. 8 Watts 1998, 21. 9 Kennedy 1906, 6. 10 Horning 2004, 85. 11 Watts et al. 2010, 16. 12 Arnold 1932, 187. 13 Arnold 1932, 188. 14 Palmer 1884, 247. 15 Palmer 1884, 247. 16 Palmer 1884, 329. 17 Emmerson 1947, 12. 18 Watts 1998, 37. 19 Ritchie 1818, 1. 20 Bullis 2011, 35. 21 Watts et al. 2010, 17. 22 The Times quoted in Watts et al. 2010, 17. 23 Watts et al. 2010, 21-5. 24 Livermore 1920, 337-8. 25 Horning 2004, 116-7. 26 United States Secretary of War 1866, 589. 27 United States Secretary of War 1866, 589. 28 Watts et al. 2010, 37-8 citing C. L. McAlpine to Wentz, letter, August 10, 1864, Record Group 92, Entry 1622, National Archives, Washington, D.C. 29 The New York Times 1864, 2. 30 The Sun 1864, 1. 31 Shomette 1973, 65–6. 32 United States Secretary of War 1868, 150. 33 The United States Congress 1984, 8. 34 Watts 1998, 48. 35 Horning 2004, 147; Watts et al. 2010, 52.

The INA Annual 2011 64 CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT

PLATE 1 Two divers check the lifting straps as another fills three lift bags with air in preparation for moving an enormous boulder from the crevice at the Bajo de la Campana site. Project director Mark Polzer captures the procedure on video. June 2011 (S.H. Snowden).

PLATE 2 Team members Staci Willis (left) and Laura White (right) paint a metric photography square that will be used to map small objects on the seabed. June 2011 (S.H. Snowden).

PLATE 3 Divers begin their ascent from the safety stop to the dive boat waiting on the surface after having completed another excavation dive on the site. July 2011 (S.H. Snowden).

PLATE 4 A young octopus, which the team nicknamed 'Coco,' peers out from the small dipper juglet in which it has taken up residence amid a jumble of pottery fragments in the crevice. July 2011 (S.H. Snowden).

PLATE 5 Close-up of a composite bronze and lead pan-balance weight raised early in the season from the deeper portion of the site. July 2011 (S.H. Snowden).

65 FROM FAR LEFT

PLATE 6 Michael Jones and Rebecca Ingram excavate the last in-situ plank of YK 11. November 2008 (Y. Aydoğdu).

PLATE 7 YK 14 during excavation. April 2007 (M. Jones).

The INA Annual 2011 66 ABOVE LEFT TO RIGHT

PLATE 8 Marilyn Cassedy and Orkan Köyağasıoğlu with Drum 1 (J. Littlefield ©INA).

PLATE 9 Six marble drums from the Kızılburun column wreck loaded safely on board 19 Mayıs, surrounded by most of the people who helped get them there (J. Littlefield ©INA).

LEFT

PLATE 10 The remaining Kızılburun marble column parts were delivered to the courtyard of INA’s Bodrum Research Center in June 2011 (M. Cassedy ©INA).

67 ABOVE

PLATE 11 Looking downstream from Eagle Rock toward the Columbian Slough. 2011 (R. Woodward)

FACING PAGE TOP RIGHT

PLATE 12 Anchored over the Warwick wreck site, Bermuda.

FACING PAGE BOTTOM LEFT TO RIGHT

PLATE 13 Recording a cannon, Project Solebay.

PLATE 14 Recovery of Solebay artifact.

The INA Annual 2011 68 69 TOP

PLATE 15 The Ertuğrul exhibit in Alanya, 16 May to 18 June 2012 (B. Lledó).

ABOVE FROM LEFT

PLATE 16 Student from Wakayama, Ms. Kaizu, removes concretions from an artifact (B. Lledó).

PLATE 17 The Ertuğrul cooking pot, considered the symbol of the shipwreck (B. Lledó).

The INA Annual 2011 70 PLATE 18 John Pollack (INA) setting up the total station in Duong Giang (R. Sasaki).

71 FROM TOP

PLATE 19 The 2011 Bạch Đằng Survey Team (R. Sasaki).

PLATE 20 Basket boats in varying shapes and sizes are common sights along the Vietnamese shoreline (C. Palmer).

PLATE 21 Grouping of round Vietnamese basket boats (C. Palmer).

The INA Annual 2011 72 Frigate Ertuğrul Project 2011

OVERVIEW During 2011 there was no excavation at the submerged site of the frigate Ertuğrul off the island of Oshima, Japan. Nevertheless, it was one of our busiest years since the beginning of the project in 2007. Our archaeological work focused on Berta Lledó University of Alicante Ph.D. Candidate/ laboratory work and research, both in Bodrum, Turkey and Kushimoto, Japan. INA Simultaneously, we continued to improve the contents of the Ertuğrul Traveling Exhibit, which started in Mersin in 2010 and was displayed for six weeks in Berta Lledó is a Spanish archaeolo- May and June 2011, in Alanya, (Plate 15-p. 70/71) one of Turkey’s most visited gist specialized in Islamic glass. She ancient landmarks, and later in October at the Osaka Maritime Museum in Japan started collaborating with INA in (Fig. 1). 1993 when George F. Bass asked for volunteers worldwide to help with the study of the Serçe Limanı Glass collection. Now she is a co-author on the final publication. Since that time she has lived in Bodrum and has participated in many INA projects in Turkey. At the moment, Berta is enrolled in a Ph.D. program and is the archaeologist of the Ertuğrul Project, an INA excavation of a Turkish shipwreck in Japan.

RIGHT

FIG 1 Ertuğrul exhibit in Osaka Maritime Museum (B. Lledó).

JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2011 Conservation in Kushimoto, Japan January and February 2011 were spent in the town of Kushimoto, where most of the artifacts from the excavation still remain. The Kushimoto municipality provided us with work space in the center of town, easily accessible by volunteers who came in the afternoons to help process the objects. We counted on the help of two permanent lab assistants, Mrs. Higashiji Yukari and Mr. Daisuke Torikai, who, besides working with the objects, acted as translators, allowing me to communicate with the rest of the volunteers at the lab. During the six weeks the lab was open to the general public, Mrs. Eiko Kubo, a senior citizen, came almost every day, as in previous years, contributing greatly not only to the mechanical cleaning of the artifacts, but also to our integration into the town’s traditions and dynamics (Fig. 2). The municipality often organized visits to the lab for people from other cities, such as Osaka, Wakayama and Tanabe, especially visits by regional education

73 Ertuğrul -Japan FIG 2 Kushimoto citizen Mrs. Kubo works in the lab cleaning Ertuğrul nails (B. Lledó).

council members or university artifact recovered from the wreck, students of history and archaeology especially searching for new sources (Fig. 3; Plate 16-p. 70). These visits of information. took place mostly on weekends, since most of the visitors, even when coming 16 May to 18 June from official offices, used their free 2011: Ertuğrul Traveling time to volunteer. During the week, local high-school students came with Exhibition in Alanya, teachers as part of their history classes, Turkey as has become a tradition since 2009. March through May was devoted to Mechanical cleaning of artifacts, such the preparation of displays for the as nails, bullets, lead fragments, glass Ertuğrul exhibit in Alanya. It was an and porcelain and dismembering small exciting challenge, especially because concretions and other tasks, were all of the exhibit’s location: Alanya’s accomplished thanks to the work of a medieval Kızılkule (Turkish for Red dozen volunteers (Fig. 4). Tower) (Fig. 5). At the end of February 2011 Kızılkule, a restored octagonal we closed our lab in Kushimoto tower built in the 13th century, is and returned to Turkey, where we part of the impressive medieval city continued library research, including walls of Alanya and it is situated at at the Tooze Library in Bodrum INA the end of the peninsula where the headquarters, studied the artifacts in citadel is located. It is in the center INA’s Nixon Griffis Conservation of the historic town’s walking paths Laboratory also in Bodrum, and and attracts hundreds of visitors concentrated on drawing and to temporary exhibits held in its photographing materials like porcelain overwhelming setting. and glass. It is the most prominent Our research focused on building landmark in this highly touristic up a database of information on each city. Its restoration is part of an The INA Annual 2011 74 THIS PAGE CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT

FIG 3 High school students came to the lab regularly with their history teachers (B. Lledó).

FIG 4 Lab assistant Ms. Yukari cleans some bullets covered in concretions (B. Lledó).

FIG 5 Kızılkule (Red Tower), part of the 13th-century Alanya city walls hosted the Ertuğrul Exhibit (B. Lledó). admirable program of historical and about the artifacts displayed. Seven archaeological work carried out over others were used to introduce the the last 20 years by the Municipality of project (one of them for children), Alanya. Recently added to the list of and the remaining 14 panels covered accomplishments is the restoration of the walls of the central cistern to the 13th-century dockyard adjacent to illustrate Ertuğrul’s voyage with first- the tower. person quotes from the sailors’ letters With the Kızılkule plans in hand, and diaries. I set to work on the design of display The Municipality of Alanya cases and information panels that sponsored the printing of a 50-page would also suit the architecture of color catalog of the exhibit and an this historic building. The octagonal eight-page activity book for children tower of Kızılkule is organized in five about the Ertuğrul shipwreck, floors. The exhibit hall, located on which was set in a special section the bottom floor, is dominated by a of the exhibit for young visitors. In central cistern, an octagonal vertical this space, children could watch an structure which would have provided animated video of the Ertuğrul story water in case of an enemy siege. The and complete a number of activities. surrounding open floor space is This was an especially popular area divided into eight lateral niches, which during school visits organized by the perfectly accommodated our themed Education and Cultural departments exhibits and provided a suitable areas of the local government. for video shows. The municipality also sponsored I created a set of 37 information the production of three short panels in Turkish to accompany the video programs shown in different Ertuğrul artifacts. Sixteen of the areas of the exhibit: “Underwater panels were placed over the horizontal Excavation of the Ertuğrul,” “Work display units specially built for the at the Ertuğrul Research Center, occasion, giving precise information Kushimoto, Japan,” and “The Story of

