PERSPECTIVES ON HOUSING, USERS AND THE EXPANSION OF DESIGN ANTTI PIRINEN ANTTI PIRINEN, born in 1972, holds a Master of Arts degree in Spatial Design from the University of Art and Design Helsinki. As a design researcher at Aalto University, he has been working in multidisciplinary projects where approaches from user-centred design are applied to the development of housing and the living environment. He is particularly interested in the conceptual and strategic aspects of housing design. PERSPECTIVES ON HOUSING, USERS AND THE EXPANSION OF DESIGN ANTTI PIRINEN DWELLING AS PRODUCT DWELLING AS ANTTI PIRINEN DWELLI NG AS PRO DUCT PERSPECT IVES ON HOUSI NG, USERS AN D THE EXPA NSION OF DESIG N ANTTI PIRINEN

Aalto University publication series DWELLI NG DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS 12/2014

Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture Aalto ARTS Books Helsinki AS PRO DUCT books.aalto.fi

GRAPHIC DESIGN UHQ (Tuomas Kortteinen & Jaakko Suomalainen)

MATERIALS Munken Print White 100 g, Colorit 270 g & 160 g

FONTS PERSPECT IVES Geffrye Sans & Sans Mono ISBN 978-952-60-5544-2 ISBN 978-952-60-5545-9 (PDF) ISSN-L 1799-4934 ISSN 1799-4934 ISSN 1799-4942 (PDF)

ON HOUSI NG, © Antti Pirinen

Unigrafia Helsinki USERS AN D 2014 THE EXPA NSION OF DESIG N ABSTRACT 9 TIIVISTELMÄ 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13

1 Introduction 16

1.1 Housing as a systemic design problem 19 1.2 Discourse on user-centred housing in Finland 25 1.3 The individualisation and commodification of housing 28 1.4 The focus and objectives of the study 32

2 The research approach 38

2.1 Positioning the study 41 2.2 Research questions 44 2.3 Research strategy 46 2.4 Data and analysis methods 49 2.5 Research process and dissertation structure 52 CONTENTS 79

91

64 92 74 101 61 57

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78 59 67 67 71 106

81 69 57

3 54 80 Dwelling in transformation Dwelling in Dwelling as a hierarchically layered systemic artefact systemic layered Dwelling as a hierarchically in the market product Dwelling as a differentiable Dwelling as an evolutionary realm CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND THE NOTION OF CONCEPT OF NOTION THE AND DESIGN CONCEPTUAL Conceptual design The notion of concept in design dwelling product Concept and the systemic DWELLING OF PRODUCTNESS THE UNDERSTANDING CHALLENGES FACED BY ARCHITECTURE BY FACED CHALLENGES of building The fragmentation housing individual more demand for Responses to the DESIGN OF EXPANSION THE and user experience design User-centred process Opening of the design of the scope of design Broadening in industry and the society Repositioning of design of dwelling impacting the design Tensions practice architectural The polarisation of in architecture Dilemmas of participatory design

3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.1.1 3.1.4 3.2 3.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 4 Production perspective: The commodified dwelling 118

4.1 TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY AND MANUFACTURING 121 4.1.1 Modularity and seriality as vehicles of commodification 121 4.1.2 Digitalisation and the drive towards the smart home 123 4.1.3 Transition to flexible and collaborative manufacturing 126

4.2 HOUSING CONCEPTS AND THE COMMODIFICATION OF HOUSING IN FINLAND 130 4.2.1 Shaping of the industrial urban dwelling into product 130 4.2.2 The emergence of housing concepts 137 4.2.3 Previous research and definitions 139 4.2.4 Studying the concepts 141

4.3 HOUSING CONCEPTS AS COMPOSITE MEDIATIVE PRODUCTS 143 4.3.1 The case concepts: Aktiivikoti, BoKlok, PlusKoti, Neo-loft and Loppukiri 143 4.3.2 The composition of the concepts and the strategies employed by them 155 4.3.3 Housing concepts as mediation between users, production and design 162

4.4 USERS AND DESIGN IN RESIDENTIAL PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 169 4.4.1 The value creation process and organisation of product development in the industry 169 4.4.2 User knowledge and agency of users in market-driven housing production 171 4.4.3 Developers’ perceptions of users and of the diversification of demand 174 4.4.4 The dwelling product: Differentiation, expansion and standardisation 178 4.4.5 Architectural design and new design tasks 184 4.4.6 Three phases of emergence of the dwelling product 187 4.4.7 Bottlenecks of diversification in housing production 188 CONTENTS

5 User perspective: The experienced dwelling 198

5.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN USERS AND THE DWELLING PRODUCT 201 5.1.1 Everyday experience of dwelling and the quest for congruence 201 5.1.2 Strategies of producers: The construction of user into dwelling 204 5.1.3 Strategies of users: The construction of dwelling by use 216

5.2 PROBING THE USER EXPERIENCE 219 5.2.1 Overview of the user study 219 5.2.2 The participants 220 5.2.3 Approaching the data 222

5.3 THE DWELLING PRODUCT AS DEFINED BY USERS 226 5.3.1 Dwelling as a bundle of valuable attributes 226 5.3.2 The material composition of the attributes 238 5.3.3 Questioning the standard dwelling 246

5.4 USERS’ STRATEGIES FOR SEEKING FIT 254 5.4.1 Adaptive strategies 255 5.4.2 Material reflections 272 5.4.3 Systemic pathways 282 6 Conclusion: A design perspective to dwelling 296

6.1 Dwelling as product 299 6.2 Designing the dwelling product 316 6.3 The housing system revisited 325 6.4 Reliability and validity of the study 327 6.5 Seeds for further research 331

REFERENCES 337 APPENDIX 1. Description of the case projects 350 APPENDIX 2. List of participants to the user study 352 APPENDIX 3. Contents of the user study 354 8 11 Abstract The commodification of housing and introduction The commodification of housing and introduction The first case shows that housing concepts in concepts in The first case shows that housing The study develops a systems approach to to approach a systems The study develops methods of user-centred The study applies user-initiated concepts primarily aim at solving social needs. user-initiated concepts primarily user engagement, and the degree to which they determine the to which they determine the user engagement, and the degree study with 44 residents. standardisation/replication and differentiation/personalisation differentiation/personalisation and standardisation/replication study grounded on empirical data where the focus is on urban urban is on the focus data where on empirical study grounded layered physical artefact, as an intentionally differentiable artefact, differentiable physical as an intentionally layered design as value search and catalyst of social transformations. and catalyst search as value design of duplicable housing concepts have led to the emergence of of led to the emergence of duplicable housing concepts have in the housing industry. The design as a practice concept design building traditional has expanded beyond of dwelling thereby design of a singular housing project. The concepts mediate the The concepts mediate the of a singular housing project. design on rely concepts typically of housing solutions. Commercial evidenced by five housing concepts realised in Finland and in Finland and housing concepts realised evidenced by five design research to the field of housing. It is a qualitative case case is a qualitative of housing. It to the field research design dwelling, building understanding of dwelling as a composite understanding of dwelling as a composite dwelling, building change and concurrent expansion of design activity to housing. housing. to activity design of expansion concurrent and change at the everyday user experience of dwelling in light of a user of a user in light of dwelling user experience at the everyday adaptive product embedded in the material environment that that environment embedded in the material product adaptive framework Its theoretical housing system. actors within the and locatedness increasingly resembles other industrial industrial other resembles increasingly locatedness and the market are constructed as bundles of attributes aiming of attributes aiming constructed as bundles are the market technological innovation such as mass customisation whereas mass customisation whereas such as technological innovation to provide a benefit to the user. The concepts operate within within concepts operate to the user. The a benefit provide to by singling out and proposing of built form the hierarchy to them. to be valuable to consumers elements anticipated the interviews of residential developers. The second case looks looks case The second developers. of residential the interviews that are analysed through the same theoretical framework. framework. theoretical same the through analysed that are the perspectives of industrial production, users and design. design. and users production, industrial of perspectives the it as an object of design. The study commits to a definition of of a definition to commits study The object of design. an as it is based on the examination of dwelling as a hierarchically as a hierarchically is based on the examination of dwelling housing in Finland. The study comprises two empirical cases two empirical cases housing in Finland. The study comprises requirements of production and users by simultaneously serving serving and users by simultaneously of production requirements product in the market, and as an evolutionary realm. and as an evolutionary in the market, product mediates the intentions of producers, designers, users and other users and other designers, of producers, mediates the intentions products. This suggests a need for the reconceptualisation of of the reconceptualisation suggests a need for This products. addresses the implications of social and technological technological and social of the implications It addresses There is variation in their material “depth”, their extent of “depth”, their extent of in their material is variation There The first case explores the commodification of dwelling as as the commodification of dwelling The first case explores central proposition is that dwelling despite its singularity its singularity is that dwelling despite proposition The central The dissertation investigates dwelling as a product from from product a as dwelling dissertationThe investigates design. However, the study identifies several bottlenecks in the residential development process that hinder diffusion of new concepts and diversification of the offering. The second case attests that users as well describe their dwelling as a bundle of valuable attributes. Individual persons depending on their preferences, needs and life situation value the attributes of dwelling differently. Users also employ creative strategies of their own for adapting the dwelling product to their valuable ends. Dwellings delivered by the production system in this way continue to change. The study highlights the reciprocal relationship between users and dwellings and the importance of the inclusion of the specific dwelling artefacts to research on residents’ needs. The existing offering of housing and features of their past and present dwellings impact people’s experience of dwelling. Everyday life brings contingency into the relationship which erodes the possibility of complete user-specificity in dwelling. The results indicate that dwelling as a product and object of design extends beyond housing architecture, constituting a heterogeneous composite of designable elements with varying degree of materiality distributed across the levels of built form, including aspects related to technology, services, the community and ownership. The elements serve the strategies of producers and users with individual variation in their meaning and value. Design here can target a specific element or integrate valuable elements across the system. The study contributes to the practical problem area of user- centred diversification of urban housing production by opening up the potential of conceptual and strategic design in housing. 12 13 - - - -

TIIVISTELMÄ Asunto tuotteena: tuotteena: Asunto Näkökulmia asuntorakentamiseen, asuntorakentamiseen, Näkökulmia käyttäjiin laajenemiseen ja muotoilun Ensimmäinen tapaus osoittaa, että markkinoilla Ensimmäinen tapaus osoittaa, että markkinoilla Tutkimuksessa sovelletaan käyttäjäkeskeisen käyttäjäkeskeisen Tutkimuksessa sovelletaan Tutkimus kehittää systeemistä lähestymis­ systeemistä Tutkimus kehittää muksessa muotoilu ja suunnittelu määrittyvät laajasti laajasti määrittyvät suunnittelu ja muotoilu ­muksessa saman teoreettisen kehikon kautta. Ensiksi kuvataan asumisen asumisen Ensiksi kuvataan kautta. kehikon saman teoreettisen levat. Asumiskonseptit välittävät ja yhteensovittavat tuo ja yhteensovittavat välittävät Asumiskonseptit levat. lijoiden, asukkaiden ja muiden asuntojärjestelmän toimijoiden ja muiden asuntojärjestelmän toimijoiden lijoiden, asukkaiden esiin ja ehdottaen kuluttajille sellaisia asumisen osatekijöitä, esiin ja ehdottaen kuluttajille sellaisia asumisen osatekijöitä, olevat asumiskonseptit muodostavat ominaisuuskimppuja, ominaisuuskimppuja, muodostavat asumiskonseptit olevat tasoilla nostaen ympäristön hierarkisilla rakennetun operoivat evoluutionomaisesti kehittyvänä kokonaisuutena. evoluutionomaisesti kehittyvänä laadullinen tapaus­ on empiiriseen aineistoon pohjautuva asuntorakentamiseen. Tutkimuksen keskeinen väite on, että että on, väite Tutkimuksen keskeinen asuntorakentamiseen. arvon etsimisenä ja sosiaalisten muutosten käynnistäjänä. arvon etsimisenä ja sosiaalisten muutosten asumisen jokapäiväistä käyttökokemusta 44 asukkaan kanssa kanssa 44 asukkaan käyttökokemusta asumisen jokapäiväistä yksittäisyydestään ja paikallisuudestaan huolimatta asunto asunto huolimatta ja paikallisuudestaan yksittäisyydestään yksittäisen asuntorakentamiskohteen suunnitteluun vaihte asuntorakentamiskohteen yksittäisen tapaa asumiseen. Siinä rakennetaan ymmärrystä asunnosta asunnosta ymmärrystä tapaa asumiseen. Siinä rakennetaan tutkimus, joka rajautuu kaupunkimaiseen asumiseen Suomessa. asumiseen Suomessa. kaupunkimaiseen rajautuu tutkimus, joka asumiskonseptin tuotteistumista viiden Suomessa toteutetun tarkasteluun hierarkisesti järjestyneenä fyysisenä artefaktina, järjestyneenä fyysisenä hierarkisesti tarkasteluun ja tuotteena kaupallisena olevana erilaistettavissa tietoisesti tavoitteita. Työn teoreettinen viitekehys pohjautuu asunnon asunnon pohjautuu viitekehys teoreettinen Työn tavoitteita. teita. Tämä avaa uusia tapoja käsittää ne suunnittelun kohteena. ne suunnittelun kohteena. uusia tapoja käsittää avaa teita. Tämä tannon, käyttäjien ja muotoilun näkökulmista. Työ pyrkii pyrkii Työ ja muotoilun näkökulmista. tannon, käyttäjien toteutetun käyttäjätutkimuksen valossa. kuvaamaan sosiaalisen ja teknologisen muutoksen ja niihin ja niihin sosiaalisen ja teknologisen muutoksen kuvaamaan laajenemisen vaikutuksia muotoilutoiminnan kytkeytyvän muotoiluntutkimuksen menetelmiä asumisen kentälle. Kyseessä Kyseessä kentälle. muotoiluntutkimuksen menetelmiä asumisen moniaineksisena adaptiivisena tuotteena, joka on upottunut upottunut on joka tuotteena, adaptiivisena moniaineksisena suunnitte tuottajien, materiaaliseen ympäristöön ja välittää joilla oletetaan olevan heille arvoa. Konseptien materiaalinen materiaalinen arvoa. Konseptien heille joilla oletetaan olevan jotka pyrkivät tarjoamaan asukkaalle jonkin edun. Konseptit jonkin edun. Konseptit tarjoamaan asukkaalle pyrkivät jotka ja asuntokehittäjien haastattelujen kautta. Toiseksi luodataan luodataan Toiseksi haastattelujen kautta. asuntokehittäjien ja ja asuminen muistuttavat yhä enemmän muita teollisia tuot­ yhä enemmän muita ja asuminen muistuttavat Väitöskirjassa tarkastellaan asuntoa tuotteena teollisen tuo asuntoa tuotteena tarkastellaan Väitöskirjassa Tutkimus sisältää kaksi empiiristä tapausta, joita analysoidaan analysoidaan joita tapausta, empiiristä kaksi sisältää Tutkimus Tutki “syvyys”, käyttäjäosallistamisen aste ja määräävyys suhteessa suhteessa käyttäjäosallistamisen“syvyys”, aste ja määräävyys tannon ja käyttäjien vaatimuksia, palvellen samanaikaisesti asunto­tuotteiden vakiointia/toistettavuutta ja erilaistamista/ personoitavuutta. Rakennusliikkeiden tarjoamat konseptit tyypil­lisesti hyödyntävät tuotannollisia ja teknologisia inno- vaatioita kuten massaräätälöintiä, kun taas käyttäjien itsensä aloitteesta syntyneillä konsepteilla pyritään ensisijaisesti rat- kaisemaan sosiaalisia tarpeita. Asumisen tuotteistuminen ja toistettavat asumis­ konseptit ovat johtaneet konseptisuunnittelun lähestymis­ tapojen omaksumiseen asuntoteollisuudessa. Asumisen suunnittelu on siten laajentunut perinteisen rakennussuunnit- telun ulkopuolelle. Tutkimus kuitenkin osoittaa, että nykyi- sessä asuntokehitysprosessissa on useita pullonkauloja, jotka hidastavat uusien konseptien leviämistä ja asuntotarjonnan monipuolistamista. Tutkimuksen toinen empiirinen tapaus vahvistaa, että myös käyttäjät kuvaavat asuntoaan arvokkaiden ominai- suuksien yhdistelmänä. Yksittäiset ihmiset henkilökohtaisista preferensseistään, tarpeistaan ja elämäntilanteestaan riippuen arvottavat asunnon ja asuinympäristön yhteisiä osatekijöitä eri tavoin. Käyttäjät myös hyödyntävät yksilöllisiä luovia stra- tegioita asuntonsa muokkaamiseksi arvokkaiksi kokemiensa päämäärien mukaisiksi. Tällä tavoin tuotantojärjestelmän toi- mittamat asunnot jatkavat muuntumistaan elinkaarensa aikana. Käyttäjätutkimuksen tulokset korostavat asukkaiden ja asun- tojen suhteen vastavuoroisuutta ja spesifien asuntoartefaktien­ huomioimisen tärkeyttä asukkaiden tarpeita ja kokemuksia tutkittaessa. Olemassa oleva asuntotarjonta sekä omien aiem- pien ja nykyisten asuntojen käsinkosketeltavat muotoillut ominaisuudet vaikuttavat ihmisten asumiskokemukseen. Joka- päiväinen elämä tuo suhteeseen satunnaisuutta, mikä estää täydellisen yhteensopivuuden saavuttamista asumisessa. Väitöskirja osoittaa, että asunto tuotteena ulot- tuu asuntoarkkitehtuuria laajemmalle, muodostaen heterogee- nisen yhdistelmän muotoiltavissa olevia, materiaalisuuden asteeltaan vaihtelevia elementtejä, jotka sijoittuvat raken- netun ympäristön eri tasoille sisältäen myös teknologiaan, palveluihin, yhteisöön tai omistajuuteen liittyviä tekijöitä. Asunto­tuotteen elementit palvelevat tuottajien ja käyttä- jien strategioita ja niiden arvo ja merkitykset määrittyvät osin yksilöllisesti. Muotoilu tässä systeemisessä tuotteessa voi kohdistua monin eri tavoin, esimerkiksi tiettyyn osaseen tai pyrkien yhdistämään useita asukkaalle arvoa tuottavia element­tejä. Tutkimus tuottaa uutta tietoa urbaanin asunto- tuotannon kehittämiseksi avaamalla erityisesti käsitteellisen ja strategisen suunnittelun mahdollisuuksia asumisen ihmis- keskeisessä monipuolistamisessa. 14 15 Acknowledgements Gradually this all began to take the shape of a the shape of a this all began to take Gradually My academic home between the years 2007 2007 years the between home academic My In retrospect, I already embarked upon the upon the embarked I already In retrospect, uncertainties easier to bear. easier uncertainties Urban and Regional Studies, of which opportunity I thank of which opportunity I thank Urban and Regional Studies, group at the Aalto University School of Arts, Design and and School of Arts, at the Aalto University Design group follow has sometimes disappeared into thin air or led to a cul- thin air or led into sometimes disappeared has follow for his vital help and advice during the accomplishment. accomplishment. the during advice and help vital his for fringes of design research and housing studies, I have navigated navigated I have studies, and housing research fringes of design of the dissertation and to my general academic wellbeing. of the dissertation academic wellbeing. and to my general conceptual in architecture and design, to Professor Anna- to Professor and design, conceptual in architecture thank to like should I dissertation. foremost, and First doctoral development during this period. I am grateful to late Professor to late Professor during this period. I am grateful development conceptual design thinking. conceptual design de-sac, other times taken a sudden turn to reveal breathtaking breathtaking to reveal a sudden turn times taken de-sac, other expedition for over a decade ago, during master’s studies ago, during master’s studies a decade over expedition for well as his humane wisdom have eased the work and made its eased the work and made its well as his humane wisdom have working in-between academia and industry in explorative industry in explorative working in-between academia and with the help of two guiding lights: human-centredness and and human-centredness two guiding lights: with the help of and 2011 was the Design Connections Doctoral Programme Programme Doctoral Connections Design the was 2011 and a vast, partly uncharted territory. The path that I have set to partly set to uncharteda vast, I have The path that territory. at the Department of Design. The director of the programme, programme, the of director The Departmentthe at Design. of at Tampere University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, of Technology, University at Tampere about everything new. Jan Verwijnen for first opening my eyes to the power of the the first opening my eyes to the power of Jan Verwijnen for to Professor Jarmo Suominen for his unwavering enthusiasm enthusiasm his unwavering Jarmo Suominen for to Professor in spatial design at the then University of Art and Design of Artthe then University at and Design in spatial design in the conceptual aspects of design. This eventually led to a led to a This eventually aspects of design. in the conceptual research projects where approaches of user-centred design design of user-centred approaches where projects research provided by the Graduate School of Housing Studies and Social Social and Studies Housing of School Graduate the by provided my thesis advisor Panu Lehtovuori, Professor of Planning Theory of Planning Lehtovuori, Professor my thesis advisor Panu research were applied to living environment and to the field of of and to the field to living environment applied were research into the Living Places research housing. The unit later evolved researcherly career in the university’s Future Home Institute, Home Institute, Future the university’s in career researcherly new sceneries. On my sometimes lonely wandering on the the wandering on On my sometimes lonely new sceneries. Change, run by Helsinki University of Technology’s Centre for for Centre of Technology’s Change, run by Helsinki University Professor Turkka Keinonen and its coordinator, Professor Keinonen and its coordinator, Professor Turkka Professor had a crucial impact to the advancement have Maarit Mäkelä Panu’s extensive knowledge on architecture and urbanism as as urbanism and on architecture knowledge extensive Panu’s Maija Ylimaula for believing in me at a critical moment, and in me at a critical moment, and believing Maija Ylimaula for Helsinki, when I got interested in housing and dwelling and and dwelling housing and in interested got Helsinki, when I Another forum for reflecting the research in its early stages was stages was in its early the research reflecting for Another forum Architecture. Several persons were important to my professional important professional to my persons were Several Architecture. The work at hand feels but one milestone on a journey across on a journey across one milestone but at hand feels The work Mervi Ilmonen. Professors Ilpo Koskinen and Pekka Korvenmaa were the key persons in the final stage of the project. During the data collection period I was employed in three projects funded by the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation (Tekes), the Finnish Ministry of the Environment and several companies. The projects were Erilaistuva asuminen (Diversification in Housing), Asiakkuuden hallinta asumisessa (Managing Customership in Housing), and 24 Living. I should like to thank all the participants of the projects, especially Matti Tarhio, Niina Savolainen and Tero Vanhanen, as well as the 44 residents who freely offered their time for the user study. Kirsi Turkia and Renita Niemi conducted most of the user interviews with skill. Thanks are also due to Susanna Sucksdorff, Monica Aro and Antti Pirhonen for sharing their knowledge and insights on housing development in interviews conducted in 2011. Moreover, I am grateful to architect Pia Ilonen and Loppukiri resident Sirkka Minkkinen for valuable information. The beginning of the writing process was made possible by a grant awarded by the Finnish Cultural Foundation, the Mortgage Society of Finland’s Fund in 2009. For lengthy periods during 2011–2013 I received funding from the Department of Design, of which I express my gratitude to Turkka Keinonen, Tuuli Mattelmäki and Sari Dhima. Some of the work was funded by the Energizing Urban Ecosystems (EUE) programme run by the Strategic Centre for Science, Technology and Innovation of the Built Environment in Finland. Rarely has a research programme had a more absent-minded participant. Great thanks for patience. Dr. Markku Norvasuo from the Aalto University School of Engineering’s YTK Land Use Planning and Urban Studies Group and Dr. Juha Kostiainen from YIT Corporation have pre-examined the manuscript. I am thankful for their knowledgeable feedback and constructive criticism. I should also like to thank Professor Sten Gromark from Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, for kindly agreeing to act as my opponent. The contribution of publishing editor Pia Alapeteri and graphic designer Tuomas Kortteinen has been invaluable in getting the manuscript published and printed as a well-designed book. The School of Arts, Design and Architecture provided a grant for the printing costs and Hanna Sirén checked my language. Thank you all. My closest colleagues during recent years have been Dr. Susanne Jacobson, Dr. Tero Heikkinen and soon-to-be Dr. Katja Soini. I would like to thank Susanne for cooperation in data collection and for sharing the everyday joys and hardships in the life of a doctoral candidate, and Tero for 16 17 Helsinki, January 2014 Finally, my friends and family cannot be cannot be and family my friends Finally, Antti Pirinen support and healthy disinterest. My sister, my brother with his his with brother my sister, My support disinterest. healthy and like to thank my other present and former colleagues at Future at Future colleagues and former to thank my other present like glad to dedicate this dissertation to my grandmother Kaisu Kaisu dissertation this dedicate grandmother to my to glad grateful to my mother and to my father, with their spouses, for for spouses, their with father, my to and mother my to grateful family, and the extended family in Finland and abroad have have in Finland and abroad and the extended family family, well ahead have given good advice and set an example to follow. an example to follow. good advice and set given well ahead have acknowledged enough for their emotional, intellectual and and intellectual emotional, their for enough acknowledged a bar or amidst the wilderness, have been especially important. been especially wilderness, have a bar or amidst the ago and continues to be energising company. Haian, Jaakko, Haian, Jaakko, company. continues to be energising ago and Jung-Joo, Karthikeya, Kati, Kirsi, Kirsikka, Krista, Leirah, Lutz, Lutz, Krista, Leirah, Kirsi, Kirsikka, Kati, Karthikeya, Jung-Joo, to continue the journey. insightful discussions and feedback. Katja originally introduced introduced originally Katja feedback. and discussions insightful provided welcome moments of distraction along the way. I am I am along the way. distraction welcome moments of provided practical support. Those who have passed the same milestone milestone same passed the support.who have Those practical me to the world of user-centred design for almost a decade decade almost a for design of user-centred the world me to been a pleasure to share this endeavour with you. I would also would also I with you. this endeavour to share been a pleasure Home Institute and Living Places. Home Institute and Marketta, Pekka, Petra, Petra, Piia, Salil, Salu, Tatu, Tjhien, Tjhien, Salu, Tatu, Salil, Piia, Petra, Petra, Pekka, Marketta, Vehviläinen and late grandfather Kalervo Vehviläinen (1917– Vehviläinen and late grandfather 2009), whose hands I can feel on my shoulder, encouraging me me encouraging my shoulder, on feel I can hands 2009), whose Zagros and the rest of the design research community: it has it has community: research of the design and the rest Zagros You all made the effort worthwhile by just being there. I am am I effortYou all made the worthwhile being there. by just Talks with doctors Simo Muir and Pirja Heiskanen, whether in whether in Heiskanen, with doctors Simo Muir and Pirja Talks 1 INTROD UCTION 1 INTROD UCTION

1 INTRODUCTION 20 21 will . I will

1.1 . My focus is primarily on on is primarily . My focus design problem design Housing as a systemic as a systemic Housing 2013, 14). Also the quality of new new of quality the Also 14). 2013, ROTI In this dissertation, I have chosen to use the word chosen to use the word In this dissertation, I have According to recent surveys, the overall quality of quality of overall the surveys, According to recent for naming my subject because it acknowledges both naming my subject because it acknowledges both for in the context of design dwelling survey stated that their dwelling suits their present needs needs stated that their dwelling suits their present survey scientific investigation. Depending on the field and focus of of and focus Depending on the field investigation. scientific fundamental to our experience of being in the world that it feels in the world that it feels of being experience fundamental to our development needs for housing production in several studies studies in several housing production needs for development of flats have been criticised as qualitatively homogeneous homogeneous been criticised as qualitatively of flats have of residents living in new dwellings regardless of income level of income level living in new dwellings regardless of residents environment (Strandell 2011). 80 per cent in another large large another in cent per 80 2011). (Strandell environment entity is made further evident by the abundance of words entity is made further the abundance of words evident by with intimate dreams and memories, a shelter, basic human a shelter, basic human and memories, with intimate dreams well or very well ( well very or well and lacking in resident control, flexibility and sustainability. flexibility and sustainability. control, and lacking in resident al. 2005, 48). However, the demand for more diverse solutions solutions diverse more the demand for al. 2005, 48). However, as main been identified user participation have and increased and emphasises the perspective of individual usersand emphasises the perspective embedded dwelling as a composite, systemically approach product almost impossible to grasp in its psychological, social, cultural social, cultural in its psychological, to grasp almost impossible the subject approaching A researcher and material entirety. available for naming it and rendering it into a subject of it into a subject of naming it and rendering for available and presumptions. and technological construction, and an economic commodity construction, and an economic commodity and technological The richness of this in the market. and object of consumption the artefactual and the lived-in nature of housing and homes of housing and homes the artefactual nature and the lived-in the study, words such as home, dwelling, house or housing may house or housing may the study, words such as home, dwelling, have expressed contentment with their dwelling (Hirvonen et contentment with their dwelling (Hirvonen et expressed have residents and professionals in the field. Almost 90 per cent cent per 90 Almost field. the in professionals and residents housing production has been viewed as relatively high by both by both high as relatively has been viewed housing production housing and the living environment in Finland is considered in Finland is considered housing and the living environment latest national the to respondents of cent per 97 good. rather be used, among others, each associated with certain theories with certainbe used, among others, each associated theories necessity, a lived-in space and place, a physical architectural architectural space and place, a physical necessity, a lived-in has to deal with a powerful model reproduced in the society, a a in the society, powerful model reproduced has to deal with a thick a psychological and mental realm historical continuum, (Hirvonen et al. 2005, Ilmonen et al. 2005, Juntto 2007, Vainio (Hirvonen et al. 2005, Ilmonen et al. 2005, Juntto 2007, Vainio Residents’ Barometer survey were satisfied with their living with their living satisfied were survey Residents’ Barometer Finnish urban housing. 2008). Especially the current urban dwelling types in blocks urban dwelling types in blocks the current 2008). Especially The existence (or lack) of a home, a place to live in, is so so is in, live to place a home, a of existence (or lack) The As the technical and material quality of urban dwellings has increased, their spatial quality, usability and variety has decreased (Kytösaho 2010). The price-quality ratio of new dwellings has also been considered unsatisfactory by residents (Juntto 2007, 84). It seems that the minimum expectations of residents concerning room sizes, fixed furnishings and equipment, accessibility, and the quality of outdoor spaces have risen (Myntti 2007, 22; Hirvonen et al. 2005). It can be argued that housing in Finland is confined, expensive and the same for everyone. The design of dwellings has been based on stereotypical perceptions of a universal average resident. Builders operating within tight economic constraints are duplicating a few established conventional dwelling types with slight variations, not willing to take the risk of trying out new things. The public planning and regulation system aims, in principle, to guarantee the suitability of the living environment for all, but at the same time restrains diversification. Among the offering of dwellings in mass produced blocks of flats, alternatives effectively do not exist (Juntto 2007). Especially in the greater Helsinki region there appears to be both a quantitative and qualitative mismatch between what housing is available and where, and the housing needs and preferences of people (Myntti 2007). The industrial housing system’s1 incompetence 1. in overcoming this mismatch has been explained as an By housing system is meant the network of inextricably systemic challenge, where the improvement of just professional actors who one sector cannot bring about permanent change (Krokfors on some level contribute 2010, 223). Karin Krokfors has identified several practical to the realisation of barriers of diversification in the Finnish housing production housing, including policy- makers and regulators, system. The municipal planning system, building supervision planners, architects and land use policy are poorly equipped for managing the and designers, housing demand for diversity. Building legislation and regulations developers, construction companies, financiers, restrict variation and favour conventional designs. Increase of etc. See also Figure 2. technical systems and environmental requirements constrain the design of buildings. The established building culture resists change and innovation, as do the value networks in housing committed to efficiency and profitability. Financing of housing lacks in resilience and risk management, and housing policy does not fully acknowledge the value of socio-cultural sustainability achieved by more individual and flexible housing. (Ibid., 223–242.) Characteristic to the housing sector are slowness of and resistance to change, complexity and political deadlocks (Juntto 1990, 22). Discontinuities between various tasks and actors in the system hinder its responsiveness to changing demands, too. One significant gap is between academia and practice. Research about housing preferences and results of resident 1 INTRODUCTION 22 23

