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Dear Delegates,

Welcome to NYUMUNC VIII’s (Holy) Roman Empire Committee! We are extremely excited to share with you our vision of this committee and look forward to seeing where you choose to take it over the course of the weekend. We stand against five other civilizations who all claim to be the greatest of the era, however it is through our actions and great debate that we will exclaim our superiority over all.

My name is Ayushi Mathur, and I am extremely honored to serve as your Chair for this year’s conference. Hailing from New Jersey, I am a second year Pre-Health student majoring in Biochemistry and Mathematics here at NYU. As someone who has served as a delegate for many years, I look forward to finding myself on the other side of the dais and moderating an exciting and achieving committee.

I am Nickson Chong, and I have the great honor of serving as your Crisis Director for the (Holy) Roman Empire in the eighth annual NYU Model United Nations Conference. I was raised in Houston, Texas, and I am currently a third year studying Economics and Real Estate. I served on four conferences over two years, once as a Chair and this conference will be my second as Crisis Director. I look forward to the conference, and I wish you all the best of luck.

This committee stands in a time of great competition and excitement as five major empires battle to hold the title as victor. The have put everyone in an unique predicament of skepticism and unknown. It is your mission, as members of the empire with the greatest moral conviction, to prove your standing and ensure that nobody questions it ever again. With the Lord and us by your side, you have all the resources you need to take over this JCC. The fate of the (Holy) Roman Empire rests in your hands.

Those of us who have worked on creating this committee in order to provide you with the greatest experience at the conference, wish you the best of luck in your aspiration to be the greatest of all time. We aim to provide you with meaningful and entertaining discussions. We look forward to meeting you all. If you have any questions, comments or concerns, then please feel free to contact us.

Best,

Ayushi Mathur Nickson Chong Chair Crisis Director NYUMUNC VIII NYUMUNC VIII [email protected] [email protected]

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kingdom’s power once more. History extended the borders of the Franks through During the age of the Roman the conquests of the Gaul, Germany, as well Empire, a mix of tribes known as the Franks as Italy. In addition to his military inhabited the lands between the lower and expansionism, he incorporated different middle Rhine as well as the Northern part of peoples of Eastern Europe such as the Serbs Roman Gaul. Historically, the Franks were and Avars into his Kingdom. In 774 CE, known to be one of the first German tribes Charles created an Alliance with the Papacy, that inhabited the region, but were and created a papal state in central Italy. incorporated into the dominion of the So on Christmas Day of 800 CE, Roman Empire during Julius Caesar’s Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne as military expansion in the Gaul, also known the first , thus as modern day France. establishing the Holy Roman Empire. As the Roman Empire steadily Charlemagne’s great achievements of declined onto the third century CE, the reuniting Western Europe under one power Franks made frequent raids and pillages earned him the title of Holy Roman within Roman territory, for the Romans Emperor which was fortified with religious were in a position that they could no longer power by the Church. heavily fortify their vast borders. The Unfortunately, the reunification established Roman Empire eventually fell with the fall by Charlemagne was short lived in 840 CE of in 476 CE. The vast territories the when the Empire was divided up by his Romans conquered were now divided up grandchildren who contested power to the with and non-Latin tribes no longer throne. Charles II was given the West, Louis under the reign of Rome. II was given the East, and Lothar was given During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, the Italian province who ultimately the Franks expanded into modern day inherited the title of Holy Roman Emperor. France and Belgium as well as the northern The Holy Roman Empire went part of Spain. These successful military through subsequent divisions because of campaigns were orchestrated by Clovis I of competition over the Holy Roman throne, the Merovingian Dynasty who consolidated which dissolved the authority of the Frankish power by uniting all of Gaul. At the Carolingians. New powers rose within the time, many Franks were pagans, but it was Empire such as the Saxons and not until Clovis converted to Christianity and it was not until 881 CE that Carolingian that the Franks began their conversion to power had dissolved completely after the Christianity as well. reign of Charles III. However, during the early 8th During Louis the Pious’ reign after Century, political and internal division Charlemagne, he had the duty to handle the within the Frankish Kingdom caused the fall Civil War brought upon by his competitive of the Merovingian Dynasty. As the sons over the Holy Imperial Throne. In 829, Merovingians lost power, the noble family Louis the Pious gave his son, Charles, the of the Carolingians took control of what kingdom of Alemannia which infuriated his remained of the Frankish Kingdom. One competitive a co-emperor alongside certain ruler of the new dynasty, Charles Louis, Lothair. A civil war was underway later known as Charlemagne, reunited all because of the sons’ political competition the territories of the Franks expanding the over the rights of the empire. It was not