75 Ertuğrul -Japan Ertuğrul,” a narrated version of Tufan was made from a single strip of Turanlı’s children’s book, all of which copper formed into a cylinder and were prepared in Bodrum between joined to the bottom that was made March and April and are now available from a separate, circular piece of 1 online. copper. The two pieces of copper overlap and it is likely that a mixture July-Aug 2011: Nixon of heated powdered brass, zinc, and 2 Griffis Conservation lead called tenakar was used to join Laboratory, Bodrum, them. The joints were secured by the Turkey application of rivets every 4 cm. It In July and August, Ms. Andrea is likely this cooking pot was lined Azuar Toro, a senior student of the with tin, although none of the lining conservation and restoration program is preserved. Its approximate volume, at Valencia Polytechnic University in 198 liters, would provide 609 portions Spain, worked with Ertuğrul artifacts of 325 cc each—adequate rations for in the Nixon Griffis Conservation the Ertuğrul crew of 609 sailors. Laboratory, at INA’s Bodrum Research Ms. Toro’s second task was to Center (Fig. 6). Under the close work with a group of very delicate supervision of INA Bodrum Research porcelain fragments extracted in the Center laboratory staff, Ms. Toro’s lab from concretions that showed primary focus was key artifacts that a high content of iron oxide. The needed immediate attention due to white-decorated porcelain fragments their imminent return to Japan; in originated in Yokohama, and had dark October 2011, the Maritime Museum iron stains on their surfaces. Their of Osaka was to hold the first display careful cleaning was a painstaking in Japan of the Ertuğrul Traveling job since remains of fragile paint Exhibit. and gold highlights still remained One of Ms. Toro’s jobs was under the stains. Nevertheless, hours removing the last small concretions of determination was paid off by an from the large Ertuğrul cooking almost complete plate reconstructed cauldron and carefully checking from 12 fragments (Fig. 7). The few its surface to ensure that the state missing fragments will hopefully be of preservation was satisfactory. recovered in some of the concretions This impressive object, measuring still to be cleaned. Thus far, this plate approximately 80 cm in diameter, is the only example of Yokohama 47 cm in height, and weighing almost porcelain in the Ertuğrul collection 50 kg, is by far the largest artifact with partially preserved blue and gold 3 recovered from the wreck site. It has paint. become something more than a galley Also during her internship, utensil; it has become the symbol of Ms. Toro and I worked together to the collective effort and sacrifice that is make a replica of another popular epitomized by the Ertuğrul shipwreck piece in the collection—a small glass (Plate 17-p. 70). perfume bottle recovered from the Half visible on the seabed for more wreck—using silicon molding and than 120 years, this large cooking epoxy resin (Fig. 6). The replica will be vessel, together with its lid, was exhibited in both Turkish and Japanese preserved almost intact on the site. museums. Only one of the handles was not During the summer months, found in situ, having been removed working in parallel with the in the 1970s and safely exhibited in conservation, we redesigned the the Ertuğrul Museum in Kashino on exhibit panels for the display in the Oshima Island, Japan. Osaka Maritime Museum, adding The massive body of the cauldron updated English and Japanese text to

The INA Annual 2011 76 all of them. The Japanese translations related events were organized over were done in collaboration with the weekends and, according to museum Osaka Maritime Museum curators, records, visits increased by 20% over while the graphic work was prepared the course of the exhibition. in Bodrum (Fig. 8). TheErtuğrul Traveling Exhibit will By the end of September the be in Wakayama Prefectural Museum artifacts exhibited and conserved in September 2012. Negotiations with in Turkey were ready to travel back museums in Tokyo, Yokohama, and to Japan. The collection was freshly Kobe are ongoing since future exhibit inventoried, photographed, and dates for those museums have yet to be packed in preparation for the opening decided. of our first show of theErtuğrul The exhibit in Osaka gave us an Project Traveling Exhibit in the opportunity to do further laboratory fantastic Osaka Maritime Museum, work in Kushimoto at the end of 2011, Japan (Fig. 9). at minimal cost. It also allowed us to participate 4 Oct-6 Nov 2011: in the local cultural week (20-25 Ertuğrul Traveling October 2011) for which we were asked to prepare a small exhibit of the Exhibition in Osaka, project to share the importance of Japan underwater heritage and the role of Working closely for two weeks in local involvement in the project. a museum of this quality, with its As George F. Bass mentioned in FACING PAGE FROM TOP welcoming staff, was a wonderful a recent interview for Discover FIG 6 and unforgettable experience. The Magazine, “Every one of these Andrea Azuar Toro making a building itself is an amazing feat of shipwrecks we excavate is possibly silicone cast of the Ertuğrul 5 engineering and was the 2001 winner a site of terrible human tragedy.” perfume bottle (B. Lledó). of the Structural Special Award from Ertuğrul was one such site—most FIG 7 the United Kingdom’s Institution of importantly, a contemporary One of the Yokohama 4 Structural Engineers. A four-story archaeological site with special porcelain plates cleaned and reconstructed in Nixon circular structure provides open historical, social and humanitarian Griffis laboratory during the exhibit areas and permanent exhibit meaning to the people of both Turkey summer 2011 (B. Lledó). halls around a central open space and Japan. occupied by a full-size replica of the FIG 8 We should not forget that this Printing and preparing 30 m, 17th-century merchant ship, ship traveled 11 months to honor the the exhibition panels in Naniwa Maru, which appears to be Japanese Emperor on behalf of the Mahmut’s workshop in waiting for the wind to fill its open Ottoman Sultan. After 540 sailors Bodrum (B. Lledó). sails. lost their lives upon completing this FIG 9 The design of the museum gives mission, the Oshima Island fishing All the artifacts conserved the visitor a rare opportunity to see community took care of all 69 and exhibited in Turkey were packed and ready to go to Naniwa Maru from every possible survivors. These events have created a Osaka, Japan (B. Lledó). angle, even from above, for the deep bond between the two countries structure is a glass dome over the and instilled a sense of pride in the ABOVE sea, accessible only by an underwater people of both nations for their tunnel from the visitor’s center on land ancestors. After visiting the exhibit in FIG 10 (Fig. 10). Osaka, one Japanese visitor said she Osaka Maritime Museum. A glass dome over the sea, TheErtuğrul exhibit, titled for this felt touched and ‘as close as family’ to accessible by an underwater occasion, “Bringing Back Memories the Turkish people. tunnel from the visitor of the Frigate Ertuğrul, Bond between TheErtuğrul traveling exhibit center on land (B. Lledó). Japan and Turkey,” was located in a guest book has collected hundreds of large space reserved for temporary testimonials that will further help us exhibits (Figs. 11 & 12). Lectures and understand the impact of this public outreach. Through the four exhibitions

77 Ertuğrul -Japan FIG 11 The author positions artifacts in the display cases of the Osaka Maritime Museum (A. Turanlı).

FIG 12 Ertuğrul exhibit in Osaka Maritime Museum (B. Lledó).

The INA Annual 2011 78 held to date, the Ertuğrul shipwreck 2011, who still helps us as an advisor Notes 1 story has touched many of its visitors and consultant, as well as conservator Available on www.youtube.com as and has also demonstrated how Esra Altınanıt from INA’s Bodrum “An Ottoman Shipwrecking Japan: underwater archaeology can be used as Research Center, for her advice and The Ertugrul Frigate”. 2 a tool of cultural exchange and even to help with the conservation challenges A traditional mixture commonly used further international relations. we encounter. Also, we thank BOSAV, in copper work in Ottoman times and The following are statements a local Bodrum cultural foundation, even today. 3 collected by the Osaka Maritime for their support of the project in For details about this type of Museum visitor survey: Turke y. porcelain see Lledó and Turanlı 2009, My heartfelt thanks goes to 80-92, and Lledó 80-88. 4 “This exhibit was a very important Dr. George F. Bass, who first invited For details about the Osaka Maritime opportunity to re-discuss the partnership me to work with INA and has always Museum see the official website: between the two countries.” kindly supported my research and http://www.jikukan-ogbc.jp/english/ writing. index.html; for more about the “I am surprised that until now, there museum structure, see the builder’s has never been such an underwater Recommended website: http://arup.com/Projects/ excavation project even though Japan Reading Osaka_Maritime_Museum.aspx 5 is a country surrounded by the sea. I’m Apatay, C. 2004. Türk-Japon Ilişkileri Powell 2012. becoming interested in other remains of ve Ertuğrul Firkateyni’nin Öyküsü shipwrecks around Japan.” XIX. YY’dan bugüne. Istanbul. Ashdown Audsley, G. and J.L. Bowes. “We know about the friendly relations 1881. Keramic Art of Japan. London: between Turkey and Japan, but most Henry Sotheran & Co. Japanese don’t know why or how to build Eronat, C. 1995. Ertuğrul Süvarisi Ali strong bonds between the two countries. Bey'den Ayşe Hanım'a Mektuplar. Japanese have to pass knowledge of this İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları incident down to next generation.” Esenbel, S. and I. Chiharu. 2003. The rising sun and the Turkish Crescent. We hope that the Ertuğrul traveling New perspectives of the History of exhibit will continue fulfilling its Japanese Turkish relations. Istanbul: mission in the future, spreading Boğazıcı University Press knowledge and excitement to the Lledó, B and T. Turanlı. 2009. visitors. “The Frigate Ertuğrul. The 2008 Underwater Excavation Season.” The Acknowledgments INA Annual 2008:80-92 We extend our special thanks Lledó, B. 2010. “Ertuğrul: 2009 to the Kushimoto Municipality Highlights—A Campaign Full of and the people of Kushimoto for Surprises,” The INA Annual 2009: their unconditional support; the 80-88. Osaka Maritime Museum and its Nagatake, T. 2003. Classic Japanese staff, especially Fujimoto-san and porcelain: Imari and Kakiemon. Tanahashi-san, with whom we worked Tokyo: Kodansha International. closely in preparing the exhibit. We Nutki, S. 1911. Ertuğrul Firkateyni would also like to thank the Institute Faciası. Kültür Yayınları Tahri Dizisi of Nautical Archaeology and the staff no: 65. of INA’s Bodrum Research Center Powell, E.A. “Deep Underwater, in Turkey, Tuba Ekmekçi and Özlem George Bass Has Seen Pieces of the Doğan, and the personnel of INA’s Past.” Discover Magazine, June 2012. Nixon Griffis Laboratory in Bodrum Published online June 28, 2012: for their constant support and advice. http:// http://discovermagazine. We are most grateful to Kimberly com/2012/jun/07-interview-deep- Rash, Interim Head Conservator underwater-george-bass-pieces-past of the Griffis Laboratory, 2010 and