2. of the general Several regarding considerations the state-of-the-art of here housing presented in the and elsewhere chapters have introductory been outlined initially by the author in an article together written Heikkinen with Tero and Susanne Jacobson (Heikkinen et al. 2008). 2 On the other hand, resistance to abrupt change is to abrupt change is resistance On the other hand, Also dwelling as activity is to a large extent extent a large Also dwelling as activity is to users and to future situations of living that may be unforeseen unforeseen be living that may situations of future to and users solutions is a risk for the builders as well. The availability of of the builders as well. The availability solutions is a risk for situation as well. The high cost of housing and localness of the of the cost of housing and localness situation as well. The high surveys are rarely applied to actual production, partly because partly because actual production, to applied rarely are surveys larger Finnish cities, there has been no incentive to variate to variate has been no incentive there cities, Finnish larger feeds a tendency to duplicate the same architectural patterns patterns same architectural a tendency to duplicate the feeds emotional significance and create attachment. Psychologically, attachment. Psychologically, and create emotional significance is the material environment where transaction, environment significant emotionally becomes and effective emotionally of re-saleability reduces their willingness to avert from from their willingness to avert reduces of re-saleability design trying out novel of the costliness of housing production, experience. (Groák 1992, 6.) Economic aspects influence the the influence aspects Economic 6.) 1992, (Groák experience. direct influence on a building. influence direct designed housing, architects have two clients: the paying client the paying client two clients: have housing, architects designed 2006, 50.) This means and the occupant. (Zeisel developer are required to adapt to the needs of several generations of of generations to adapt to the needs of several required are and the user client (occupant) to whom they in most cases have have cases most in they whom (occupant) to client user the and the process of dwelling can be described as “motivated person- of dwelling can be described as “motivated the process (Kaiser & time)” over use and manipulation (behavior through the offering. Furthermore, the relatively low pricing of low pricing of the relatively Furthermore, the offering. that explicit wishes of the future residents can rarely have a a have rarely can residents of the future that explicit wishes they are often too generic to provide valuable input to design to design input valuable to provide generic often too are they the ratio of private-sector and state-subsidised production. production. state-subsidised and private-sector of ratio the today. Despite industrialisation, the building process and the and the building process today. Despite industrialisation, the instance, do not transfer well to commercial housing production housing production to commercial well do not transfer instance, interactions of people and the material objects of dwelling carry of people and the material objects of dwelling carry interactions inbuilt to housing. The sheer physical mass and geographical mass and geographical The sheer physical inbuilt to housing. housing design in comparison to other architectural work work in comparison to other architectural housing design buildable land and fluctuation of building costs and interest costs and interest buildable land and fluctuation of building rates affect the volume of new housing construction and the volume of new housing construction and affect rates housing market limit the choices of consumers. Consideration Consideration limit the choices of consumers. housing market personalised solutions. Because highly and seek for mainstream building industry still greatly rely on craft skill and on-site on-site skill and on craft rely building industry still greatly rootedness of buildings make them stable as artefacts. them stable as artefacts. of buildings make rootedness no connection. Similar communication gap exists between the the communication gap exists between no connection. Similar between public urban planning and market-oriented housing housing market-oriented and planning urban public between for and municipalities, by cities Local aims specified production. et al. (Väliniemi replicability and generality on more relying reliant on permanence, routines and convention. Everyday Everyday and convention. on permanence, routines reliant et al. 2006, 30). (Ilonen et al. 2006, 30). (developer) with whom they negotiate the design solutions, solutions, the design with whom they negotiate (developer) (Lapintie 2010b, 53–54). Another break has been identified identified been has break Another 53–54). 2010b, (Lapintie As the demand for housing has long outstripped supply in in housing has long outstripped supply As the demand for 2008). In industrial housing production, as opposed to custom- housing production, 2008). In industrial long life cycle disfavours overly divergent design, as they they as design, divergent overly disfavours cycle long life Their Fuhrer 1996). The main psychological functions of dwelling are the regulation of social relations (the control of others), and the representation and construction of aspects of one’s own identity. Recurrent domestic practices have an important role in the construction of normality (Shove 2004). In this way, the dwelling actively participates in the construction of our lives. Domestic architecture in its familiarity, stability and continuity sustains reality and makes it seem consistent. Dwellings allow, suggest and detain behaviour. They are classifying, ordering and controlling devices that are connected to broader cultural and societal norms and power structures. They only become meaningful in use, and in their historical and local context. (Saarikangas 2002, 25–32.) Housing, according to Roderick J. Lawrence (1987), is a “total reconfiguration” of social, demographic, psychological, human behavioural and environmental structure. Housing theorist Peter King (2005) argues that experience of the ordinary is key to understanding housing. Housing and homes result from the deeply rooted need of “finding place, settling in and keeping it mine”. The utter mundaneness of dwelling (its “mineness” and “thereness”) is in contradiction with the innovation-orientedness of policy makers, academics and designers, who may force transformation simply out of boredom (ibid.). Juntto (1990 and 2010a) has similarly emphasised the cultural uniformity and slowness of change of Finnish housing and living. Housing design therefore is an act of balancing between the generic and the individual within a largely predefined set of constraints. Planners, architects and designers need to weigh individual requirements against more general consideration of what is viable in the long term. This happens in accordance with the dominant paradigm of housing. The professional planning and design system has been criticised for treating users with their divergent needs merely as disturbances (e.g. Kortteinen et al. 2005). The attitude of authorities, builders and architects towards users has traditionally been patronising (Juntto 1990, 296). Thus, the question becomes not only how much and what kind of individuality in housing we desire and can afford, but how much we can be allowed by the society. The materialised living environment can be seen as a compromise of a multitude of intentions within the society as a whole, resulting in an average that is reasonably satisfactory for the majority. One may, however, question whose intentions dominate the outcome and whether some actors are rendered powerless in the process. The situation may be influenced by the actors’ implicit stereotypical perceptions of each other that prevail within the housing system (Interviews C1 and C3, see also 1 INTRODUCTION 24 25 . Despite increasing knowledge on the needs needs the on knowledge increasing Despite According to Juntto (1990, 37) it is from a a (1990, 37) it is from According to Juntto of housing. Each national housing culture as well as well national housing culture of housing. Each urban dwellings is a “wicked” societal problem par problem excellence societal urban dwellings is a “wicked” dependence guardians of an imaginary common good, the developers as as developers common good, the of an imaginary guardians as the designers in profit, interested speculators only greedy path 18–21) has also underlined the Juntto (2010a, families. over time, emphasising the meaning of housing as a means of of means a as housing of meaning the emphasising time, over of the definition of the problem itself. Richard Buchanan itself. Richard Buchanan of the definition of the problem centred diversification of the offering of industrially produced produced of industrially of the offering diversification centred complex and involve requirements, changing and contradictory or designed (De Landa 1994). or designed user- of sustainable dilemma The seem difficult. of housing consist of well-established and tried-out features with a long with a long features consist of well-established and tried-out experiences affect people’s housing decisions and the way and the way people’s housing decisions affect experiences difficult, for instance, to directly compare housing in different housing in different compare instance, to directly difficult, for previous and histories housing personal Similarly, countries. complex interaction of demand and supply, driven by policy, by policy, driven of demand and supply, complex interaction conceivable “good enough” solutions becomes an integral part becomes an integral “good enough” solutions conceivable of residents, advancement of technology and industrial technologyof advancement industrial and residents, of wishes, not capable of deciding for their own best. of deciding for wishes, not capable would undoubtedly be cast in the role of stubbornly inflexible inflexible of stubbornly in the role be cast would undoubtedly as the locally available solutions are shaped by distinctive shaped by distinctive are solutions available as the locally and voluntary developments in housing. Housing evolves in in evolves Housing housing. in developments voluntary and they perceive housing. David Clapham (2005) has coined the the coined has (2005) Clapham David housing. perceive they routes describing these individual term “housing pathway” for of dwelling can of the material forms development the overall the market, and the preferences and choices of individuals and and and choices of individuals preferences the and the market, the subject of housing, the regulators and planning authorities authorities planning and the regulators housing, of the subject hopes and and unrealistic with silly fools as ignorant the users interdependencies. A single optimal solution to a wicked A single optimal solution to a wicked interdependencies. incremental variation of precedents. Current dwelling types types dwelling Current precedents. of variation incremental and conditions. Indeed, as inheritance, adapted to local culture problem cannot be defined. A creative process of envisioning of envisioning process cannot be defined. A creative problem processes, and good intentions of the professionals within the the within of the professionals and good intentions processes, expand the offering efforts to qualitatively housing system, be seen as continuous adaptation that happens slowly through through happens slowly be seen as continuous adaptation that suggested, homes as socio- philosopher Manuel De Landa has than planned “self-organised” may be more material entities personal fulfilment. In this kind of evolutionary framework, framework, evolutionary of kind this In fulfilment. personal historical trajectories of decisions and practices, which makes it it which makes of decisions and practices, historical trajectories historical standpoint difficult to distinguish between enforced enforced between distinguish to difficult standpoint historical high-headed artists living inside a professional bubble, and and bubble, artists professional a inside living high-headed Wicked problems, as outlined by Rittel and Webber (1973, and Webber (1973, as outlined by Rittel problems, Wicked (1992, 16) has shown how this kind of indeterminacy is in in is indeterminacy of kind this how shown has 16) (1992, Rask et al. 2008). If a farcical comedy was to be staged on on staged to be was comedy a farcical If et al. 2008). Rask 160–165), are by nature ill-defined and confusing, subject to to ill-defined and confusing, subject by nature 160–165), are fact a key characteristic of most design problems, giving the design discipline an advantage in tackling such complexity: “The subject matter of design is potentially universal in scope, because design thinking may be applied to any area of human experience. But in the process of application, the designer must discover or invent a particular subject out of the problems and issues of specific circumstances.” When looking at present housing production, it is evident that industrially produced housing is designed on many levels of which architectural design within a housing project is just one, although usually the most decisive. Different scales of urban planning provide a scaffold of specifications for the built form as do building codes and regulations. Housing developers pursue residential product development activities that aim at differentiation in the market and streamlining of production. Various components of dwellings such as technical interfaces, appliances and built-in furnishings are also professionally designed. Even elements that are outside the core physical product such as the customer service process can be an object of design. The development of new solution models and conceptual frameworks related to different aspects of housing by designers, academics and authorities can be seen as design activity as well. Dwelling therefore is an artefact to the definition of which multiple actors contribute either directly or indirectly in its various scales and phases of emergence. In so doing, each for their part contributes to the overall quality of the end product and its attractiveness to future residents, attempting to ensure that it is of acceptable functional and aesthetic standard, technically and economically viable, and sustainable in the long term. Amidst a push in industrial production towards seriality, generality and conformity, architects and designers ideally need to find design solutions that are “just enough” (but not too much) and “exactly in the right way” singular, specific and novel. In this sense, the design of dwelling is about translating contradictory demands into reasonably satisfactory material configurations. Dwellings as artefacts mediate the intentions of authorities, the housing industry, designers, and residents, channelling them into a specific material format. They do so through their physical and other experienced properties that are essentially designable, meaning that they can be qualitatively manipulated and differentiated. There is little research on how dwelling as this kind of composite mediative product is to be defined in the framework of design. Especially the relationship between residents and dwelling as an object of design seems worth examining closer. 1 INTRODUCTION 26 27

1.2 housing in Finland housing Discourse on user-centred on user-centred Discourse Foresight on the future of housing consumption of housing consumption on the future Foresight The prevailing perception has been of Finland has been of Finland perception The prevailing dominance of this ideal is attested by several studies studies by several ideal is attested dominance of this user needs and preferences tends to produce rather general and and general rather produce to tends preferences and needs user subject of ongoing debate among the Finnish housing research Finnish housing research subject of ongoing debate among the shift from the macrostructures of housing and from population population of housing and from the macrostructures shift from living environment, while we also know that these qualities we also know that these qualities while living environment, level closer to individuals and everyday living (ibid.; Juntto Juntto (ibid.; living everyday and individuals to closer level sprawl, more useful to housing policy making and urban making and urban useful to housing policy more sprawl, general rise of expectations due to economic progression is a is a rise of expectations due to economic progression general for more individual housing is primarily brought about by a about by a brought individual housing is primarily more for fragmented, practically oriented and theoretically weak. weak. and theoretically oriented practically fragmented, considered the shared ideal of dwelling pursued by the majority. majority. the by pursued of dwelling ideal shared the considered connote different tangible attributes of the environment to to tangible attributes of the environment connote different to individuals. Thus, the connection of user studies different community. Empirical research seems to indicate cohesiveness cohesiveness indicate to seems Empirical research community. in their such as peacefulness and closeness to nature qualities of housing research in Finland has, however, lately begun to to begun lately in Finland has, however, of housing research al. 2005.) In social sciences and urban geography, housing housing urban geography, and sciences al. 2005.) In social as a relatively homogeneous culture, where a detached house a detached house where homogeneous culture, as a relatively the planning and design of housing is weak. the planning and design the perspective of residents has been lacking. (Ilmonen et et has been lacking. (Ilmonen of residents the perspective in a peaceful suburban setting close to nature has been been has close to nature setting suburban peaceful in a in Finland claims that the needs of residents are becoming becoming are of residents in Finland claims that the needs is usually examined on a societal or regional level, providing providing level, or regional examined on a societal is usually and urban such as segregation on phenomena information housing preferences and housing choices of people. housing preferences rather than differentiation of preferences (see Kyttä et al. (see Kyttä al. et of preferences than differentiation rather value that people in general outcomes. We know predictable research on the subject. Whether the lifestyles and housing and housing on the subject. Whether the lifestyles research or whether the demand differentiating actually are preferences more diverse in the future and that housing is increasingly and that housing is increasingly in the future diverse more (Juntto of individual good life as an enabler perceived planning than to the design and production of dwellings. of dwellings. and production the design planning than to Critical cross-disciplinary research on housing especially from from especially housing on research cross-disciplinary Critical (e.g. Kortteinen et al. 2005, Juntto 2007), even if societal (e.g. Kortteinenif societal even et al. 2005, Juntto 2007), It has been stated that research on housing in Finland is is in Finland on housing stated that research It has been accordance with the general trend in society, the focus focus the in society, trend the general In accordance with 2010a, 93). On the other hand, as noted earlier, research on on research noted earlier, 2010a, 93). On the other hand, as 2010b; Lahti & Heinonen 2010, 254). There is, however, little little is, however, There 2010b; Lahti & Heinonen 2010, 254). 33). There has been a growing interest in the lifestyles, in the lifestyles, interest has been a growing 2010a, 33). There The and environmental changes have brought it under scrutiny. In housing and urban planning, the ideal is reflected as an implicit contradiction between the goal of high density, nurtured by planning authorities and other professionals by reason of sustainability, and people’s (supposed) appreciation of a living environment with lower density (Lapintie 2010a, 42). Sari Puustinen (2010, 324) identifies independence and managing on one’s own, trust in laws and norms, equality, and closeness to nature as the profound values in the Finnish housing culture that easily conflict with the public goals in housing. The discussion on housing preferences in Finland has largely been anchored to the juxtaposition of urban versus suburban way of living as the decisive differentiating factor. Researchers have engaged themselves in detecting more fine- grained subgroups and “preference profiles” in regard to housing, yet for the most part keeping the dichotomy intact (Kyttä et al. 2010b; Vasanen 2010). As an example, Kyttä et al. (2010b) present five distinctive groups based on the profiling of residents in two suburban areas (translations mine): active and outgoing “true urbanites”, “withdrawers” who value peacefulness and privacy, traditional single-family-house-oriented “do-it- yourself people”, car-driving “hedonists”, and community- oriented “neighbourhoodists” who commit to their living area. Studies on housing preferences concentrating on house type, tenure, location in urban area, and qualities of the neighbourhood are looking at the “big scale” and “outside” of dwelling. There is little research about qualitative user needs and preferences concerning the “small scale” and “inside” of dwelling. The notion of housing preference that is grounded in economics has been criticised as inadequate when investigating the relationship between people’s housing wishes and dwellings as artefacts in the context of design and planning (Lapintie 2010a, 45). From the perspective of design, it seems justified to approach the processes of dwelling not so much as direct need satisfaction and rational decision- making than as complex everyday interaction of humans and the material environment, where people are seeking for congruence with the environment and where opportunities await for actualisation. Marketta Kyttä (et al. 2010a, 95–96) describes the connection between lifestyles and housing as a continuum where differentiation can happen on many levels: lifestyles related to one’s identity give rise to more concrete housing preferences that influence actual housing choices, which set the stage for everyday living. Kyttä, relying on Gibson’s (1986) affordance theory, states that the experienced quality of the living environment is formed in interaction between the “ideal world” of 1 INTRODUCTION 28 29 , 1988–

3. Statistics Finland, Dwellings and housing conditions. Household- dwelling units by Region, Type of building, Size of household-dwelling 1 person unit and Year. units dwelling from 2012. Retrieved the StatFin database: http://pxweb2.stat.fi/ Database/StatFin/asu/ asas/asas_en.asp . The . The 3 One driver towards more diverse housing is the housing is the diverse towards more One driver Demographic changes, such as ageing of of ageing as such changes, Demographic to that of reality and materiality, as well as to that that and materiality, as well as to to that of reality understanding of the significance of housing as a regional regional a as housing of significance the of understanding seemed to give some explanation of housing choices: both some explanation of housing choices: both seemed to give service, sales and care professionals are distributed relatively relatively distributed are professionals care and sales service, same time, income polarisation and the debt equity ratio of of the debt equity ratio same time, income polarisation and share of one-person households in Finland, for instance, has has instance, in Finland, for of one-person households share grown from 30 to 41 per cent during the last 25 years 30 to 41 per from grown use for available resources wealth makes of private growth evenly. Apart from professions, academic attention in Finland professions, Apart from evenly. persons with such as seniors, children, “other” groups, of various and single women. immigrants, disabilities, out that senior specialists and managers are overrepresented overrepresented out that senior specialists and managers are especially in larger cities. (Juntto 2010b, 279.) cities. in larger especially opportunities in the environment (affordances) (Kyttä (affordances) & Kahila environment in the opportunities the notion has contemplated (2007) Lapintie Kimmo desirable. and urban design to architecture, as an approach of modality competitiveness factor, the underlying idea being that the idea being that the factor, the underlying competitiveness for people. Lapintie (2010a, 44) has also noted the ultimately 44) has also noted the ultimately (2010a, people. Lapintie for of actual experience” in a theory of space (italics mine). This This in a theory of space (italics mine). of actual experience” would mean understanding housing as object of design more in in more housing as object of design would mean understanding at the living of professional groups in larger Finnish cities, found found cities, Finnish in larger groups professional of living the at while in urban centres, underrepresented and industrial workers possibility the population, changing family structures, urbanisation, urbanisation, structures, changing family the population, to a study on the housing preferences of design and information and information of design to a study on the housing preferences profession region, in the Helsinki technology professionals terms of the activities and possibilities of change that it opens of change that it opens possibilities and terms of the activities bound to be unfulfilled amidst of housing desires, nature tragic of the housing market. the inescapable realities its demands of individuality and experiential living. According its demands of individuality and experiential inner city and information technology professionals the suburbs technologyinner city and information professionals importance of dwelling and willingness to invest in it. At the importance in it. At the willingness to invest of dwelling and immigration, and transformation of work create demand for demand for of work create and transformation immigration, in the real world affect what people perceive as possible and as possible and perceive what people world affect in the real individual dreams and wishes, and the “real world” of perceived perceived world” of “real and the wishes, and dreams individual in housing, and the increase of leisure time may raise the the raise may time leisure of increase the and housing, in has lately been directed at the residential needs and experiences experiences and needs residential the at directed been lately has professional groups were oriented towards the city more than than the city more towards oriented were groups professional be attracted to an urban area by providing housing that meets housing by providing to an urban area be attracted new housing solutions as well (Juntto 2010b, 270–276). The 2010b, 270–276). The new housing solutions as well (Juntto planning practice. He suggests “[t]he addition of the element of of the element of “[t]he addition He suggests practice. planning (Ilmonen et al. 2000). Another study (Hirvonen 2010), looking Finns on average, but design professionals preferred more the more preferred professionals design but Finns on average, Finnish households are growing, as is the price of housing as is the price of housing growing, Finnish households are 2006, 15). The interaction is reciprocal, as the available choices choices available as the is reciprocal, The interaction 2006, 15). “creative class” essential to success in the knowledge economy can “creative 1.3 The individualisation and commodification of housing

The discourse on diversification of urban housing in Finland, the turn towards lifestyles in housing studies, and the commercial housing concepts and brands being introduced to the market all tell of increasing emphasis on individuality in housing. At the same time, they suggest new kind of marketisation and commodification of housing. The individual dwelling is being brought to global consumer culture as a desirable lifestyle product among other products. To understand the driving forces that are shaping the dwelling product and its design, it is necessary to relate to the broader late-modern conditions within which it evolves. Due to the individualisation of the society, people’s lifestyles and housing preferences may be increasingly diverse. At the same time, technology is penetrating the domestic space and digitalisation of design and manufacturing is enabling more flexible production. Turn towards users as active co-creators of products is transforming the traditional hierarchies of design. These changes challenge the current paradigm of housing production. Anna Klingmann in her insightful book Brandscapes (2007, 306) reflects on the implications of the individualisation process to housing:

As the progressive individualization of lifestyles constitutes a fundamental shift in the contemporary economy, housing needs to be liberated from its modernist stigma, from standardization and unilateral equality, and must retool its image as a differentiated ‘brandscape’ – as a comprehensive lifestyle platform, coded with a careful selection of programs and iconographies that correspond to the specific needs and aspirations of different user groups.

The individualisation of society as described by German sociologist Ulrich Beck (Beck & Beck-Gernsheim 2002, 22–29) manifests itself in increasing possibilities of lifestyle choices as a consequence of dissolving traditional social, cultural and economic structures. De-traditionalisation, cultural diversification, social fragmentation and the distribution of social risks to individuals are facets of the individualisation process. Individualisation does not mean freedom from institutions, but happens in accordance with other people and the society. Beck states that the “compulsion to lead a life of one’s own and the possibility of doing it” has become 1 INTRODUCTION 30 31

) , the , the in a in a tuotteistuminen commodity

tavaraistuminen or means the process whereby whereby means the process goods and services that used for formerly were subsistence purposes becoming bought are and sold in the market (“commodification”, Dictionary Oxford of Sociology 2009). Note the distinction to commercialisation by a company introduction to the of a new product (Kotler et al. market 2008, 986). I use the word meaning, referring broad to the economic and dimension of market the dwelling product. 4. Commodification (in Finnish,

4 . Giddens describes commodification . Giddens describes Commodification entails packaging and and packaging entails Commodification Anthony Giddens (1991, 189–201) argues that that argues Giddens (1991, 189–201) Anthony The emphasis on individuality in housing is also also is housing in emphasis on individuality The under the domination of capitalistic mass markets, following following mass markets, under the domination of capitalistic commodified experience standardising impact of commodity production and where and where of commodity production standardising impact susceptible to commodification. lifestyle outweigh the use value of goods. Yet there are ways ways are there of goods. Yet the use value outweigh lifestyle late modernity involves distinctive tensions on the level tensions on the level distinctive late modernity involves governed freedom of individual choice becomes an enveloping of individual choice becomes an enveloping freedom governed framework of individual self-expression” (ibid., 197). of individual self-expression” framework for the development of one’s self. In other words, “[m]arket- other words, In of one’s self. development the for for creativity and innovation are signs of this, facilitated by by facilitated this, of signs are innovation and creativity for one of the possession of desired goods and the pursuit of of pursuit the and goods desired of possession the of one challenge. Another tension is that of personalised is that tension Another challenge. versus distribution of aspects of lifestyles according to market to market according distribution of aspects of lifestyles in this kind of that Giddens argues system. of the market within chosen and conformity value consumption appearance criteria. Plurality of choice and resulting constant unfulfilment unfulfilment constant choice and resulting of criteria. Plurality indispensable to the continuity of the system. of needs are creators of our own life in order to survive in the new social the new social in to survive in order of our own life creators and constant demand of lifestyles construction order. Reflexive of the self. One is between unification and fragmentation. is between unification and fragmentation. of the self. One are becoming more non-material and even material products material products non-material and even becoming more are artificially framed styles of life”. Continuous consumption Continuous consumption styles of life”. artificially framed as a process where lifestyles become brought under the under the brought become lifestyles where as a process that counteract commodification. People freely discriminate discriminate freely People commodification. that counteract the face of the modes of life presented as desirable by mass mass by desirable as presented life of modes the of face the the global economy and media. the global the fundamental collective experience of the Western world world the Western of experience collective the fundamental therefore “the project of the self becomes translated into into of the self becomes translated “the project therefore the seductive narratives suggested by them, becomes a means suggested by them, becomes a means narratives the seductive inherent to late-modern consumer society, where products products where consumer society, to late-modern inherent influences. The built environment takes largely decommodified decommodified largely takes influences. The built environment information provided by the market system and interpret it it and interpret system by the market provided information in their own terms. Space, claims Giddens (ibid., 200), is one may predominantly rely on sign value (Lash & Urry 1994, 15). (Lash & Urry 1994, 15). value on sign rely may predominantly modes due to the active role of individual agents within it. of individual agents within it. role modes due to the active media. The idea of the diversity of needs itself is thus a product is thus a product itself of needs media. The idea of the diversity many areas of life and as the experiences become increasingly increasingly become experiences the as and life of areas many a becomes self-identity unified a sustaining mediated, realm that partly resists commercialisation and standardising and standardising commercialisation that partly resists realm Consumer culture feeds a feeling of personal inadequacy in in inadequacy personal of feeling a feeds culture Consumer 22). According to him, we are forced to become active active to become forced we are to him, According 22). (ibid., individuals face an ever-growing amount of choices in in choices of amount ever-growing an face individuals As This implies the aestheticisation of goods and consumption. consumption. and goods of aestheticisation the implies This This would suggest that the dwelling space after all is not very This would suggest that the dwelling space after all is not very Aesthetic reflexivity, as defined by Lash and Urry (ibid., 316) means “making choices about and/or innovating background assumptions and shared practices upon whose bases cognitive and normative reflection is founded”. This is demonstrated for instance by conscious and creative construction of lifestyles through consumption. Lash (1994, 160) presents several forms of individualised consumption: consumption can remain individualised, be regrouped as niche markets and lifestyle communities, become driven by status competition, turn to creativity and romanticism, detach itself from the habits of the community, seek for spectacle and sign value, or emphasise calculating rationality. Increasingly specialised consumption necessitates flexible production, where companies produce smaller batches of a given product, but widen the selection of products on offer. As a consequence, the role of design and the design process in value creation are becoming more important. (Ibid., 119.) Pine and Gilmore (1999) have recognised the transition towards a global “experience economy” where technology, competition and growing expectations of consumers push the commoditisation of previously undifferentiated goods. German sociologist Gerhard Schulze (2005, 417–418) discusses the dynamics of the experience market in his book Die Erlebnisgesellschaft. He states that the search for fulfilment of experiential goals has led to the emergence of a market that is characterised by interaction between producers and consumers of experiences. In the experience market, the rationales of supply and demand react to each other, leading to rationalisation of experience, that is, the increasing subordination of everyday life to the capitalist logic. This is manifested as the growing experience-orientedness of products, de-regionalisation of markets, corporatisation and concentration, and segmentation of social milieus (ibid., 444). Schulze (ibid., 450–451) describes how producers aiming to attract certain clientele endow products with superficial cues that correspond to certain aesthetic schemata. Products are stylistically coded along simplified classifications recognisable to customers. Design and advertising play a major role in creating the associations. Aesthetic schemas help people to navigate in the market and to establish personal connections to products. On the other hand, they serve the standardisation of lifestyles along the ends of production. The experience market thus undermines the leverage of individuals, while at the same time giving rise to internally motivated consumption emphasising the subjective meanings of products. Schulze (ibid., 431–445) suggests that the rationalisation of experiences involves a number of strategies 1 INTRODUCTION 32 33

Correspondence of the of the Correspondence of producers strategies providers) (experience and consumers demanders) (experience in the experience (adapted from market Schulze 2005, 445). FIGURE 1. FIGURE

modification (the provision of of (the provision Variation Variation Abstraction Abstraction Accumulation Autosuggestion Correspondence Correspondence CONSUMERS (the establishment of of (the establishment STRATEGIES OF OF STRATEGIES (the adoption of socially socially (the adoption of (the semantic coding of products products of coding semantic (the schematisation Dwellings are commodities in the consumer in the consumer commodities Dwellings are Profiling (the development of general pre-sets that enable enable that pre-sets of general (the development Suggestion Modification Schematisation (the adjustment of product images to symbolically images to symbolically of product (the adjustment PRODUCERS STRATEGIES OF OF STRATEGIES actors thus work together, supply feeding demand and vice vice and demand feeding supply together, work thus actors (the continuous collection of new experiences), of new experiences), (the continuous collection accumulation abstraction such as location, price, size, and building type, and basic needs needs basic and type, building and size, price, location, as such lifestyle related issues explain actual housing choices, which explain actual housing choices, which issues related lifestyle society, but it is arguable to which extent aesthetic and to which extent aesthetic and but it is arguable society, (the search for product variety within limits of own of own within limits variety product for (the search variation dwelling product serve this process. serve dwelling product differentiate them from competing products), products), competing from them differentiate positioning the in them help that messages with consumers employed by consumers and producers. The strategies of the of the strategies The and producers. consumers by employed connections between own supposed needs and matching matching and needs supposed own between connections consumption). Producers to guide presumptions enforced are usually understood as being guided by constraining factors factors constraining guided by being as understood usually are profiling to keep consumption going), and suggestion consumption going), and to keep tolerance), and autosuggestion and tolerance), schemas of specific submarkets), to meet the aesthetic two actors correspond to each other (Figure 1). Consumers use use Consumers 1). (Figure other each to correspond actors two of correspondence the strategies products as part of their subjective meaning structures). as part meaning structures). subjective of their products respond with respond rationalisation and automatisation of consumption), consumption), of automatisation and rationalisation producers who attune themselves to the supposed demand. to the supposed demand. who attune themselves producers products and affirmation of them through consumption), consumption), of them through affirmation and products versa. The relationship is asymmetrical, as it is usually the the usually is it as asymmetrical, is relationship The versa. (the generation of product variants and new product generations generations and new product variants of product (the generation will later examine how the designable components of the of the components I will later examine how the designable The such as conformity and belonging. Several family members also jointly influence housing decisions. The growing importance of housing as expression of identity and means of personal fulfilment is, however, stressed by some scholars (e.g. Clapham 2005). Especially the interior of dwellings is an area where signs of reflexive consumption can be detected (Gram-Hanssen & Bech-Danielsen 2004, Baudrillard 1996). The interior space, furnishings, pieces of furniture and objects of the home are important means for expressing one’s identity, taste and social status. They are also the elements of the dwelling that the occupants can most easily control. Popular media such as interior design magazines is imposing dwelling into the realm of consumer culture as the ultimate lifestyle product. In Finland, the aesthetic aspect of consumption is evident in market-oriented housing, where many customers demand individual modifications to their dwellings. It should be added that consumption in the domestic sphere happens on many levels, from housing acquisition to home improvement, energy use and daily consumables. Shove and Warde (1998) point out that while part of domestic consumption may be conspicuous (maintained by social comparison, creation of self-identity, mental stimulation and novelty, aesthetic matching, etc.), there exists a considerable amount of “inconspicuous” (“routine, pragmatic, practical, symbolically neutral, socially determined, collectively imposed, jointly experienced, non-individualised”) consumption within dwellings that is revealed for instance by looking at the use of its various utilities and appliances.