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until 830 CE, that Louis the Pious pardoned dominating the other kingdoms in Europe. but banished Lothair to Italy that the civil Many of the greatest reformers of the war ended with the remaining rebels taken period, including the of Cluny, care of. supported the Empire and even looked to its However, another revolt erupted in emperor rather than the pope as the 832 CE when another son, Louis the primary leader of morality, ethics and Latin German gathered an army to conquer the Christendom. The Empire safeguarded the kingdom of Swabia before the emperor ; and while the papacy remained could intervene. In response, Louis the under this imperial protection, it easily Pious declared his son, Charles, king of became prostrated under the authority of Aquitaine. Soon enough in 833, all sons the Empire. including Lothair were involved in the Disgruntled over an unfavorable second Civil war over total control of the peace treaty, which made his territory a kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire. vassal under Otto I, Beranger II invaded the Lothair wanted to usurp his father's Papal States of Italy. In 960, Pope John XII, authority, but Louis the Pious made peace like many before him, needed with his sons in 836 CE by dividing the assistance against Italy’s enemies and again empire further between all of them. appealed to a strong German ruler, Otto I. In 839 CE, another great civil war By 961, Otto I conquered the Kingdom of broke out once more because of the unfair Italy and extended the Empire’s borders division of land amongst Louis the Pious’ throughout much of Europe. During his and empire. Louis the Pious favored his son his successors reign, a cultural explosion Charles more by giving him most of the that saw a flourishing of the arts and inheritance. Louis the German prompted architecture swept throughout the Empire. another invasion and the other sons joined Such patronage and great achievements had the revolt as well to claim more territory not been seen since the glory days of within the empire. Lothair for the first time Charlemagne, thus Otto I was crowned as allied with his father to quell the rebellion in the Holy Roman Emperor in 962 CE by exchange for a better inheritance of the Pope John XII. With his coronation, the empire. Louis the Pious was able to put Kingdom of Germany and the Kingdom of down the revolt and for the last time divided Italy united under a common realm, which his empire further between his sons in an would later be called the (Holy) Roman attempt to end hostilities between them. Empire, and sparked the reanimation of a Peace did not last long, for the Christian emperor and imperium competitive ambitions of Louis’ sons Christianum. continued after his death in 840 CE. Revolts Otto II and Otto III, son and erupted over more territory in the Holy grandson of Otto I, regarded the imperial Roman Empire, but in 843 CE, the Treaty of crown as a mandate to control the papacy. Verdun divided the empire into three realms They dismissed Popes at their will and between Louis’ sons. Finally, the long appointed replacements that were more competitive quarrels ended over the Holy congenial to their individual campaigns. The Roman throne with Charles III becoming Roman Emperor’s power to pick and select the new Holy Roman Emperor. Popes and their control of most of central From 962 to 1046, the (Holy) Europe raised the German Empire to higher Roman Empire saw the height of its power, levels of prestige and admiration.

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After subduing an insurrection from from Germany’s clergies and churches of the Crescentii family – led by Crescentius II surrounding territories. Lay rulers found who opposed Otto III’s selection of his Henry III as overly indulgent to the papacy cousin and the first German Pope, Pope and hostile to their own affairs. His failure Gregory V – Otto III made Rome the to effectively hold influence of the duchies administrative center of his empire. From that came under his control — he entrusted Rome, he sought to resurrect the greatness them to others — and loss of support from and glory of the ancient Rome Empire in a the papacy resulted in all of his Christian state and revived elaborate accomplishments wasted away, including Byzantine ceremonies and ancient Roman losing control of territory: northeastern customs. When Pope Gregory V died, he Germany, Hungary, , and installed his tutor, Sylvester II, as Pope Lorraine. because he shared Otto’s idea of a theocratic empire. The Crusades In 1027, succeeding Emperors The First Crusades lasted from 1095 to 1099 Conrad II and Henry II found their reign and was the first and only military plagued with recurring battles with forces expedition by Roman Catholic Europe to inside and outside of the (Holy) Roman liberate the Holy Land that eventually Empire. Conrad faced internal rebellions resulted in the capture of Jerusalem. from princes of Lombardy and German After a plea from Byzantine Emperor nobility, including his own relatives. Soon Alexios I Komnenos, Pope Urban II after his coronation in Rome by Pope John launched a campaign to repel the invading XIX, a renewed rebellion forced him to Seljuk Turks from Anatolia. He called on return to Germany. His reign saw more than western Christians to take up arms and set his able strength in securing his rule, but out on a pilgrimage to retake the Holy Land also advances in legislation in the Empire. from Muslim control. Knights, peasants and He formally enforced prevailing legal serfs from all over Western Europe traveled principles of Saxony and set forth new by land and sea first to Constantinople and feudal constitutions for Lombardy. Henry then to Jerusalem. People of all social II, Conrad’s son, often neglected affairs in classes helped liberate the Holy Land from Italy. Under the plea of Pope Benedict VIII, Muslims and Jews and rightfully place it’s Henry II marched to Rome in order to control under the influence of Western defend the papacy from Lombardy princes Europe. and defend the city from the Greeks in the By 1099, the end of the First south. However, his main concerns were to Crusades saw the establishment of several establish law and order in Germany, in : The Country of Tripoli, particular, consolidating a peaceful royal Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa, regime through the creation of an Ottonian and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. system of government. In 1046, the reign of Henry III saw Revival of the Papacy the end of an emperor’s dominance of the The rise of the impotent, six-year- papacy. Henry III was a large advocate of old German King Henry IV enabled the ecclesiastical reforms; however, he failed to papacy to act with a renewed emboldened carry out these changes and force a authority. Pope Gregory VII initiated the prostrated Italy failed due to opposition