79 Ertuğrul -Japan ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY AT THE Bạch Đằng Historical Battlefield Introduction Finally, we interviewed local residents The Institute of Nautical Archaeology with hopes of obtaining information (INA) has been involved with regarding the possible position of Randall Sasaki, M.A. archaeological work at the sites along stakes, to have a better idea of the past Texas A&M University Ph.D. Candidate/ the Bạch Đằng River in Vietnam since landscape and to collect surviving INA 1 2008. This is the naval battlefield legends regarding the battle. This where the invading Mongol fleet report outlines the survey methods we Randall Sasaki is currently living in used, and discusses some of the results Japan and conducting research on was destroyed by Vietnamese forces we obtained from the data analysis. traditional East Asian shipbuilding in 1288. Legends tell us that the technology. His previous research Vietnamese General Trần Hưng includes the timber analysis at Đạo secretly set wooden stakes along Description of the Area Takashima Underwater Site, a the Bạch Đằng River and waited & Cartographic Survey Mongol invasion shipwreck site for the retreating Mongol fleet to The project area is located within a where Kublai Khan’s fleet was pass through the area. Relying on small portion of the Red River delta destroyed by a legendary typhoon the falling tide, General Hưng Đạo system that is dominated by the Bạch (Kamikaze). He has written articles trapped the enemy fleet with the Đằng River, and smaller Chanh River, and books in both Japanese and along with several other minor tribu- English; his book, The World-History wooden stakes and defeated the Based on Shipwrecks (Japanese), is world’s largest naval force at the time. taries, all of which flow into Ha Long the best selling title in the genre of Despite the historical significance of Bay (Figs. 1a & 1b). These rivers move Nautical Archaeology in that country. this event, no archaeological remains large volumes of sediment eastward from the battle have been recovered from the central highlands down to except wooden stakes scattered in the coastal plain where they are depos- the area where the battle took place. ited as broad, flat, low-lying landforms A series of INA field projects led by during the flooding associated with Randall Sasaki and Jun Kimura has the South Monsoon. Although most focused on the excavation of one of of the area we surveyed is on firm land the major stake fields at Dong Ma today, it was not so in the past. Seven Ngua (DMN) fish pond and the hundred years ago the region was an reconstruction of the battlefield. This estuary environment with islands and Jun Kimura, Ph.D. small and large streams. Adjunct Lecturer Flinders University/INA year’s project, which took place in late November 2011, is a continuation of Jun Kimura is a maritime the research at the Bạch Đằng River archaeologist and an Australian sites. The project was supported by Research Council Post-doctorate INA in cooperation with the Maritime Fellow. He completed a Master of Archaeology Program at Flinders FIG 1a Maritime Archaeology at Flinders Map of Vietnam University and the Institute of (R. Sasaki). University in South Australia in Archaeology at Hanoi. 2006. His Ph.D. was awarded in The 2011 survey had four major 2011. His expertise is East Asian shipbuilding traditions developed objectives. First, we completed a in the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, cartographic survey to define the and South China Sea. His interest research area. Second, we conducted also includes underwater cultural remote sensing surveys using a metal heritage management in Japan and detector, gradiometer, Ground protection and management of Penetrating Radar (GPR), and side Japanese shipwrecks in other Asia- scan sonar systems on both land and Pacific countries. water, including canals, fish ponds, and rivers. Third, we collected sediment cores for analysis; interpretations so far have shown excellent results.

The INA Annual 2011 80 FROM TOP

FIG 1b A navigational map near the research area with the box indicating the approximate extent of the site (U.S. Army Map of 1945).

FIG 2 A satellite image showing area surveyed in 2011 (J.B. Pelletier).

The survey area targeted in 2011 “Shipwreck Place” (mound). As such, on these findings, we presumed that was approximately 560 m by 1,000 m. the survey team considered there in these two target areas there would This area includes two smaller target to be a high likelihood of locating be an excellent opportunity to collect areas named Duong Giang and Dong ship remains on the site. The second reliable environmental data, find more Ma Ngua. The first target, Duong target, Dong Ma Ngua (DMN), stakes, and perhaps discover artifacts Giang, was identified as an area of is located south of Duong Giang. related to the battle. The survey area potential interest during the 2010 During the excavations in 2009 and was further partitioned into smaller survey when local residents reported 2010, 55 stakes were identified at a blocks (Fig. 2). These blocks included the existence of an area called fish pond in the DMN area. Based the agricultural fields adjacent to the

81 Bạch Đằng—Vietnam “shipwreck mound” at Duong Giang, survey measurements were taken from FIG 3 a field west of the Old Kanh River the various benchmarks, to accurately A cartographic map of the canal, Old Kanh River canal, east and locate features such as houses, roads, surveyed area (J. Pollack). west fields of DMN, the fish ponds at irrigation canals, power poles, and DMN, and east and west fields of Hai the GPR surveys and auger holes. Yen Ditch. Precise elevations were also obtained The objectives of the cartographic at each auger hole and a number of survey were to prepare an accurate other locations during the survey. A map of the study areas integrated combination of total station, GPS with remote sensing data and to leave and satellite imagery was used to a series of benchmarks for future delineate the general position of the work. The 2011 plane survey work waterways in the study area. Using was accomplished utilizing a Nikon the above mentioned strategies, an NPR-362 total station for precise accurate plan view of the 2011 study surveying, and a set of Garmin hand- areas was produced. The elevation held GPS units to provide tracks and control established over the site will locations of larger features within the be useful in interpreting these and study area (Fig. 3). The total station other data in our continuing analysis was used to run a transect consisting (Plate 18-p. 71). of 11 benchmarks from the 2011 datum to the 2010 datum at the fish Metal Detector Survey pond, approximately 660 m to the The VLF (5.5 kHz) metal detector south. Approximately 400 radial was utilized in both single and dual The INA Annual 2011 82 antenna configurations in the field including kaolin, and can precipitate Ground Penetrating east of Duong Giang. During the and deposit metallic minerals, such Radar (GPR) Survey initial calibration of the system, it as hematite, goethite, and other iron The GPR surveys were conducted became apparent that significant soil oxides. Weakly developed lateritic soil using a GSSI SIR 3000 GPR control anomalies were masking signals. These was recorded throughout the survey unit with a 400 MHz antenna. From anomalies were subsequently identified areas as minor horizons of red (iron the start of the survey, it became as undeveloped lateritic soil horizons oxide) stained soils or disseminated apparent that the radar was not or inclusions that unbalanced the masses within the soil structure. After generating favorable results. In order threshold setting of the metal detector, several attempts to balance or adjust to identify the cause, it was decided to rendering the detector blind. In this the sensitivity of the instrument, it create a test plot in which to determine region, lateritic soil develops during was determined that this was not an how well signals were propagating the wet season of the monsoon cycle appropriate technique for the regional through the ground. This involved when meteoric water leaches humic soils and that a multi-frequency digging a hole 60 cm deep and acid from upper soil horizons and machine should be tried in the future. 1 m long, and installing a 16 mm thick carries it down into the substrate, No further work was attempted with steel bar. The hole was then backfilled, where it attacks the parent bedrock the metal detector. slightly compacted and then traversed (in this case, limestone). Limestone with the GPR perpendicular to the bar weathers to several clay minerals in an attempt to image it effectively.

Unfortunately little to no reflections was demonstrated to be ineffective to from the steel bar at 60 cm depth were detect stakes or shipwreck remains in FIG 4 visible in the data, illustrating that this particular setting, it was decided GPR data (D. Ross). the frequency of the antenna being that a lower frequency antenna may be used was unlikely to be effective in the better suited to the conditions present detection of archaeological materials. at our site. We believe a low-frequency Many factors limited the effectiveness system will be useful for mapping of GPR within the paddy fields. Radar the old river system to determine signals (Fig. 4) were attenuated by where the battle was fought though the layers of aforementioned laterite unfortunately ineffective in detecting and the area’s silty clay soil while a archaeological remains such as the high water table and high salt content wooden stakes. The trade-off between limited signal penetration. depth of penetration and resolution As the use of a 400 MHz antenna in terms of radar frequency, is that 83 Bạch Đằng—Vietnam the lower the frequency, the deeper data by strong reflections and signal greatest potential for subsequent the penetration, and the higher the “ringing” throughout the profile. surveys. Although numerous frequency, the greater the resolution. Many anomalies were detected on anomalies were found in all fields, Typically low frequencies are used the bottom of the waterways, and just only a few selected anomalies will to detect geological features, such as below the mud surface. None were be discussed here. The survey was paleo-channels and bedrock. strong enough to indicate the remains operated in a manner that minimized During the 2011 survey, the GPR of a hull, but some could be consistent interference by random magnetic unit was also used over water as a basic with the possible reflection of a stake point sources. The data recorders sub-bottom profiler placed flat in the if it were sticking out of the mud were interfaced into a GPS system bottom of a boat (Fig. 5a & b). In (Fig. 6). Reflections detected beneath to ensure proper integration of order for a GPR signal to propagate the river bottom surface are unlikely to information while maintaining well, the water needs to be salt-free. be from organic remains, in as much sub-meter positioning. A Trimble In all sections surveyed, the GPR as mud and wood have little dielectric AG132 differential global positioning signal propagated through the water contrast in this particular environment system (DGPS) was used for better than expected. In areas of high and are therefore invisible to GPR. survey navigation. A Geometrics mineral deposit, however, little-to-no G858 magnetometer operated in penetration was observed. These Gradiometer Survey gradiometer mode was used to deposits were indicated in the GPR The gradiometer survey showed the determine the presence of magnetic