1.4 The focus and objectives of the study

The dissertation aims at critical examination and understanding of dwelling as a designable product that through its material and other experienced properties mediates between the realms of users (everyday living) and industrial production. The study approaches dwelling as a composite, systemic artefact in the context of design. The term dwelling instead of the perhaps more obvious housing5 is used for framing the focus of the study for several reasons. The notion of dwelling emphasises the point of view of individual residents (the small scale and “inside” of built environment) as opposed to housing as large-scale urban 1 INTRODUCTION 34 35 in ). The ). The and and

, arguing that that , arguing dwelling , , see Lawrence 1987. 1987. , see Lawrence

5. For a distinction between housing home using the term I will avoid home because it refers to the non- primarily material emotional and aspects of socio-cultural outside dwelling that are the scope of the study. Jim Kemeny (1992) the term has promoted residence attention to it directs the dwelling as home, but within its locational context. This term has been adopted by some housing researchers the social representing constructionist approach 2003). (e.g. Paadam 6. The noun asuminen the Finnish language both the can be used for act of dwelling and of housing (the dwelling, is asuntohowever, term is used ambiguously in my Finnish sources. FIGURE 2. FIGURE of the study The focus within the housing regulation Public system. to and intervention well as topics housing as built to the related left are urban landscape scope. outside of its , USERS is that part of the built 6 DESIGN REGULATION URBAN LANDSCAPE indicate particular these become forms, rather than as residents, consumers or or consumers residents, as than rather Despite their inherent locatedness and singularity, locatedness and singularity, Despite their inherent In the study, people who occupy dwellings are dwellings are In the study, people who occupy , and apartment PRODUCTION learnings of which it seeks to transfer to the field of housing. to the field learnings of which it seeks to transfer striving for standardisation and seriality in production. From From in production. standardisation and seriality striving for everyday living and its material environment that is at the that is at the environment its material and living everyday of properties or capabilities that combine as enablers of combine as enablers of that or capabilities of properties Residents of personal fulfillment. and as means living everyday customers, even if those terms are also used when appropriate. also used when appropriate. if those terms are customers, even user need not be the owner of living. A dwelling in everyday environment defined by the act of settlement. While room While settlement. of act the by defined environment house the perspective inhabited”. From dwellings when actually wholes and commodities dwellings as physical of residents, study. Moreover, for entities recognisable comprise inherently or societal phenomenon, as it is often examined in the fields as it is often examined in the fields phenomenon, or societal As defined by Habraken and housing studies. of architecture within itself the reciprocality and inseparability between between inseparability and reciprocality the itself within also make use of various strategies for appropriating the the appropriating for strategies various of use make also attributes of dwelling. The notion of user also connects to of user also connects to attributes of dwelling. The notion and renders them as active agents. The study focuses on users’ users’ on focuses study The agents. active as them renders and to other mass products. Housing developers seek to attract seek to attract Housing developers to other mass products. the dissertation’s background in user-centred design research, research, design in user-centred the dissertation’s background the dwelling but can be a visitor or even a service provider. provider. service a even or visitor a be can but dwelling the the word dwelling denotes both a tangible artefact (noun artefacta tangible the word dwelling denotes both (noun the perspective of residents, dwellings can be seen as bundles dwellings can be seen as bundles of residents, the perspective industrially produced dwellings seem increasingly similar similar dwellings seem increasingly produced industrially and in the market individual consumers by differentiation needs and experiences in relation with specific designable with specific designable in relation needs and experiences because it emphasises the interaction of people and artefacts because it emphasises the interaction heart of the research problem. heart of the research perceived as users as perceived by the personalisation of products, while at the same time while at the same time by the personalisation of products, (2000, 60): “What we call a dwelling (2000, 60): “What By user is simply meant a person who interacts with the the with interacts who person a meant simply is user By the term user is justified Despite its somewhat technical tone, dwelling”), and a human process (verb “to dwell”), containing “to dwell”), containing (verb process and a human “a dwelling”), dwelling product to their needs. Housing design in a situation characterised by individualisation and commodification poses new challenges for architects and designers. The dissertation begins with the hypothesis that dwellings, as artefacts produced by the housing industry, experienced by people, and conceptualised by architects and designers, constitute products in a wider meaning of the word than mere architectural constructions, technical assemblies or commodities in the market. In light of the developments described in the introduction, dwelling appears to have an artefactuality that does not fit within a conventional architectural or technical definition of dwelling, but does not seem entirely explainable in terms of social sciences or other disciplines such as marketing studies either. This suggests a need for the reconceptualisation of dwelling as artefact that would better acknowledge its systemic, composite nature. This study is an attempt to reveal, describe and argument for this “productness” of dwelling. Approaching dwelling as a product means recognising it as a hierarchically organised (systemic) artefact that is embedded in the society and is intentionally devised (Simon 1996, Habraken 2000, Lawrence 1987). The notion of product should here be understood broadly as in the context of product design rather than in a limited industrial or economic meaning. In the case of housing, the product approach emphasises the inclusion of other designable aspects in addition to architecture to the definition of dwelling as artefact. This would imply a holistic understanding of the dwelling as a product (a “thing”) comprising the architectural space, furnishings, home technology, domestic appliances and other consumer products as well as services supporting everyday living. Such extended notion of product allows the examination of dwelling in its full complexity and yet as artefact in the framework of design. It is also justified from the viewpoint of residents. It seems evident that components of dwelling experienced by people as valuable extend beyond the scope of architectural design. The user and his or her everyday living should be seen as the integrative factor that connects various elements of the dwelling product into a coherent whole. Here needs to be added the distinction in Marxist philosophy between space as a product (a technical-economic outcome of the capitalist production system) and space as an oeuvre (an always unfinished “work” in process that is actively used, lived in, given meanings and transformed by people; e.g. Lefebvre 1991). I wish to fully acknowledge the latter aspect of dwelling and include it within my definition of dwelling as product. 1 INTRODUCTION 36 37 . that draws on the established on the established draws that In the study, design is understood as primarily primarily as understood is the study, design In Methodologically, the study explores the validity validity the explores study the Methodologically, activity in the context of industrial housing housing activity in the context of industrial The study seeks to contribute to a designerlyThe study seeks explanation of dwelling explanation solution-orientedness, is anchored to the tradition of design design of tradition the to anchored is solution-orientedness, system is seen as a loose network of specialised professionals of specialised professionals is seen as a loose network system specialist knowledge, interdisciplinary communication, and communication, and specialist knowledge, interdisciplinary complementing them with insights on what user-centred on what user-centred complementing them with insights frameworks through which it is inspected. through frameworks of the existing design professions and present tasks in the the in tasks present and professions design existing the of Thus, the study participates theory on housing. in design in society of design and the repositioning object of design design could mean in the case of housing and on the potential the potential could mean in the case of housing and on design employs a strategy of artful a strategy of the employs displacement (misuse, even) the context from concerning products of ideas and models disciplines to the context of and related research of design of theoretical approaches originating from (user-centred) (user-centred) from originating approaches of theoretical lead can application novel some to it transferring and context design activities that contribute to dwellings as products as products to dwellings that contribute activities design schematic that generates research design Even companies. who participate in the definition of housing and dwelling who participate dwelling in the definition of housing and architectural, technological, economic and social ones, ones, social and economic technological, architectural, artefact that elude the customary academic and professional artefactand professional elude the customary academic that architecture and housing can reveal some facets of dwelling as as dwelling of facets some reveal can housing and architecture and interaction design, engineering design, as well as other as well as other engineering design, design, and interaction in development product and to their use, such as residential professional that comes definition of the product abstract a freestanding as artefact in its different scales and phases of emergence. scales and phases of emergence. as artefact in its different to the formation of entirely new hypotheses. The dissertation new hypotheses. of entirely to the formation the discourse in the design field about the expansion of the the of expansion the about field design the in discourse the interior architecture, furniture design, product design, systems systems design, product design, furniture interior architecture, ideas and inventions emerge from displacement from of emerge inventions ideas and concepts role of design in the differentiation of the offering of housing. of housing. offering the of differentiation the in design of role notion of product. It sets to explore whether the transferral transferral the whether explore to sets It product. of notion product design research in the field of housing. Donald Schön Donald Schön of housing. in the field research design product production. Professional design is characterised by a need for by a need for is characterised design Professional production. (Östman 2005, 216). The housing proper the production before research where the object of design is usually in some way in some way is usually the object of design where research notwithstanding operates The research 2007). (Cross present residential design process, seeking to contribute to general seeking to contribute to general process, design residential (Buchanan 2001, Keinonen 2009). (2001, see also Steadman 2008, 98) has described how new how new 2008, 98) has described also Steadman (2001, see The research approach, characterised by holisticity and by holisticity and characterised approach, The research covers the practices of urban planning, architecture, of urban planning, architecture, the practices This covers The removal of an idea, a word or an artefact from its habitual habitual its artefactidea, a word or an of an from The removal models and conceptual solutions is seen as one form of professional design activity. Participatory design where users are directly engaged in the design process is not in the focus of the study. It rather seeks to explore ways how user experiences can be translated into innovative designs by designers and other experts. The study commits to a definition of design as value search and catalyst for human transformations. The study particularly addresses conceptual design. Conceptual design or concept design precedes actual product specification. It does not aim at direct implementation but operates on a more abstract and strategic level, working with new ideas and general principles or guidelines for what should be designed. In industry, conceptual design can be utilised for product development, for innovation, for creating a shared vision, for enhancing the competence of the company or for expectation management towards the customers. (Ulrich & Eppinger 2004, Keinonen & Takala 2006.) In architecture, conceptual design comes forth in a more open-ended meaning. Conceptual design is of key interest to the themes of the dissertation because of its mediative and generative capacity. In this context, it seems justified to perceive the overall development of housing as an evolutionary process, where dwellings as adaptive artefacts grounded in precedent transform by mechanisms of variation and selection collectively imposed by the housing system, including designers and users (Steadman 2008, Marshall 2009, Ziman 2000). In the evolution of housing, conceptual and strategic design can act as “code” that guides the adaptation of artefacts along chosen ends, such as user value. The dissertation is an exploratory case study where the research task is twofold. Firstly, the study aims at producing empirical knowledge on the consistency of dwelling as product and on the relationship of that product to its user. The second aim is to examine the composite dwelling product as an object of design and in this way provide input to housing design and production. The research employs theory-based analytical instruments for revealing different dimensions of the “productness” of dwelling. These combine theories about the hierarchic structure of the built environment (Habraken 2000, Brand 1994) with definitions of product in design research and marketing studies. A tentative preposition of the study is that dwelling as product can be defined as a set of designable elements on different levels of built environment that combine to deliver an essentially immaterial benefit or value to user. Looking at housing production, it would seem that the dwelling product is “lengthening” (users are increasingly included in the 1 INTRODUCTION 38 39 The practical focus of the study is in new new in is study the of focus practical The dissertation is grounded on qualitative data that has been data that has been qualitative on dissertationgrounded is sector of housing where commodification and the demand for and the demand for commodification sector of housing where collected as part of several applied research projects realised realised projects research applied collected as part of several from residents of rental and right-of-occupancy housing. housing. right-of-occupancy and rental of residents from diversity are most markedly demonstrated. A complementary A complementary demonstrated. most markedly are diversity offering of housing. Main emphasis in the study is on market- Main emphasis in the study is of housing. offering housing built by private housing owner-occupied oriented the is that because companies, construction and developers of housing has been identified as particularly problematic particularlyas problematic identified been has housing of of commodification and intentional differentiation), and and intentional differentiation), and of commodification profoundly dwelling more housing and produced of mass design and production phase of dwellings and producers are are producers and of dwellings phase and production design when concerning the qualitative diversification of the of the diversification the qualitative when concerning at least in principle enable users to influence the structures the structures users to influence principle enable at least in than before). This situation opens up new demands and up new demands and This situation opens than before). in the Helsinki region between the years 2006 and 2009 between the years 2006 and 2009 in the Helsinki region industrially produced urban housing in Finland, which typically urban housing in Finland, which typically produced industrially perspective is provided by user interviews that originate mainly mainly that originate by user interviews is provided perspective possibilitiesfor design. possibilitiesfor this type blocks of flats. As noted earlier, means multi-storey becoming interested in the use phase), “broadening” (ever new new (ever “broadening” phase), the use in interested becoming subject becoming are of dwelling and components properties (see Appendix 1). The “deepening” (collaborative and flexible production methods methods production and flexible (collaborative “deepening” 2 THE RE SEARCH APPROA CH 2 THE RE SEARCH APPROA CH

2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 42 43

FIGURE 3. 3. FIGURE The positioning of the study.

DWELLING 2.1 AS PRODUCT Positioning the study the Positioning Among theories and definitions of design, the the and definitions of design, Among theories DESIGN HOUSING STUDIES RESEARCH Architecture Architecture User-centred User-centred and urbanism product design product system; and thirdly, emphasises design as catalyst of social of social as catalyst emphasises design and thirdly, system; such as architects, planners and residential developers. planners and residential such as architects, science and technology studies. The anticipated audience of of The anticipated audience technology and studies. science general design theory, in particular that addressing systems systems theory, in particular design that addressing general draws on are user-centred design, conceptual design, and and conceptual design, design, user-centred on are draws on architectural research on urban housing. It also relates to to relates on urban housing. It also research architectural on deeply embedded in our social and material reality; secondly, is is secondly, embedded in our social and material reality; deeply disciplines, product design and architecture. The theoretical The theoretical and architecture. design disciplines, product architecture, urban planning and housing studies, as well as as well as urban planning and housing studies, architecture, and design as evolution. Regarding housing, the study builds study builds as evolution. Regarding housing, the and design and methodological premises are in design research, knowledge knowledge research, in design are and methodological premises to the context of housing. applied of which are and insights topic of the dissertation led me to consider one that, firstly, has the dissertation are academics in the disciplines of design, of design, academics in the disciplines the dissertation are housing studies and urban studies grounded in social sciences. in social sciences. grounded and urban studies housing studies recognises the full complexity of dwelling as an artefact that is recognises within the housing not limited to a specific task or profession policy-makers and professionals within the housing system, within the housing system, and professionals policy-makers housing studies (see Figures 3 and 4). It connects two design two design 3 and 4). It connects (see Figures housing studies Additional insights are drawn from marketing research and and research marketing from drawn are Additional insights The main research domains in design that the dissertation dissertation the that domains in design main research The The study is situated in-between design research and and research design in-between situated is study The transformation. The general design theoretical approach of the study can be described as systemic. Industrially produced urban dwelling is seen as complex hierarchically organised artefact that results from human intervention, aims to satisfy human purposes, and is adapted to its environment. The approach is grounded on the work of Herbert Simon who in his influential book Sciences of the Artificial (1996 [1969]) lays foundations for a “science of design” that investigates the preconditions and goals of human invention (questions related to “how things might be”), thus distinguishing itself from natural sciences that aim to explain given phenomena (“how things are”). Consideration of the contingent as opposed to the necessary according to him is characteristic to disciplines dealing with the artificial, such as engineering, business and architecture. The idea of design is present here. Simon defines design broadly as “devising artefacts to attain goals” or “sequences of actions that lead to possible worlds satisfying specified constraints”, stating that “everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones”. According to Simon (ibid., 6), the adaptation of artefacts to goals involves appropriation of the inner substance and organisation of the artefact itself to the outer environment in which it operates. The task of design science should be to study this adaptation of means to environments. To Simon, theory of design is theory of search. The devising of artefacts involves a search for solutions that sufficiently satisfy intended purposes within an environment. Following Simon’s ideas, I perceive dwelling as an adaptive goal-oriented artefact that is moulded by its environment. This also suggests an evolutionary view to the development of housing. The evolutionary analogy in architecture and design has been discussed, among others, by Philip Steadman (2008 [1979]). The evolutionary approach emphasises the influence of precedents in the development of artefacts. This suits well to housing, where both the socio- cultural model of dwelling and dominant dwelling designs with historical lineages of descent are being replicated. In the field of design research, the dissertation connects to the discourse on the expansion of the object of design, repositioning of design in society and production systems, and concurrent professional change (e.g. Buchanan 2001, Keinonen 2009). The study draws on the research on user-centred and collaborative design (e.g. Norman 1988, Keinonen 2010, Hyysalo 2009), applying methods of user- centred design research to the field of housing. It also addresses conceptual design (e.g. Jansson 1990, Keinonen & Takala 2006) and strategic design. Regarding housing studies, the work is grounded on architectural theories on the hierarchic 2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 44 45 in a study concerned with architecture. Rather Rather with architecture. in a study concerned The reader may question a seeming omittance of of may question a seeming omittance The reader The dissertation contributes to the practical dissertationThe practical the to contributes and place decision not to consider dwelling primarily as a space or or space a as primarily dwelling consider to not decision shifts the focus of inspection towards dwelling as a generic, of inspection towards dwelling as a generic, shifts the focus structure of built environment (Habraken 2000, Brand 1994). 1994). Brand 2000, (Habraken environment of built structure approach is is The approach in architecture. on type left out the discussion open building and mass customisation as emerging design design as emerging open building and mass customisation of user-centred design research. The study is qualitative and and The study is qualitative research. design of user-centred questions statistical and regional Quantitative, design-focused. of its constituent technical parts. of research on the experienced spatial and architectural architectural and spatial experienced the on research of properties. of its other designable quality of housing, unlike dwellings, this should be taken as an intentional reframing that that as an intentional reframing be taken dwellings, this should component-based artefact elements beyond that comprises commodification and the nature of commodities in late- of commodities nature and the commodification of goods and aestheticisation of lifestyles differentiation space and holistic properties of dwelling, it being more than the sum the sum than more of dwelling, it being and holistic properties and production strategies. There exists a considerable body body exists a considerable There strategies. and production architecture. This brings it closer to other industrial products it closer to other industrial products This brings architecture. and methods theories and enables its examination using and creative strategies targeting the dwelling product and and the dwelling product targeting strategies and creative and consumption (Klingmann 2007, Schulze 2005, Beck & 2005, Beck & 2007, Schulze (Klingmann and consumption than as denial of the fundamental spatiality and locatedness of of fundamental spatiality and locatedness than as denial of the industrial urban housing in Finland by complementing the the complementing Finland by industrial urban housing in insights of housing studies and urban studies from the angle the angle from and urban studies of housing studies insights to issues related left outside of its scope, as are in housing are individual components. I wish to acknowledge the emergent the emergent individual components. I wish to acknowledge in late-modern conditions characterised by individualisation, by individualisation, characterised conditions in late-modern piece of architecture should, however, not imply a reductionist a reductionist not imply however, should, of architecture piece housing policy, economics and real estate. The studied estate. The studied housing policy, economics and real continuum of historical the in positioned is phenomenon 2002, Hankonen housing in Finland (Juntto 1990, Saarikangas and needs in Finland (e.g. Juntto 2007, 2010a, preferences borrowed from design research. My choice of framing has also has also My choice of framing research. design from borrowed of in terms It is also relevant commodity. mass-produced between residents and dwellings, in particular and dwellings, the users’ active between residents modern society, specifically addressing the role of housing of housing the role addressing specifically modern society, problem area of human-centredness and diversification of of and diversification of human-centredness area problem view, where dwelling as a whole would be explained by its explained by its dwelling as a whole would be where view, value creation during everyday living (de Certeau 1984, Hill during everyday creation value justified by the focus of the study on dwelling as a duplicable of the study on dwelling as a duplicable by the focus justified It connects to the broader discourse in social sciences about about sciences in social discourse the broader to It connects Beck-Gernsheim 2002, Lash & Urry 1994, Baudrillard 1996). 1996). Lash & Urry 1994, Baudrillard Beck-Gernsheim 2002, further area that the study investigates is the relationship is the relationship that the study investigates A further area 1994). The study connects to previous research about housing about housing research 1994). The study connects to previous 2003, Shove 1999). 2003, Shove The 2010b, Kortteinen et al. 2005, Kyttä et al. 2010a, 2010b, Lapintie 2010a). It also relates to the body of research on housing concepts, residential product development and commodification of housing (e.g. Norvasuo 2008, 2010), as well as to architecturally inclined studies on new housing types and forms (e.g. Krokfors 2006, 2008). The dissertation FIGURE 4. Main research discourses addresses the identified gap in housing studies between that the dissertation research on residents’ needs and the design of housing. connects to.

DESIGN RESEARCH HOUSING STUDIES

Systemic and evolutionary theories of design Hierarchic structure of the built (Simon, Steadman, Marshall, Ziman, Geels) environment (Habraken, Brand) Expansion of the object and position Individualisation and commodification of of design (Buchanan, Keinonen) housing (Klingmann, Schulze, Beck & Beck- Gernsheim, Lash & Urry, Baudrillard) User-centred and collaborative design (Norman, Keinonen, Hyysalo) Strategies of residents, value creation during use, users as active and creative Conceptual and strategic design individuals (de Certeau, Shove, Hill) (Jansson, Keinonen & Takala)

THE FINNISH CONTEXT Modernisation and the history of urban housing in Finland (Juntto, Saarikangas, Hankonen) Housing preferences and needs (Juntto, Kortteinen et al., Kyttä et al., Lapintie) Housing concepts, novel housing solutions (Norvasuo et al., Krokfors)

2.2 Research questions

Even if implications of the ongoing social, economic and technological changes to housing and dwelling have become a subject of academic interest in Finland, there is little research on the impact of these changes to housing as a composite designed product. The phenomenon of commodification of housing has not been properly addressed in the context of housing architecture or design theory. There are identified gaps of knowledge as well as breaks between actors within the housing system. The academic discourse on user-centredness of housing in Finland is vague in respect of what user- centredness means in the first place, which specific attributes of housing matter to individual users, and how users are, can, 2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 46 47

and object of design? object and USER PERSPECTIVE: PERSPECTIVE: USER How to understand dwelling as a product a product as dwelling understand to How DESIGN PERSPECTIVE: PERSPECTIVE: DESIGN PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: PERSPECTIVE: PRODUCTION This rather broad topic is approached from three three from topic is approached broad This rather THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING COMMODIFIED THE DWELLING EXPERIENCED THE THE CONCEPTUALISED DWELLING CONCEPTUALISED THE user experience and the designable attributes of dwelling. and the designable user experience section of the dissertation, containing their own sub- both studies. The main research question is: The main research studies. findings together. The viewpoint of design is emphasised in the is emphasised in the of design findings together. The viewpoint development process. development constructed into dwelling and explore the relationship between between relationship the explore and dwelling into constructed everyday living and what kind of active and creative strategies strategies and creative living and what kind of active everyday distinctive perspectives: those of production, users, and design. and design. users, production, those of perspectives: distinctive supported by qualitative are case. They questions and a real-life a as perspective design The 5). Figure (see data empirical or should be represented in the design process. There is a is a There process. design in the represented be or should aim is to increase the understanding of dwelling as a systemic the understanding of dwelling as a systemic aim is to increase and preferences. I will also discuss how the notion of user is also discuss how the notion of user is I will and preferences. as differentiated composite products in relation to customers customers to in relation composite products as differentiated I will also look at how users of built form. and the hierarchy product residential the current in represented are and design as an object of design. The study seeks to contribute to a a to contribute to seeks study The design. of object an as they employ for adapting the dwelling product to their needs needs their to product dwelling the adapting for employ they theory part as well as in the conclusions of the study. production in Finland with a focus on housing concepts as housing concepts as on with a focus in Finland production product and to open up the implications of that to housing implications of that to housing and to open up the product mediation between production, users and design. I will analyse I will analyse users and design. mediation between production, constructed are the market how duplicable housing concepts in housing system and for a more holistic approach to dwelling dwelling to approach holistic a more and for housing system a research topics by utilising of these better understanding user-centred from methodology approaches that combines housing oriented with architecturally research design product need for integration between diverse knowledge within the the within knowledge diverse between integration for need I will examine how dwelling as product is defined by users in in defined by users is product as dwelling how examine will I I will give an overview of the commodification of housing of housing of the commodification an overview I will give The study at large deals with dwelling as a design problem. The The problem. as a design dwelling with deals large at study The The two first, “vertical” perspectives both constitute one main both constitute one main The two first, “vertical” perspectives “horizontal” theme runs through the study and ties the empirical empirical the ties and study the through runs theme “horizontal” design and development. Throughout the dissertation, I will explore ways of (re)conceptualising dwelling as an object of design. I will also discuss the role of conceptual and strategic design in user-centred diversification of housing. In the conclusion chapter, the findings of the two other perspectives are reflected in the context of design.

The dissertation has both scientific and practical objectives. It aims at theoretical reflection of some aspects of the phenomenon of commodification of housing as it is manifested in Finland. Another objective is to increase the understanding of dwelling as a composite product and as an object of design. As a practical aim, the study seeks to contribute to the real- world problem area of user-centred design and development of industrially produced urban housing by providing empirically grounded knowledge about the relationship between residents and the designable attributes of dwelling. The study will also contemplate the potential of conceptual design in diversification of housing and produce preliminary design ideas that can be utilised in the field.