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revival of the papacy through his argument MCXLVII against a lay emperor’s ability to appoint The first German king of the Hohenstaufen bishops and abbots within their authority. dynasty, Conrad III is seen as the effective This conflict would last from 1076 until 1122 head of the (Holy) Roman Empire. While he and be known as the Investiture has not officially been crowned “Emperor,” Controversy. he fashions himself as the “King of the Pope Gregory VII decreed that no lay Romans.” His ascension to the throne was ruler may appoint any ecclesiastical wrought by civil war; but by 1146, he positions, positions that are too valuable secured the election and his son as his and important to be so easily relinquished successor. to secular rulers. Feudal wealth and power While a certain peace has since were tied to these appointments; and high presided over the Empire, the very fabric of clerics, often the highest educated members the (Holy) Roman Empire may as well tear within a community, represented one of the apart at the seams in the coming decades. greatest assets of any administration. Pope Although he secured one brother-in-law as a Gregory VII’s declaration of independence prince in Bohemia, Conrad III’s second from any and all kingdoms and rulers attempt of nepotism of another brother-in- encompassed more than the appointments law met opposition and led to disorder in of bishops and abbots, but it also acted as a Saxony, Bavaria and Burgundy.The Empire symbolic thrust of papal superiority over the itself remains a decentralized state authority of any emperor. consisting of fairly independent rulers and Based on the interpretations of the aristocrats, each fearing the other may seize Donation of Constantine – a supposedly and conquer their territories. Rising forged document that recorded Roman tensions continue to persist between the Emperor bestowing Emperors and papal leaders, a discord broad territory and temporal and secular forcing the people to side with their secular power in the hands of the pope and his or rulers or their spiritual guides. Increasingly her successors – the pope held the supreme powerful Muslim states constantly threaten power to convey supreme dignity and to retake the Empire’s hard-fought Crusader depose emperors as he or she saw fit. states, particularly those hosting Holy In 1122, the Concordat of Worms Lands. brought an end to the . The settlement clear outline The Political Drama Between the powers of empire and the papacy. The clergy appointed bishops and abbots; the Brothers emperor decided contested elections Lay rulers of the Holy Roman throughout the empire. The ruler chosen Emperor contest for the throne and from the elected position was invested with inheritance. Each ruler threatens rebellion regalia by the emperor and spiritulia by a and secession from the HRE. Lay rulers also spiritual ruler and served as a vassal for the face constant power grabs from the crown and representative of the church. aristocracy in their respective kingdoms. After the death of Charlemagne, The Empire was divided up amongst his grandchildren who each contested for the throne. Charlemagne’s son and Holy Roman

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Emperor then, Louis the Pious, faced the is recognized by the (Holy) Roman greatest challenge of making peace between Emperor; the ascendency of vassals, his ambitious sons. Charles and Lothair provincial governors, or viceroys becomes were just a few of the sons who felt as legitimized under the authority of the though they had been cheated of their dominant lord. Rulers saw their land and inheritances. Thus, they threatened the people who served under them as their rebellion and secession if their political property to be exploited under their sole ambitions are not satisfied. Louis the Pious discretion; and more often than not, the quelled countless revolts and civil wars only authority that bind the two parties compromising and maintaining peace at the together lied in the word of the Emperor. time. But after his death, the Empire did not While this system evolved and fully unify until Otto I ascended to the Holy preserved the status quo of territory and Roman Throne. rule throughout most of the history of the Now a similar threat challenges the (Holy) Roman Empire, rulers often divided very unity of the Empire. The Holy Roman their empire among their heirs. Heirs — Throne is vacant and a new leader needs to whether they were siblings, cousins, or, if unite the Empire. Within the Kingdom of the ruler bedded extramarital spouses, then Allemania, a prince has ambitious goals to half-siblings or cousins — found themselves overtake the throne. However, within the embroiled in warfare in order to expand Kingdom of Aquitaine, a fellow prince fears their respective territories or to unify the his rule to be threatened by the divided empire under their authority. overwhelming ambitions of the Prince of Territory, soldiers, and income from Allemania. The prelude to civil war is peasants are found at the root of these underway as political tensions rises within conflicts; and almost always, the ruler who the Empire. lost their share of the empire are made Several other Kingdoms of the impotent and forced to serve as bureaucrats, Empire are choosing sides and it seems that warriors, or hand servants for the the Empire is split between who to support. conquering ruler. The aristocracy plays a huge role in this Historically, these tensions between political contest, as they do have major heirs trickled down to the vassals, provincial influence within the government. governors, and viceroys that inhabit their Unfortunately, it would as seem as though land. Individual families of one of these those within the nobility have their own three parties likely have aligned themselves political gains as well whether they gain with one of the competing heirs. Those who favor on the prince they support, or they aligned with the victorious expect to gain choose to swindle the popularity of a prince power, prestige, or property; and, the bolder on their own for they own desires. Political demand the ability to retain all taxes they corruption is high as bribery and disloyalty collect and independence from the runs rampant within all the kingdoms under kingdom. Those who sided with the the Holy Roman Empire. conquered side find themselves exiled or Succession of heirs of lay rulers and loss of territory, authority, and wealth. aristocrats is often determined by a higher authority. With the exception of the Emperor himself, the ascendency of a dominant lord becomes legitimized when it

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delegated to local aristocracies. Laws and Government rulings within each region was enforced by the bishops, kings, etc. of that particular Political Structure of the Empire region. The Emperor also had the power to For 700 plus years, the Holy Roman appoint imperial officers. Under his Empire functioned as a limited elective Legislative Powers, the Emperor could monarchy. Although the Emperor was propose, approve, and promote laws. He considered to be the supreme, sovereign had the power to withhold approval for a ruler, his power was limited by the local law. However, he could not levy taxes leaders of the regions within the empire. without approval from the Imperial Diet. The Emperor’s authority was held in check The Emperor’s Judicial powers included by the Reichstag, also know as the Imperial being the ultimate judge in Germany. Diet, which was composed of the various However, he could only exercise his power duchies, princedoms, bishoprics, and as a judge in legally appointed courts. The counties, who ruled the individual states Emperor had the right of pardon, but there within Empire. Since each individual region were exceptions to the use of this power in was led by local leaders, the role of the the imperial laws. The Emperor was mainly Emperor was to be a chief arbiter, who a figurehead, which can be see from his judged interregional disputes and International powers. The Emperor represented the Empire’s interest as a represented the empire abroad, but his whole. ability to make war, peace, and alliances was According to law, the various lords very limited. and king had to serve the Emperor and thus they had to obey his authority on executive, Decentralized Political Structure legislative and judicial matters. However, as The political structure of the Holy long as the local leaders followed the Roman Empire was extremely decentralized imperial laws, the Emperor could not not only by the law or constitution but also interfere in local affairs. This political by the practices of the Emperor himself. All structure allowed all the local territories to of the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire have some sort of sovereignty. were in constant fear of being overthrown by their aristocratic subjects. Unlike the The Emperor French and Spanish Empires, where the The Emperor was at the top of the rulers seized a power, the German Holy Roman Empire hierarchy as the feudal Emperors were forced to recognize the overlord of the smaller fiefs and their local autonomy of the dukes, bishops, kings, etc. rulers. The Emperor’s powers can be When joining the empire, each lord swore outlined in four different categories, an oath, paid specific taxes, and provided Executive power, Legislative power, Judicial troops in a time of crisis. By joining this power, and International power. network of aristocratic elite, lords were As the leader of the Holy Roman buying an insurance under which their Empire, the Emperor’s executive powers sovereignty would be protected from include enforcing the laws and rulings of the foreigners and from the Emperor. If the empire. However, it is important to Emperor tried to encroach on a lord’s remember that most of this power was