The INA Annual 2011 84 2 anomalies which might indicate Japan, and other shipwreck sites. The stake yards, shipwrecks and other first assumption is that large amounts features (Fig. 7). Data were analyzed of iron fastenings were likely used on with Golden Software’s Surfer 9.0, Chinese ships of the invasion fleet. and ESRI ArcView 9.3. Magnetic The iron nails from Chinese ships of perturbations of 3 nT or greater with that era could measure about 35 cm durations greater than 1 m were in length and have a 0.8–1.5 cm2 cataloged for further analysis. A total cross section, yielding a mass of iron of 116 magnetic perturbations were between 200 and 500 g per nail. Planks enumerated and reviewed. were fastened with larger nails driven Several criteria are typically used diagonally but overlapping planks were to evaluate anomalous magnetic nailed directly to the hull using smaller data to properly distinguish between nails, as seen in ships from Shinan 3 naturally occurring anomalies and Quanzhou. Larger nails that and those of potential cultural held the planks together were spaced significance. In order to assess and on average 15–20 cm apart. Using perhaps to identify the source of these data as a baseline, the weight of magnetic anomalies, it was decided iron needed to connect two planks to open small test pits (no larger than will be roughly 1.0–2.5 kg for a 1 m 2 m by 1 m) where strong anomalies section. In addition to this calculation, had been found. Three test pits (of corrosion levels must also be taken into no larger than 2 m by 2 m) in the consideration. A substantial loss due to east field of DMN were opened. corrosion is assumed during the seven Test pits 1 and 2 showed a slight centuries that have passed since the discoloration in the soil, perhaps battle, while the preservation status of from a concentrated mineral iron the iron nails would be dependent on deposit. Test pit 3 may have been environmental conditions and various an old grave; the soil appeared to other factors. The baseline of magnetic be a “fill” and whitish-gray sand deflection as summarized by Breiner FACING PAGE dominated the profile. Some organic can be used to project the amount remains were also found. Three test generated by a 20 m long vessel FIG 5a and b pits were also opened in the west field according to the depth at which it is GPR on a boat (R. Sasaki). of DMN (Fig. 8). These pits all had buried using the minimized value of FIG 6 4 rich organic top soil. A number of assumed iron remaining (100–500g). GPR data from waterway 19th-20th century ceramics and one The 100 nT to 400 nT (3 m to 4 m) survey (D. Ross). iron nail were found. These artifacts deflections would be recorded in the were detected no deeper than 50 cm field. If the vessel were less than 20 m ABOVE from the surface; perhaps they are long the anomalies would be of similar FIG 7 trash pits from the recent past. None amplitude and have a smaller duration. Douglas Inglis (INA) using of these test pits proved to be of the During the gradiometric survey gradiometer unit in the field period of the battle and all were thus of the east field of Duong Giang we (R. Sasaki). excluded from the list of anomalies. recorded 15 magnetic anomalies FIG 8 To identify the anomalies, a full (Table 1 and Fig. 9). Of these, twelve Test unit opened in the west excavation has to be designed in the are likely associated with modern field of DMN (R. Sasaki). near future. structures (power poles, buildings, In order to assess the potential irrigation ditches, graves, and modern identity of these magnetic anomalies, ferrous debris). There are two concrete assumptions had to be made pads (M5 and M11) from an earlier regarding the construction of the set of electrical transmission pylons ships, based on data collected located in the paddies, as well as five from contemporary Chinese ship modern concrete pylons (M1 through fragments belonging to the Mongol M4 and M8) that cross the fields. Fleet recovered from Takashima, The remaining three anomalies (M7,

85 Bạch Đằng—Vietnam Table 1 Anomalies from the East and West Fields of Duong Giang (M: Monopole, D: Dipole, and MC: Multi-Component)

Anomaly # Magnetic Duration Magnetic Fe Mass Fe Mass Fe Mass Fe Mass Fe Mass Notes Amplitude (nT) (m) Signature (Kg) at -1m (Kg) at -2m (Kg) at -3m (Kg) at -4m (Kg) at -5m

M24 25.0 6.0 MC 0.42 3.32 11.21 26.58 51.87 Complex 3 Loci M25 7.0 8.2 D 0.12 0.93 3.14 7.44 14.52 Possible Grave M26 8.0 8.0 D 0.13 1.06 3.59 8.51 16.60 Possible Graves

M10, and M13) have better potential iron mass will be larger than the of being archaeological remains such assumed value. Only M18 and M21 as sunken vessels based upon the appear to be closest to the proposed duration and amplitude of the signal. range for ancient hull remains. M7 is a 40 nT multi-component The west field of DMN had 24 perturbation spread out over 13 m magnetic perturbations (Table 2 and with the two primary magnetic centers Fig. 10). The majority (19) are arrayed of distortion (loci) spaced 2.5 m around the burial mound that appears apart. The theoretical ferrous mass at a to be a continuation of the burial depth of 2 m is approximately 5.32 kg. mound from the east field of DMN. FIG 9 5 nT contour line of the This is within the potential limits Two areas with anomalous magnetic east and west fields of for possible vessel components as responses require further description. Duong Giang. The east field explained above. Both M10 and M13 The first area is adjacent to the burial is marked by a white line (J.B. Pelletier). are dipolar perturbations within ranges mound and consists of anomalies M58 of potential hull components, and the to M62, which all have low amplitude contours seem to indicate the existence deflections, relatively short durations of a compact mass. Although M15 and simple magnetic signatures, and shows very little amplitude (3 nT), would normally be classified as graves. the anomaly appears to be a series of However, it is noted that all of the small scattered ferrous materials in a anomalies are neatly aligned east to somewhat rectangular shape, which west and are spaced 7 to 8 m apart. leaves open the possibility that it is of No other anomalies display this linear non-modern origin. nature with consistent spacing. The A total of 11 magnetic anomalies only other anomaly in the west field were recorded in the west field of of DMN that has characteristics that Duong Giang (See Table 1 and could possibly be associated with a Fig. 10), of which two are clearly buried vessel is M78 located in the associated with power lines (M16 and southwest corner. M78 has a 30 nT M17). The majority of the remaining gradient shift, 15 m duration, and a anomalies include five arranged relatively complex pattern of magnetic along the west margin of the old centers distributed within a somewhat Kanh River, which remains a canal, rectangular distribution. Both of and three along the wooded mound. these areas should be further surveyed Some of the recorded anomalies have to better define the extent of the durations or magnetic amplitudes that distortions and then test excavations are sufficient to represent a possible will need to be carried out to discern buried ship (M21, M26, and M27). the nature of these anomalies. However, it is more likely these may In addition to terrestrial survey, be associated with modern graves the gradiometer survey was conducted located throughout the mound to the over water on both the eastern and east. Overall, the anomalies in the west western sections of the ancient Kanh field, if associated with hull remains, River, as well as at the fish ponds should be buried at a depth of no more located at DMN. There were five than 3 m, because the hypothetical magnetic perturbations recorded in

The INA Annual 2011 86 Table 2 Anomalies from the West Field of Dong Ma Ngua (DMN); (M: Monopole, D: Dipole, and MC: Multi-Component)

Anomaly Magnetic Duration Magnetic Fe Mass Fe Mass Fe Mass Fe Mass Fe Mass Notes # Amplitude (nT) (m) Signature (Kg) at -1m (Kg) at -2m (Kg) at -3m (Kg) at -4m (Kg) at -5m

M63 12.0 2.7 D 0.20 1.60 5.38 12.76 24.90 Possible Grave M64 4.0 5.0 D 0.07 0.53 1.79 4.25 8.30 Possible Grave M65 12.0 5.0 D 0.20 1.60 5.38 12.76 24.90 Possible Grave M66 18.0 2.5 D 0.30 2.39 8.07 19.14 37.35 Possible Grave M67 25.0 4.0 M 0.13 0.51 1.14 2.03 3.16 Possible Grave M68 11.0 3.4 M 0.06 0.22 0.50 0.89 1.39 Possible Grave M69 9.0 4.8 D 0.15 1.20 4.04 9.57 18.67 Possible Grave M70 12.0 5.0 D 0.20 1.60 5.38 12.76 24.90 Possible Grave M71 18.0 4.0 D 0.30 2.39 8.07 19.14 37.35 Possible Grave M72 20.0 2.0 D 0.33 2.66 8.97 21.27 41.50 Isolated Unknown M73 10.0 4.3 D 0.17 1.33 4.49 10.63 20.75 Possible Grave Oriented E/W M74 14.0 8.5 D 0.23 1.86 6.28 14.89 29.05 Possible Grave M75 25.0 4.1 D 0.42 3.32 11.21 26.58 51.87 Possible Grave M76 12.0 6.0 D 0.20 1.60 5.38 12.76 24.90 Possible Grave M77 45.0 6.0 D 0.75 5.98 20.19 47.85 93.37 Possible Grave M78 30.0 15.0 MC 0.50 3.99 13.46 31.90 62.25 Circular Area Com- plex 3 Magnetic Loci. Unknown Domestic Scatter M79 17.0 8.0 D 0.28 2.26 7.63 18.08 35.27 Isolated Anomaly Unknown M80 8.0 4.8 D 0.13 1.06 3.59 8.51 16.60 Possible Grave M81 175.0 3.2 D 2.91 23.26 78.50 186.08 363.11 Possible Grave

the eastern section of the Old River no statistical meaning. This area may be Canal. Of the five anomalies, one is surveyed again when the research team clearly associated with the bridge and returns to the area. culvert located north of DMN; one is The survey at the DMN fish in association with a sunken bamboo ponds, partially excavated in 2009 boat (also identified during side scan and 2010, showed interesting results. sonar survey), and the remainder There are three magnetic disturbances appear to be domestic scatters. None recorded in the fish pond centered in of the recorded anomalies have the the approximate area of the recorded high magnetic amplitudes, complex stakes. The anomalies all have very signatures or long durations associated low amplitude shifts of 2 to 3 nT with potentially buried vessels. Only with simple magnetic signatures. FIG 10 1nT contour line of the west five transects were run on the western The magnetic gradient contours field of DMN (J.B. Pelletier). section of the Kanh River Canal. illustrate an area where the normally Unfortunately faulty cabling corrupted parallel contours appear chaotic. This the data collected during the three days pattern may be the result of the earlier we had to complete the survey of this excavations undertaken around the area. The anomalies here are distributed stakes, or a buildup of broken down along the margins of drainage ditches organic waste (dead shellfish and and the raised terrace. Given the minor plants) deposited around the stakes survey coverage for this large parcel, prior to their complete burial. All the the distribution of these anomalies has other magnetic perturbations recorded