2.3 Research strategy

The systems approach to dwelling has guided my methodological choices. I have sought to employ a research strategy that recognises dwelling as a complex human-made product that is deeply rooted in precedent and embedded within the everyday. Social scientists have noted the salience of housing in social structure (Kemeny 1992, 153). In the same way, housing as a physical artefact infiltrates the hierarchy of the built environment (Habraken 2000). Like other technical objects, housing is composite, heterogeneous and physically localised. This suggests the adoption of a research strategy that allows the examination of the “whole” of dwelling – dwelling as a product situated in its local context, and in interaction with users, designers and other actors contributing to its emergence. Here, a reference can be made to technology sociologist Madeleine Akrich (1992, 208–209) who states that technical objects define a framework of action together with the actors and the space in which they are supposed to act. She argues that when interested in such objects, a researcher “cannot be methodologically satisfied with the designer’s or user’s 2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 48 49 . What distinguishes case study from many other many other from What distinguishes case study Case study has been identified as a useful useful a as identified been has study Case qualitative dissertationThe as a qualitative constructed is where the research topic (dwelling as a systemic, as a systemic, topic (dwelling research the where grounded on empirical material. The first case The first case on empirical material. grounded life cases life user study conducted with 44 residents. The cases provide two two The cases provide user study conducted with 44 residents. understanding of the studied phenomenon. Investigation from from phenomenon. Investigation the studied understanding of case study case social sciences and in design research. Robert Yin (ibid., 13) research. and in design social sciences look at housing design and the housing industry but specific, industry but specific, the housing and at housing design look in usesingular dwellings lack of established formulas for conducting case studies, it is it is conducting case studies, for lack of established formulas life contexts (Yin 2003). The method is commonly used in in used commonly is method The 2003). (Yin contexts life separate windows to the research topic that are tied together together tied topic that are windows to the research separate generalisations. Instead of gathering a large representative representative large a gathering of Instead generalisations. for its in-depth portrayal. for especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and between phenomenon and when the boundaries especially data that is analysed statistically, case study focuses on one on one case study focuses statistically, data that is analysed aiming particular phenomenon, a of instances or cases more or comprehensive research strategy covering the logic of research the logic of research covering strategy research comprehensive to approaches data collection techniques, and specific design, Others (Laine et al. 2007) see case study in a case studies. defines case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates investigates that inquiry empirical “an as study case defines evident”. He describes case study as a not clearly context are duplicable housing concepts realised in Finland. Here, focus focus Here, in Finland. realised concepts housing duplicable second The of housing developers. complemented by interviews on focuses the user perspective) empirical case (representing designable product) is cross-examined from multiple multiple from cross-examined is product) designable of facets different reveal to anticipated is perspective each objects. To understand dwelling as product one must not only not only one must product dwelling as understand objects. To analysis, and suggests systematic procedures for conducting conducting for procedures and suggests systematic analysis, a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, context, phenomenon within its real-life a contemporary that emphasises the value of the particular over quantifiable particular of the quantifiable that emphasises the value over the everyday user experience of dwelling as manifested in a in a of dwelling as manifested user experience the everyday the ‘productness’ of dwelling. The study comprises two of dwelling. The study real- the ‘productness’ two, figuring out how they interact with each other and meet in meet in and each other with interact how they out figuring two, in conducting the research. A case study as outlined by Yin by Yin outlined study as A case research. in conducting the is on dwelling as a commodity and differentiated product product differentiated and a commodity as dwelling on is study material are The housing concepts as in the market. methods of scientific inquiry is the central role of theory of theory role inquiry is the central methods of scientific cases and Due to the complexity of real-life propositions. more open meaning as a general methodological approach methodological approach as a general open meaning more by theory and the analysis methods. by theory and the analysis understanding complex social phenomena in real- method for perspectives, seeking to converge as a critical overall as a critical overall converge seeking to perspectives, viewpoint alone”, but has to go back and forth between the and forthgo back has to but alone”, the between viewpoint (2003, 28–29) benefits from prior development of theoretical of theoretical prior development (2003, 28–29) benefits from (representing the production perspective) is provided by by provided is perspective) production the (representing difficult to predict beforehand what specific information will be relevant in a case. In order to focus the scope of the inquiry, the researcher needs to build a tentative theoretical framework that acts as a “blueprint”, guiding and integrating the research process from first hypothetical prepositions to data collection, analysis and interpretation of findings. Yin sees case study as an iterative process where theoretical positions are constantly revised on the basis of empirical evidence, leading to gradual building of an explanation on the research topic. According to him, the research design itself therefore necessarily embodies a preliminary “theory” of the subject of investigation. An important further distinction concerns the generalisation of results in case studies. Case study research relies on analytic as opposed to statistical generalisation, looking for inferences on the level of theory. The results are generalised to the theoretical propositions of the study, not to populations or universes. In analytic generalisation, previously developed theory is used as a template with which to compare the empirical results of the study. Cases can be replicated to corroborate or contrast the theory. The theoretical framework becomes the means for generalising to new cases. (Ibid., 47–49.) The credibility and validity of a case study can be enhanced by triangulation, i.e. cross- examination of the research topic using multiple methods and sources of evidence. In the dissertation, I have utilised data triangulation (collection of information about the same phenomenon from different sources) and triangulation on the level of theory (approaching the same data from multiple theoretical perspectives). The same theory-based analysis frameworks have been used in both cases. I have also aimed at cross-case synthesis by combining the results of the cases in the conclusion part (Chapter 6). The overall methodology of the dissertation is grounded in design research, which by definition deals with the objects and processes of design. Methods in design research are often practice-oriented, explorative and experimental. Qualitative applied research focusing on the experiences of a small group of individuals is typical in the field. This type of research is often theoretically weak. I have aimed at cultivating designerly methods of inquiry also on a more theoretical level. I have sought to employ systematic research methods that would contribute to design theory, addressing, in the words of Nigel Cross (2007, 124), “forms of knowledge peculiar to the awareness and ability of a designer, independent of the different professional domains of design practice”. The central strategy in the study has been the shifting of the notion of product from the context of product design to the context 2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 50 51

Neo-loft ,

PlusKoti 2.4 , BoKlok , conducted with managers who conducted with managers who Data and analysis methods Data and analysis that were collected between the years 2006 between the years 2006 collected that were ) have been chosen for closer analysis using as using as closer analysis been chosen for ) have The third data set comprises 44 semi-structured The third data set comprises 44 semi-structured The second set of data consists of three of three The second set of data consists The first set of empirical material comprises comprises The first set of empirical material company interviews Loppukiri user interviews life case) and one the user perspective (the second real-life (the second real-life and one the user perspective case) life of which inform the production perspective (the first real- (the perspective the production of which inform criteria their relevance in illustrating different aspects of the aspects of the different in illustrating criteria their relevance commodification of housing. collected from various sources, such as the websites of the as the websites of the such sources, various collected from material advertising marketing and other and developers dealing with the topic (Norvasuo 2008 and 2010, Väliniemi et et Väliniemi and 2010, 2008 dealing with the topic (Norvasuo decade. The selection has been limited to concepts for urban urban to concepts for decade. The selection has been limited case) (see Figure 5). More detailed descriptions of the origins, origins, detailed descriptions of the 5). More case) (see Figure in the given of the data are methods content and analysis of architecture and housing, resulting in new understanding understanding in new resulting and housing, of architecture of housing as a product; and the current product development development product and the current of housing as a product; that are currently in the the in currently are that concepts housing of descriptions additional information about the housing concepts offered by by housing concepts offered about the additional information in the realised projects research and 2007 as part of applied are responsible of housing product development in three three in development product housing of responsible are and professional media, as well as previous research reports reports research media, as well as previous and professional Some apartmentand Aaltonen et al. 2011). al. 2008, buildings and of design. and object the companies. They were conducted by the author in 2011. They were the companies. thematic industry representatives’ view on their customers and on the on their customers and on the view industry representatives’ residential development companies operating in Finland. in Finland. operating companies development residential problematics of user-centredness in housing; their perception in housing; their perception of user-centredness problematics provided also have interviews The companies. the in process built according to the concepts have also been visited. Five Five visited. been also have concepts the to according built housing concepts (Aktiivikoti blocks of flats. Information about the concepts has been has been about the concepts blocks of flats. Information in popular by them, descriptions of the concepts provided respective chapters (Chapters 4.2.4 and 5.2.1). respective market in Finland or have been realised during the last the last during been realised or have in Finland market (reframing, reconceptualisation) of dwelling as a product product as a of dwelling reconceptualisation) (reframing, The interviews concentrate on three main themes: the the themes: main three on concentrate interviews The The empirical data in the study consists of three sets, two two sets, three of consists study the in data empirical The University of Art and Design Helsinki’s Future Home Institute (see Chapter 5.2.1 and Appendices 1, 2 and 3). The interviews originate from a series of user studies that were conducted utilising the probes method based on self-documentation by users (see Mattelmäki 2006). Other material provided by the probes such as descriptions of housing careers and photographs taken by the participants are also utilised in the dissertation. The aim of the user studies was to get a rich picture of the experiences of individual persons in the home environment. The participants originally represented six distinctive groups: persons with disabilities, immigrants, people having an “untypical” job (such as short-term work or shift work), single parents, residents of right-of-occupancy dwellings, and persons who had purchased a flat in a new high-end housing project in inner-city Helsinki. The probes method has originally been developed to provide inspirational knowledge about users into the design process. In the projects, the method was used in the context of applied research. The results of the user studies were utilised for developing design drivers and concepts related to various aspects of the living environment. In the dissertation, the data is re-approached from a more theoretical angle. The wide scope and richness of the interviews make them valid as data concerning the research question. As additional material in the conclusion part have been used some conceptual design examples that have been realised by the author in applied research projects, partly in collaboration with others. They provide tentative reconceptualisations of dwelling as an object of design and illustrate alternative design strategies aiming at user-centred diversification of the dwelling product. The material is primarily analysed on the basis of theory. In theory-guided content analysis, the concepts and frameworks for analysis are brought from outside the data. As a method, theory-guided content analysis begins with the formulation of a framework for analysis, informed by theory and previous knowledge of the researcher, and proceeds to classification and categorisation of the data according to the framework (Tuomi & Sarajärvi 2011). Theory and data are constantly compared, building towards a theory that fits the data. I have adopted theory-guided analysis as a general approach to data rather than as rigorous method. My analysis has been guided by theoretical hypotheses and conceptual models that have been formulated on the basis of research literature and other sources dealing with the problem area of the dissertation. The hypotheses have been tested and revised in dialogue with the data. I have utilised theory- based diagrammatic instruments for investigating different 2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 52 53

. FIGURE 5 FIGURE of perspectives The three the study and the data. perspective The design the study. runs through 3 User USER DATA interviews dwelling The experienced The experienced PERSPECTIVE SECOND CASE (CHAPTER 5) 2 DATA Company interviews dwelling 1 FIRST CASE PRODUCTION (CHAPTER 4) PERSPECTIVE DATA Housing The commodified The commodified concepts I have followed various analysis tactics in the tactics in the analysis various followed I have DESIGN PERSPECTIVE The conceptualised dwelling used for displaying the data. Of the analysis tactics proposed tactics proposed analysis displaying the data. Of the used for coding, displayed with the help of thematic matrices and and with the help of thematic matrices coding, displayed explanation building where case study evidence is examined, case study evidence is examined, explanation building where discussed in Chapter 6.4. expert knowledge. In places, quantifying diagrams have been been expert have knowledge. In places, quantifying diagrams differences, and given meanings and explanations in dialogue in dialogue meanings and explanations given and differences, specific case examples (the housing from derived dwelling are instruments theory-based The data). user the and concepts conclusion drawing/verification (see Miles & Huberman 1994). 1994). (see Miles & Huberman conclusion drawing/verification dimensions of the “productness” of dwelling. The analysis The analysis of dwelling. the “productness” of dimensions with theory. General propositions about the productness of of productness the about propositions General theory. with writings on the hierarchic organisation of the built environment the built environment of organisation the hierarchic writings on a theoretical perspective. The study’s reliability and validity is is validity and study’s reliability The perspective. theoretical a affinity diagrams, cross-examined to discern regularities and and discern regularities to cross-examined affinity diagrams, theoretical models revised, and the evidence re-examined from from re-examined and the evidence models revised, theoretical to the research question. The material has been reduced by by reduced been has material The question. research the to interwoven streams of data reduction, data display and and data display of data reduction, streams interwoven interpreting the results has also been provided by my own prior own prior by my has also been provided the results interpreting informed reading and exploration of the data with sensitiveness sensitiveness of the data with and exploration reading informed instruments are presented in Chapter 3.4. They are grounded on on grounded They are 3.4. in Chapter presented are instruments have been used as tools in the analysis, and the findings have and the findings have analysis, been used as tools in the have and tested against the theory. Guidance for been verified is closest to iterative by Yin (2003, 137), the process marketing research and design studies (Kotler et al. 2008, et al. 2008, (Kotler studies and design research marketing (Habraken 2000, Brand 1994), on definitions of product in in definitions of product 1994), on 2000, Brand (Habraken (Steadman 2008, Marshall 2009, Ziman 2000, Geels 2002). 2009, Ziman 2000, 2008, Marshall (Steadman Large part of the analysis has proceeded through close theory- through has proceeded part of the analysis Large Eger & Drukker 2010), and on evolutionary theories of design of design theories and on evolutionary 2010), Eger & Drukker 2.5 Research process and dissertation structure

The research has proceeded in an iterative and reflective manner. The main successive phases in the process have been the formulation of theoretical prepositions, selection and adjustment of research methods, collection of empirical data, theory-guided analysis of the material, and synthesis where the findings are summed up and brought back to the academic discourse. In practice, the process has been cyclical. The phases have overlapped and informed each other. The study draws on applied research projects as a repository of data, knowledge and ideas. The projects originate from the author’s career in a research unit focusing on user-centred development of the living environment (Future Home Institute at the University of Art and Design Helsinki). They represent practically oriented, solution-driven research activity conducted in the intersection of academia and industry, in cooperation with companies and other organisations mainly from the fields of housing development, construction and services. The projects have provided a large part of the empirical material of the dissertation. Even more importantly, they form a personal trajectory of learning that has greatly influenced the premises and research questions of the dissertation. A reservoir of knowledge and ideas related to the topic of the dissertation has been accumulated during project activity that has not been properly brought into the body of academic knowledge before. The research has provided an opportunity to critically assess learnings and hypotheses originating from a practice of applied research in the field of housing. The user interviews originate directly from the applied research projects. Other parts of the research material have been collected during the dissertation process. More information about the projects and their relationship to specific data sets is given in Appendix 1. The dissertation is divided into six main chapters. The introductory Chapter 1 describes the background, context and focus of the study. It gives an overall view of the large- scale societal developments influencing the demand and delivery of housing, with reflections to housing in Finland. The research questions, methods, data, and practical execution of the study as well as its positioning in the academic field are explained in Chapter 2. The theoretical premises of the study 2 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 54 55 The central contribution of the dissertation is of the dissertation contribution The central is suggested a structure where additional theory sections are are additional theory sections where suggested a structure explores the commodification of dwelling as evidenced by by evidenced as dwelling of commodification the explores current Finnish housing concepts and the developer interviews. interviews. concepts and the developer Finnish housing current experiences. everyday people’s of basis the on product dwelling data from the two perspectives of production and use of of and use of production the two perspectives data from begin with a “setting of the perspective” dwelling. Both chapters findings data, and conclude by bridging the discussion of the distributed along the length of the study. distributed along opened by that to the design of dwelling. The chapter also also The chapter of dwelling. that to the design opened by of and the notion of conceptual design a definition offers of the theoretical presentation It concludes with concept. of scope of Breadth analysis. the in employed frameworks with the general argumentation of the study. Chapter 4 4 Chapter study. the of argumentation general the with with the expansion of product design and the possibilities possibilities the and design product of expansion the with a new understanding of dwelling as product. a new understanding of dwelling as architectural design in present conditions, contrasting these these contrasting conditions, in present design architectural are outlined in Chapter 3. It discusses the challenges faced by by faced challenges the It discusses 3. in Chapter outlined are the findings of the two empirical perspectives are brought brought are perspectives the findings of the two empirical contributing to of design, together and discussed in the light the theoretical domains addressed by the dissertation has dissertationthe by has addressed domains theoretical the based on literature, proceed to theory-guided analysis and and analysis theory-guided to proceed literature, on based being developed throughout Chapters 4 and 5, in which the the in which 5, and 4 Chapters throughout being developed with the support empirical of approached question is research Chapter 5 investigates the relationship between users and the between users and the the relationship Chapter 5 investigates conclusions of the study are presented in Chapter 6, where where in Chapter 6, presented The conclusions of the study are 3 DWELLI NG IN TRANSF ORMATION 3 DWELLI NG IN TRANSF ORMATION UNDERSTANDING DWELLING AS a systemic product in the context of expanding design activity necessitates a closer look at its composition, the dynamics of its change, and the role of design in shaping it. The following section outlines the practical context and theoretical premises of the dissertation and opens up the design perspective to dwelling that runs through the study. It begins with an overview of the problematics of user-centred diversification of dwelling from the viewpoint on architectural design (Chapter 3.1). This is contrasted by the ongoing expansion of the scope and position of product design and the implications of that to the design of dwelling (Chapter 3.2). The next part (Chapter 3.3) gives a theoretical definition of conceptual design and of the notion of concept as it is manifested in various design disciplines. The section concludes with presentation of the key theoretical frameworks employed in the study and introduction of the theory-based instruments that have been formulated for analysing the data (Chapter 3.4). 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 58 59

3.1 Challenges faced by architecture faced Challenges THE FRAGMENTATION OF BUILDING OF FRAGMENTATION THE landscaping, interiors, and so on. Legal, financial, and and on. so and financial, Legal, interiors, landscaping, and consultants for plumbing, heating, ventilation and and ventilation heating, plumbing, for consultants and systems, communication and power electric air-conditioning, marketing strategies, implemented by yet other specialists specialists other yet by implemented strategies, marketing Specialisation of labour characteristic to to Specialisation of labour characteristic Architectural interventions now involve architects, engineers, engineers, architects, now involve interventions Architectural Transition to this kind of production requires the the requires to this kind of production Transition

up” approaches, and from managing linear processes to to managing linear processes from and up” approaches, specialisation of production, personalisation of products, products, of personalisation production, of specialisation separate functions and components to connections and to connections and functions and components separate on information, aestheticisation of consumption, flexible of consumption, flexible aestheticisation on information, underlines the importance of design and and This underlines the importance of design fields. different each with their specific narrow expertise. John Habraken (2000, (2000, expertise.Habraken John narrow specific with their each competencies in the new economy in the new economy in dialogue. Key competencies develop overall shift of production in late-modern information society. society. information late-modern in production of shift overall of value and co-creation networks, production collaborative environmental responsibility. These changes are related to the to the related These changes are responsibility. environmental changing. At the same time, design as activity is experiencing as activity is experiencing time, design changing. At the same are strategic agility and ability to combine innovations from from agility and ability to combine innovations strategic are also have to deal with an increasing demand for social and social and demand for deal with an increasing to also have and its position in production systems and in the society are are society the in and systems production in position its and Designers and user-centredness. a shift towards collaboration Jaakko Virkkunen (et al. 2010, 32) this has meant a profound has meant a profound Virkkunen (et al. 2010, 32) this Jaakko tasks have been divided among a large number of professionals of professionals number a large among divided been have tasks through contradictions and in which knowledge and expertise contradictions through through the interaction of producers and consumers (Castells and consumers (Castells producers of the interaction through interdependencies between them, from hierarchic, institutional institutional hierarchic, from between them, interdependencies integration of many actors and complementary innovations of many actors and complementary innovations integration activity theorist to a functioning whole. According into product development. (Ibid., 32–36.) development. product modernism is evident in the case of housing delivery, where where modernism is evident in the case of housing delivery, move towards more holistic thinking in activity systems. holistic thinking in activity systems. more towards move partnership in complex interactive systems which evolve which evolve systems partnership in complex interactive Emphasis in organisations and companies is shifting from is shifting from and companies Emphasis in organisations Due to social and technological change, the object of design of design technological change, the object Due to social and 1996, see Chapter 4.1). 229) notes how 3.1.1 The new production paradigm is characterised by reliance by reliance is characterised paradigm The new production “top-down” thinking to more open and collaborative “bottom- open and collaborative “top-down” thinking to more and committees, are continually coordinated within the design team. The ultimate project execution – building – is yet another process involving many different experts. Agents continually make judgments in ongoing dialogue.

According to Steven Groák (1992, 3) this has led to fragmentation of communication and generation of diverse conceptual frameworks within the building process. Groák argues that even if building science has gathered an extensive body of knowledge about individual materials, components, technologies, and behaviours of buildings, it lacks an understanding of the holistic properties of buildings, meaning the “specific, unique, complex, sometimes known but not quantifiable” properties which only emerge in real- life buildings as confronted by practitioners and users. Groák states that “[a]s experience and study of buildings has gathered over the centuries, reinforced by the division of labour, our knowledge of the parts and our knowledge of the wholes have diverged”. He sees reconciliation between the wholes and their constituent parts as the central problem in building science, and stresses the importance of holistic ideas in the design and production of buildings. In design studies, Buchanan (2001, 7) points out the fragmentation as well and reflects on the potential of design to connect and integrate divergent knowledge. Architecture is an essentially integrative discipline in its capacity to combine diverse physical elements into coherent spatial structures that resonate with basic human needs and intentions. Architectural scholars in the phenomenological tradition claim that modernisation has disconnected architecture from its roots in the human experience. Juhani Pallasmaa (2005) maintains that the principal role of architecture should not be to invent novelties but to reconstruct our fundamental bio-cultural and sensory experience of place and time. Kaj Nyman (1989) sees architecture as a socially and culturally grounded “language” for translating the human experience into material form; a language that is shared and that we all can inherently understand. Thus, architecture is giving social order an expression through physical order. Nyman argues that in modernisation, architecture has lost some of its communicative capacity as the design, production and use of buildings have separated. The language of architecture according to him has become foreign to many of us. Strengthening the link between (new) social and spatial orders would be an important task of architects in the late-modern society. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 60 61 THE POLARISATION OF OF POLARISATION THE ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE ARCHITECTURAL Leif Östman (2005) has analysed the “high” and and the “high” Leif Östman (2005) has analysed As argued by Östman, the innovative potential potential innovative the Östman, by argued As

subtask among many in developer-led projects. Separation of of Separation projects. many in developer-led subtask among seen as opposing modes that most architects are required to to required are architects seen as opposing modes that most garde architects, whose real audience are other architects, the the other architects, are audience whose real garde architects, grounded in pragmatist philosophy. He attests the polarisation polarisation the attests He philosophy. pragmatist in grounded on artistic concentrate and conceptual garde architects” formulas”, and “critical practices, which offer innovative design design innovative which offer practices, and “critical formulas”, excellently in their practice by symbolic incentives” (ibid., (ibid., by symbolic incentives” practice in their excellently enforced by commercial means or by formal education, but education, but or by formal means by commercial enforced companies has increased central control over design decisions decisions design over control central increased has companies of avant-garde architecture is highly important for the important the for is highly architecture of avant-garde expectations of the clients seem trivial. “By definition, design seem trivial. “By definition, design expectations of the clients within design practice and knowledge. A small elite of “avant- practice within design architectural avant-garde valued by professionals. To avant- To professionals. by valued avant-garde architectural advancement of the field. Its largely implicit ways cannot be cannot be implicit ways Its largely of the field. advancement alternate between in their everyday practice. practice. alternate between in their everyday artistic “mass architects” work in the commercial and popular and popular work in the commercial artistic “mass architects” the commercial pole. The avant-garde production has to put put to has production avant-garde The pole. commercial the this poses a problem. Their short-term interests, such as such as short-term Their interests, this poses a problem. the most part offer conservative solutions on tried-and-true tried-and-true on solutions part most conservative the offer than building as its object. the field has been divided into “commercial practices, which which practices, has been divided into “commercial the field their aesthetic judgements based on popular, local frames of of their aesthetic judgements based on popular, local frames identities for people and places by taking experience rather rather people and places by taking experience for identities in housing projects (Sohlenius 2006). This is one reason This is one reason (Sohlenius 2006). in housing projects (2007, 311) claims that economy, Klingmann in the experience projects with a considerable client influence are located at located at influence are client with a considerable projects need for immediate functionality and avoidance of risks, and and risks, of avoidance and functionality immediate need for by the aesthetics of the being overruled inevitably are reference professional field, where the agents are forced to perform to perform forced the agents are where field, professional realm, mainly producing drawings and documents in a repetitive documents in a repetitive and drawings producing mainly realm, The two can also be manner devoid of intellectual processing. projects, excelling in taste and innovation. The majority, non- innovation. excelling in taste and projects, but attract few customers”. She proposes a more strategic strategic more a proposes customers”. She few but attract authentic that can create as a catalyst architecture for role behind the low appreciation and profitability of mainstream of mainstream and profitability low appreciation the behind of architecture Discussing the role to architects. housing design and which for on being consumer-friendly pride themselves residential development and construction activities in large large in activities construction and development residential In present mass produced housing, architectural design is one is one design architectural housing, mass produced In present 3.1.2 318). From the perspective of clients and users of architecture, and users of architecture, of clients the perspective 318). From “innovation asks for a strong avant-garde and an autonomous and an autonomous avant-garde a strong asks for “innovation “low” aesthetic cultures of architecture in his dissertation in his dissertation of architecture “low” aesthetic cultures form above functionality and client interests.” (Ibid., 149.) The artistically driven code of conduct in elite architectural practice is so powerful that clients cannot dismiss it if they want high-quality architecture. Questioning the status quo is interpreted as offence to the core values of the field. In this sense, the existence of architecture as a profession necessitates certain ignorance of the users. Similarly, the commodification of architecture represents a threat to the dominant artistic ideology in the field. The professional elite disregards market-oriented housing architecture. Some of the criticism is justified. The subordination of architecture to the capitalist economy can undermine its human quality and socio-cultural sustainability. Overemphasising the taste of the clients and consumers can lead to populist architecture that is not viable in the long term. The need for architecture as art, capable of creating aesthetic experiences and connecting the social and the material in a way that goes beyond our immediate horizon of expectations, exists. As Christian Kühn (2005, 253) states: “The prerequisite is that architecture now and in the future not (or at least not primarily) be understood as a ware and a product, but rather as an artistic medium that critically reflects on the complexity of a specific situation including its social, ecological and economic aspects.” Insisting upon architecture as art should not mean denial of its position in the service of the capitalist system and the responsibility associated with that. As in all productive activity, architects need to solve the contradiction between the use value and exchange value of the product. Östman (2005, 315–316) describes three types of architectural commissions: avant-garde commissions; ordinary architectural design commissions that ask for a robust design skill, but where the client puts less emphasis on avant-garde and more on accomplishing the complete solution regarding cost, construction, performance, functionality and architecture; and commercial projects, where there is a dominating interest in commercial success and where less efforts are spent on the architectural design. Most regular architectural work in housing projects would fall into the latter two categories. Östman sees the “commercial outskirts” of architecture problematic because of its disconnectedness from the innovative avant-garde. One can question, however, the extent to which housing architecture can be avant-garde in the first place. The design of apartment houses is basically about duplication and fitting together of variations of the few culturally established dwelling types so that the end product is economically viable. It can be argued that in mass produced urban housing the facade of the building is the sole medium for aesthetic expression of the architect. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 62 63 DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE IN DESIGN DILEMMAS OF PARTICIPATORY PARTICIPATORY OF DILEMMAS Umberto Eco (cited by Dreyer 2010, 59) argues 2010, 59) argues Umberto Eco (cited by Dreyer Understanding architecture as part of mass as part of mass architecture Understanding