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territory, then he risked provoking a crown’s power in church established the rebellion from all the other lords. divide between the two entities. Appointing bishops and abbots who The Reichstag were trusted allies to the crown was a power Serving as the legislative body of the too magnanimous to be given up by the territory, the Reichstag made laws that secular rulers. Due to the potential power of applied to all territories despite not all these these religious leaders meant access to both territories being represented. “The wealth and power, while remaining in the Reichstag was subdivided into the following good graces of both God and the Crown. three separate colleges: first being the Following Pope Gregory’s decree, back and Electoral Council, which was composed of forth on both sides resulted in multiple seven electors who nominated a candidate compromises including the later Concordat for Emperor. Second was the Council of of Worms. Princes, which represented the aristocratic Rome was engaged in yet another and theocratic local rulers within the power struggle between Pope Gregory VII Empire. The third and final college was the and Henry IV that lasted 9 years. Council of Imperial Cities.” To have a voice Representing a back and forth between the in the Reichstag, a territory would have to powers of the Church reinforced by the be deemed a state. A lord would have to canonization of St. Gregory and the political pledge his military and financial allegiance power that Henry IV, the 9 year struggle to the crown. A state could be a territory was sparked by Henry IV’s staunch owned and ruled by a duke or cities ruled by opposition to the Pope’s demands. In the Church. The rulers of these territories response the Pope excommunicated the had the ability to “dispense justice, collect emperor only to later lift the taxes and tolls, mint coins, mine for ore, etc. excommunication due to his public (Regalian rights), the right to keep knights penance. Enemies of Henry IV, particularly in one’s service and rally them to war the Germany, appointed a the Duke of (enfeoffment), the seigniorial rights (social Swabia, a rival, to the crown. A civil war status), and finally the feudal rights.” These lasting from 1077 to 1080 ensues in Henry lords were then kept in check by the IV’s victory. However, the Pope’s Emperor or the Council of Princes. sympathies lied with the Duke and were displayed due to the excommunication of Specific Political Climate Henry IV once again. An enraged Henry that intends to The political climate in 1075 marked replace the pope with the of the beginning of the struggle surrounding Ravenna, an ally as Pope Clement III. Upon religion and power that transitioned into a declaring a new Pope, Henry reassumes his struggle tied to the Catholic . power on his own accord. During this time The King and Queen’s right to investiture, Pope Gregory finds safety in the Roman or the ability to appoint an individual with a Castel Sant'Angelo. Desperate to regain his rank, was curbed by Pope Gregory’s grab at position, Pope Gregory calls for help. He power through the political decree that provides the Normans permission to rulers were no longer allowed to make conquer part of Italy while fighting of the ecclesiastical appointments. Curbing the Germans and rescuing Pope Gregory. They do so in 1804, but political climate is one of

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such violence that Pope Gregory is forced to expanded from just that of a religious hub to flee only to face his death in 1805.Taking a center of cultural and economic action the position of the , Clement III that was easily accessible for trade, as well. hold power in Rome for the 10 years Due to the opportunities Rome harboured, following. “Urban II, the pope who preaches it began to serve as a “pilgrimage for the first crusade in 1095, is not able to enter Catholics.” This trade began to expand to the holy city for several years after his cities such as Genoa, , and Venice, and election. Unrest prevails in Rome, and thus trade roots were starting to form. Due uncertainty in the empire, until the to the slow accumulation of wealth in these Hohenstaufen win the German crown in cities that were engaging in trade, they 1138.” began to gain more power in the eyes of Rome. It was these cities that housed the The Great Schism and Commune merchant classes that were seeking of Rome autonomy, and were forcing the shift in power from the aristocratic families to the In 1054, a religious schism was merchant classes. These shifts in power beginning to take root. The East-West began to take place in Rome as well. The schism, also known as the Great Schism, people began questioning and taking action took place between the East and West of to limit the power of both the Pope and the Europe based on a religious divide between nobility. Catholicism and theology. At this point the Voices such as Arnaldo da Brescia, a religion began to split Christianity into wiley preacher furthered ignited the Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. opposition against the aristocracy by voicing The initial mark of the schism is often opinions against ecclesiastical property. In determined as 1054 when Pope Leo IX and response to a call for change in the status Michael I took actions to quo, Giordani Pierleoni, a member of a excommunicate one another. consequential banking family in Rome, led The cause behind this schism was the rebellion against the aristocratic and separation in practices of the two churches papal control of the lands that would (Roman Catholicism and Eastern eventually take over the city. Upon doing so, Orthodoxy), and was then heightened by a he proceeded to establish the Commune of struggle for power between the pope and the Rome in 1143. A move towards to old style king. The Roman Pope felt as though he had of rule in the Roman Republic, the control over the four Eastern patriarchs. On commune called for the senate. One that the other hand, the patriarchs felt that the was representative of the districts of Rome power of the Roman Pope was with 56 senators, with 4 representatives inconsequential. It was this Schism that from each of the 14 districts, it was this eventually led to the formation of the senate that maintained power for 700 years. Commune of Rome. The Commune of Rome was created Following the Schism, Rome began in opposition to the power of the nobles and to take center stage as it became a religious the pope. It attempted to create a hub. It was the central area for religious government similar to the government of action for the , the residence the old Roman Republic. A move towards to of the Pope, and where the concentration of old style of rule in the Roman Republic, the power lay for the Papal states. This focus commune called for the senate. One that