87 Bạch Đằng—Vietnam in the pond and canals were associated Bạch Đằng River, a larger motorized with modern ferrous material found wooden boat was hired. Acoustic data around the margins of the ponds. The were reviewed for anomalies during magnetic response recorded in the collection, and reviewed again during DMN fish pond should be compared post-processing using Hypack® data to the response of other inundated review module and ESRI ArcView stake yards to determine if the chaotic 9.3 GIS software. These computer pattern is comparable, and can be used programs were used to assess the as a marker for future data analysis. duration, amplitude, and complexity of individual acoustic anomalies. The Side Scan Survey software was also used to plot anomaly FIG 11 A TriTech 450 kHz FM scanning positions within the project area in The side scan sonar chirp side scan sonar system was order to better understand their spatial survey conducted using a distribution and associations. traditional bamboo boat used to collect acoustic images of (J.B. Pelletier). the riverbed. A TriTech P60 GPS The side scan sonar survey of the provided the side scan navigation. Old Kanh River recorded an acoustic FIG 12 Positional accuracy of 1–2 m was anomaly that is clearly illustrative of A side scan image of a sunken bamboo boat achieved by surveying during clear a locally made small sunken bamboo (J.B. Pelletier). weather and minimizing the amount boat (Fig. 12). Later in the same of multi-pathing from overhead location, a magnetic anomaly (M29) obstructions. Navigation fixes were was detected. A survey along the Bạch imbedded with the acoustic data in Đằng River also recorded a buried tree real time, allowing sonar images to trunk and two geomorphic features. be geo-referenced and individual side The geomorphic features included a scan anomalies to be enumerated scoured channel and a gravelly area, and measured. The system was which appear as a series of small highly installed in a local bamboo boat, reflective points distributed over a which was operated by a tender with 6.5 x 10.0 m area. The only acoustic oars (Fig. 11). For the survey on the method used was a FM chirp side scan

The INA Annual 2011 88 Table 3 An Example of Soil Coring Data from Core #60

Coring at DMN Westerly direction - 60 Line (40 m, 40 m, 40 m & 30 m apart)

0–50 cm: Sand, Colour blackish grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sediment), no organic inclusions.

50–96 cm: Sand, Colour blackish-grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sedi- ment), no organic inclusions. Very waterlogged.

96–135 cm: Sand, Colour blackish grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sedi- ment), Shell Hash at 120–130 cm, few organic inclusions. Very waterlogged.

135–164 cm: Sand, Colour blackish grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sedi- ment), Shell Hash at 120–130 cm, few organic inclusions. Very waterlogged.

164–216 cm: Sand, Colour blackish-grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sedi- ment), lots more slightly bigger Shell Hash than previous core, few organic inclusions. Very waterlogged.

216–253 cm: Sand, Colour blackish-grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sedi- ment), less Shell Hash than previous core, few organic inclusions. Very waterlogged.

253–288 cm: Sand, Colour blackish grey (Hue 10 YR 3/1), tiny specks of Mica (shiny rock/sedi- ment), lots more slightly bigger Shell Hash than previous core, few organic inclusions. Very waterlogged. FIG 13 288–305 cm: Very fine/powdery brown grey clay. Lense of coarse light grey sand, no organics, Soil coring in operation less mica. (R. Sasaki).

305–354 cm: Fine, sticky, blackish grey sandy silt. Less Shell Hash, few plant organic inclusions, small lense of grey coarse sand.

354–388 cm: Fine, sticky, blackish grey sandy silt. Less Shell Hash, few plant organic inclusions, small lense of grey coarse sand. sonar, but this system worked very opened. The corings were aligned well to record small sunken vernacular either from north to south or from east watercraft, and lithology changes to west, set at intervals of 20 or 30 m, in the drainage canals and riverine depending on modern land-use and environs. As this was a trial run for boundaries. The results presented here this method, only a small portion of are the preliminary analysis by staff the area was surveyed. Nonetheless, from the Institute of Geology who are the side scan sonar proved to be useful currently conducting detailed analysis even in a narrow channel and running of the soil samples collected during the transects from a small watercraft. survey. The rice paddy field in front of Sediment Coring Duong Giang is regarded as the & Test Excavations floodplain of the ancient Kanh river. Hand-coring is useful for The line of auger holes extended west, understanding the channels of ancient crossing over the narrow irrigation rivers currently under reclaimed lands channel running from north to which serve as rice paddy fields. Two south. The soil profile in this area sets of augers, which extend to 5 m in was complex. Most of the profile length, were prepared by the Institute showed patterns of alternating sand of Archaeology and the Institute and silt layers with some clay mixed of Geology in Hanoi (Table 3 and in. It appears that the entire area Fig.13). A total of 61 auger holes were was a low level estuary or inter-tidal

89 Bạch Đằng—Vietnam zone, but was also dry ground at oyster shells, perhaps indicating a salt FIG 14 some time in the past. Small streams or brackish water environment. The Map of the fields at DMN may have run in some parts of the layer with small shell hash was present with core numbers indicated fields. The water table was also high, in many of the profiles, and these (J. Pollack). which made the collection of samples shells are possible fresh water species, difficult and often prevented accurate indicating an intertidal zone of the measurements for creating a profile. river. The elevation at which these two A layer of hard shells was detected layers occur may point to the presence in several auger holes at a depth of of changing shorelines. For example, around 220–240 cm. Perhaps this cores 60–66, running east to west, can be interpreted as a river-bed layer. exhibit an interesting profile (Fig. 14). Layers with shells were encountered Starting from the easternmost core more frequently towards the west and 60, small shells were present between closer to the Bạch Đằng River. 120 and 290 cm deep. No oyster shell The soil profile at DMN was was detected from this core. Cores considerably different from the profile 61, 62, and 63 showed a somewhat at Duong Giang. It is presumed that different soil profile, with small shells there was once a large stream running beginning at 137 cm and continuing to through the area, which was also a depth of 250 cm where oyster shells suggested by the presence of stakes. were found, and the soil became rich One characteristic of the soil in this in clay. Core 64 had a distinct profile, area is the presence of large pieces of with consistently sandy soil and some

The INA Annual 2011 90 silt at lower depths, but very little clay. houses. Another participant noted the stakes and remains of ships may Furthermore, the small shell layer first that stakes found in the 1980s were be buried. The interviews conducted detected around 90 cm continued used in the construction of a shrine. did not yield any breakthrough throughout the profile. Only a There are many similar reports but discoveries, however, considering that few fragments of oyster shells were for the most part, the interviewees the townsfolk are always opening detected. This might be where a small did not remember the exact locations new lands for development and they stream was once located. Core 65 had of the stakes. Some did recall seeing know the area well, this methodology a hard layer of thick oyster shells and stakes more recently, but the majority should be continued. Locals do not hard rocks were encountered at the of those stakes were observed and necessarily understand the significance depth of 100 cm; Core 66 could not mapped by an INA research team of what they may discover when they be tested deeper than about 20 cm in previous seasons. It is difficult to run across something that is “out of because of the layer of hard rocks. separate myth from what actually the ordinary.” They can know that These profiles indicate that there was happened 700 years ago. Perhaps, more “something” is there, but it takes once a shoreline sloping down towards interviews should be conducted in the the eyes and experience of a trained the east. Also, there may have been a future and in different areas to gather archaeologist to reveal the significance small stream running north-south, as more information about the location of what has been found. The next indicated by the profile of core 64. of possible stakeyards. task is to integrate all of our different The results from soil coring so far survey results. For example, the indicate a methodological success. Conclusion gradiometer data and the coring profile The Duong Giang seems to be an The 2011 season employed various information should be seen as different area that once had a small stream, but survey techniques and was one of “layers” of information in determining the land has been much altered and the most intensive survey seasons the past landscape and possible future continuously farmed. No evidence of ever conducted at Bạch Đằng. The excavation area. a large stream or river was found, and two areas, Duong Giang and Dong Preliminary conclusions suggest it appears that the area may not have Ma Ngua, although located close to that Duong Giang was an area where wooden stakes after all. On the other each other, produced different survey the landscape has been altered by hand, the soil profiles of the DMN results. The project team was divided human activities for centuries. There area indicate an active stream system. into groups who performed a variety of was little indication of a large stream This area had less developed laterite different tasks, including cartographic in which wooden stakes may have soil, suggesting that it has not been survey, remote-sensing surveys both been placed. The gradiometer data used extensively by local residents. on land and over water, and sediment/ also showed only a small number of The large rocks towards the south soil studies. The cartographic survey possible cultural remains; however, and southwest are believed to extend was successful in producing accurate the ancient landscape may have been towards the Bạch Đằng River and are maps and the benchmarks established more complex towards the western thought to represent the southernmost (with global positioning) can be edge of the research area. The area west extent of the stake yards. used for future projects. The metal of Duong Giang may be an excellent detector and GPR surveys showed location for survey in future seasons. Interviews limited success because of the DMN area also holds potential for The physical record of the landscape presence of iron-rich soil. The results further survey. The gradiometric data was supplemented by eye-witness of the gradiometer survey suggest suggest several anomalies not from accounts and cultural histories of this methodology should be used modern debris but most likely from people in two of the local villages. for any upcoming work at the site. cultural remains of the past. This A total of 16 interviews were Sources of strong magnetic anomalies, area is dotted with burials, and the conducted during the fieldwork. In including graves and modern debris, potential for finding remains from 2011 the themes discussed by the also have been identified and the 700 years ago seems to be high. The participants included the location magnetic features recorded. The side soil coring study also suggests that an of stakes, and the cultural traditions scan sonar survey may be conducted ancient river once ran through this and worship surrounding the battle. next season. The soil coring survey area and a smaller stream may have One participant, whose family has also provided useful information also been present. If these existed in been in the area for 10 generations, about the past landscape and land the area at the time of the invasion, noted that his great grandparents had use in more recent times, which is the field around DMN would have told him that many stakes were in one of the most important pieces of been an ideal site to trap the Mongol the area, located near the commune information for determining where fleet. The importance of the project 91 Bạch Đằng—Vietnam is not limited to the possibility of East Asian Maritime Archaeology, discovering shipwrecks rich in history edited by J. Kimura, 1–25. Adelaide: and archaeology. The battle strategy Maritime Archaeology Program. that Genral Trần Hưng Đạo used Green, J., N. Burningham and Museum 700 years ago changed the nation’s of Overseas Communication course; continued research at the site History. 1998. “The Ship from will soon reveal the detailed story of Quanzhou, Fujian Province, this legendary naval battle. People’s Republic of China.” The International Journal of Nautical Acknowledgments Archaeology 27(4):277–301. We would like to extend special thanks Lê, L.T., T.H.M. Nguyễn, C. Pham, to Mr. and Mrs. Claude Duthuit for M. Staniforth, J.P. Delgado, J. their contribution to the project, as Kimura and R. Sasaki. 2011. well as other INA Board members “Understanding the Bạch Đằng who showed interest in this project. battlefield from recent research In addition, Dr. Lê Thị Liên from results.” edited by S. Mark et al, the Institute of Archaeology and Dr. 77–90. Proceedings on the Asia-Pacific Mark Staniforth (Adjunct Senior Regional Conference on Underwater Research Fellow, Monash University) Cultural Heritage. The Inaugural made this project possible. Our Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on appreciation also go to the people of Underwater Cultural Heritage. Vietnam, the local residents, provincial National Maritime Museum of Korea. authorities, as well as the staff at the 2006. The Shinan Wreck I. Mokpo: Institute of Archaeology and the National Maritime Museum of Institute of Geology. Among the team Korea. members, we would like to applaud Sasaki, R. 2008. “The Origin of Jean Pelletier (URS Corporation) the Lost Fleet of the Mongol and David Ross (Flinders University) Empire.” M.A. Thesis., Texas A&M for their contributions both in the University. field and in writing reports that Sasaki, R., and J. Kimura. 2010. “The will be available online. Those who Bạch Đằng Battle Site Survey participated in the fieldwork are: Dr. Project 2009.” The INA Annual Paddy O'Toole (Monash University), 2009:14–24. Britt J. Burton (Flinders University), John Pollack (INA), Veronica M. Notes 1 Morris (INA/NAP), and Douglas Sasaki and Kimura 2010; Kimura Inglis (INA/NAP). We appreciate all 2011; Le et al 2011. 2 members for the great work they did Sasaki 2008. 3 to help make this a successful season Green et al 1998; Kimura 2010; (Plate 19-p. 72). National Museum of Korea 2006. 4 Breiner 1999, Fig. 46. References Breiner, S. 1999. Applications Manual for Portable Magnetometers. Jan Jose: Geometrics. Kimura, J. 2011. “Archaeological Survey and Excavation at Dong Ma Ngua, Vietnam 2010.” The INA Annual 2010:44–49. Kimura, J. 2010. “Historical Development of Shipbuilding Technologies in East Asia.” In Shipwreck ASIA: Thematic Studies in