so that the aesthetic standards of the field are maintained. maintained. are field the of standards aesthetic the that so level and are capable of mediating between the parties (ibid., (ibid., parties capable of mediating between the and are level culture and a consumer product challenges the traditional traditional the challenges product consumer a and culture environments. Giancarlo De Carlo (2005) laid foundations Giancarlo De Carlo (2005) laid foundations environments. the participatory in a polemic text that was for movement was that argument published in 1970. His central originally design research in the field of product design. Participation Participation design. of product in the field research design or mass communication than art. He also contemplates the of view that are often based on a limited understanding of the understanding of the often based on a limited that are of view challenge for architects is how to share design authority authority design share is how to architects for challenge whole. It would be the architect’s role to act as a facilitator as a facilitator to act role whole. It would be the architect’s the whole and contribute that “others understand who ensures with other actors without losing control of the whole, and and of the whole, losing control actors without with other and design collaboration is fed by two traditions: participatory traditions: two by fed is collaboration design and and planning, and user-centred in architecture approaches architectural measures”. Eco sees architecture more as service as service more Eco sees architecture measures”. architectural a lone architect, it should be seen as co-operation where also also where co-operation it should be seen as a lone architect, the competencies within the profession itself. He states itself. He states the profession within the competencies traditional codes, or discovering new codes. codes, or discovering traditional to be recombined and modified so as to give its users the its users the so as to give and modified to be recombined to its unified aesthetic qualities” (ibid., 322). aesthetic qualities” to its unified and behaviour- innovative for potential that architecture’s the client and other actors exercise creativity and aesthetic and aesthetic creativity and other actors exercise the client that the architectural design process requires interaction of of interaction requires process design that the architectural impression that their needs have been fulfilled by means of by means of been fulfilled that their needs have impression modifying design is very limited because of its inescapable inescapable of its because limited very is design modifying codes. (semantic) conventional and familiar on reliance became a concern of the architectural avant-garde in the the in avant-garde concern of the architectural became a possibility of architects going beyond or deconstructing or deconstructing going beyond possibility of architects managers” who understand the design process on a linguistic on a linguistic process the design managers” who understand role of architects and requires new kind of mediatory skills. skills. new kind of mediatory and requires of architects role Östman argues that change can only come from developing developing from come only can change that argues Östman requires the conjunction of a variety of points of points of a variety the conjunction judgement. This requires In the case of design for dwelling, the discourse about users users the discourse about dwelling, for design of In the case In the transition towards collaborative production, a critical a critical production, towards collaborative In the transition Architecture is about “fixed, codified solutions that only have have solutions that only codified is about “fixed, Architecture 1960s as a reaction to social problems surfacing in modernist surfacing in modernist to social problems 1960s as a reaction 3.1.3 301). Rather than seeing the design of a building as the task of of task the as building a of design the seeing than Rather 301). “avant-garde designers” with non-linguistic artistic reasoning, non-linguistic artistic with reasoning, designers” “avant-garde skill, and “design design practical with a robust “designers” architecture as a specialised profession, with power mandated by the elite of the society, is merely preoccupied with the “how” of building instead of asking more profoundly “why” things are done as they are. This has led to a lack of credibility of architecture among its users. De Carlo suggested a move from authoritarian and repressing planning “for” users to more democratic planning “with” users, where consensus would be continuously negotiated. This would imply extending the design process from the discovery of needs and formulation of hypotheses to actual use of architecture. Not only should users be included in the design phase, but buildings should allow growth and flexibility during use: adjustment, subtraction, adding to, or modification of the space by users (ibid., 21). These ideas can be paralleled with the development of open building systems. Around the same time, Sherry Arnstein (1969, see even Broome 2005, 65 and Till 2005, 25) introduced her influential eight-degree “ladder of participation” concerning citizen power in determining the end product of public planning. The two bottom rungs of the ladder in fact describe forms of non-participation, where genuine participation is substituted by manipulation or therapy of powerless groups by power holders, giving them an impression of influencing decision-making while actually trying to “teach” or “cure” them. Next steps in the ladder are informing (one-way communication from authorities to citizens with no channel for feedback or negotiation), consultation (eliciting citizen’s opinions through surveys, meetings or public hearings; often poorly taken into account in actual decision-making), and placation (inviting citizen representatives to public bodies and helping them to articulate their priorities, while retaining the decision-making power to the officials). To Arnstein, true citizen empowerment is represented by partnership where decision-making responsibilities are shared between citizens and power holders through joint structures, delegated power where citizens are given the dominant decision-making authority over a particular plan or project, and citizen control where “participants or residents can govern a program or an institution, be in full charge of policy and managerial aspects, and be able to negotiate the conditions under which ‘outsiders’ may change them” (Arnstein 1969). During the last few decades, planning theory and practice have experienced a “communicative turn” away from hierarchic rationalism, towards understanding urban planning as discursive sense-making and value-seeking between local stakeholders, as conflict mediation, and as strategic management of collective affairs (Healey 1997). Finland’s 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 64 65 Jeremy Till (2005, 29–33) argues that the that the Till (2005, 29–33) argues Jeremy The reliance of architecture on expert knowledge of architecture The reliance users in a way that would transform their expectations and expectations and their users in a way that would transform social life-world. Architects are afraid that by acting “normally” by acting “normally” that afraid are Architects social life-world. sustains inbred myths about consumers. Consumers are seen seen myths are Consumers consumers. about inbred sustains studied the communicative turn in the planning profession. profession. turn in the planning the communicative studied of participation that would harness the expert knowledge of user behaviour acceptable to the architect). According According the architect). acceptable to of user behaviour do not think that it is possible to gain economic developers of integrative negotiation (“urban design management”) in management”) in design negotiation (“urban of integrative design has been discussed by Aija Staffans (2004) and Marketta Staffans (2004) and Marketta has been discussed by Aija design operative Land Use and Building Act stresses openness of of openness Act stresses and Building Land Use operative of a new area are usually not known in the planning stage and the planning stage and not known in usually are of a new area architectural participation is often pseudo-participation participation pseudo-participation often is architectural actions that have already been determined by professional been determined by professional already actions that have methods transformative more for calls Till 26). agents” (ibid., to the service of the capacity of professionals and innovative about getting “the presumed support of the citizen user for support citizen user for of the about getting “the presumed architectural culture is in a state of denial about participation.about denial of state a in is culture architectural as architecture) and control of the user (determining forms of the user (determining forms and control as architecture) competence. Thus, and without design conservative, as passive, according to Jonathan Hill (2003, 10), need to conceive users users need to conceive according to Jonathan Hill (2003, 10), their sole in order to protect and predictable as passive architect between The hierarchy authorship of architecture. (assumption user the of denial by is maintained user and that creates a “feeling” of participation while it actually is of participation a “feeling” is while it actually that creates they would lose their professional status. Consequently, status. Consequently, they would lose their professional that constitutes their status, and the “normal” knowledge of the the of knowledge “normal” the and status, their constitutes that to a Finnish study (Rask et al. 2008), the housing industry the housing industry to a Finnish study (Rask et al. 2008), that a building need not be occupied for it to be recognised recognised it to be for that a building need not be occupied to giving feedback on plans devised by experts. A specific devised by experts. on plans feedback to giving A specific thus cannot be engaged in a participatory process. In Finland, In Finland, in a participatorythus cannot be engaged process. inclusion and participation of residents to urban planning and to urban planning and inclusion and participationof residents customisation. mass customisation. poses a dilemma for user participation. Architects collectively, collectively, participation. user Architects for dilemma a poses partnerships in urban residential development (Majamaa 2008, (Majamaa 2008, development partnerships in urban residential planning and everyone’s right to participate in it. In reality, participate to reality, In it. in right everyone’s and planning participate Their decision-making. in actual rarely residents local “situated to providing cases is limited in most role and planners, to information background and knowledge” residents in participatory is that the future planning problem value from differentiation beyond the current superficial superficial the current beyond differentiation from value value creation (Edelman 2007), and on public-private-people (Edelman 2007), and on public-private-people creation value Considering urban development, there’s research on the use the use on research there’s urban development, Considering Kuronen 2011). These provide little input to housing design. 2011). These provide Kuronen Kyttä has (2006) Kyttä(e.g. Puustinen Sari 2006). Kahila & There is a gap between the specialised knowledge of architects the specialised knowledge of architects is a gap between There futures. This would require expanding the knowledge base of architecture. Architects should develop their sensitivity to context, acknowledge the transformative potential of users’ knowledge, provide channels for its articulation by methods such as storytelling, and find ways to negotiate as well as deal with change and contingency (the “messy, complex, lives of users”). Till proposes thinking of participatory design as “negotiation of hope”, a process of making sense together that posits a better future for people and the built environment. (Ibid., 32–41.) Early participatory design methods were rejected by the mainstream housing industry due to “preoccupations of reducing costs, improving efficiency and moving into prefabrication” (Broome 2005, 65). Profound participation of each individual customer to the design of their dwelling is not realistic in mass produced housing, at least not until the implementation of more advanced mass customisation models. As opposed to public urban space, on the other hand, people have more control over dwelling space as it is. This is evident in custom-designed detached houses, but the owners themselves can relatively easily modify even mass produced flats. Previous participatory methods of an idealist stance usually aimed at providing communities of users tools for translating their preferences into plans that were then finalised by architects, a typical project being a small group of detached houses initiated by the residents. In this model, architects are stripped of authority and reduced to technical facilitators (Till 2005, 31). A Finnish study on the subject concludes that non-expert designers tend to reproduce conventional housing patterns (Horelli-Kukkonen 1993).

3.1.4 RESPONSES TO THE DEMAND FOR MORE INDIVIDUAL HOUSING

Presently a new generation of urban housing projects that have been initiated by communities of interest and rely on more industrialised production is emerging in Finland. Recent 7. examples in Helsinki include a communal apartment house The examples are: based on group building, communal senior housing, and Helsingin Malta (“Malta housing for young persons with developmental disabilities of Helsinki”) apartment that is commissioned by their parents7. Authorities increasingly house in Jätkäsaari (www. maltamme.fi), Loppukiri­ support group building by several households jointly. (“Sprint”) senior house The emergence of these type of new forms of housing reflects in Arabianranta (www. social change and reveals qualitative gaps in the offering loppukiri.fi), and Käpy­ tikka (“Woodpecker”) of housing. They are driven by sustainability, communality, house in Arabianranta affordability, individuality, or special needs that are not met (www.kapytikka.fi). 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 66 67 , see Norvasuo , see Norvasuo As will be seen in Chapter 4, the commercial commercial As will be seen in Chapter 4, the Also the Finnish housing research community community research housing Finnish the Also sensory aspects of domestic space (e.g. Pallasmaa 2005, 2005, Pallasmaa (e.g. space domestic of aspects sensory standardised design solutions targeted at certain customer certain at customer targeted solutions design standardised segments, offer a range of pre-designed layout options and options and layout pre-designed of range a offer segments, finished apartment shell to be completed by the residents finished apartment shell to be completed by the residents facilitated by online customisation tools. The concepts facilitated by online customisation tools. The concepts demand for diversification by forcing more and more decisions decisions and more more by forcing diversification demand for degrees of customer engagement. They can be complete of customer engagement. They can be complete degrees choices regarding the spatial arrangement, fixed furnishings fixed furnishings the spatial arrangement, choices regarding on customer segmentation and offering the customers some some customers the offering and segmentation customer on demographic groups (Ilonen et al. 2006), and explored the the et al. 2006), and explored (Ilonen groups demographic of new housing concepts that would suit the needs of the of the that would suit the needs of new housing concepts is manifested and user-centredness discourse on individuality development. A recent research project (URBA project research A recent development. actually homogenising the offering of housing (Krokfors 2006, 2006, (Krokfors housing of offering the homogenising actually allowing people to manipulate some features of their dwelling. of their dwelling. allowing people to manipulate some features and surface materials of their flat. The concepts are duplicated duplicated are concepts The flat. their of materials surface and can be seen, particularly of the offering actual diversification apartment houses (Pakkala et al. 2007). As furtherAs 2007). al. et in influence apartment(Pakkala houses and in the flexibility of dwellings (Krokfors 2006, 2008 2006, 2008 flexibility of dwellings (Krokfors the and in new urban dwelling envisioned have and 2010). Architects as interest in the typological diversification of urban housing housing urban of diversification typological the in interest as that the market-oriented housing industry may itself create create itself may industry housing the market-oriented that themselves. Customer participation is employed in different Customer participationthemselves. is employed in different the project. The concepts tend to be rather similar, and little little and similar, to be rather tend The concepts project. the types and building types that would suit various lifestyles or or lifestyles various suit would that types building and types phenomenological Scandinavian the mentioned be can field the and thinking on the experiential of architectural tradition interior style packages to select from, or provide a semi- provide or to select from, interior style packages in many locations with architectural form varying according to according to varying form in many locations with architectural concepts represent different different The concepts represent not on the typological level. pseudo-diversity suppressing the “real” needs of people and and people of needs “real” the suppressing pseudo-diversity phases of the process for identifying design requirements or for or for requirements identifying design for phases of the process been criticised as superficial by the industry have marketed housing industry’s response to the demand of individuality has has to the demand of individuality housing industry’s response based usually or brands, been the launching of housing concepts possibilities of architectural variation of current types of urban urban of types current of variation architectural of possibilities beyond the surface of dwelling, seeking to alter its deep, deep, alter its to seeking of dwelling, surface the beyond by existing solutions, and engage co-development that goes that goes co-development and engage solutions, by existing has shown interest in collaborative residential product product residential collaborative in interest shown has Nylander 2002, Nyman 1989). Helsinki region. In architectural research and practice, the the and practice, research In architectural Helsinki region. 21; Mäntysalo & Puustinen 2008). It has also been suggested been suggested 2008). It has also & Puustinen 21; Mäntysalo 2008 and 2010) focused on identification and co-development co-development and identification on focused 2010) and 2008 This can be enabled by some level of mass customisation of mass customisation This can be enabled by some level structures. “wicked” on customers and by “inventing” needs related to hedonistic aspects of consumption (see Juntto 2010a, 36). To sum up, two distinctive and somewhat contradictory strategies for achieving more diverse and individual dwellings can be detected when examining the field. A technological approach aims to utilise the potential of new technology to produce flexible, adaptive, personalised dwellings that respond to the needs and behaviours of individual users. This can be achieved by methods such as mass customisation. Technological, manufacturing, and business innovation drive this approach. It emphasises dwelling as duplicable consumer product. Another, social (or collaborative) approach stems from user initiative and social innovation as drivers of discursive co-development processes where holistic housing solutions that aim to solve certain valuable needs of the future residents are developed in interaction between the residents and experts. This approach tends to consider also the properties of dwelling that are beyond immediate architectural and technological means, such as new service models. Its results are one-off unique housing projects built for specific users. This strategy seems to incorporate more public involvement. Both approaches require critical reassessment of design – its object, position and competencies. Neither seems to fully exploit the transformative capacity of design. Architectural design has not been a key success factor in any of the recent innovative housing solutions. The technological approach is based on the implicit assumption that adding pre-determined components together into variable combinations automatically leads to user satisfaction. The social approach relies on product development by non-expert users, undermining the innovative capability of expert designers. The fragmentation of building as a design object, the division of the architectural field into a highly artistic avant-garde and non-innovative commercial/popular practice that is subordinate to the industrial production system, denial of the individual user in architectural culture, underdeveloped participatory approaches in architectural design, and poor ability of the regular architectural design process to tap into and give transformative shape to novel ideas coming from outside of it (from the realms of users and producers) all indicate a weakness in traditional housing architecture in addressing some of the new demands instigated by social and technological change. Could learnings from industrial product design help tackling some of the emerging design challenges in dwelling? 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 68 69

8. The standard (p. 2) uses the term “human-centred than “user- rather design” to em­ design” centred phasise inclusion of also than other stakeholders considered those typically as users. The terms are often used synonymously. “user- I shall prefer because design” centred it is established in the research of design field and emphasises use between (interaction people and products).

. for 8 experience

3.2 as a philosophy and and a philosophy as design

USER-CENTRED DESIGN DESIGN USER-CENTRED AND USER EXPERIENCE USER AND 9241-210, 2010). It lists following 9241-210, 2010). It lists following The expansion of design of The expansion user-centred The fundamentals of the user-centred approach approach The fundamentals of the user-centred

usability engineering to participatory design, design for for design usability engineering to participatory design, user innovation. lead and design, service experience, user usability engineering for human-computer interaction systems, systems, interaction human-computer engineering for usability use (including identification of users or user groups and their and their user groups (including identification of users or use users are involved throughout design and development; the the and development; design throughout involved users are subjective, contextual and comprehensive user contextual and comprehensive subjective, skills and perspectives. The standard presents four design design four presents The standard skills and perspectives. stagnation of technology push. User-centred design is “an is “an design stagnation of technology User-centred push. loosely connected approaches ranging from ergonomics and and ergonomics from ranging approaches connected loosely objective, measurable qualities to consideration of more of more to consideration qualities measurable objective, experience; and the design team includes multidisciplinary team includes multidisciplinary and the design experience; considerable academic activity around the theories, methods methods the theories, academic activity around considerable centred system: understanding and specifying the context of understanding and specifying the context of system: centred design is driven and refined by user-centred evaluation; the the evaluation; by user-centred and refined is driven design well as the growing technological complexity of products and and of products technological complexity well as the growing and it draws from disciplines such as cognitive psychology psychology cognitive as such disciplines from draws it and coined in was design and sociology. The term user-centred multiple in resulting design, user-centred of practices and approach to design that grounds the process in information in information process the that grounds to design approach (Usability product” the use will who people the about and commitment to genuine human and ecological needs” needs” to genuine human and ecological and commitment an explicit understanding of users, tasks and environments; environments; and tasks users, of understanding explicit an standard on Human-centered design defined in the ISO standard on Human-centered are activities that should take place in the design of any user- place in the design that should take activities to wide variety of consumer products, systems and services, and services, systems of consumer products, to wide variety from has evolved design of user-centred focus the general to accusations of the “design community’s lack of attention attention of lack community’s “design the of accusations to the 1980s (e.g. Norman 1988). Since then, there has been has been then, there the 1980s (e.g. Norman 1988). Since ISO ( systems interactive increasingly differentiated and personalised products, as as products, and personalised differentiated increasingly principles of human-centred design: the design is based upon is based upon the design design: principles of human-centred methodology in industrial design can be seen as a response can be seen as a response methodology design in industrial process is iterative; the design addresses the whole user user whole the addresses the design is iterative; process (Keinonen 2010, 17–18.) (Keinonen 2010, 17). It also reflects the move towards towards the move 17). It also reflects (Keinonen 2010, Professionals’ Association 2012). Its main background is in in is background main Its 2012). Association Professionals’ As its application has expanded from computer interfaces computer interfaces from As its application has expanded 3.2.1 The emergence of emergence The characteristics, their goals and tasks, as well as the environment of the system), specifying the user requirements (and resolving trade-offs between them), producing design solutions, and evaluating the design (e.g. by user-based testing or long-term monitoring). The solution generation phase entails designing the user tasks, user interaction and user interface of the system to meet user requirements, taking into consideration the whole user experience; concretising the solutions with the help of scenarios, prototypes or such; and altering the design solutions in response to user feedback. The ISO standard defines user experience as “person’s perceptions and responses resulting from the use and/or anticipated use of a product, system or service”, and continues: “User experience includes all the users’ emotions, beliefs, preferences, perceptions, physical and psychological responses, behaviours and accomplishments that occur before, during and after use.” As for the relationship between user and the designed object, “[u]ser experience is a consequence of brand image, presentation, functionality, system performance, interactive behaviour and assistive capabilities of the interactive system, the user’s internal and physical state resulting from prior experiences, attitudes, skills and personality, and the context of use.” (ISO 9241-210, 2010, 3.) Contributions of design research to understanding of the user experience emphasise temporality (Forlizzi & Ford 2000), social interaction (Battarbee 2004), pleasure (Jordan 2002), or emotion (Norman 2003). A broad definition is given by Jääskö and Keinonen (2006). Various frameworks and methods for investigating user experience and capturing it as part of design process have been developed in design research, such as contextual design (Beyer & Holzblatt 1998) and empathic design (Koskinen & Battarbee 2003). Empathic design stresses the designer’s skill to imaginatively project herself into the world of the user. Applying empathy in design process requires willingness by the designer, ability to alternate between experiencing and reflecting, and investment of time (Kouprie & Sleeswijk Visser 2009, 447). To access people’s experiences, designers should listen to what people say, watch what they do, and give them tools for expressing their thoughts, feelings and dreams (Sanders & Dandavate 1999). This can be facilitated by a variety of methods ranging from traditional to applied and innovative (Hanington 2003, see Mattelmäki 2006, 30). Traditional methods like market research, surveys and interviews produce quantifiable information on a large number of people but conceal the needs of individuals. Applied methods such as observation and ethnography are more useful for getting a rich picture of individuals’ experiences in real-life contexts, 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 70 71 as defined by them them by defined as OPENING OF THE DESIGN PROCESS DESIGN THE OF OPENING Sanders and Stappers (ibid., 12–15) demonstrate demonstrate 12–15) (ibid., Stappers and Sanders Some of the methods and approaches in user- and approaches Some of the methods The information gathered for user-centred design design user-centred for gathered The information

shift of mindset. generalised, and design-oriented. User-centred design is an is an design User-centred and design-oriented. generalised, design reflects the ongoing shift of perspective of design of design the ongoing shift of perspective reflects design design emphasises It purposes. people’s to products from centred product design may seem rather ideological and and ideological rather may seem design product centred complex and ambiguous human problems where opportunities opportunities where human problems complex and ambiguous engendered a move in the design field towards more collective collective towards more field in the design a move engendered engaged are stakeholders other and users where creativity designers to user experience also implies an important an important implies also to user experience designers context of housing and dwelling to my mind can be beneficial my mind can be beneficial context of housing and dwelling to develop hand in hand. In this process, as put by Tuuli Tuuli as put by hand in hand. In this process, develop and facilitate they ideas and insights the is methods objective differs from scientific information. It is typically exploratory exploratory typically It is information. scientific from differs working together in the design development process”. Co- process”. development working together in the design and designers. When people, depending on their creative When people, depending on their creative and designers. the role process, authority in the design given ability, are are open-ended and cannot be immediately solved by a specific specific a by solved immediately be cannot and open-ended are act of collective creativity. Co-design creativity. collective of act as collaborative multi-stakeholder activity, able to address address to able activity, multi-stakeholder collaborative as a common basis”. The methods aim to provide knowledge and knowledge and The methods aim to provide a common basis”. as active partners in the design process, in continuation of of continuation in process, partners active as design the in the tradition of participatory design. Sanders and Stappers of participatory Sanders and Stappers the tradition design. their needs in the design process that are largely lacking in in lacking largely are that process design the in needs their the early “fuzzy” stages of product development. stages of product “fuzzy” the early the possibility of shared experiences offering the design team team the design offering experiences shared the possibility of through visual information, metaphors and associations. and associations. metaphors visual information, through inspiration for multi-disciplinary design teams especially in in teams especially design multi-disciplinary for inspiration iterative process where the design problem and its solutions and its solutions problem the design where process iterative including their motives, emotions and values. Innovative Innovative values. and emotions motives, their including is “creativity of designers and people not trained in design in design and people not trained of designers is “creativity because they provide concrete tools for dealing with users and and dealing with users tools for concrete because they provide product or service. or service. product researchers of users, design is changing the roles how co-design mainstream architecture and residential development. Attuning Attuning development. residential and architecture mainstream rather than explanatory, divergent and personal rather than than rather personal and divergent explanatory, than rather programmatic. However, the contemplation of them in the in the the contemplation of them However, programmatic. methods emphasise creativity and participation, working participation, and working creativity emphasise methods (2008, 6) use the term co-creation as umbrella to cover any any to cover as umbrella (2008, 6) use the term co-creation Mattelmäki (2006, 34), “[t]he benefit of experiential, non- 34), “[t]he benefit of experiential, Mattelmäki (2006, 3.2.2 The growing scale and complexity of design problems has also has also problems of design scale and complexity The growing of design researchers will need to change from translator of users’ needs to facilitator of their creativity across the process by “leading, guiding, and providing scaffolds, as well as clean slates to encourage people at all levels of creativity” (ibid., 14). Paradoxically, the skills of professional designers become even more important in co-design. Their participation is essential because of their overall ability to act in complex environments, ability to use and develop generative design tools and methods, expert knowledge on technologies and the industry, and specialised skills in different sub-areas of design. According to Sanders and Stappers (ibid., 9–10), adoption of co-design by companies has been slow because it threatens the existing professional power structures, is antithetical to consumerism, and is considered an academic effort with little relevance to business. They identify architectural and planning practices as the last of the traditional design disciplines to become interested in new design approaches, and suggest that architectural design could greatly benefit from co- design methods in facilitating collective creativity between the design team, various user groups, and the array of specialists involved in building projects (ibid., 16). In Finland, vaguely co-designerly methods have been utilised in the development of the previously mentioned resident-initiated housing projects, even if actual impact of users to design decisions in theses cases is unclear. Digital communication ideally empowers people and enhances participation to design and production. Technology can familiarise people with designer-like activity, potentially transforming them from passive consumers into co-creators of products. User innovation (von Hippel 2005) is one instance of co-creation. It not only refers to innovations developed by users, but to the incorporation of information provided by multiple users in a joint product development process managed by a manufacturer or several manufacturers. According to Eric von Hippel, a large part of the information needed in innovation processes is “sticky” by nature. Solution information is mastered by producers, but need and context-of- use related information is distributed among users. Von Hippel argues that as most products before being manufactured consist merely of information, product development tasks can be co- located with the information needed to execute them. Certain tasks can be outsourced to users if they are equipped with appropriate toolkits, such as web-based design tools connected to the manufacturing system. Identification of innovative “lead users” who are at the leading edge of an important market trend and anticipate high benefits from obtaining solutions to their needs is central 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 72 73

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Design used, is changing the conception of product and expanding expanding and product of conception the changing is used, systems level, and community level, and argues that most design that most design and argues and community level, level, systems open innovation and crowdsourcing. What the models have in in have What the models and crowdsourcing. open innovation capacity of harness the innovative is the attempt to common field has shown interest in “extreme users” or “non-users” as as “non-users” users” or in “extreme shown interest has field object of design comprising components level, products level, level, products components level, comprising object of design of products”, and to thoughtof products”, strategies. design changing design from one-off action into a continuous a continuous one-off action into from changing design new design would require process design of the architectural could contribute to the development of solutions available to to of solutions available the development could contribute to other people as well. learning a collaborative towards practice of the architectural development, software source analogous to open organisation article argumented by several scholars, among them John Chris Jones Jones Chris John them among scholars, several by argumented audience. Applying them in housing would mean that customers customers that mean would housing in them Applying audience. and to everyday situations and environments in which they are in which they are situations and environments and to everyday the object of design has expanded from symbols (represented symbols (represented has expanded from the object of design therefore require combination of the skills of designers with with combination of the skills of designers require therefore the object of design. In design theory, extension of the design extension of the design theory, In design the object of design. informants for design. Other models of a similar basis include include of a similar basis Other models design. for informants benefit of a broader to the users or user communities individual in the user innovation model. Apart from lead users, the design design users, the lead Apart model. user innovation in the from process to include the planning of systems (i.e. relationships (i.e. relationships of systems to include the planning process by graphic design) and things (industrial design) to actions actions to design) (industrial things and design) graphic by influence mediating the through other to each relate beings problems nowadays are at the systems or community level and and or community level at the systems are nowadays problems planning. political decision-making and organisational between products) in addition to products themselves has been been has themselves in addition to products between products) perspective, closer to experiences of people who use products of people who use products closer to experiences perspective, practice is the emergence of generative computational computational of generative is the emergence practice process (Kaspori 2006, 512–513). Realistic or not, opening opening not, or Realistic 512–513). 2006, (Kaspori process user-designers. toolkits for methods and tools, such as digital not only participated in configuring their own dwelling, but but dwelling, own their participated only not configuring in notion of open source architecture, suggesting the opening opening the suggesting architecture, source open of notion (interaction design), i.e. to understanding “how human i.e. to understanding “how human design), (interaction (1981, 31). He outlines a four-level material hierarchy of the of the material hierarchy (1981, 31). He outlines a four-level Move of design activity from an external to an internal an external to an internal from activity of design Move An interesting related development in avant-garde architectural architectural in avant-garde development related An interesting 3.2.3 last he refers not so much to material environmental design in a material sense but to designing human systems; “the integration of information, physical artifacts, and interactions in environments of living, working, playing and learning”, as well as the personal pathways of people through those systems. When the task of design is broad as this, its focus becomes the “idea or thought that organises a system”. A similar turn of perspective from outside to inside and expansion of focus has been articulated in architectural theory, although one may argue that the human experience has always been part of architecture more than in the case of many industrial products. C. Thomas Mitchell (1993) has explored the dematerialisation of the object of architectural design. He asserts that the reason why architectural designs in present society often fail is because the design process is attuned to production of physical form instead of user experience. He suggests that architecture could learn from other disciplines, particularly scientific design research, in how to explicitly address user behaviour and wishes (ibid., 35). This would mean turning the design process “inside out”. Mitchell, drawing on the work of Christopher Alexander and John Chris Jones, identifies three user-responsive design methods in architecture: collaborative design that invites non-designers as equal partners, contextual design aiming to amplify specific physical conditions and situations, and intangible design that takes human intentions and systems as its object (ibid., 68–69). Along the same lines, Anna Klingmann (2007, 217, 251–253) claims that architects take for granted that regular architectural design playing with volume, organisation and materials automatically provokes human emotional sensation, whereas we should understand how the architectural experience is created by drama, diversity and detail, and how it can be intentionally designed. She suggests thinking of architecture less in terms of form (“what it has”) and programme (“what it does”), and more in terms of experience (“what you’ll feel”) and identification (“who you are and who you want to be”). This should not mean emphasising architecture’s formal expression as spectacle, but realisation of its strategic function as “an engine to reveal and accelerate a city’s inherent potentials”, bringing about viable social, economic and cultural transformations. Klingmann sees a central role for architects in fostering authentic local identities amidst the all-pervasive consumer culture: “[a]s experiences become more and more commodified, and the global landscape is progressively more homogenized by the same regurgitated dogmas and formulas, it falls for the architects to infuse our aseptic landscape with 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 74 75

, , and , and , from , from context

, from function to form, from (movement of people through through people of (movement , from performance to experience to performance , from , from physical to human physical , from . What Klingmann basically attempts is a attempts is a . What Klingmann basically choreography One way to get closer to users in “real life” has has life” users in “real way to get closer to One Klingmann (2007, 311–319) presents ten ten 311–319) presents Klingmann (2007, A move of focus has been detected in design has been detected in design of focus A move , from impact to contact , from , from need to desire, from also implies a shift in design philosophy from aesthetic aesthetic from philosophy design in shift a implies also brand ambience similarity; the shared and routinely activities of living instead of living instead activities and routinely similarity; the shared space and construction of space as event), from programme to to programme from event), as space of construction and space society is threatening to lead to “ahistorical, acultural” built built acultural” “ahistorical, to lead to threatening is society life (e.g. Pantzar 2010), and time-based housing architecture architecture housing time-based and 2010), Pantzar (e.g. life object of design both upstream (designers’ side) and side) and (designers’ both upstream object of design the to first process, design the of side) (users’ downstream and more and to the functions of products, process design from object to subjectfrom from plan to to plan from full realisation of the potential of architecture and design as as and design of architecture of the potential full realisation of differences in needs and lifestyles. of differences everyday time management, time politics and time planning planning time and politics time management, time everyday design. The turn towards practices in social theory (Schatzki et et (Schatzki theory social in practices towards turn The design. of scope. Concerning dwelling, the dematerialisation of the the of dematerialisation the dwelling, Concerning scope. of in intangible by an interest is demonstrated object of design or the holistic user experience (Findeli & Bousbaci 2005). & Bousbaci 2005). (Findeli or the holistic user experience commodity to catalyst of culture and technology; and local and the global. the of culture environment that has little meaning and relates to nowhere to nowhere and relates little meaning that has environment information, of interpretation innovation, cultural of devices al. 2001) counters the individualisation trend by emphasising by emphasising al. 2001) counters the individualisation trend as service design and value-based design reflect the change the change reflect design and value-based as service design and preservation of meaning. In the information society, society, the information In of meaning. and preservation reconciliation as role an essential have design and architecture authentic transformations” (ibid., 322). Similarly, Manuel Manuel Similarly, 322). (ibid., transformations” authentic aspects such as practices, time or atmosphere as an object of as an object of time or atmosphere aspects such as practices, theory after the Second World War away from the material the material away from theory after the Second World War to logical and ethical questions. New design approaches such such approaches design to logical and ethical questions. New the living environment: time geography (Hägerstrand 1970), 1970), (Hägerstrand time geography the living environment: to tone are useful in illustrating the new demands met by the the new demands met by the useful in illustrating tone are been examination of the temporal relationship of people and of people and relationship been examination of the temporal recently further towards either the actors in the design process further process towards either the actors in the design recently restoration the role of architects in late-modern conditions by in late-modern conditions by of architects the role restoration conditions. very those by bred instruments with them retooling housing. to relevant but is equally profession: architecture should reorientate itself from product product itself from should reorientate architecture profession: but the imagery of global mass culture. Castells argues for a a for argues Castells mass culture. of global but the imagery Castells (1996, 449, 453) has brought up how the information how the information up has brought 449, 453) (1996, Castells (e.g. Horelli & Wallin 2006), macro- and micro-rhythms of daily of daily and micro-rhythms macro- & Wallin 2006), (e.g. Horelli Her argument is directed at public and commercial urban space, space, urban and commercial public at directed is argument Her This “reminders” for architects that despite their somewhat simplified simplified somewhat their despite that architects for “reminders” that responds to changing situations (e.g. Krokfors 2006). Aesthetically leaned architectural literature has explored the holistic atmosphere and sensory experience created by architecture – the visual, acoustic, olfactory and haptic aspects of the dwelling space (e.g. Böhme 2006). A further important discussion in design studies is that on value, especially user value as a goal of design (e.g. Boztepe 2007).