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was representative of the districts of Rome using exotic greatswords. The Holy Roman with 56 senators, with 4 representatives Empire commanded an army of 20,000, of from each of the 14 districts, it was this which 2000 were armored knights. senate that maintained power for 700 years. Consequently, the majority of troops These senators elected Giordano Pierleoni fielded in any European army were levy as their leader. footmen and levy archers. Levy were men from the peasantry that had crude sense of how to wield a spear and shield or a bow and arrow. Spears were used more Military commonly over swords because it took a lot Troops, Army Composition, and less training and time to become decently Recruitment effective with a spear and shield, compared to the time necessary to learn how to use a The medieval knight, arguably one of sword effectively. The bowmen of European the most iconic historical warriors, formed armies were generally hunters or farmers in the heavy core of Western European their everyday lives as well, which armies. Although knights constituted only consequently made them already proficient 10-15% of medieval armies, they were far with the use of a bow. Crossbows also made and away the most important military unit. up a significant portion of the ranged Knights fought heavily armored and contingent of a European army because mounted on horses and functioned as shock learning to use a crossbow was incredibly troops however, in the 12th century, the easy and quick. knight was not yet covered in heavy plate The need for to quickly train a large like those of the 14th century. The knight of of group of men arose from the fact that the the mid medieval ages wore a coat of chain peasantry was generally consumed with the mail, interlocked rings of metal, for their feudal duties throughout the year i.e. protection. Over that they generally wore a being farmers, huntsmen, or basic cloth tunic with their coat of arms or that of craftsmen. The peasantry did not have the their liege. He came to battle mounted and time to train in a more professional manner equipped with lance, sword, and shield. The like the knight. lance was used in large cavalry charges to Further troops were recruited from decimate opposing infantry lines, light bands of mercenaries. These mercenary cavalry formations, or archers. Once the companies were also generally composed of melee began the knight would rely on his spearmen and archers, but often times skill with sword and shield to butches his contained a variety of other more skilled foes from his horse, or keep himself alive if troops which were often a bit more unique he became dismounted. The knight of to the home region of the mercenary europe was almost always a high born company. The twelfth century especially, because only the rich upper class of europe saw a greater increase in the use of could afford to purchase the equipment mercenaries and Europe would have a necessary to outfit a knight. However this thriving mercenary market until the did significantly limit the pool of knights reestablishment of true national that a kingdom could draw upon. The professional standing armies. knights of the Holy Roman Empire particularly excelled at fighting on foot

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Leadership and Command could be flung over the castle walls using a Medieval armies were generally lead trebuchet, as a form of psychological and by the Emperor, King, or Duke responsible biological warfare, to hasten the rate of for amassing it in the first place. From attrition from disease and loss of morale. there, sections were created based upon Finally, the army attacking a castle where the troops had come from, and were could also try to circumvent the walls of the lead by the lords of that land. For example if castle, by destroying the walls themselves, the Holy Roman Emperor amassed an army or by going over or under them. This could he would be its commander. He would then be accomplished with the help of siege distribute orders to his dukes and barons machines. One such machine is the Belfry, a who would then lead their own feudal levies wooden tower used to gain access to the into battle alongside one another. battlements (the top of the castle walls). It Siege and Combat would be wheeled up right next to the walls, Warfare in the Middle Ages could be so boarding parties could fight for a characterised by sieges and open battles. foothold in the castle. Battering rams, large, Sieges were by far the most common form of heavy wooden logs that would be propelled warfare, due to the dominance of fixed against castle walls, could knock an opening fortifications like castles. In fact, it can be in the castle walls that the attacking army said that the primary goal of medieval could enter through. warfare was wresting control of Invading armies often pillaged the fortifications. There were a number of lands around them, both to weaken the methods to defeat the defenses of a castle. economy, military potential and morale of The most basic method was the land. By burning the fields and starvation - an attacking army would murdering the livestock, enemy armies surround a castle, and wait for attrition could be starved into submission. On the through starvation, thirst, disease and other hand, defending armies could shadow desertion to lower the morale of the castle the invading forces, preventing them from enough that the defenders surrender. doing too much damage to the land, and Castles had the capability to endure sieges disrupting the supply lines of the invading for up years at a time if food was stockpiled, armies, forcing them to abandon their wells were available, and secret passageways campaigns once their capacity to live off the were dug to allow the defenders to forage at land was used up. night. Thus, this method was slow and For the most part, medieval armies costly, as it would require the besieging avoided open combat with each other - the army to be supplied for years, and the ability for armies to fight open battles was besieging army itself was also vulnerable to often more for the deterrence, rather than attrition from disease. A relief army might the actual occurrence of large scale, open also come along to break the siege. battles. However, pitched battles did occur, Hence, siege warfare also included and they were often decisive moments in the methods to hasten the surrender of the campaign, because of the difficulty of castle defenders. Trickery, bribery and disengaging from such battles - most of the diplomacy could reduce the length of time casualties occurred during routs, when before castle defenders surrendered. morale on one side broke down sufficiently Diseased corpses, both human and animal, that individual soldiers broke formation and retreated from the battle in a disorganised