The INA Annual 2011 92 Woven Basket Boats of Vietnam

Introduction On the day the Mongols arrived to face them across the Red River, at Bạch Hạc junction, the Trần positioned a number of boats further down- stream: “Men, horses and elephants spread out along the bank. Boats Charlotte Minh Hà Pham, M.A. were set up along the lower part of the river for a quick get away.” (Đại 1 Asia Research Center (Murdoch University) Việt sử ký toàn thư, note 48, p. 259) Western Australia Maritime Museum Ph.D. Candidate/INA Three seasons of the Bạch Đằng Project progressively lead us closer to understanding both the battle itself and the strategies of Trần Hưng Đạo, yet, we During the first two seasons of the still have very little information on the naval forces used in Đại Việt in the 13th 2 Bạch Đằng Project, Charlotte was century. based in Hanoi Vietnam, studying The Bạch Đằng Project provided a unique opportunity to dive further into local boatbuilding traditions. An the maritime cultural landscape of the region, a pivotal pursuit for me as a ethnographical investigation maritime archaeologist working specifically on boatbuilding in pre-colonial on boatbuilding craftsmanship, Vietnam. Interested in exploring the type of boats the Đại Việt navy could entrenched in Vietnam’s history and culture, is at the heart of her have used during the oppositions between the Mongols and Đại Việt, I took the chance to examine near the ancient Bạch Đằng battle field, a unique woven Ph.D. thesis. She hopes to draw the 3 attention of Vietnamese academics basket boatbuilding tradition that is specific to Vietnam. Unfortunately, data on 4 to the potential that maritime boat building in Vietnam prior to the 19th century are scarce. As such the aim of archaeology has to help to preserve my study was not to directly identify the boats of Đại Việt, but rather to produce maritime aspects of Vietnamese data that could be relevant for investigating the potential of the Đại Việt fleet: culture and underwater heritage. the materials available for boat building, the sizes, the propulsion systems and the She also hopes INA’s Bạch Đằng available nautical technology. Project, along with her ethnographic As an outgrowth of the Bạch Đằng Project presented in this volume (Sasaki & studies, will help promote new Kimura), the following paper intends to showcase the originality and methodologies and approaches savoir faire in the academic development of of Vietnamese boat builders by outlining the general construction sequence and maritime archaeology in Vietnam. characteristics of contemporary basket boats (Fig. 1).

FIG 1 Thuyên nan in Thác Bà Lake. 2009 (P. Moreau).

93 Basket Boats-Vietnam Background Basket boats are common craft in Vietnam (Plates 20 & 21-p. 72). They are widely dispersed along the Vietnamese coastline and differ in size, shape, and use, which range from sea-going, riverine to small floating shops on rice fields and as tenders to larger boats. They are regularly spotted in the famous Hạ Long Bay (northern Vietnam), alongside the “dragon sails” replicas of Chinese-style junks used for the tourists. However, the greatest diversity of basket boat types appears in central Vietnam, from the provinces of Quảng Trị to Phan Thiết. The fragile nature of bamboo craft unfortunately results in an absence of early archaeological examples of basket boats, but legend suggests that they were 5 developed during the 10th century. The Đại Việt gained its independence and reaffirmed its Vietnamese cultural identity by ending a millennium of Chinese domination in the first major naval battle on the Bạch Đằng River with the defeat of the Han in 938 C.E. Legend tells us that around 968 C.E., in order to cross the rivers and the swamps and fight the tenacious Chinese troops, General Trần Ung Long introduced a multi-purpose woven-bamboo tool, which combined a water-crossing device with a shield that could easily be carried by a single armed soldier. In spite of the legend, however, considering the materials, tools and techniques used in basket boat construction, it is possible that the vessel type was developed at an earlier date. We have, however, no data from the pre-colonial period, apart from a few mentions that could refer to basket boats written in the reports of French Missionaries. In 1746, Edmond Bennetat complained of “nasty 6 little skiffs” used to cross from an offshore island to the coast in the region of Nha Ru in central Vietnam. And Paul-Jean-Baptiste Bourgine related that the skiffs used in that region were “so small that I wouldn’t dare to embark even 7 FIG 2 when the weather or the sea are very calm.” Around 1835, a Chinese traveler, Ghe thúng chài. 2006 (C. Palmer). Tsai-Tin-Lang also described a bamboo boat from Annam (central Vietnam) that he called ia-tszy, “the bottom floor of these boats is made of bamboo beams and is varnished with coconut oil; the deck only is made out of (hardwood) planks; 8 smaller boats are built with similar materials.” References to and descriptions of Vietnamese crafts become more extensive in late-19th and early-20th century literature. For example, there were some rather 10 large sea-going fishing vessels reaching about 20 meters and with a tonnage 11 of about 50 tonnes (that sometimes exceeded 120 tonnes), constructed with woven bamboo hulls and extended by wooden top strakes that were discussed in more eloquent terms. Commander Audemard (1865–1955), described a three- 12 masted gai nane of 16.5 m long, 3.7 m wide and of a tonnage of 50 tonnes, while Jean-Baptiste Pietri in 1942 stated that, “all the countries have their types of boats, elegant in shape or great in their way of sailing [or appearance], but probably nowhere in the world is there a hull as original and as recklessly built, it seems, as the ghe bầu of Quảng- Ngãi, in its nang variety, meaning with woven 13 bottoms”. For him, the ghe nang was “one of the most unusual types of ships in 14 15 the world.” Unfortunately, these large sh‑ips have now disappeared and the smaller versions of these “mixed hulls” (12 m /10 tonnes) are becoming rarer yet in 2010 when I recorded a few in the province of Qui Nhon. Basket boats are referred to by different names and caution needs to be taken because the names tend to be generic and do not refer to any particular type. Rather, the boats are described according to their size, use, location or physical characteristics. For example, in the village of Hưng Học, near the Đồng Má Ngựa excavation site, the small elongated basket boats were referred to as truong bảy (meaning 7 times a 40 cm length, approximately 2.8 m long) while the larger ones are called truong hai mươi (meaning 20 times a 40 cm length, about 8 m long) (Figs. 2 & 3).