3.2.4 REPOSITIONING OF DESIGN IN INDUSTRY AND THE SOCIETY

The design professions are in transformation as well. As the object of design extends from stand-alone products to complex “product milieus”, designers find themselves as managers of large product webs (Margolin 2002, 45). Increasing ill- definedness, social embeddedness and systemicity of design problems sets new demands for design practice and education. Donald Schön (1983) has already in the 1980s anticipated a move from traditional professionalism based on narrow specialisations to professional pluralism, where designers would adopt more flexible and situational roles, drawing from a multiplicity of knowledges and working with socially defined problems determined by societal need. The quest for integrative, collaborative, innovative design professionals capable of applying design thinking to any area of human experience directs enquiry into the nature and value of design expertise: how designers formulate problems and generate solutions and what kind of processes and strategies they employ. Schön (ibid.) has famously described design as a reflective practice, largely tacit “reflection-in-action” where practitioners make use of skills and abilities learned in practice in an improvisational manner for making sense of problematic situations and devising solutions to them. Design practice is thus a cyclical process where previous experience is applied to new situations, and where problem and solution co-evolve. Schön maintains that creative practitioners have a learned capability to bring about desirable change to problem areas characterised by complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness and value conflict, where traditional expertise relying on technical rationality does not work. As these kind of problems are not presented as given, core expertise of designers is related to definition of the problem itself and the scope of its potential solutions. For this, designers use strategies such as naming and framing: “we name the things to which we will attend and frame the context in which we will attend to them” (ibid., 40). 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 76 77

in the in the innovation

leap

Democratisation of innovation brings design brings design of innovation Democratisation Discussion on the abilities of designers can can of designers abilities Discussion on the Designers, affirms Nigel Cross (2007), have a a have (2007), Cross Nigel affirms Designers, The repositioning of design in society and and in society of design The repositioning this he means the crucial “illumination”, “significant “significant “illumination”, crucial the means he this shape the markets they work in”. Design-driven innovations innovations they work in”. Design-driven shape the markets fragmentation and increasing strategicness (Ruoppila et al. al. (Ruoppila et strategicness increasing and fragmentation from the market, and argues that truly radical innovations innovations radical that truly argues and the market, from formulation, solution generation and process strategy (such (such strategy and process solution generation formulation, of all these components. In addition to core products, the the products, core to addition In components. these all of of designers. Design competence is becoming more divergent, divergent, competence is becoming more Design of designers. (Falin 2011). (Falin 2011). of design out from hierarchic expert organisations, changing the role expert changing the role organisations, hierarchic out from diverse parts together “recognisably embodies satisfactory satisfactory embodies partsdiverse together “recognisably with special design challenges. Products are increasingly increasingly are Products challenges. with special design and business-driven product development activities is blurring is blurring activities development product and business-driven aim to create new markets rather than provide incrementally incrementally than provide rather new markets aim to create approaches and taking a broader, design-oriented perspective perspective design-oriented and taking a broader, approaches and form are developed in parallel rather than in a series. than in a series. rather in parallel developed are and form as ability to perceive new, previously unrecognised properties properties unrecognised new, previously to perceive as ability design that states Cross designs). existing within lying as the professional boundaries in product development teams. teams. development in product boundaries the professional those ‘interpreters’ – such as scientists, customers, suppliers, customers, suppliers, scientists, – such as those ‘interpreters’ in the industry during the 2000s is characterised by its by its is characterised in the industry during the 2000s instead of technology. dematerialisation, democratisation, digitalisation, integration, into the world. He suggests looking “beyond customers to to customers “beyond into the world. He suggests looking artists understand and designers, – who deeply intermediaries, innovations come either from a technology push or directly a technology push or directly come either from innovations innovation or novel design concept” that by bridging the concept” that by bridging the design or novel innovation processes, projects and programmes of companies are objects objects are of companies and programmes projects processes, multidimensional and reach users through multiple channels. multiple channels. users through multidimensional and reach parts, interface, online services with changing content, a digital personal services, and the concepting and management novel solutions to existing markets, and push new meanings new meanings and push existing markets, to solutions novel relationships between problem and solution” (ibid., 65, 78). (ibid., 65, 78). and solution” between problem relationships reasoning is “appositional” by nature, meaning that purpose that purpose meaning “appositional” by nature, is reasoning By process. particular way of knowing that derives from both theory and and both theory particular from that derives knowing way of by nature. constructive and is solution-oriented and practice be complemented by the idea of design-drivenbe complemented (Verganti 2009). Verganti criticises the prevalent belief that that belief criticises the prevalent 2009). Verganti (Verganti Digitalisation has created new (virtual) product categories categories (virtual) new product has created Digitalisation He emphasises the importancecreative of a Designers have developed cognitive skills related to problem to problem skills related cognitive developed have Designers 2009, 8–12). Merging industrial design with technological technological with design industrial 2009, 8–12). Merging The product to be designed can comprise various physical physical various can comprise to be designed The product “of meanings” require abandoning conventional user-centred user-centred conventional abandoning require meanings” “of which makes the professional field heterogeneous. Anna Valtonen (2007) has recognised a general trend within the Finnish industrial design profession from operative design to more abstract and strategic work, and towards increased specialisation. Designers are nowadays involved in design management and company-level innovation activities. A recent study shows that design expertise in companies is not limited to educated designers but is possessed by other experienced professionals, too (Falin 2011, 64). Design is also taking a more strategic role in opening up future possibilities and guiding business decisions in companies. Järvinen & Koskinen (2001, 32–36) describe the stratification of industrial design into product design, conceptual design and strategic design, each with different focus and time perspective even if building on each other. Strategic design looks beyond the immediate situation, typically for five years or more into the future, and operates outside the linear product development process, contributing to the setting of long-term targets of a company, such as decisions on new product lines and technologies or identification of new markets. Designers in a strategic role participate in reconceptualising and redefining not only individual products but the whole system of production, and push companies to culturally rethink their activities. In the strategic design mode, designers collaborate closely with research and development, engineering, and marketing, and are connected to strategic management, producing outputs such as scenarios or visionary product concepts. This requires new skills from designers and ability to relate to diverse fields of knowledge. Mervi Hasu (et al. 2004, 39, drawing on Michael Porter’s generic strategies for competitive advantage) has detected two opposing directions of expansion of product development activity in the technology industry: cost leadership strategy and differentiation strategy. The cost leadership strategy aims at increased economic efficiency by focusing on qualities such as manufacturability, transportability, installability, serviceability and updatability of products. The differentiation strategy seeks to create value by tapping into under-served individual demands of customers. It targets issues such as user experience, user interface, services, and customisation of products. The two strategies require different design competences: competence related to product structures and production processes, as opposed to competence related to customers and their processes. According to Hasu, development of especially the latter presents a major challenge for the industry. Turkka Keinonen (2009) continues Hasu’s argument by identifying several tensions that are apparent in the present 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 78 79

. design

remote and design

immediate standing over individual contexts or implementations. or implementations. contexts individual over ­standing under 2009, 71.) (Keinonen end-users. for useful learning, or influencing; or they are models for generic generic models for are or they or influencing; learning, others to develop products or local practices. When remote remote When practices. or local products develop to others the results are either concepts meant for decision-making, decision-making, for meant concepts either are results the designers’ conceptual work turns into more tangible design, design, tangible more into turns work conceptual designers’ becoming before be adjusted will that platforms design regulatory, competence, or resource-related foundations for for foundations or resource-related competence, regulatory, One could claim that design practice in the case case the in practice design that could claim One They create conceptual, infrastructure, methodological, methodological, infrastructure, conceptual, create They Remote design is close to business development, is close to business development, Remote design Remote designers work for general solutions, principles, or or principles, solutions, general for work designers Remote Two simultaneous trends can be seen here that that seen here can be trends Two simultaneous users. The similarity, however, is only superficial, as scale scale as superficial, only is however, similarity, The users. strategic planning and society-level decision-making. It differs decision-making. It differs planning and society-level strategic specific local contexts and within practices of use, relying on on of use, relying and within practices specific local contexts span, Keinonen (ibid.) sees two emerging design practices or or practices design sees two emerging span, Keinonen (ibid.) societal systems and practices: systems societal generality (specific design versus general design). general versus design (specific generality from strategic design in that it covers a broader category of of category broader a covers it that in design strategic from designers (immediate design), working in decreasing scale scale working in decreasing (immediate design), designers shorteningwith and to distance environment built the of of housing is already aligned with Keinonen’s model. Dwellings with Keinonen’s model. Dwellings aligned of housing is already orientations of design: design: of orientations existing components to achieve applies It primarily design. design: one approaching users, and another distancing from from users, and another distancing one approaching design: competence (layperson designers versus researcher designers), designers), researcher versus (layperson designers competence design environment. The tensions are related to technology technology to related are tensions The environment. design and distance in this case are merely physical measures and do and do measures physical merely and distance in this case are activities, including academic research and regulatory work. and regulatory including academic research activities, abstract and generic questions. At the opposite ends of the ends of the and generic questions. At the opposite abstract them as well as from individual products to look at more to look at more individual products from them as well as incremental change and adaptation of environments towards towards change and adaptation of environments incremental indicate the expansion of design away from traditional product product traditional away from of design indicate the expansion innovation (update innovation versus radical innovation), innovation), radical versus innovation (update innovation not connote increasing consideration or involvement of users. of users. or involvement consideration not connote increasing result from a hierarchic, top-down, generic-to-specific design design top-down, generic-to-specific a hierarchic, from result and architects design) involving planners (remote process methods like user-centred design, co-design and even self- even and co-design design, user-centred methods like changes. structural aims at design user-specificity. Remote more readiness (do-it-yourself versus proactive readiness), and and readiness), proactive versus (do-it-yourself readiness (product design), as well as interior architects and product and product interior architects well as as design), (product (technology neutral versus technology driven design), technology design), versus (technologydriven neutral It works on a higher level of abstraction and within enabling and within enabling of abstraction level It works on a higher Immediate design addresses individual people’s needs in people’s needs in individual addresses Immediate design In practice, architects, interior architects and product designers, especially regarding mass produced urban housing, are no closer to individual users than other professionals working on a more generic level of design. Nor is the remote mode of design developed in the field of housing. What Keinonen and other advocates of the transformative societal power of design imply is a step outside of the current design tasks and processes to a designerly mode of questioning that can change some of the basic assumptions of what we should be designing for. Later in the study, I will use Keinonen’s three- tier model for analysing the changes in design activity in the housing industry and for opening up the implications of the study to the design of dwelling. To me, it captures the expansion of design in a way that is relevant to the dissertation and offers a model that can be transferred across product categories.

3.2.5 TENSIONS IMPACTING THE DESIGN OF DWELLING

Reflection of the developments outlined above with the present state of housing production in Finland and with related research reveals some general tensions in the field. These illustrate more or less explicit practical challenges met by professionals within the housing system but also represent gaps in theoretical knowledge. The tensions can be seen as manifestations of more general dilemma in late-modern society concerning the personalised versus commodified experience (Giddens 1991). One tension, evident in the construction industry, is that between singularity and seriality of production: how to meet unique local demands and circumstances with industrial production systems relying on standardisation and duplication. In housing, the problem is twofold. On one hand, there is a need in building design and engineering for reconciliation between buildings as singular located artefacts and the logic of mass production relying on prefabrication in large volumes. From the perspective of architectural design, this leads to questioning of the leverage of architecture in the repetitive housing production. On the other hand, the question becomes how to extend the qualitative scope of housing in regard to individual customers without loosing the advantage gained from standardisation. A second tension concerns the specificity versus generality of designs in relation to individual users. As noted earlier, the connection of housing research and conventional user studies to design of housing is weak, largely because of their generality and foreseeability. More exact and fine-grained 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 80 81

and and conceptual

3.3 Conceptual design Conceptual design and the notion of concept of dwelling as a product and object of and object of of dwelling as a product A third tension spans between novelty A third tension of designs in relation to other designs. Even if if Even designs. to other in relation of designs in housing. The study explores ways in which the in which the ways in housing. The study explores design conformity conceptualisation significant components according to the range of user needs of user needs range the to according components significant from identification of those attributes of dwelling along which along which of dwelling of those attributes identification from design. One of its aims is to investigate the role of role the investigate to is aims its of One design. on a conceptual allows itself to be designed dwelling product can also be intentionally designed, as the housing concepts concepts housing the as designed, intentionally be also can of refinement on incremental of housing relies development qualitative difference that distinguishes dwellings from each each from dwellings distinguishes that difference qualitative outcome of within housing is partly a “natural” other. Novelty opposing directions out from the spatial uniformity of the of the uniformity the spatial out from opposing directions experiences of individual residents and specific designable designable specific and residents of individual experiences of the reciprocality between user experience and dwelling as a a as dwelling and experience user between reciprocality the of artefacts, meaningful the of examination closer suggests and attributes of housing. Finding a balance between specificity specificity a balance between of housing. Finding attributes benefit would and production housing design in and generality and standardisation of less significant components. From the the components. From of less significant and standardisation the existing solution space (cf. the innovation tension, tension, the innovation the existing solution space (cf. the degree of conformity versus divergence within dwellings as within dwellings as divergence versus of conformity the degree the user needs most diverge, allowing diversification of the of the diversification allowing needs most diverge, the user the locatedness and architectural uniqueness of buildings, but buildings, but of uniqueness and architectural locatedness the tailored to individual specifications, and polyvalent dwellings dwellings specifications, and polyvalent to individual tailored examination closer suggests uses. The tension “all” allow that illustrate. This tension is therefore also closely related to the to the related also closely This tension is therefore illustrate. perspective of housing architecture, this tension opens up two tension opens up two this architecture, of housing perspective nature of innovation in housing: whether, for instance, the instance, the in housing: whether, for of innovation nature beyond that break designs different or radically precedents much of the material form of dwelling necessarily results from from results of dwelling necessarily much of the material form defined model of the home in the of a culturally reproduction qualitative is a need for there paradigm, production prevalent prevalent mainstream dwelling type: dwellings that are highly highly that are dwelling type: dwellings mainstream prevalent material artefact. knowledge would be needed on the relationship between the the between the relationship on be needed would knowledge variation within the given constraints. This calls attention to to This calls attention constraints. within the given variation Keinonen 2009). The dissertation at large deals with the question of of question the with deals dissertationThe large at level, beyond regular building design, especially in relation to users. At the same time, the emergence of housing concepts has brought the notion of concept to the attention of the housing field. This will be the topic of Chapter 4. The term concept frequently surfaces in the design field as well as in Configuration the media, often in conjunction with some novel product or Concept space commercial activity. It seems to be used rather ambiguously space and lack a singular, exact definition. The central position of conceptual design and the notion of concept in the study has necessitated a closer analysis of the terms.

3.3.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Conceptual design can be defined as an early phase in the design process that operates on a higher level of abstraction than physical implementation design (Keinonen & Takala 2006). It relies critically on mental conceptions and ideas, and explores far-ranging design opportunities in order to create guidelines for subsequent design execution, avoiding premature fixation to specific designs. David Jansson (1990; Jansson & Smith 1991) has presented a theoretical model of conceptual design. According to him, conceptual design necessitates movement between two interlinked, imaginary spaces, “configuration space” and “concept space”. The configuration space contains representations (such as diagrams or sketches) of the physically realisable configurations of the designed object including its physical elements. The concept space contains abstract ideas, concepts and relationships which have potential to become basis for the elements in the configuration space. In conceptual design, movement from one point to another in configuration space happens via concept space. Changes to design configurations are motivated by abstractions taking place in the concept space, while it is in the configuration space that the abstract ideas are given “some real form”. Jansson (1990, 223) describes the two-way process:

The process of moving from configuration space to concept space can be thought of as abstraction or generalisation; that is, generalizing from the particulars of a physical configuration to a conceptual understanding in order to change it or improve upon it. Movement from concept space to configuration space can be thought of as realisation or particularisation – bringing to reality, in particular physical form, the [...] concepts arrived at within concept space. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 82 83

FIGURE 6. FIGURE model A theoretical design of conceptual Smith (Jansson & 1991, 4).

space Configuration Configuration THE NOTION OF OF NOTION THE CONCEPT IN DESIGN IN CONCEPT One can argue that all professional design design that all professional One can argue The basic meaning of concept is complemented by by complemented is concept of meaning basic The

Concept space generalisation that brings diverse elements into a basic elements into a basic that brings diverse generalisation of it into different problem situations. situations. problem of it into different copy”, or “set form” (“concept”, Oxford English Dictionary English Dictionary (“concept”, Oxford copy”, or “set form” categorise abstract knowledge (Schön 2001). As pointed out by by out pointed As 2001). knowledge (Schön categorise abstract class of entities, or to its essential features, or determines the or determines the or to its essential features, class of entities, design problem and that the interplay between abstraction and and between abstraction and that the interplay problem design of concept, the second has an aspect of planning or intention of concept, the second has an aspect of planning or intention a design problem that precede actual implementation designs. that precede problem a design another meaning, that of concept as “draft or abstract”, “rough “rough abstract”, or “draft as concept of that meaning, another a part in the use of reason or language” (“concept”, Oxford or language” (“concept”, Oxford a part in the use of reason application of a term (especially a predicate), and thus plays plays thus and predicate), a (especially term a of application to it. It also entails a formal dimension: concept “sets form” concept “sets form” dimension: to it. It also entails a formal to reality and help us to make sense of it. They also play a a play also They it. of sense make to us help and reality to in Jansson’s theory are abstract level, preliminary solutions to to solutions preliminary level, abstract in Jansson’s theory are involves some degree of conceptualisation regarding the the of conceptualisation regarding some degree involves its original context leads to generalisations and applications and applications context leads to generalisations its original part in designerly problem-solving, helping to define and helping to define and problem-solving, part in designerly relationship. The word derives from Latin, meaning literally Latin, meaning literally from The word derives relationship. or entity distinct some to corresponds which image mental realisation is a central part of design work. As seen, concepts part is a central of design realisation Schön, concepts are transferable. Abstracting a concept from a concept from Abstracting transferable. Schön, concepts are Dictionary of English 2010). Concepts as logical entities refer refer as logical entities Dictionary of English 2010). Concepts In its basic meaning, a concept is a comprehensive idea or idea or a comprehensive In its basic meaning, a concept is 1989). While the first meaning emphasises the innate nature 1989). While the first meaning emphasises the innate nature 3.3.2 “(a thing) conceived”. In philosophy, a concept is “an idea or a concept is “an idea or In philosophy, “(a thing) conceived”. ; or

or generalisation concepts

housing abstraction to the attention of the of the attention the to concept space. Changes concept space. Changes CONCEPTUAL DESIGN CONCEPTUAL – bringing to reality, in particular physical physical particular in reality, to – bringing can be defined as an early phase in the the in phase early an as defined be can space. concept within at arrived concepts [...] the form, realisation of as be thought can space configuration to that is, generalizing from the particulars of a physical of a physical particulars the from generalizing is, that configuration to a conceptual understanding in order to to order in understanding a conceptual to configuration space concept from Movement it. upon or improve it change space can be thought of as of as be thought can space particularisation The process of moving from configuration space to concept concept to space configuration from of moving process The design

relies critically on mental conceptions and ideas, and explores explores and ideas, and conceptions mental on critically relies

users. At the same time, the emergence of of emergence the time, same the At users. space that the abstract ideas are given “some real form”. form”. real “some given are ideas abstract the that space configuration space contains space contains space” and “concept space”. The configuration level, beyond regular building design, especially in relation to to relation in especially design, building regular beyond level, far-ranging design opportunities in order to create guidelines guidelines in order to create opportunities design far-ranging fixation premature execution, avoiding subsequent design for concept frequently surfaces in the design field as well as in in as well as field design the in surfaces frequently concept ambiguously to be used rather activity. It seems commercial of concept in the study has and the notion conceptual design of abstraction level on a higher that operates process design abstract ideas, concepts and relationships which have potential potential have which relationships and concepts ideas, abstract and lack a singular, exact definition. The central position of position of exact definition. The central and lack a singular, Conceptual Jansson (1990, 223) describes the two-way process: Jansson (1990, 223) describes the 2006). (Keinonen & Takala implementation design than physical Jansson (1990; Jansson & Smith David to specific designs. space. configuration the in the elements become basis for to taking by abstractions motivated are configurations to design the media, often in conjunction with some novel product or or product novel with some often in conjunction the media, including its physical elements. The concept space contains contains space concept The elements. physical its including in configuration space happens via in configuration necessitated a closer analysis of the terms. analysis necessitated a closer between two interlinked, imaginary spaces, “configuration imaginary spaces, “configuration between two interlinked, the of sketches) or diagrams as (such representations object of the designed configurations realisable physically it is in the configuration place in the concept space, while has brought the notion of concept the notion has brought term of Chapter 4. The will be the topic This field. housing In conceptual design, movement from one point to another one point to another from movement In conceptual design, It According to him, conceptual design necessitates movement movement necessitates According to him, conceptual design 1991) has presented a theoretical model of conceptual design. design. model of conceptual a theoretical 1991) has presented 3.3.1 to something. An important basic distinction therefore needs to be made between concept as an abstract idea (in German, Begriff, in Finnish, käsite) and concept as a more concrete draft or plan (Konzept, konsepti). The focus of this study is primarily in the latter meaning. During the last few decades, an expanded usage of concept originating from business and marketing has entered dictionaries that also is connected to design. Concept is now explained as “a general notion or idea, especially in the context of marketing and design”, or “an idea or invention to help sell or publicize a commodity”. The term can also be used in reference to an artefact that is “produced as an experimental model to test the viability of innovative design features”, such as a “concept car”. (From the dictionaries cited above, italics mine.) These definitions highlight concept as something new to be offered in the market. Similar transformation of meaning has been detected in the Finnish language, where first occurrences of the word konsepti (concept) in the meaning of “business idea or product idea (of a company)” were recorded in late 1970s (Piehl 1993)9. 9. The meaning of concept in its recent business In the Finnish language, the word konsepti usage can be summed up as a “general plan of a new product previously had only the including its basic features (that distinguish it from other meaning of “draft or plan”. products)” (ibid., quoting the dictionary of the Swedish Academy). By looking at literature and practical applications of concept in various design disciplines, it is possible to come up with a more detailed classification that illustrates the multiple facets of the notion.

CONCEPT AS INSTRUMENTAL DESIGN IDEA (ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN) In creative design, concept is usually understood as being the synthetic design idea that brings diverse requirements of the design task together to guide the creation of designs. Following a simplified model, designerly problem-solving proceeds from exploring problem goals to establishment of a problem frame, that is used to identify some relevant first principles, to be embodied in a solution concept that is developed to satisfy the solution criteria (Cross 2007, 96). The solution concept is formulated by the designer prior to product specification on the basis of her assessment of the requirements and expectations in the given situation, which in architecture include the programme and site. Concept creation is influenced by the designer’s personal skills and preferences as it presupposes both knowledge of realistic possibilities and active imagination. (Leupen et al. 1997, 13.) 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 84 85

as a as a concepts

design

, referring to strong guiding themes adopted adopted themes guiding strong to referring , is to adopt. Above all, it expresses the idea underlying underlying idea the expresses all, Above it adopt. to is (Ibid.)or a text. them and excluding variants. There are a wealth of forms of forms a wealth are There variants. excluding and them design and gives direction to design decisions, organizing organizing decisions, design to direction gives and a design illustration an be diagram, a can it take; can a concept [T]he designer’s view of the task leads to a concept. concept. a to leads task ofthe view designer’s [T]he In the linear building design process, conceptual conceptual process, design In the linear building Here can be added Darke’s (1979) notion of (1979) notion of can be added Darke’s Here A concept need say nothing about the form the design design the about form the nothing say need A concept The capability to apply conceptual reasoning to to conceptual reasoning The capability to apply generator

scope of solutions. Darke attests that architects typically typically attests that architects scope of solutions. Darke group of objectives that helps them in reducing the variety variety the reducing in them helps that objectives of group graphic representations. Images, sketches, diagrams, models models diagrams, Images, sketches, representations. graphic design forms an initial creative phase that precedes building building phase that precedes an initial creative forms design coming from multiple sources into instrumental tools that that tools instrumental into sources multiple from coming design problems and to develop solution concepts is central solution concepts is central and to develop problems design fix on a particular self-imposed design objective or small or small fix on a particular objective self-imposed design development of transferable personal knowledge structures. structures. personal knowledge of transferable development designers embarking on any “normal design” bring with them bring with them embarking on any “normal design” designers which fundamental concepts about the object to be designed, of potential solutions to a manageable level. Vincenti (1990, Vincenti (1990, of potential solutions to a manageable level. design. Its methods are vague and intuitive. As put by As put by and intuitive. vague Its methods are design. with new design problems. (Lawson 2004, Casakin 2011.) (Lawson 2004, Casakin 2011.) problems. with new design a single, early concept. concept. a single, early primary and intentions, and that they are able to forage when faced faced when forage to able are they that and intentions, and are closest to the creative moments[.]” The conceptual design The conceptual design moments[.]” to the creative closest are can concepts Design factors. modifying and idea leading a information encapsulate representations concept other and tendency to re-use features of existing designs hinders truly hinders truly designs of existing features tendency to re-use take the form of mental schemas, verbal descriptions or or descriptions verbal schemas, mental of form the take include its operating principle and “normal configuration”. principle and “normal configuration”. include its operating innovative conceptual design and that they typically attach to attach to and that they typically conceptual design innovative ideas, schemas and principles that reflect their ethics, values values their ethics, that reflect principles and schemas ideas, most innovative designs or best solutions, and where they they and where best solutions, or designs most innovative process in architecture can be described as interplay between as interplay between can be described in architecture process particular that category of knowledge in engineering. He states by designers in order to limit the problem boundaries and and boundaries problem the limit to order in designers by have the capacity to act as “gestalts” in the design process process in the design the capacity to act as “gestalts” have thinking and lateral part expertise. of design It requires Östman (2005, 65), “It’s here that designers initiate the initiate the that designers “It’s here Östman (2005, 65), the other hand, Cross (2007, 104, 115) notes that designers’ (2007, 104, 115) notes that designers’ On the other hand, Cross (Wodehouse & Ion 2010, 57–58). Normal configurations are “the arrangements and shapes and shapes “the arrangements are Normal configurations Practising designers collect a repository of repeated design design repeated of repository a collect designers Practising 208–211) has written about fundamental commonly taken to be the best embodiments of [the product’s] operating principles”. Such fundamental design concepts in housing and dwelling would include the conventional dwelling layouts and configurations absorbed by professionals during education and practice. To sum up, a concept in the meaning of a synthetic guiding idea is an integral element in designerly sense-making and solution generation processes, bringing internal coherence and direction to a design task. In creative professional design, a concept has an instrumental nature. It plays a double role as a distinctive goal for design, and as underlying operational schemata or template grounded in practice. This understanding of concept seems to be prevalent in architectural design. In avant-garde architecture, the concept is essentially aesthetic, its main role being the facilitation of the introverted artistic design process. 10. The phases in a generic CONCEPT AS ANTICIPATORY product development PRODUCT DESCRIPTION process are planning, (PRODUCT DESIGN) concept development, system-level design, In product design, concept is seen as an anticipatory, well- detail design, testing and founded, focused and understandable description of a not yet refinement, and production ramp-up. The concept existing product, service, environment, system, or process development phase can be (Keinonen & Takala 2006, 28). In a more business-oriented divided into the following meaning, “[a] concept is a description of the form, function, tasks: identifying customer and features of a product and is usually accompanied by a set needs, establishing target specifications, of specifications, an analysis of competitive products, and an concept generation, economic justification of the project” (Ulrich & Eppinger 2004, concept selection, 14). Concept design (concepting, also conceptual design) is an concept testing, setting final specifications, and established task in the “fuzzy front end” of industrial product project planning. (Ulrich development10 (Järvinen & Koskinen 2001, 33): & Eppinger 2004, 14.)