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manner, allowing for cavalry on the to provide a great amount of profit towards opposing side to chase them down and the Empire. The beginning of these stem massacre them. During the High Middle from the cash payments required to be Ages, armored knights dominated the open payed to the lord when the formal battlefield. arrangement between the lord and vassal begins. These cash payments have become so overwhelming that the profits make up a Economy large percentage of the overall economy of After a long history of roman the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the economic growth as well as failure, the vassals are given land that is to be Roman Empire has now finally come to a maintained under their jurisdiction. The point of economic stability after taking upon products acquired from this land are heavily a variety of initiative to better organize taxed by the Empire and therefore, heavily structures of production and social taxed by the lords. The peasants that live on organization. These changes have grown the this land are also required to pay rent that is Roman economy further and have provided to the lords and in turn given to developed it to fit the current climate. The the kingdom in the form of taxes. distinctions in economic standings have A large part of the in the feudalism grown dramatically - leading to a greater within Roman Empire revolves around a difference between the aristocrats and the three-tier crop rotation to prevent soil peasant population which increases the exhaustion. Farmers follow a crop rotation economic development and complexity of system called “food, feed, fallow.” This an Empire through the dispersion of wealth system divides the farm into three sections, and the growth of feudalism. Similarly, rotating the sections into the next category there have been great advances in the following year. The “food” section is technology and trades with other empires where farmers plant a food grain such as around Europe and Asia. The advancements wheat, in the “feed” section barley or oats in trade are a result of the changes that were are planted as feed for livestock, and in made to the currency system, making it “fallow” the ground lays empty so that it can more appropriate for the evolving trade recover the organic matter and nutrients dynamic. that were lost in the previous years. Previously, the farmers had left halve of Feudalism their fields lay fallow each year and then Feudalism has taken the Empire by switched between fallow and planted fields storm and has become the most important intermittently. This left half of the land part of society in a social and economic unused. The three-field system allows for manner. This term is referred to when a lord less unused land and more fodder for gives his most trusted men, the vassals, land draught animals, leading to more manure and power over all the people living within for the soil. This system is more efficient the lord’s domain, in return for loyalty to and produces greater taxable goods, than the lord, a promised share of taxes, and the two-tiered system that was utilized military support whenever needed. The previously and also provides a balance economic ramifications of this social between individual initiative and governed agreement are plenty and have been shown law. Also, the long warming cycle has come to a peak during this time and has allowed

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for the Mediterranean Empires to plant textile weaving, etc.4 Moreover, the crops that had previously only grown in the wheelbarrow has made construction and south, in the north as well. This has transport of materials a much easier task increased the overall agricultural with the fields of construction, mining production and thus has grown the operations, and agriculture. All of these economy overall. The warm climate has also technological advances directly correlate given farmers the ability to plant earlier in with the growing economy the Empire is the spring without the fear of frost killing witnessing currently. The advances shown their crops and also, keep their crops in the through each of these items replaces human fields into October. The longer growing labor and reduces the effort and time that it season has contributed to higher yields will take to carry out the same processes across the Empire. All of these factors have without the machinery. WIthout these led to an increase in the number of advances, the economy would be at a fiefdoms, making it more difficult, yet standstill as it’s growth can be directly important to maintain the delicate balance correlated with the growth of the Empire between the aristocracy and the peasants. and its methods.3

Technology Commerce and Trade Advances in technology have helped The Empire relies heavily on trade grow the agriculture industry in the Empire. for its economy to prosper, mostly between The light “scratch plows” being used in the China and India. The sea routes cover the south were not effective throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea, in addition to Empire, which required for there to be a the numerous land routes using the roads change to heavier iron plows. This was also that have been built by the Empire for trade brought upon by the recent expansion of and the movement of the Roman Army. iron welding throughout Europe. This Most of the trade is conducted via shipping expansion has increased the efficiency of because transporting goods on land has yokes and harnesses for oxen, shoes for proved to be expensive and often dangerous. horses, the wheelbarrow, and the increased Constant “police” protection, through the usage of iron hand tools. The iron advances Liburnian galleys and the Roman navy, over can also be seen in the new building the Mediterranean Sea allows for Roman materials, such as nails, hinges, and fittings. ships to travel without the fear of pirates as Not only are these items being used within that posed a very large issue in the past. the Empire, they are also being exported to Also, lighthouses have been built, along with other nations throughout Europe and Asia. safe harbors and docks in order to enhance Along with the advances in iron usage, there the protection of the Roman fleet and its have been advances in wind and water mills. workers from pirates in the Mediterranean These new mills provide more efficient Sea. Trade has been made as easy and power as they reduce cost and provide more convenient as possible by only utilizing one power than previous methods. The mills are currency and removing the complication of greatly useful for grinding grain into flour, custom dues. Trade has been encouraged but can also be used for other purposes that due to the many years of peace within the apply the same principle. These include Empire and is vital to the successful sawing lumber, powering machines for economy it boasts.