The INA Annual 2011 94 Vietnamese name Description Translations thuyền nan common basket boat thuyền = boat in the north

thuyền mung small boat-shaped basket, mủng (thúng mủng) = used as an tender to larger basket vessels ghe thúng chài small common round boat ghe = boat in the south thuyền thúng resembling coracles thúng = basket chài = to fish with a casting net thuyền chài = fishing boat ghe chài = fishing junk

thuyền tre long basket boat cây tre = bamboo sông vành This boat is also called songAn-Giu after the name of a 16 village in Binh Dinh, specializing in shark fishing. ghe xuồng small canoe that has ribs xuồng = whale boat outside its hull bơi xuồng = to canoe ghe nang mixed hull (bamboo hull and wooden strakes)

From the small round thuyên thúng chài to the longer oval thuyên nan, bamboo boats are the cheapest option due to locally available material and a rapid construction sequence. All types can be fitted with a mast and helm. FIG 3 The great advantage of bamboo is that it is not particularly favored by xylophages Ghe xuồng (Pietri 1943: and teredos (Te red o sp. & Bankia sp.) due to its high silica content and to the fact fig. 69). 17 that the bamboo laths are also usually too thin to be good hosts. Construction The following construction sequence is based on previously published 18 documents and on comparative data from Bạch Đằng (2009 and 2010), Thác Bà Lake in Yên Bái Province (2009) and from the Scottish Eyemouth Maritime Centre (2008). Like most Vietnamese boats, the bamboo basket boats are constructed shell first with a flexible hull. They are keelless, generally with easy round bilges; the amount of framing and internal sup- port varies too much to allow for any sound generalisations. Bamboo poles, whole or split, generally serve as structural members, alone or with other woods 19 in plank or timber form. They are conceptualized as a watertight shell but their structural strength lies in the reinforcing wale, the internal frames and the side- stringers—not in the hull itself. To build a basket boat four to fivemeters in length, it takes about eight days with a three-man workforce (including five days to dry out the hull before 20 coating); one man can build a small one (2.6 m) in one week. 21 In 1997, the thuyền nan described by Tallec cost about 550 000 VND ($26 USD), while today the comparable truong 14 of the same size costs about

95 Basket Boats-Vietnam 3 000 000 VND ($144 USD). If First, to weave a mat all the long well-maintained, bamboo hulls can laths are laid down as the warp and last about five years and are easily four transverse shorter laths are laid replaced. “These bamboo boats are out across the center as the weft surprisingly resilient, and are well (Fig. 4). Then the weaving begins. The adapted to absorb the shocks of surf long laths are passed over four shorter and strains of beaching. Plus, bamboo ones, then under the following three, is plentiful and cheap—important to then over the next four and so on. This 22 the fisherfolk and river dwellers.” technique is called “4-1-1,” meaning four laths will be over, then one under, 1. Preparing the bamboo laths then one over, then again four above, Bamboo poles are cut into long, thin one under, one over, etc. laths (0.03 cm thick and 2.50 cm The laths are sometimes wetted wide). Between 50 and 100 green to provide flexibility and the weav- bamboo poles (each 5.5 m long) are ing often lasts one full afternoon necessary to create a boat 4–5 m long. (Figs. 6a & b). About 80 laths are necessary for a bamboo boat 3.0 m long and 1.5 m 3. Shaping the hull and setting ABOVE wide) (Fig. 4). the wales FIG 4 Once the mat is woven, it is laid down Setting the laths on the floor 2. Weaving the bamboo mat in a pit or set within stakes dug into to start the weaving. 2010 (C. Pham). In Vietnam, I observed different weav- the ground. The mat is then shaped ing patterns but no typology has yet by being covered with large stones or been created to determine whether sand for greater uniformity. The design RIGHT pattern depends on the boat builder, of the boat depends on the shape of FIG 5 the region, or other cultural or techno- the pit; all boats constructed by one Different types of bamboo logical factors (Fig. 5). boat builder will have the same size weaves (Cairo 1972: 137 fig. 3c, 146 fig 6c). The process/sequence I observed in and shape. Elongated basket boats northern Vietnam and in Bạch Đằng have either pointed or rounded ends FIG 6a & b (Figs. 7 & 8). Weaving technique “4-1-1.” 2010 can be described as follows: (M. Girard).

FACING FROM TOP

FIG 7 Shaping the bamboo mat. 2007 (C. Palmer).

FIG 8 The bamboo mat is laid in a cement pit, covered with stones to maintain its shape. 2010 (C. Pham).

FIG 9 Setting the gunwale. 2010 (C. Pham).

FIG 10 Cement is used to caulk a basket boat in Yên Bái. 2009 (P. Moreau).

FIG 11 a & b In Hưng Học, the boats are first covered with buffalo dung and then with two layers of tar. 2010 (M. Bui). The tar is boiled and applied with a frayed banana branch. 2010 (C. Pham).

The INA Annual 2011 96 In order to give strength and 5. “Floor timbers”, “cross beams” structure to the hull, a wale composed and “thwarts” of two half-bamboo poles is lashed Once the coating is dry, additional around the woven mat with bamboo wood or bamboo beams are laid across lashing or heated copper wire. Once the hull and thwarts or benches are this belt is securely fastened, the hull fitted and fastened with bamboo is taken out of the pit and is caulked treenails to reinforce the structure. inside out (Fig. 9). (Fig. 12) The construction sequence of round In the village of Hưng Học where 23 basket boats is slightly different the Đồng Má Ngựa excavation project as the hull shape is not achieved by took place, these thwarts are called laying the mat in a pit but rather by thang; they can be considered benches, being fixed to a round bamboo frame and a deck may also be fitted over and then filled with sand. First, the them. Into one thwart, an additional bamboo “gunwale” is shaped by being square opening is also drilled on each fixed between small pickets stuck in side, in order to fit the oarlocks. In the ground. Then, other bamboo laths less than 10 minutes, four thwarts can are clamped to that round framework be installed. “Often there are several to strengthen it. Finally, the mat is bamboo bilge and bottom stringers, fitted inside the structure. The mat is and heavy frames for additional lashed to the gunwale with bamboo support. This is especially true for straps and then, internal stringers are the larger all-basket sailing boats. inserted inside the hull to reinforce the Frequently deck battens or dunnage structure. As with long basket boats, are installed in the bottom of the boats 26 once the hull is reinforced with the to give better footing” (Fig. 13). stringers, it is completely coated inside and out. 6. Side-stringers Additional external reinforcement is 4. Waterproofing necessary to avoid deformation and Nowadays cement or tar and cattle distortion. Hence, side-stringers or dung are widely used to protect the an external framing can be lashed bamboo shell, but other recipes still along the wale. It can be done so with exist and vary according to the region heated copper wires. The side stringers and descriptions also vary according are constructed from bamboo for the to originating periods. “Indochinese small boats (2.6 m). On larger boats, 24 lacquer” is exclusively used in the they are made out of wood and look north by different sorts of wood like a large rectangular frame that rests workers. It is produced by the cây son over the thwarts. This is the final phase myrtle tree (Rhus succedanea) and of construction. Once the boat is sold, is mixed with sawdust that creates a the owner customises the hull accord- black coating. The preferred recipe ing to the necessities, such as fitting in central Vietnam is chai, which is a deck, a woven bamboo roof or fish composed of powdered Shorea resin traps. and Dipterocarpus oleo-resin. This resin is known to be used since the Boat Operation early Cham times in central Vietnam Since the 1960s, motorised long- to bind bricks of the architectural tails and engines have been the most complex of My Son. In order to ensure common propulsion systems. Even long-term preservation of the hull, this the junks in Hạ Long Bay with their outer coating needs to be re-applied traditional dragon sails are motorised. several times a year. Nowadays it However, traditionally, basket boats is often replaced by cement or tar were propelled by hand (rowing) or (Fig. 10; Fig. 11 a & b). wind power. Basket sailboats are quite

97 Basket Boats-Vietnam two bamboo poles set in a thwart at the stern of the bamboo hull. As such, the Vietnamese pedal with their feet, hands free or holding a fishing net (Fig. 14). As the two ends of these basket boats are identical, the distinction between bow and stern becomes obvi- ous only once the oarlocks are fitted. Then, the end closer to the oarlocks is the stern (đuôi thuyền - đi sau) and the other is the bow (mũi thuyền – đi trước). 2. Rudders Because the basket boats never have a keel, the rudders are essential when they are under sail. To maintain a straight bearing and prevent them from falling to leeward, shipbuilders developed steering devices that sup- FIG 12 rare today but small crafts are still plemented the basic steering oar. Internal structure of a rowed. Their peculiarity is that, as in China, 30 “truong 14.” 2010 (C. Pham). Vietnamese rudders and guares 1. Propulsion As is the case elsewhere in Southeast or centerboards are all retractable, 27 enabling vessels to navigate easily in Asia, oars with handles (avirons shallow waters and to land. There are a à béquille) are the most commonly 31 variety of helm types in Vietnamese used in Vietnam. They can be carved watercraft but two essential types can from one piece of wood although the be distinguished: the basic helm with handle and the blade are usually made braces hanging on the round bamboo of two different pieces joined with a 28 gunwale fixed with pintles and lashing along a bevel. gudgeons and the axial helm sliding To row an elongated basket boat, in a fitted wood block at the stern the rower usually faces the direction with wedges to hold it in an retracted of the route and pushes the oar down position (Fig. 15). in the water towards the front, either standing up or sitting down. The 3. Unique features of the “mixed hulls” movement makes elongated ovals, “Mixed hulls” (bamboo hull and ending with the arms and body wooden strakes) are mostly seen in straightened towards the sky. The central Vietnam and are worth men- oarlocks do not provide a solid or tioning for their very specific features. rigid casing through which the oar They have a rudder sliding in the stern passes, rather, the oars feel like they post and a sliding “bow board” fitted are hanging and hence provides the in the stem or “stem daggerboard” the 32 rower with a feeling of looseness. The term used by Cairo, which takes the oars are pulled against the lashing place of the centerboard that cannot instead of being pushed against the exist in a bamboo hull. By controlling 29 rigid oarlocks. its sliding, the boat is able to manoeu- Another common way of handling vre more or less close to the wind. The the oars on small fishing vessels is stem is grooved and the bow board “foot-rowing”, which is particularly is fixed on the longitudinal axis. It seen in northern Vietnam. The soles cannot rotate and the shape of the 33 of the feet are fitted to the handle blade is a bent dagger or yataghan and the rower rests his/her back on that curves under the hull. Its posi- The INA Annual 2011 98 tion can change; fully down when into cultural spheres, be related to close hauled, partly down on a reach, specific economic or political contexts and up when running free. This “bow and be evaluated against historical board” serves as an anti-leeway device, events. In this way, technological contributes indirectly to the steering, changes can be addressed in a historical and enables the crew to adapt to the framework and events like migration irregularity of the coast and to bring and cultural exchanges can help to the vessel ashore easily (Fig. 16). investigate the origin, evolution, The mixed hulls are without keels, distribution and the role of early however the larger the hull, the more seafaring. substantial their structure becomes Finally, I believe that through with possible combination of frames, maritime ethnography and the study of floors, thwarts, bamboo keelson and contemporary boat traditions, it is pos- 34 stringers, athwart beams and knees. sible to achieve a better understanding Wooden pegs are employed to attach of the cultural tradition that deter- the strakes to the stem and sternposts. mines a ship construction technique The ends of the athwart beams project in a region, and that it can also help to through holes in the strakes, and are interpret boat building and boat use in sometimes pegged into position. the past. It can build knowledge useful for the maritime historian as well as for the maritime archaeologist and Conclusion FIG 13 Reliable information concerning can be valuable for interpreting future The thwarts are laid out traditional boat technology and early archaeological boat finds. across a “truong 7” and the As traditional boats are disappear- pegs are hammered in the seafaring in Vietnam is still scarce gunwale. 2010 (M. Girard). and the limited available data do ing due to the introduction of foreign not provide substantial evidence to materials and techniques, this report FIG 14 also aims to preserve for the long-term Foot rowing in Hạ Long Bay. suggest the type of boats Đại Việt 2006 (C. Palmer). forces may have used to stand against information about this unique type of the Mongols. However, by deepening watercraft. Ultimately, I hope that this our knowledge of regional boat- study provides a glimpse into Viet- building traditions it is possible to nam’s varied boat culture and that it start building a more precise image revealed the potential of more specific of what those traditional vessels may studies of Vietnamese watercraft. have looked like and ultimately to understand the practicalities of the Acknowledgements maritime events that occurred at the I would like to thank Ms. Bùi Thị Bạch Đằng battle site. Mai and Mr. Michel Girard for their The aim of this study was to help and pictures in documenting the gather data on existing basket boats full construction sequence in Hưng to demonstrate the potential of Học; and Ms. Nguyễn Mai Hương maritime ethnographic inquiry. and Dr. Lê Thị Liên for assisting Various aspects of the construction during interviews. Special thanks are sequence can still be further examined; addressed to Mr. Patrick Moreau for waterproofing recipes could be set his beautiful pictures of my recording against a chronology and/or cultural in Thác Bà Lake; and to Mr. Colin trends; a typology of basket weaving Palmer for sharing his magnificent patterns could be assembled, and pictures. Warm regards to Alexandre linguistic, geographic or social links Poudret-Barre for working with me could be established between them. to record a thuyên nan in Scotland. When materials, recipes, tools and Much gratitude goes to former INA other elements of construction and President Dr. James Delgado and rigging are better understood, the INA for supporting my endeavors and construction sequence might be tied sharing my enthusiasm for boat studies