Conceptual design involves creating new product concepts, and deviates from traditional practices. Designers create new concepts that may end up in production, but not necessarily. Rather, it is through these concepts that manufacturing organizations probe their markets. Concepts aim several years ahead. Typically, they capture developments for 2–3 years in the future. Concepts are grounded in company strategy, which includes competence creation in technology and markets, to name a few. In this work, designers may even get involved in technological and market research, and may open the frames set by other groups in the organization. Typically, in conceptual design, designers are involved early in R&D processes, where frames are set for future products, and where companies’ concept portfolios are created and managed. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 86 87 are one one are prototypes

In short, product concepts in the (technology) in the (technology) concepts In short, product Product concept design seeks to create a broad a broad create seeks to design concept Product Various structured methods for concept design concept design methods for structured Various The emergence of concept design is connected is connected concept design of The emergence late-modern production. Increasing technological complexity technological complexity Increasing late-modern production. largely tacit and artistic conceptual design process, concept concept process, artistic and tacit design conceptual largely car” or a “concept house” enables testing of the attractiveness of the attractiveness car” or a “concept house” enables testing for further development. Concepts can support a range of further support Concepts can for of development. a range designed in association with technological research or or with technological research in association designed consumer trends mainly concerning the detached housing concerning the detached housing mainly consumer trends of new product ideas among larger audience. The annual The annual audience. ideas among larger of new product diversification of markets, aestheticisation of products and and products aestheticisation of of markets, diversification overall their of development the necessitates products of (2004, Eppinger and Ulrich by claimed As well. as concept design and strategic design would be implausible without a be implausible without a would design strategic and design that mediates between them (Järvinen practice concept design corporate functions: design, innovation, creation of a shared of a shared creation innovation, functions: design, corporate can be succesfully commercialized depends to a large measure measure depends to a large commercialized can be succesfully concept”. on the quality of the underlying characterisations of viable future products, the generation the generation products, of viable future characterisations development. of which is an established phase of product acceleration of product development cycles that characterise characterise that cycles development product of acceleration activities into three categories. “Product development concepts” concepts” development “Product categories. into three activities development with product in conjunction directly created are concepts” are implementation. “Emerging and aim at rapid array of alternative concepts of which just a few are selected selected are few just a of which concepts of alternative array concept development 17–18) divide (ibid., and Takala to the stratification of design. The combination of product The combination of product of design. to the stratification towards customers (Keinonen & Takala 2006, 20). Keinonen Keinonen 20). 2006, Takala & (Keinonen customers towards industry are comprehensive and concrete preliminary preliminary and concrete comprehensive industry are in the housing field. instance of product concepts. The construction of a “concept The construction of a “concept concepts. instance of product modification of products for radically different markets. markets. different radically for products modification of new technologies and markets. As opposed to architecture’s As opposed to architecture’s and markets. new technologies market ideally functions as arena for prototypical development development prototypical for functions as arena ideally market representing product concepts include sketches, computer computer concepts include sketches, product representing and novelties housing fair in Finland that showcases product present product development activities. They are less restricted less restricted They are activities. development product present requirements. by feasibility have been developed within product design (see Keinonen (see Keinonen design within product been developed have visualisations and models. Experimental models. and visualisations vision, competence enhancement, or expectation management management or expectation enhancement, vision, competence Concepts are used for exploring the possibilities opened by opened by exploring the possibilities used for Concepts are Takala 2006, Hyysalo 2009, Mattelmäki 2006). Means for 2009, Mattelmäki 2006). Means for 2006, Hyysalo & Takala & Koskinen 2001, 32). Concept design is also driven by the by the is also driven & Koskinen 2001, 32). Concept design 120), “The degree to which a product satisfies customers and customers and satisfies product to which a 120), “The degree “Vision concepts” outline possible futures beyond the scope of the scope of beyond outline possible futures “Vision concepts” design in the industry is a structured multi-professional activity making use of specific concept design and concept selection methods guided by explicit criteria. Concept design is connected to strategic management of product portfolios and product generations.

CONCEPT AS STANDARDISING TEMPLATE (ENGINEERING DESIGN AND SERVICE DESIGN) A more systemic and parametric understanding of concept can be distinguished in fields such as engineering, user interface design, service design and marketing. Here, the concept defines the basic configuration and operational principles of a product or service, allowing variation in its realisations. The concept acts as a standardising and streamlining framework that enables the duplication of the product or service, ensuring its uniformity. In engineering, conceptual design aims at “the establishment of the core technical concept about which the remainder of the design will be built” (Jansson 1990, 219, italics mine). The object of conceptual design are the underlying design parameters of a device. In user interface design, conceptual model is a high-level description of how a system is organised and operates, that specifies the major design metaphors and analogies, the basic concepts that the system exposes to users, the relationships between these concepts, and the mappings between the concepts and the task-domain. The conceptual model presents an idealised view of how the system works, the ontological structure of the system (its main objects, their relationships and control structures), and the mechanism by which users accomplish the intended tasks. The conceptual model, simple enough to be held in mind and worked on, acts as “bones” for more detailed design and implementation, and as shared point of discussion. (Johnson & Henderson 2002, 26–27, 32.) In marketing studies, the key differentiating elements of a new product are divided into product idea, product concept and product image. A product concept in marketing is a “detailed version of the new-product idea stated in meaningful consumer terms” (Kotler et al. 2008, 557). It concretises the idea and benefits of the product to the customer with the help of a set of clearly communicated product attributes. Similarly, in service design, service concept is understood as specification of the underlying rationale and key elements of a service in relation to both the provider and the customer (Goldstein et al. 2002, 131): 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 88 89

FIGURE 7. 7. FIGURE The service concept as a conjunction of “what” and “how”, mediating between the intentions of the customer and the service provider. (Goldstein et al. 2002, 124). , marketing content, content, , marketing , operations content, of a service as well as for for as well as of a service content, , operations facilitating alignment between the strategic intent of the of the intent strategic the between alignment facilitating itself. service the] [of delivery the and firm foundation for developing the what the developing for foundation and the how the and customer’s and provider’s expectation of what a service service a of what expectation provider’s and customer’s should be and the customer needs it fulfils. It provides a a provides It fulfils. it needs customer beshould the and Concept in the meaning of underlying parametric parametric Concept in the meaning of underlying The service concept or ‘service in the mind’ [...] is the the mind’the is [...] in ‘service or concept service The CONCEPT AS BOUNDARY OBJECT OBJECT BOUNDARY AS CONCEPT The service concept acts as the foundation upon upon acts as the foundation The service concept (COLLABORATIVE DESIGN) (COLLABORATIVE services as they change and improve, thus working for strategic strategic thus working for and improve, services as they change framework, skeleton or pattern fundamentally serves the logic logic the serves fundamentally pattern or skeleton framework, or mould a standard format It establishes of mass production. derivatives of the same core service can be developed and and developed be can service core same the of derivatives which the components of the actual service delivery system are are system delivery service actual the of components the which and understood intuitively through its real-life occurrences. occurrences. real-life its through intuitively understood and and standardisation as well as the alignment of user needs of user needs and standardisation as well as the alignment system. along the industrial production advantage. Through manipulating the concept, numerous numerous manipulating the concept, Through advantage. that can be adapted to different needs” (Koskela 1992, 45). 1992, 45). needs” (Koskela that can be adapted to different to govern subsequent replications of a product and to make make to and a product of replications subsequent govern to This type of concept is essentially the producer. them viable for applications can Multiple transportable and transmutable. in appearance or locality. In construction engineering, for for engineering, construction In or locality. appearance in solutions “pre-engineered instance, concept buildings are in the context of housing. in the context of marketed to different target segments. (Ibid., 131–132.) 131–132.) segments. (Ibid., target to different marketed be derived from it that rely on same principles but may vary on same principles but may vary it that rely from be derived built. The concept also provides a framework for evaluating evaluating for framework a also provides concept built. The Concept in this usage serves systematic product differentiation differentiation product systematic Concept in this usage serves (e.g. Norvasuo 2008). The term is largely defined in practice defined in practice largely 2008). The term is (e.g. Norvasuo Aaltonen et al. (2010, 14–15) have discussed service concepts concepts service discussed have 14–15) (2010, al. et Aaltonen The vagueness of the notion of concept has often been noted has often been noted of the notion of concept The vagueness The ambiguity must partly arise from concept’s mediative role in-between abstract conceptions and specific designs. Another source for confusion may be the migration of meanings and usages of concept to new application areas and their intermixing. Diffusion of concept from marketing to the field of housing, previously dominated by architects’ artistic idea of concept, is probably causing part of the theoretical obscurity around housing concepts. In their article about housing concepts, Mäntysalo and Puustinen (2008) suggest thinking of (housing) concepts as boundary objects. Boundary objects as described by Star and Griesemer (1989, 393) due to their incompleteness provide a shared framework for collaboration among diverse actors and across social worlds. They are often heterogeneous combinations of abstract and concrete. Of the types of boundary objects outlined by Star and Griesemer, “ideal type” would best correspond with the notion of concept in design. Ideal type is an “object such as a diagram, atlas or other description which in fact does not accurately describe the details of any one locality or thing” but because of its abstraction is adaptable to many locations and serves as means of communicating and cooperating symbolically (ibid., 410). Mäntysalo and Puustinen (2008) also refer to activity theory, where activity is seen organised around a shared conceptualisation of the object of activity, an activity concept. It connects the inputs of individual actors together, enables commitment and bridges communication between the actors. An activity concept is not directly comparable to concept in design as it denotes a broader, collective entity. The prevalent way of producing housing perhaps could considered an activity concept.

CONCEPT AS CODE (GENERATIVE AND EVOLUTIONARY DESIGN) Generative design as an approach in architecture and product design harnesses computer programmes as tools for automated form generation. Software is used to breed new forms rather than specifically design them. This calls for reconsideration of the design object. Conceptualisation shifts from tangible objects to interactive components, systems and processes, which in turn generate new artefacts. Methods in generative design include self-organisation (allowing components to interact with each other), evolutionary systems (breeding lineages of designs by simulating the process of natural evolution on a computer), and generative grammars (computations within a string of characters mapped to the designed artefact). (McCormack et al. 2004.) 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 90 91

11. here is evolution Design as strictly understood form a computerised that process generation place within the takes a singular confines of This project. design from differs fundamentally of the long-term evolution is housing population that discussed in Chapter 3.4.3. can proceed proceed can 11 DWELLING PRODUCT DWELLING CONCEPT AND THE SYSTEMIC SYSTEMIC THE AND CONCEPT In the context of generative computational design, design, computational generative of context the In Evolutionary generative design generative Evolutionary As a synthesis of the concept literature and the and the As a synthesis of the concept literature

uses vertebrate structure as an example of this kind of a shared shared a of kind this of example an as structure vertebrate uses set of rules that guides the generation of designs. set of rules that guides the generation fittest variants among those generated and their crossbreeding) crossbreeding) and their those generated among fittest variants examples discussed earlier, I propose nine general qualities qualities nine general I propose examples discussed earlier, design idea based on the designer’s creative interpretation interpretation creative idea based on the designer’s design an anticipatory description of the problem; of the design concepts would thus constitute “strings of dna” that determine of dna” that determine concepts would thus constitute “strings code, a set of rules that governs the formation of new design of new design formation the that governs code, a set of rules even in generative design, and that it is important for designers that it is important and designers design, for in generative even generation form computerised that maintains He animals. of conceptualisations. The real outcomes, however, often lack bothlack often however, outcomes, real The conceptualisations. is computerised design (ibid.). Entirely and intent originality unable to superficial morphological exploration reduced easily has a crucial role design that deliberate argues He of variation. either through a designer’s aesthetic judgement (the selection of selection (the judgement aesthetic designer’s a through either that “evolves” function into a system coding a fitness or through design surprising unanticipated, produce to ability its is design own expectations and the designer’s that fall beyond outcomes ambiguous object of collaborative activity; or an algorithmic or an algorithmic activity; object of collaborative ambiguous that are characteristic to the notion of concept in design: characteristic that are technology, working principles, and form of a new product that that technology,product a new of form and principles, working or service the basic elements of a product that specifies the configuration of a design. Concept here has a coding or a coding or has here Concept design. of a configuration the analogy 3.4.3, Chapter evolutionary in discussed broader the to address the “abstract diagrams” (a Deleuzian term) or “body (a Deleuzian term) or “body diagrams” “abstract the to address to connect to real contexts. Manuel De Landa (2001) points out contexts. Manuel De Landa to connect to real that virtual in terms early evolution also tends to exhaust itself is used for strategic differentiation in the market; a template a template in the market; differentiation strategic is used for in architecture should begin with an adequate diagram, an an begin with an adequate diagram, should in architecture or algorithm genetic a as concept of think to possible is it independently (ibid.). The supposed benefit of algorithmic benefit of algorithmic The supposed (ibid.). independently making possible its duplication in a standardised manner; an making possible its duplication in a standardised manner; an programming function in relation to artefacts. In reflection to to artefacts.to reflection In relation in function programming combined. genes” of dwelling are how the “design plans” (a biological term) that designs are built upon. De LandaDe upon. built are designs that term) biological (a plans” architecture in the plan that is actualised as myriad “designs” variants, or as more structured “body plan” that informs that informs “body plan” structured or as more variants, 3.3.3 To sum up, concept in design can be understood as a guiding guiding a as understood be can design in concept up, sum To “abstract building” corresponding with the “abstract vertebrate”. with the “abstract building” corresponding “abstract Distinctiveness Concept is a particular, distinctive and differentiated articulation of ideas and knowledge that is intentionally devised or invented for a purpose. It is often explicitly depicted and named (as a concept).

Abstraction Concept involves some degree of abstraction and generalisation regarding its subject. Conceptual design operates on a higher level of abstraction than physical design.

Instrumentality Concept prepares ideas and knowledge for implementation, structuring them into an instrument of change and development. Concept seeks to integrate thinking with making.

Holisticity Concept simultaneously addresses a whole and its constituent parts, bringing them into a relationship. It is often heterogeneous composite of abstract and concrete.

Prescriptiveness Concept is of something, presuming a subject outside of itself that it precedes, refers to or is imposed on. Concept as an underlying draft, template, prescription or code guides the actualisation of its subject.

Imprecision Concept does not completely describe or determine its subject or outcome but works on reduction and simplification, concentrating on relatively few key variables and leaving others open.

Transferability Due to its abstraction, concept can be manipulated independent of its subject and any of its specific outcomes. It can be disembedded from its origin and transferred into new subjects and locations.

Generativeness Concept is open and dynamic in that it has multiple possible outcomes. It has the capacity to act as a generative device that breeds entirely new ideas and creative outcomes.

Mediativeness Concept is a mediative and integrative object on its own that facilitates commitment, collaboration and communication across social boundaries, translating and aligning divergent knowledge. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 92 93

3.4 Understanding the Understanding the productness of dwelling productness Conceptual design and concept design, its more its more design, concept and design Conceptual The commodification of housing and introduction of housing and introduction The commodification users and producers. In Chapter 4, these insights are deepened deepened are these insights 4, Chapter In producers. and users several types of concepts can contribute to the realisation of of realisation of concepts can contribute to the types several later be used as templates for analysing the empirical data. data. the empirical analysing templates for as used be later evolutionary realm where change builds on precedence. change where evolutionary realm on different dimensions of the dwelling product and will will and product dwelling the of dimensions different on composite, systemically embedded, adaptive product in the in the product embedded, adaptive composite, systemically material sense, we now need means in a more context of design change suggests the need for partial reconceptualisation of of partialchange suggests the need for reconceptualisation conceptual A more of design. and object dwelling as a product of the demands of of housing, and facilitate the reconciliation of commercial housing concepts as means of differentiation in the of differentiation housing concepts as means of commercial design information so that it can be transferred across systemic systemic across be transferred can so that it information design concrete variant, target the abstract “structures” of which of which “structures” abstract the target variant, concrete Concept viable format. goals into strategic translating design, artefact, as a differentiable product in the market, and as an and as an in the market, product artefact, as a differentiable a closer look at the concrete consistency of dwelling as an as an consistency of dwelling a closer look at the concrete artefactthe following, In change. the conditions of its at and and strategic approach to housing design potentially could help potentially to housing design approach and strategic a product. Concepts can originate from and be driven by design, by design, and be driven from can originate Concepts a product. the housing industry. At the same time, social and technological technological and social time, same the At industry. housing the technology, marketing, the users, and so forth.technology, marketing, tool for isolation, standardisation and compression of essential of essential isolation, standardisation and compression tool for in resolving some of the systemic barriers for diversification diversification for barriers systemic of the some resolving in idea to fixed template governing the delivery of a product. of a product. the delivery governing idea to fixed template in design has both a descriptive and a discursive role. It is a It is a role. and a discursive both a descriptive has in design by analysis of the present Finnish housing concepts. of the present by analysis market is leading to emergence of concept design as practice in in practice as design concept of emergence to leading is market borders and to multiple locations. As seen, concepts have have locations. As seen, concepts borders and to multiple variable material “configurations” are derived (Habraken (Habraken derived are material “configurations” variable various degrees of rigidity ranging from near-abstract design design near-abstract from ranging of rigidity degrees various I will approach dwelling as a hierarchically layered systemic systemic layered dwelling as a hierarchically I will approach I will outline three theory-based frameworks that shed light that shed light theory-based frameworks I will outline three In order to comprehend what the conception of dwelling as a what the conception of dwelling as a In order to comprehend concept can address different parts of a product, and and parts of a product, different A concept can address 2000) – the “codes” behind specific “constructions” (Perkins (Perkins specific “constructions” the “codes” behind 2000) – and product strategic mediates between design 2000). Concept 3.4.1 DWELLING AS A HIERARCHICALLY LAYERED SYSTEMIC ARTEFACT

It is acknowledged in systems theory that the architecture of complex natural and artificial systems is hierarchical (Simon 1996, 128; Checkland 1981, 78). Complex systems are organised in a hierarchy of levels where components enclosed within higher-level components perform particular subfunctions that contribute to the overall function of the system. Each level in a system is more complex than the one below and is characterised by emergent properties that do not exist at the lower level. A systems outlook to the environment assumes that coherent wholes cannot be reduced merely to an aggregate of their components. According to Checkland (ibid., 81–83), systems hierarchies are characterised by processes of control operating at the interfaces between levels. There is communication in the form of instructions or constraints between levels that yields the activity at one level meaningful at a higher level. The ideas of hierarchy, emergence, communication and control are key to understanding complex systems. My framework for analysing the physical dimension of the dwelling product relies on John Habraken’s (2000) theory about levels of control in the built environment. This is complemented by Stewart Brand’s (1994) writings about the temporal hierarchy of buildings. Habraken is an influential scholar behind open building. Brand’s ideas are very similar albeit more grounded in the American vernacular tradition. Both discuss the material hierarchy of the built environment and the control of users and designers over it in time. Habraken (2000) sees the built environment as a continuously changing organic entity comprising not only forms but also the people acting on them. He describes the material world as a complex “environmental game” where human agents (individuals, organisations and institutions) and built matter interact over time in pursuit of equilibrium between the aims of a large number of agents. For explaining the rules of the game, Habraken proposes a theory on “levels of control”. He states that the environment is composed of hierarchic physical levels that also constitute domains of control. By control is meant an agent’s ability to transform some part of the environment. Habraken maintains that we innately perceive the built environment as configurations, that is, groupings of elements defined by their parts. The configurations in an environment organise onto clearly recognisable levels, developed in response to local culture and technology that parallel the environment’s hierarchy of control. The levels are revealed by changes taking place in the environment and can be deduced by observing the 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 94 95 which in turn defines both a way of acting and the expertise expertise the and of acting a way both defines turn in which levels. This division of professional expertise confirms and and confirms expertise of professional division This levels. the game creates the professional player. professional the creates game the designers, and furniture designers – each focus on certain on certain focus each – designers furniture and designers, reinforces the hierarchical organization of the physical form: form: physical of the organization hierarchical the reinforces needed to manipulate and arrange particular parts. particular [...] arrange and manipulate to needed Each level connects to a professional domain of intervention, of intervention, domain a professional to connects level Each interior architects, designers, – urban agents Professional Habraken calls those parts of the environment calls those partsthe environment of Habraken Habraken (ibid., 60–61) outlines a hierarchy (ibid., 60–61) outlines a hierarchy Habraken subdivided or re-divided according to the specific forms of of according to the specific forms subdivided or re-divided lower to higher, are body and utensils, furniture, partitioning, body and utensils, furniture, are lower to higher, levels depending on what part of the environment they they what part on depending levels the environment of for example combines the partitioning and furniture levels. levels. example combines the partitioningfor and furniture purposes. There many carry multiple meanings and serve forms form a nested hierarchy. The levels here denote classes of denote classes of here levels The a nested hierarchy. form environment. The model provides a tool for unscrambling unscrambling for a tool provides model The environment. on the other hand, does not extend to individual buildings. on the other hand, does not extend to individual buildings. specific level context or background, – ”as broad differently configuration controlled by the owner, whereas to designing designing to owner, whereas the by controlled configuration dwelling under investigation. (Ibid., 66.) The model thus 66.) The model thus (Ibid., dwelling under investigation. with the dwelling product analysing an instrument for offers enclosed by the configuration of the higher level so that they that they so level of the higher enclosed by the configuration In this (”room”). configurations the from of space resulting control. This is made evident by the stratification of design of design stratification evident by the This is made control. of five levels of form that according to him is sufficient to to sufficient is him to according that form of levels five of from of habitation. The levels, forms in classify variation way, space and material configurations that make it up are it up are make that way, space and material configurations architect the partitioning and building levels comprise one. the partitioning one. comprise and building levels architect adjustable focus and precision. adjustable focus configurations”. “live of a single agent under the control actively adapted to different purposes. Levels can be added, removed, can be added, removed, purposes. Levels adapted to different are many possibilities for identifying the levels in a given given a in levels the identifying for possibilities many are as configurations of such parts (”floor plan”), or as the type as configurations the assembly hierarchies of various environments that can be can be that environments various of hierarchies the assembly inseparable. Habraken notes that spatial wholes as experienced experienced notes that spatial wholes as Habraken inseparable. physical parts (”partitioning”), but could also be identified partsphysical (”partitioning”), but could also be identified by us are in fact conjunctions of two physical levels. A room A room levels. of two physical in fact conjunctions by us are building, and road network (Figure 8). Each lower level is is 8). Each lower level network (Figure building, and road (ibid., 24): professions built form. Levels represent agents who operate on different different on operate who agents represent Levels form. built Naming of the levels necessarily means partial reduction, as as means partial necessarily Naming of the levels reduction, Actors on each level thus perceive the same part of environment partsame the environment of perceive thus level each on Actors The control of an agent operating on the level of road network, network, of road on the level of an agent operating The control The furniture and partitioning in a dwelling are a live a live and partitioningare a dwelling in furniture The of intervention in question, or a configuration residing within a larger intervention” (ibid., 23). Control in the system can be distributed horizontally on a single level or vertically across levels. Figure 8 shows the extent of occupant control in various modes of dwelling. A key principle in the built environment is avoidance of direct horizontal relations between live configurations. Formal means such as walls and social agreements such as ownership and civility prevent direct interaction between dwellings so that people can co-exist on the same level of form without too much conflict. Importantly, higher-level configuration dominates the lower level, which in turn is dependent on it (ibid., 32). Dominance is imposed by both physical form and behaviour of agents. Road network demarcates the space for a building, structure of the building sets limits for its spatial partitioning, partitioning governs the disposition of furniture, and furniture acts as support for body and utensils. Similarly, agents on higher levels determine the framework for the actions of lower level agents. Control distribution does not always precisely follow physical levels. This is the case in housing companies where some parts of the building although owned by individuals are not fully under their control. Change in the environment according to Habraken (ibid., 42) ”reverberates from downward and is contained upward”. Owners can relatively easily modify the interiors of dwellings. Transformation of higher-level forms is more difficult and slow because it necessitates consensus with many actors. Even if the levels determine what agents do, interaction among agents may also affect the hierarchy of levels. Open building is an example of renegotiation of control where the resident is given power to transform a higher level of form than in a customary apartment house. This is made possible by separation of support and infill levels in the building. In this way, levels of form keep transforming. Habraken (ibid., 71) underlines that dwelling as activity is not tied to any single physical level. Dwellings comprise varying combinations of levels and most acts of inhabitation can be individually accommodated on various levels. He mentions kitchen cabinetry and equipment as an example of a system that has gradually migrated away from the building level and become an independent configuration at the partitioning level that can be individually composed and is manufactured and sold like other durable goods. Similar migration towards an independent level can be detected in technical systems. Open building and mass customisation are facilitating the emergence of a flexible “mass-market infill level” 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 96 97 has been a has been a furniture level is is level furniture design game. With ongoing industrialization and systematization, building building systematization, and industrialization ongoing With the development and marketing, far beyond the reach of any of any reach the beyond far marketing, and development design is increasingly a matter of selecting and combining combining and of selecting a matter increasingly is design and lighting systems result from long-range product product long-range from result systems lighting and how they combine are predetermined. Partitioning systems, systems, Partitioning predetermined. are combine how they single intervention, or any designer’s desire for innovation. innovation. for desire designer’s or any intervention, single systems. The range of system components and rules about rulesand about components ofsystem range The systems. furniture and cabinetry, and equipment kitchen and sanitary Within the material hierarchy of built environment, of built environment, Within the material hierarchy To a great extent, such systems now set the terms of of terms the nowset systems such extent, a great To Habraken puts forth that ordinary mainstream puts forth that ordinary mainstream Habraken The above demonstrates how industrialisation how industrialisation demonstrates The above subsystems on various levels of dwelling are being distinguished distinguished being are dwelling of levels on various subsystems form where “manufacturing reaches the dweller directly without without directly dweller the reaches “manufacturing where form design. This process, he claims, has not been informing informing been not has he claims, process, This design. disintegrated development of its individual subsystems subsystems individual its of development disintegrated conditions have rendered obsolete the idea of total vertical obsolete the idea of total vertical rendered conditions have modernist in objective a central was that control design on to their traditional hierarchy. With design control dispersed dispersed control design With hierarchy. traditional their to on of this. Habraken (ibid., 78–80) emphasises the importance emphasises the (ibid., 78–80) of this. Habraken of level revised” instantly manipulated, as “readily of furniture goods. durable to less tied closely architectural practice. Much of it happens out of the control of of Much of it happens out of the control practice. architectural it a misconception pronounces Habraken design. architectural architecture (ibid., 74): architecture and pose a challenge to existing design professions hanging hanging professions design existing to challenge a pose and of agents, dwellings can increasingly number a growing among and consumerism are driving the commodification of concrete of concrete driving the commodification are and consumerism by design that can be differentiated as autonomous “products” Growing consumer goods. as replaceable and sold to people any need for specialized intervention”. The intervention”. specialized for need any and components, rather than from any integrated systems systems integrated any from than rather components, and that industrialisation as such would be driving uniformity in in that industrialisation as such would be driving uniformity technical complexity of dwellings also adds layers to their to their of dwellings also adds layers technical complexity that restores part of user control on the level of inhabitation inhabitation of on the level part control of user restores that physical parts of dwelling. Increasing number of elements and and elements number of partsphysical Increasing of dwelling. centralised design control that centralised design housing. He argues housing is experiencing a largely unplanned and unremarked and unremarked unplanned a largely housing is experiencing hierarchy. These changes often require redistribution of control of control redistribution These changes often require hierarchy. objects. The present as singular design be treated rarely more determining factor. (Ibid., 271–273; cf. Sohlenius 2006.) Sohlenius cf. 271–273; (Ibid., factor. determining more systems” “thematic calls Habraken what and types patterns, (ibid., 66). The Finnish housing concepts show some examples examples some show concepts housing Finnish The 66). (ibid., “silent industrialisation” from within, resulting from dispersed, dispersed, from within, resulting “silent industrialisation” from act as shared “forms of understanding” that convey agreement between agents and suggest how parts are to be combined into meaningful wholes (ibid., 248–249). Patterns (cf. Alexander 1979) are consistent relationships between two or more parts that help structuring the environment and determine how the parts are used, such as typical window patterns in buildings. Type as understood by Habraken results from combination of familiar units of space and form in a socially determined manner (ibid., 278). It is created by continuity and repetition over time. Thematic systems, such as building or car, have developed in response to specific human needs. They rely on a basic “structure” of which variable “configurations” are derived, leading to thematic development over time. Both the structure of the system and each configuration are independent artefacts that can be transformed (cf. Perkins 2000). Along these lines, dwellings as artefacts represent variants within the thematic system of dwelling. An important aspect of thematic systems according to Habraken is that they travel among people. Dematerialised conceptual systems in building that are being sustained in social and technological networks represent “knowledge without words” and “profound abstract understanding without material specification” that facilitates the work of professionals but is also shared by laypeople (ibid., 261). Selection of a system logically entails a host of details and specifications without the need for further invention (ibid., 298). As an example, the existence of a jointly understood basic configuration of dwelling diminishes the need for explicit agreement on each design decision in housing production. Design to Habraken is “cultivation of the built field” through the creative harnessing of socially rooted systems, types and patterns rather than sudden innovation disconnected from existing forms. The hierarchic organisation of environment is attested in environmental psychology, where Gibson (1986, 9) uses the term “nesting” for describing how things are components of other things and how smaller units in the environment are embedded in larger ones. Aldo Rossi (1982) has written about the city as a collective “conglomerate artefact” to the construction of which all its components participate. He sees dwelling as the primary unit in cities. Dwellings as material representations of people’s way of life to him are closely bound up with the urban form. This means that there is a spatial continuity between various levels of the city, and that dwelling as its basic component to a high degree influences the forms a city takes. Therefore, suggests Rossi (ibid., 72), “the study of the individual dwelling offers one of the best means of studying the city and vice versa”. Rossi 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 98 99 STUFF SPACE PLAN SERVICES STRUCTURE SKIN SITE