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There has been a lot of trade the state of the union and our impending between Rome and China and India for the civil war. As the influx of taxes slows down, use of their spices and exotic goods that are the commodities produced within the not available within the Empire. In turn for empire are running out of funding. The these goods, the Roman Empire exports its farmers revolting has turned the empire flour and grains, as well as iron goods and upon itself where each layer is blaming the Roman wine, olive oil, pottery, and papyrus, other. The farmers have been mistreated that are not readily available within the two and over taxed for decades now and they are countries. finally standing up against the vassals. The vassals have this pressure due to the lords Rising Conflicts Between Social and their extreme greed and need to fulfill Classes their given quotas. Overall, the cycle is catastrophic and must be resolved The Holy Roman Empire runs upon immediately. The laborers have gone on feudalistic policies where a lord gives his strike and the plantations are inherently most trusted men, the vassals, land and failing. This is a tragedy as the crops are power over all the people living within the going to absolute waste, yet there is nothing lord’s domain, in return for loyalty to the that can be done as the division of labor is lord, a promised share of taxes, and military so absolute within the empire. Only the support whenever needed. The economic laborers know the proper farming ramifications of this social agreement are techniques and the newest advances in the plenty and have been shown to provide a agricultural industry. The empire is now left great amount of profit towards the Empire. to fend for itself through a civil war and all However, the balance between the layers is of its allies and enemies looking down upon crucial and that is currently at stake. Due to it. the feudalistic system, the difference within The civil war is between the farmers classes of people has become extremely and their superiors, the vassals and the evident and the balance is being loosely lords. The vassals and lords are continuing maintained by the lords and their vassals to maintain a relatively balanced and the workers that tend the land. As a relationship. This is facilitated through the result, there is a clear shortage in certain relationship that the vassals and lords have grains and taxable goods throughout the fostered over the years as well as the country. The workers are revolting against intelligence on part of the lords to emplace the vassals and their constant increase in their friends within high parts of their own taxation of the crops they sow and for that feudalistic empires. The issue at hand is the reason there is an uprising against the negotiation with the laborers from the vassals and the lords. The balance has been vassals and lords. Although some feudalistic squandered and it has been proven to be an “empires” have begun speaking and extremely difficult time for the empire as negotiating terms, there are others that are taxation decreases and exportable goods are resisting negotiation and would like to split unavailable. away from their current situation and take The reduction in taxes has reduced over the plantation as their own. This would the economic growth of the empire within be an incredible loss for the empire and the eyes of all of Europe. The empire is instigate great issues throughout the land as losing its power as the other empires realize well as throughout Europe. The negotiation

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process must be successful and the demands religious nature of Medieval societies. The must be met in a reasonable manner. Pope was the most powerful and influential figure in the church. Bishops were the highest ranking church officials below the Social Life pope. They were often wealthy and Social Classes considered apart nobility. Next were Priests, While most social distinctions fell who worked directly with the people. They along the lines drawn by feudalism, a few administered sacraments, absolved sins, groups and classes existed outside of the collected taxes, and kept records. Below the system. At the very top of the social system priests were , who lived separately in was the royalty. The king had the most monasteries. Monks devoted their lives to power and controlled all of the land, making education and often scribed copies of the him the prime lord in all lord-vassal Bible. were considered at the lowest relationships. Queens, princesses, and level of the church. Young and old women princes were also included in this class. alike were sent to converts to learn their Directly below the royalty were the duties. Nuns primarily taught people how to nobility. Dukes and Duchesses were read and write. hereditarily connected to the royal family, and thus were responsible for ruling their Religion own province. Barons were also related to Christianity was the only recognized the royal class by blood. They were the religion in the Holy Roman Empire by 1147 primary vassals the Middle Ages. While and dominated the everyday lives of Barons controlled their own manors and individuals. Everyone at the time believed in had knights below them, their first and God. People often prayed multiple times a foremost job was to serve the king. Barons day and attended church on a daily basis. had the chance to earn more land and a Matters from birth to the afterlife— higher social title depending on their to the absolution of sins—were controlled by relationship with the king. Knights were the the Catholic Church. only group considered in the nobility The Church also held legal power in without a hereditary relationship with the Medieval Europe. The Church had power on royal family. matters regarding religious offenses, like The remaining 90 percent of people heresy, sorcery, apostasy, and sexual sins. It were considered in the peasant class. even had jurisdiction over family law, Peasants could be freemen, who were poor regarding the legitimacy of children, the farmers that sold just enough goods to live. recording of marriages, wills, and personal Serfs were also considered peasants. Serfs, property. as mentioned before, were at the bottom of the feudal hierarchy. Lastly, a few societies Social Mobility had slaves, who were individuals bought Social mobility in the Holy Roman Empire and sold into labor. was extremely limited. This was in part due While the Church was considered to the religiosity of the times. People often somewhat separated from the attributed their socioeconomic standing to aforementioned system, it was, at the same the will of God, which could not be time, deeply entangled because of the highly questioned. Generally, an individual stayed

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in the social class that he or she was born While royal queens and princesses lived into. Upward movement was rare, and often lavishly in castles, peasant mothers and took generations to accomplish. Peasants daughters tended to the land and assisted in and townspeople could only improve their specialized labor. Poorer families and standing within their own tier. Peasants, for communities needed women’s work for example, could live more comfortable lives survival, which granted women in lower with financial planning, hard work, and social strata more agency and freedom. luck. After an especially harsh winter in Marriage and the Catholic Church the previous year 1146, women were pushed were the main avenues for upward mobility. to work beyond the home and contribute A townsman could try marry his daughter more to town centers. This changed the off to a knight, securing a better life for the standard among guilds to purposefully next generation. A townsman could also exclude women. Women joined tasks attempt to enter the Church and climb the ranging from metalworking to soapmaking, ranks there. These options were only yet they were always in a secondary position available to wealthy townspeople, not to the to men working in the same field. As a peasant class. Therefore, any type of upward result, women shifted from more movement was small and restricted. traditionally male labor to spinning, weaving, and embroidery in hopes of Women gaining more control over their work. Women had very little political, social, or Spinning is the process of turning economic agency in the Middle Ages. raw materials into thread, which could be Legally, they were not allowed to own a later made into textiles. In the Middle Ages, property, marry without their parents’ spinning was the traditional task for permission, divorce their husbands, own a women, hence the term spinster. Most of business, nor inherit land if they had any the work is in the preparation, while the surviving brothers. actual act of spinning the material can be Most women lived on the done idly. The tool used for spinning was countryside as peasants. There, in addition called a distaff, which turned into a symbol to working on the farm, women were for femininity and womanhood in art. responsible for housework like cooking, Towns developed textile guilds for cleaning, and sewing. Their social standing women to sharpen their spinning, weaving, was also limited in towns and villages since and embroidery skills. However. given the trade guilds did not allow women to join. If chance to head their own trade guilds, they wanted to work outside of the home women express their dissatisfaction with the they could only assist men in practices like status quo. These trade guilds developed brewing, and maintaining livestock. more into a union of women workers. They Covenants offered women the chance to believed that their textiles were being receive an education, but at a price. If a bought for less than their true value at the woman chose to become a , she trading posts simply because it was being essentially married the Church and produced by women. Unsurprisingly, the therefore could not start her own family. men at the trading posts resented the higher Growing Women’s Movement bartering prices for textiles. The growing discontent in these countryside towns eventually reached the