99 Basket Boats-Vietnam The INA Annual 2011 100 in Vietnam. espèces de bateaux Annamites.” Unless otherwise stated, all pictures Bulletin du Comité agricole et were taken at Mr. Toàn Huyện’s industriel de la Cochinchine n° IV boatyard, Hưng Học Village, Quảng (Deuxième série):223-6. Ninh Province, whose family is Pâris, F.-E. 1841. Essai sur la acknowledged here for their help and construction navale des peuples extra- incredible kindness. européens, ou Collection des navires et pirogues construits par les habitants Works cited de l’Asie, de la Malaisie, du Grand Amos, J.-C. 1997. “Typologie des Océan et de l’Amérique, dessinés et bateaux-paniers vietnamiens.” Chasse mesurés pendant les voyages autour Marée 105:24-7. du monde de L’Astrolabe, La Favorite Aubaile-Sallenave, F. 1987. Bois et et L’Artémise. 1st ed. Two vols. Paris: Arthus Bertrand. bateaux du Vietnam, Collection FACING PAGE FROM TOP Ethnosciences n°3. Paris: Centre Paris, P. 1942. “Esquisse d’une National de la Recherche ethnographie navale des pays FIG 15 Annamites.” Bulletin des Amis Different types of rudders Scientifique, Selaf. fitted onto basket boats. Audemard, L. 1970. Les Bateaux du Vieux Hué n°4 (Octobre- 2006 (C. Palmer). d'Indochine. Vol. 10, Les Jonques Décembre):352-450. Pham, C.M.H. 2012. The Vietnamese FIG 16 Chinoises. Rotterdam: Museum Sliding bow board on voor Land en Volkenkunde en het coastline, a maritime cultural a “mixed hull.” 2006 (C. Maritiem Museum “Prins Hendrik.” landscape. In The sea, identity and Palmer) (Pietri 943: fig. 46). Binda, L., P. Condoleo and history: from the Bay of Bengal to C. Tedeschi. 2009. “Materials the South China Sea, edited by Characterisation.” In Champa and S. Chandra and H.P. Ray. Delhi: the archaeology of My Son (Vietnam), Manohar Publishers. edited by A. Hardy, M. Cucarzi Pham, C.M.H., L. Blue and C. Palmer. and P. Zolese, 283–311. Singapore: 2010. “Traditional boats of Vietnam, National University of Singapore an overview.” International Journal of Press. Nautical Archaeology 39(2):258-77. Bui T.M., and M. Girard. 2007. “Les Pietri, J.-B. 1943. Voiliers d’Indochine. Thuyên thúng, bateaux-paniers Saigon: Société des Imprimeries et ronds en bambou tressé du Centre- Librairies Indochinoises (SILI). Vietnam.” Neptunia 248:17-23. Preston, Ken. 2009. The wooden Burningham, N. 1994. “Notes on the workboats of Vietnam, photographed watercraft of Thanh Hoa province, from January 2005 to April 2008. northern Vietnam.” International Seattle: Ken Preston copyright. Journal of Nautical Archaeology Poujade, J. 1940. Bateaux en Indochine. 23(3):229-38. Saigon: J. Testelin. Cairo, R.F. 1972. “A note on south Tallec, J.-L. 1997. “Les bateaux en Vietnamese basket boats.” Mariner’s bambou tissé du Viêt Nam.” Chasse 105:10-27. Mirror 58(2):135-54. Marée Tsai-Tin-Lang. 1878. Mémoires d’un Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư [The Complete History of Đại Việt]. 1697 (1967). voyageur Chinois sur l’Empire Vol. 2. Ha Noi: Khoa hoc Xa Hoi. d’Annam [ca. 1835], translation from Huard, P. and M. Durand. 1954. Russian by Louis Leger. In Recueil Connaissance du Viêt Nam. Edited d’itinéraires et de voyages dans l’Asie by Ecole Française d'Extrême centrale et l’Extrême-Orient, edited Orient (Hanoi). 43 vols. Vol. 8, by E. Leroux. Paris: Publications Connaissance de l'Indochine. Paris: de l'École des Langues Orientales Imprimerie Nationale. Vivantes. Ky, P.T.V. 1875. “Notes sur les diverses Vu-Warder, H.L. 2008. Mongol invasions in Southeast Asia and

101 Basket Boats-Vietnam 9 their impact on relations between Paris 1942; Pietri 1943; Pâris 1841; Vietnamese basket boats—they are Đại Việt and Champa (1226- Audemard 1970; Poujade 1940; much more frequently found on rafts.” 31 1336 C.E.). Ph.D. Thesis, School Ky 1875. Cairo 1972, 147; Burningham 1994, 10 of Oriental and African Studies, Paris 1942, 378. 234. 11 32 Department of History, University Pietri 1943, 61. Cairo 1972, 145. 12 33 of London. Audemard 1970, 30–31. A long knife or short saber, Pietri 13 Pietri 1942, 61 (in French, translated 1943, 70. 34 Notes by author: “Tous les pays ont leur type Cairo 1972, 142. 1 In Vu-Warder 2008, 89. de navire, gracieux de forme ou massif 2 Pham 2012. d’allure, mais il n’existe probablement 3 Woven basket boats are not always nulle part au monde une coque aussi round and of small sizes but can reach originale et témérairement construite, 10-15 m in length, which differenti- semble-t-il, que la ghe bâu du Quảng ates this tradition from that of the Ngqi, dans sa variété nang, c’est-à-dire à fond tressé.”). Irakian Quffas tradition. The method 14 of construction and the materials also Pietri 1942, 20 (in French, translated make this tradition quite different by author: “… un des types les plus from the Indian coracles, curraghs, curieux qui soient au monde: la « ghe nang »”). from the bull boats of the Sioux made 15 Amos 1997. of bison skin and willow framework 16 Pietri 1943, 59. or from the reed boats from South 17 America. Aubaile-Sallenave 1987, 81. 4 18 Pham, Blue, and Palmer 2010. Cairo 1972; Burningham 1994; 5 Huard and Durand 1954, 226. Amos 1997; Tallec 1997; Bui Thi Mai 6 and Girard 2007. M. Bennetat aux Directeurs du Sémi- 19 Cairo 1972, 135. naire des Missions Etrangères, 20 juin 20 Tallec 1997. 1746, Archives Missions Etrangères 21 Tallec 1997, 18. de Paris, vol. 741, p. 657 (in French, 22 Cairo 1972, 135 translated by author: “les chrétiens 23 qui étaient de l’autre côté de la rivière For a full construction sequence, m’envoyèrent une méchante petite see Bui Thi Mai and Girard 2007 or Preston 2009 nacelle”). The wordnacelle or nacele in 24 old French, comes from the Latin navi- Aubaile Sallenave 1987: 27–34 ; Pietri 1943: 107–109). cella. It is a small boat with no mast or 25 sails and can be interpreted here either Binda, Condoleo, and Tedeschi as a basket (as in a hot air balloon) or 2009, 171, 286. The Cham polities as a skiff. thrived in central and southern 7 Journal de M. Bourgine, le 24 aout Vietnam between the 7th and 18th centuries. 1745, Archives Missions Etrangères 26 Cairo 1972, 140–141 de Paris, vol. 800, p. 663 (in French, 27 Paris 1942, 379. translated by author: “Remarquez 28 Tallec 1997, 20. qu’ils viennent sur des nacelles si 29 Burningham 1994, 234. petites, que je n’oserais pas m’y 30 embarquer dans le temps où la mer est Guare: a retractable wooden foil la plus tranquille”). for combating leeway and for steering 8 Tsai-Tin-Lang 1878, 157 (in French, (a variable lee-board) in McGrail translated by author: “C’était un 2001, 468. On page 310, McGrail batiment annamite, un ia-tszy. Le fond adds “Guares are used to oppose de ces bateaux est fait en madriers de leeway as well as to steer, and today bambou et verni d’huile de coco; le they are invariably found on sailing pont seul est en planches; de petites rather than paddled or oared craft. barques sont construites des mêmes Furthermore, whilst they are known to materiaux.”). have been used on boats, for example,

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