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owner of the land. He has the ability to would likely not take much to provoke suppress the growing women’s movement either side. Maybe all that is needed is an and dissolve the textile guilds, he is unsure overly ambitious duke. for how long. In the meantime, the textile guilds are only growing in size and strength. Seljuk Sultanate There is a very apparent conflict International between the Seljuks and the Romans, all stemming from the inherent nature of man Relations to conquer various lands. The Seljuks had taken the Emperor of the (Holy) Roman Empire as a prisoner, only to release him Kingdom of France after a ransom was paid. Moreover, the There has been a long and often weaker the empire grows and the more bloody history between the duchies and defenseless it seems, the Seljuk power territories of the Holy Roman Empire and directly increase and their empire grows those of France. However for most of the stronger through domination in the realm. 12th century the Emperors of the Holy The Romans do not agree with the practices Roman Empire have been far more favored in the Seljuk domain. concerned with the subjugation of the The capture of the Roman Emperor Italian states under the banner of the Holy was not taken lightly throughout the (Holy) Roman Empire than they have been with Roman Empire. There are great feelings of attacking their Frank neighbors. Similarly disgust and hatred towards the Seljuk the Kingdom of France has been concerned Sultanate that have grown into revolts and far more concerned with the power struggle protests, urging the Emperor and all of the between itself and the Kingdom of England, Empire to take action against the Seljuks due to the claims that Henry I has on a and their atrocities against the (Holy) variety of different French duchies. France Roman Empire. has also been heavily involved in the first crusade and due to these two conflicts there has been little time to focus on their Christian brothers to the east. While the (Holy) Roman Empire and However this does not mean that the the Byzantine Empire got off to a rocky start Holy Roman Empire and the Kingdom of early in their history, they have become France are allies or even on good terms. increasingly more aligned through their There is constant tension along the border shared enmity of Normans and history in between these two states especially as the the Crusades. At the start of the 12th century, respective duchies encroach on one several marriages between noblemen and another's lands due to a lack of officially noblewomen of the (Holy) Roman Empire recognized borders on both sides. and the Byzantine Empire, however, most of Consequently the attitude between these them failed to reach full recognition. The two states can be described as wary of each cold relations between the (Holy) Roman other at best or bordering on outright Empire and the Byzantine Empire have violent hostilities at worst. Although the two gradually begun to thaw, but many in the states have not gone to war in some time it

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Empire caution against calling the because of Catholic prejudice towards the Byzantines our allies. Islamic faith. The alliance was mainly Although the Papal States emerged political, thus it was unable to stitch from their rejection of the Byzantine together the religious hate between the two Empire, the two parties hold relatively good empire. Politically, the alliance was relations. Lay rulers of the Byzantine favorable militarily to prevent any conflict Empire often assisted the Papal States in between the two, yet the religious divide warding off or pushing out invading between the was the hardest to agree upon. Normans from southern Italy; the Papal States guided the religious practices within Fatimid Caliphate the Byzantine Empire. However, since the The Fatimid Caliphate was a Shia East-West Schism, the relations between the Islamic caliphate from 909 to 1171. The papacy and the religions players in the caliphate spanned from the Red Sea in the Byzantine Empire raised tensions between east to Atlantic Ocean in the west and these two parties. dominated a large portion of North Africa and the Middle East. After conquering Abbasid Caliphate Egypt in the Middle East in 969, Cairo Before the establishment of the became the capital of the empire and the Abbasid Caliphate, the Carolingians had a political, cultural, and religious center of the hostile relationship with the Islamic empire. From 780 to 1180, the Fatimid Caliphates mainly because of the Umayyad Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire fought expansion into Spain and the Gaul. The a series of wars for power in the Eastern Islamic expansion had only been stopped by Mediterranean. During this time, the Holy Charles Martel, one of the great generals Roman Empire was an ally to the Byzantine from the Carolingian Empire. After the fall Empire against the Fatimid Caliphate. of the Umayyads, the Holy Roman Empire Throughout the history of the decided to create better relations with the Byzantine – Arab Wars, the Holy Roman new Islamic Caliphate, the Abbasids, in Empire served as an ally to the Byzantines order to prevent another hostile expansion multiple times. In 861, Basil I, the Byzantine into Europe. Embassies were established by Emperor, allied with Holy Roman Emperor great rulers such as Charlemagne and Louis II against the Arabs and cleared the Harun Al-Rashid, which established a Arab fleets and their raids from the Adriatic political and military alliance between the Sea. During the Crusades, the Holy Roman two. Empire also aided the Byzantine Empire Religiously, the two empire were against the Arabs. conflicted as tensions were inevitable

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