12. and Fixed furniture equipment such as kitchen and bathroom furnishings that Habraken considers independent at the configurations partitioning to level (1994, 19–20) Brand constitute an emerging intermediate layer of “service-connected stuff”. Leupen (2006a) divides a building into the layers skin, scenery of structure, (interior partitioning), services, and access spaces). (circulation

. , 12 solus (the (the

FIGURE 9. 9. FIGURE 1994): (Brand The pace layers of a building space skin, services, Site, structure, of the different plan, and stuff. “Because components, a of change of its rates tearing itself apart”building is always plan

(technical (technical services E D C B (domestic objects and appliances) (exterior surfaces), surfaces), (exterior (the geographical setting, urban location setting, urban location (the geographical (foundation and load-bearing elements elements and load-bearing (foundation A skin hotel room, hotel room, flat, rented flat, owner-occupied urban or suburban freestanding dwelling, and single-family estate or farm. private Similarly to Habraken, Brand (ibid., 17) notes (ibid., 17) notes Brand to Habraken, Similarly Stewart Brand (1994), relying on previous work work previous on relying (1994), StewartBrand

(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) 5 ROAD NETWORK 5 ROAD 4 BUILDING 3 PARTITIONING 2 FURNITURE 1 BODY AND UTENSILS see Figure 9) are site 9) are see Figure serving the building), space and utilities systems layers’. He proposes that a building can be divided into layers can be divided into layers that a building layers’. He proposes form to singularity of place. Unique place with its characteristics to singularity of place. Unique place with its characteristics form cycle whereas “exceptionally quiet homes might wait 30 years”. wait 30 years”. homes might quiet “exceptionally cycle whereas of the building), building), the of of some other scholars, has introduced the notion of ’pace ’pace of notion the introduced has scholars, other some of distinguishes between housing as collective structure that is that is structure distinguishes between housing as collective between a building special relationship the change. He stresses with different rates of change, the slow elements dominating of change, the slow elements dominating rates with different agendas stratified according to the time scale. The layers also according to the time scale. The layers also agendas stratified and constraining the fast ones. Brand’s six layers (ibid., 13; 13; (ibid., layers six ones. Brand’s fast the constraining and and plot), structure as part of the city. Architecture as understood by Rossi gives by Rossi gives as understood as part of the city. Architecture component of buildings. and history in this way becomes one a permanence in cities, and individual buildings that tend to that tend to and individual buildings a permanence in cities, locus calls he what constitute together which site, its and built artefact the individual is situated a singular place whereby interior layout), and stuffinterior layout), interior space changes in a rapid in a shorter time. Commercial how pace layering legitimises the design professions with their with their professions how pace layering legitimises the design hundreds of years. Skin is more mutable and may in some and may in some mutable of years. Skin is more hundreds services wear out so, whereas 20 years or houses change every FIGURE 8. 8. FIGURE Levels of form in the built environment and and environment in the built of form Levels modes of in various the extent of user control the left: 2000, 61). From dwelling (Habraken Site is eternal, and structure persists from several decades to to decades several from persists structure and eternal, is Site Stuff is moved around daily or monthly. or monthly. daily around Stuff is moved define how buildings relate to people. At the level of stuff, a building interacts with individuals, and at the space level with the family or owner. Services and slower levels that need to be maintained are where the housing company or landlord comes into play. The skin is the building’s interface to the local public, and the whole community via authorities partakes in defining the footprint and volume of the structure and the restrictions on the site. Like with Habraken’s levels, the slow elements constrain and control the quick ones. The slow processes are also capable of integrating trends of rapid change within them. Changes proposed by faster components gradually filter down the structure as they are accommodated by slower components. In buildings, “[t]he quick processes provide originality and challenge, the slow provide continuity and constraint” (ibid., 17). The differing rates of change of its components are causing friction between the layers of a building. Resolving the friction according to Brand is crucial to the development of buildings. He proclaims it a design imperative that buildings should allow slippage between the differently paced layers, so that the slow systems would not “block the flow of the quick ones, and the quick ones tear up the slow ones with their constant change” (ibid., 20). Structurally disentangling different pace layers from each other can achieve this. Brand (ibid., 23) suggests that either a “high road” or a “low road” strategy is available. High road buildings are highly refined durable constructions such as historical manor houses. Low road houses are flexible and cheap spaces such as garages and lofts that respond to changing needs of their occupants and can easily be altered by them. Somewhat contrary to Habraken, Brand claims that fragmentation of design control and marginalisation of the role of the architect in commercial building is having a stagnating effect on buildings, hindering their adaptivity to change. On the other hand, so do totally designed, embedded systems. Brand calls for better employment of time as a tool in design and use. This would mean thinking of buildings less as complete artefacts and more as open-ended “strategies” with built-in adaptivity that allows changing uses and perpetual adjustment during use. Many design decisions could be postponed and left to the users. This requires transformation from “image architecture” to error- tolerant “process architecture”; ”an architecture that, when the users decide to put it to different uses than those originally envisaged by the architect, does not get upset and consequently lose its identity” (ibid., 71, quoting Herman Hertzberger). To Brand, dwelling is a continuous learning process where physical forms and people interact. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 100 101

OF RATE RATE

CHANGE (Eternal) 20–300 20–300 years 3–30 years Continual USE USE ONTROL ONTROL DURING DURING FIGURE 10. 10. FIGURE My division of the main of levels physio-spatial the dwelling product, based on Habraken (1994), (2000), Brand and the distribution in owner- of control blocks of flats. occupied C City City Housing Housing company Owner Owner, Owner, occupant DESIGN DESIGN CONTROL Urban planners, Urban planners, architects Architects, Architects, building and systems engineers, landscape architects Architects, Architects, interior architects, product designers Furniture Furniture and product designers : Spatial organisation : Spatial organisation : Surfaces, materials, : Surfaces, materials, : Joint facilities indoors indoors : Joint facilities : Building type, form form : Building type, OR EXAMPLES OF OF EXAMPLES OR SUB-LEVELS AND/ SUB-LEVELS DESIGNABLE ELEMENTS DESIGNABLE Location, urban environment, environment, Location, urban local facilities connections, and structure, other features and structure, Building Facilities services and outdoors, building Partitioning openings and functions, walls and Furnishings and equipment fixed furniture objects and other domestic Furniture On the basis of Habraken and Brand, I have have I Brand, and Habraken of basis the On Technology seems to exist on all levels of the of the seems to exist on all levels Technology The positioning of technology, services and other

LEVEL LEVEL OF FORM OF AREA BUILDING APARTMENT APARTMENT OBJECTS ubiquitous presence of technical systems entangled within entangled within technical systems of presence ubiquitous level of technology that is less dependent on physical form. of technology form. level that is less dependent on physical less tangible components of dwelling in the physio-spatial physio-spatial the in dwelling of components tangible less composite the of aspects those representing in limitations level is controlled jointly by members of the housing company, company, housing the of members by jointly controlled is level follow the control distribution in Finnish housing. In owner- Finnish distribution in the control follow only experienced through the equipment that they serve, even if if even the equipment that they serve, through experienced only controlling agents during both design and use. agents during both design controlling occupied urban housing, objects and apartment constitute apartmentand objects housing, urban constitute occupied designable product (see Figures 10 and 11). It comprises four four 10 and 11). It comprises (see Figures product designable dwelling product. Habraken (2000, 112–117) notes the (2000, 112–117) notes the Habraken dwelling product. whereas area, the urban landscape, is under public control. control. under public landscape, is the urban area, whereas they significantly influence the formation of built environment. of built environment. influence the formation they significantly the private realm controlled by individual users. The building by individual users. The building controlled realm the private that can also be seen as a tentative model of dwelling as a as a of dwelling model as a tentative seen be also can that that form a scale from private to public (faster to slower) and to public (faster to slower) and private a scale from that form into two sub-levels to get a more detailed picture. Each level level Each picture. detailed more a get to sub-levels two into of change and different rate is distinguished by different main physical levels (objects, apartment, building, and area) apartment, (objects, levels area) building, and main physical built environment in different forms and with varying degree degree and with varying forms in different built environment buildings. In everyday life, these systems often go unregistered, unregistered, go often systems these life, everyday In buildings. revised a framework for approaching the empirical data data the empirical approaching for a framework revised hierarchy raises some questions. The model seems to have have to seems model The questions. some raises hierarchy Software and digital components in homes comprise a further components in and digital Software The apartment and building levels have both been divided both been divided The apartment have and building levels of integration, constituting an independent domain of design FIGURE 11. and development that penetrates the built hierarchy. Indeed, A preliminary model of dwelling as a designable that is how later research has complemented Brand’s model product. Hierarchically (Rodden & Benford 2003). This has led me to assume that not organised physio-spatial only technology but other meaningful designable elements of levels of the built environment are permeated dwelling as well would be similarly distributed. The dwelling by other designable product is essentially a spatially organised configuration where elements of dwelling. the physical hierarchy integrates together various other product domains. Even immaterial elements such as tenure in some way relate to the physical form. Figure 11 shows a preliminary framework where the physical levels are permeated by other elements of the expanded dwelling product tentatively deemed as relevant (technology, services, community and “ownership”). Some of these may be embedded into the physical form. For analytical reasons, they are here highlighted as separate entities. This helps in detecting the expansion of the dwelling product beyond built structure. This suggests perceiving the dwelling product as a hierarchically organised composite of multiple (co-dependent and interlocking) parts with different degrees of materiality. Some parts of the product are more congealed (stable, shared, slowly changeable) and some more fluid (flexible, personal, rapidly changeable). There is continuity between the levels and parts, and communication between the agents in control of them, usually dominated by the upper level in hierarchy. Embedded within and also partly beyond the hierarchic physio- spatial structure are other designable elements of dwelling potentially of great significance to users that may not always be recognised by the housing design system because they lie outside of its present tasks and way of framing dwelling as product. Meaningful transformations of dwelling can take place on different levels. Many elements of the extended product from domestic devices to services and tenure forms can be an object of design and diversification. This model gives us a rough framework for analysing the material composition of the dwelling product later in the study.

3.4.2 DWELLING AS A DIFFERENTIABLE PRODUCT IN THE MARKET

According to economist William T. Bogart (1998, 275), housing as commodity is distinguished by five characteristics: heterogeneity, immobility, durability, high expense relative to income, and large adjustment cost. Many other goods share some of these characteristics, but none all of them. Housing is a special durable goods comprised as composite of tangible 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 102 103

SLOW, FIXED ELEMENTS Central control

PHYSICAL FORM TECHNOLOGY SERVICES COMMUNITY OWNERSHIP

AREA Location, the urban Technology Local services Citizens, local The market, environment infrastructure in the area community local offering

BUILDING Building form Building services Joint services, Neighbours, the Tenure forms, and structure, and equipment service models housing company management models joint facilities USERS PRODUCTION

APARTMENT Spatial design, Home technology, Services for Household, family Cost, funding, Standardisation, duplication Standardisation,

partitioning, fixed appliances individual user control personalisation Diversification, furnishings households

OBJECTS Furniture and other Movable devices Services related Individuals domestic objects and appliances to objects

RAPID, FLEXIBLE ELEMENTS User Control and intangible properties. It is used over a long period of time, surviving many uses and user generations. Housing, as opposed to most other products, is both a public good, residential buildings constituting a considerable share of national wealth, and a private commodity, playing a major part in the economies of households. (Laakso & Loikkanen 2004.) Housing is produced and consumed on the open market, with the exception of social housing that is partly decommodified (Lapintie 2010b, 54). Housing is also a basic necessity that the society seeks to provide to all. The price of free-market housing is determined locally and nationally and influenced by prices of loans and the market situation. For consumers, housing is both a form of consumption and, in the case of owner-occupied dwelling, an investment. (Juntto 1990, 17.) A housing market is local and thin. People are forced to buy what is in the market and to make compromises. The market is a “second hand shop” (Paadam 2003): the majority of dwellings are purchased as used and modified by owners during use. New dwellings on the other hand are often sold before being built. What further distinguishes housing from other industrial products are housing companies as a form of shared ownership. Moreover, owners and renters are in a different position in relation to the product. The production process of housing relies on one-of-a-kindness, site production and temporary production organisation, all contrary to the ideals of mass production (Groák 1992, 126). Apart from obvious differences there are similarities between housing and other industrial goods, as discussed in the chapter about commodification and illustrated by the housing concepts. It seems justified to draw on generic models of product in marketing to analyse this facet of the ‘productness’ of dwelling. Marketing research defines product as “[a]nything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need”, including physical objects, services, persons, places, organisations and ideas (Kotler et al. 2008, 500). A product can be divided into core product, actual product and augmented product (ibid., 501–502; see Figure 12). Core product consists of the (intangible) problem-solving benefit(s) that the product provides to the customer. Actual product is made up of the product attributes that combine to deliver the core benefits, such as the product’s parts, quality level, features and capabilities, design and styling, brand name, and packaging. Augmented product includes additional customer services and benefits built around the core and actual products, such as delivery and credit, installation, after-sale service, warranty or personnel. 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 104 105

13. Kotler et al. (2008, 597) define service as “[a] ny activity or benefit that one party can offer to another which is intangible and essentially in the does not result ownership of anything”. characterised Services are by intangibility, their from inseparability variability providers, and perishability. even if if even is typically linked linked is typically 13 combinations

that satisfy their needs. Dwellings Dwellings needs. their that satisfy benefits

of

Differentiation strategies can be divided into price strategies Differentiation Product differentiation and positioning are are and positioning differentiation Product The differentiation process involves identification identification involves process differentiation The The term “value constellation” (Normann & & (Normann constellation” term “value The bundles superiority, communicability, pre-emptiveness, affordability affordability superiority, communicability, pre-emptiveness, like other industrial products can be placed on a tangible- can be placed other industrial products like generally similar products with minor variations that are used used are that with minor variations similar products generally durability, serviceability or aesthetics, and marketing serviceability or aesthetics, and marketing durability, features. As argued by marketers, people see products as as products people see by marketers, argued As features. differentiation, innovation-based differentiation that targets targets that differentiation innovation-based differentiation, or profitability (ibid., 441). Products in the market are thus thus are market the in Products 441). (ibid., profitability or and communicable clearly of sets differentiated as constructed differentiation whereas others (cars, clothing, furniture) are are others (cars, clothing, furniture) whereas differentiation make and customers to valuable most are that differentiation of possible customer value differences that provide competitive competitive that provide differences of possible customer value occupies in consumers’ minds relative to competing products”, to competing products”, in consumers’ minds relative occupies on its importantdepends on how it is defined by consumers component of service to them in market-oriented production production to them in market-oriented component of service create these offerings. Each level in the product adds more adds more in the product level Each offerings. these create of tangible than a set hence is more Product value. customer complex a good differentiator in the market. What differences are are What differences in the market. a good differentiator and delivery of the chosen position to the market (Kotler et et (Kotler the market of the chosen position to and delivery allow little meaningful products al. 2008, 435). Some physical advantages, selection of the right set of differences upon which upon which set of differences selection of the right advantages, 432). Differentiation means the marketing of of means the marketing attributes (ibid., 432). Differentiation the product’s performance, uniqueness, features, reliability, reliability, uniqueness, features, performance, the product’s to particular target markets. to particular target definition of the overall to build the position of the product, the tangible part still dominates. Service Along services. with care in senior housing as use phase the product et al. (2008, 598), the dwelling the lines of Kotler to the sale of the physical good but may also be connected to to connected be also may but good physical the of sale the to the market. The product’s position, “the place the product product the place “the position, product’s The market. the intangible continuum where many combinations are possible. possible. are many combinations where intangible continuum in fact has made them good-and-service them made has fact in marketable benefits. marketable promoted can be based on their importance, distinctiveness, can be based on their importance, distinctiveness, promoted highly differentiable. It is important to find those points of differentiable. highly products of the company in order to make them more attractive attractive them more of the company in order to make products products from those of competitors as well as from other other those of competitors as well as from from products have been perceived as pure tangible goods. Addition of the of the goods. Addition tangible as pure been perceived have key means for producers to seek competitive advantage in in advantage competitive to seek producers means for key by consumers when making a choice (“product differentiation”, differentiation”, (“product by consumers when making a choice Oxford Dictionary of English 2010). It deals with distinguishing distinguishing with deals It 2010). of English Dictionary Oxford value proposition of the product, and effective communication communication and effective the product, of proposition value Ramirez 1993) refers to the network of actors that jointly jointly that of actors the network to refers 1993) Ramirez differentiation that focuses on product image, promotion, service, delivery, installation or maintenance (Swink 2000). Product design and the manufacturing process are in a key role when delivering the first two types of differentiation, whereas marketing differentiation is less determined by them. Many companies are nowadays seeking to differentiate their offers by creating and managing holistic customer experiences (Kotler at al. 2008, 500). It has already been noted how the consumer society relies on marginal differentiation of products and how companies increasingly aim to charge for immaterial experiences and benefits provided by products (Pine & Gilmore 1999). This emphasises the role of non-material elements such as brand, service and customership in differentiation. Modular product platforms that enable the making of highly differentiated products that yet share as many components as possible are one means for managing the trade-off between distinctiveness and commonality in mass production (Ulrich & Eppinger 2004, 184). In delayed differentiation, differentiation is postponed until late in the supply chain. The product and production process are designed so that a few differentiating elements can be added to the product near their completion (ibid., 179–180). The interior fit-out options in free-market housing production are examples of delayed differentiation. From the premises of this study, product differentiation in the housing industry can be seen as strategic design activity that falls outside of the scope of regular housing design, dealing with positioning of designs in relation to other designs in the market and with creation and management of product portfolios. Housing concepts as means of differentiation in the market are discussed in Chapter 4. Differentiation in the built environment also happens on the level of neighbourhoods and cities. As argued by Madanipour (2003, 150–161), the urban space is increasingly treated as differentiable commodity. The creation of clearly signified, differentiated neighbourhoods serves individuals in their quest for identity and social status, developers in distinguishing their products, and cities in competition in the global marketplace. Differentiation in the city can be imposed from above by urban management and market operation, or arise from below as collective activity grounded in local culture (ibid., 158; Klingmann 2007). This also brings us to the limits of examining dwelling as a market-driven product. Total commodification of the living environment would threaten the self-determination and equality of citizens and is against the goals of public housing policy. Residential product differentiation may also 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 106 107 phase the product is is product the phase . Design here focuses on on focuses here . Design . Design at this point is less at this point is less . Design of the product along objectives such such along objectives of the product where focus of consumers and producers of consumers and producers focus where Dutch researchers (Eger & Drukker 2010) have 2010) have (Eger & Drukker Dutch researchers Eger (2009) suggests that this model would also would also Eger (2009) suggests that this model To sum up, paralleling dwelling with other dwelling with other sum up, paralleling To phase in the evolution of products is individualisation individualisation is phase in the evolution of products structure like housing. The development of modern housing has housing has of modern housing. The development like structure social and technological changes. stylistic diversification and user orientation. One must, must, One orientation. user and diversification stylistic shifts to optimisation state” thus makes possible predictions about its future “career”. “career”. about its future possible predictions state” thus makes summarised in Chapter 6.4. summarised long-term, large-scale historical development of a complex of a complex historical development long-term, large-scale shifts to ethical aspects of products and their entire life cycle. life and their entire shifts to ethical aspects of products go to ensuring its performancego to ensuring its designable elements of it that are not revealed by examining by examining not revealed elements of it that are designable image to product from means ranging varied through delivered coincided with a significant rise of living standard and major rise of living standard and major coincided with a significant of regulation, establishment of a dominant architectural design, design, establishment of a dominant architectural of regulation, enabled by mass customisation and co-configuration. and co-configuration. enabled by mass customisation consolidation of a “dominant design” and increasing consumer consumer and increasing “dominant design” consolidation of a each displaying typical product and market characteristics characteristics and market product each displaying typical contribute to social segregation in neighbourhoods and cities. cities. and neighbourhoods in social segregation to contribute distinguished as an object of consumption in the market. of consumption in the market. an object distinguished as important. grows, competition the As more becomes design as ergonomics, reliability and safety. This leads to gradual gradual to leads This safety. and reliability ergonomics, as apply to housing. His brief survey on the history of working-class survey to housing. His brief apply adding expressive features and emotional benefits to products. products. to and emotional benefits features adding expressive awareness. In the third, itemisation third, the In awareness. an early unregulated stage in the 19th century to introduction stage in the 19th century to introduction unregulated an early the built artefact. Dwelling as it is developed and marketed by by the built artefact. and marketed it is developed Dwelling as consumer goods in that other durable the industry resembles time. Analysis of a product’s history and its present “internal “internal history and its present of a product’s time. Analysis it is constructed as differentiated sets of benefits that are sets of benefits that are it is constructed as differentiated industrial products makes visible certain characteristics and visible certain and makes characteristics industrial products important. After basic functional issues are solved, emphasis emphasis solved, important. After basic functional issues are branching off into local, segmented variants, and increasing increasing and variants, segmented local, into off branching of the limits of the model in explaining the be aware however, housing in Europe asserts how it as product has evolved from from has evolved asserts how it as product housing in Europe result of innovation or technology of innovation push, most efforts initially result proposed that most industrial products follow a similar similar a follow products most industrial that proposed in during their development change qualitative pattern of producers move to segmentation move producers (Figure 13). When a new product comes into the market as as comes into the market 13). When a new product (Figure Drukker is awarenessDrukker Fifth Eger and Drukker distinguish six qualitative product phases, phases, product qualitative six distinguish Drukker and Eger The methodological shortcomings of the product approach are are approach shortcomingsThe methodological product of the pinnacle of a product’s career as outlined by Eger and Eger and as outlined by career The pinnacle of a product’s edge of competition shifts to convenience of use, and of use, and The edge of competition shifts to convenience customer service and the production process. It would also look like the overall historical development of industrial urban housing would at least to some extent follow the regularities of other industrial products.

FIGURE 12. The three levels of product AWARENESS (Kotler et al. 2008, 501).

INDIVIDUALISATION

FIGURE 13. SEGMENTATION Core The qualitative product product phases (Eger ITEMISATION & Drukker 2010). Actual product OPTIMISATION

Augmented PERFORMANCE product

3.4.3 DWELLING AS AN EVOLUTIONARY REALM

What the theories discussed in previous chapters have in common is the inclusion of time to the analysis of artefacts. Many properties of housing and dwelling depend on temporal processes of different scale and scope. This concerns both the cycles of everyday living and the transformation of dwelling as artefact. Keeping in mind the systemicity of the dwelling product and deep anchoring of it to tradition, it seems justified to approach dwelling as an evolutionary realm where transformation at large happens gradually through adaptation based on precedent. The term evolution is often used vaguely in literature. There exist many “evolutionary” theories related to architecture and artefacts, an overview of which is given by Philip Steadman in The Evolution of Designs (2008 [1979]). Stephen Marshall in Cities, Design and Evolution (2009) has developed evolutionary thinking on urbanism. Also technological innovation has been explained as an evolutionary process (Ziman 2000). The approaches share the idea of evolution as effect that applies to human-made artefacts and biological organisms alike. Dwellings from systems perspective can be seen as complex adaptive goal-oriented artefacts that are moulded by their environment. The adaptation of artefacts to goals as described by Simon (1996) involves appropriation between the inner substance and organisation of artefacts and their 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 108 109 Steadman (2008, 76–78, 218) examines the Steadman (2008, 76–78, 218) examines the Loosely evolutionary analogies or metaphors metaphors or analogies evolutionary Loosely Despite this fundamental difference, there are are there difference, this fundamental Despite selection by users (the market) and the housing system based based and the housing system selection by users (the market) its for expectations sets that of home model socio-cultural scientists like Richard Dawkins (1976, 206) who famously famously (1976, 206) who Dawkins Richard like scientists systems formed by blind evolutionary forces. evolutionary forces. by blind formed systems like buildings or dwellings are copied from old models and and models old from copied are dwellings or buildings like living. Dwellings as physical artefacts have evolved along along artefacts evolved living. Dwellings as physical have 2002). types (e.g. Saarikangas dwelling leading to present grounds for paralleling the development of the two, laid by by of the two, laid the development paralleling for grounds further when changes are made to them during use (Brand (Brand made to them during use further when changes are designed as deviation from a reference building or part of part or building of reference a from deviation as designed on their “fitness”. and to human experience to adapt of built form other levels 1982, Groák 2000, Rossi conditions (Habraken local divergent design is being reproduced as endless individual variants and and individual variants endless as being reproduced is design everyday of practice selective and repetitive the by on carried capacity to create copies of elements; and differential ’fitness’, ’fitness’, of elements; and differential copies capacity to create or less suited or the opportunity one element to be more for choice by human beings ought to be distinguished from natural natural from to be distinguished human beings ought choice by outer environment. Intentionality and purposefulness is is and purposefulness Intentionality environment. outer exists to serve a human purpose and results from willed willed from results and purpose human a serve to exists work in dwelling on many levels. The historically evolved evolved historically The levels. many on dwelling in work what characterises artefacts. Along the lines of Checkland artefacts. characterises what of Checkland lines Along the and error as one of many biological analogies in architecture in architecture as one of many biological analogies and error arts. At simplest, this means that artefacts and the applied argued that ”all life evolves by the differential survival of of survival by the differential evolves that ”all life argued their life cycle in the market (Eger & Drukker 2010). (Eger & Drukker cycle in the market their life the production system are outcome of collective selection by selection by outcome of collective are system the production three conditions co-exist: “variation, or the introduction of of or the introduction conditions co-exist: “variation, three to the environment than another”. The conditions are met in met in are than another”. The conditions to the environment put to the test of use. For example, a new building is often put to the test of use. For example, a new building is often has been suggested to undergo evolutionary change during evolutionary change during has been suggested to undergo multiple actors (e.g. Groák 1992). Individual dwellings “evolve” 1992). Individual dwellings “evolve” multiple actors (e.g. Groák new change to existing elements; heredity or replication, or the the or replication, or heredity elements; existing to change new by the being replicated are of dwelling housing: the forms that undergo variations as different system housing production replicating entities”. According to Dawkins (cited by Dennett Dennett According to Dawkins (cited by entities”. replicating material that travels across time and place (Steadman 2008, time and place (Steadman 2008, across material that travels 119), dwelling as a “designed physical system” that that system” physical as a “designed (1981, 119), dwelling Darwinian analogy of human manufactures adapting by trial by trial adapting Darwinian analogy of human manufactures Moraes Zarzar 2003). As seen, the internal state of products products of state internal the seen, As 2003). Zarzar Moraes Locally available forms of dwelling that are replicated by by replicated are that dwelling of forms available Locally 1994). Types and features of dwellings can be seen as genetic as genetic seen be can of dwellings and features 1994). Types 1992). The history of housing reveals lineages of descendance lineages of descendance 1992). The history of housing reveals 1991, 200), the process of evolution naturally occurs when occurs when of evolution naturally process 1991, 200), the a building. The designs that prove advantageous tend to be preferred as models for new artefacts. Variety here can be outcome of “unconscious variation through accidental inexact copying” or conscious incremental enhancement. The analogy suggests that artefacts themselves carry information about their own functioning and manufacture and that “[...] there exists in the mind of the craftsman in some form the type, or image, or model for a species of artefact, which guides him when he comes to make a new copy” (ibid., 78). Copying induces continuity in the form and appearance of the artefact and brings about a transformation of its characteristic form as a result of alterations in each stage. Production of many similar artefacts with related but not identical forms gives rise to geographically diffuse “populations” of artefacts, amongst which it may be possible to identify “types”. This kind of evolutionary process requires a long period of time without major changes to the function of the artefact. Steadman argues that what is transmitted in copying is the “general type” or “abstract design” of which a singular artefact is but one example. This corresponds with the distinction between genotype and phenotype in biology. The socio-material general type of dwelling then would act as set of “genetic instructions” for reproduction of dwellings within the housing system. From evolutionary viewpoint, individual dwellings can be seen as outcome of (social, economic, geographical, political, technological, designerly) selection pressures operating within a variable population of dwellings integrated through time by descent (cf. Fleck 2000, 250). Variation and selection in artificial evolution are intentional and goal-directed. Designers can decide what to try and to select and are capable of analysis, foresight and revision of designs. In human systems, available knowledge, way of framing the design problem, agents’ capacities and skills, and the course of the design process affect the outcome. In contrast to organic evolution, artificial evolution has a convergent capacity. It can bring together previously separate types or combine parts from several artefacts (Steadman 2008, 97–98). Steadman distinguishes between the slow, unconscious evolution of vernacular architecture and artefacts, disrupted in modernity, and evolutionary approaches to design that seek to consciously apply evolutionary principles and methods to design and so mimic the evolution process in much shorter time. In fact, the design process in general is evolutionary. It proceeds in cycles of form generation and testing against requirements and constraints, leading to a design that is supposed to best meets its purpose in its 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 110 111

14. The concept of fitness landscape as defined by (2000, 160–161) Perkins is based on the idea that can be all possible forms as points in represented space, like an abstract on a map. ”Within such are a space, some forms ’fit’ than others, more according to whatever criteria happen to be applicable. The degree of fitness of a particular is then represented form the above by a ’height’ point corresponding on the map. We thus construct a ’landscape’, example, a for where, peak would stand high a particularly ’fit’ for Evolutionary change form. as can then be viewed of traversing a process this landscape in search of such peaks.” Fitness landscape in biology contains all possible genotypes, their degree of similarity, and their fitness values. relative

make

notion notion where where 14 designers

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design Stankiewicz (2000) has coined the notion of the notion of (2000) has coined Stankiewicz Design activity from the evolutionary perspective perspective the evolutionary activity from Design is important here. Discussing the evolution of modular evolution of modular Discussing the is important here. value-seeking

the styles and orders in architecture) and undergo change change undergo and architecture) in orders and styles the value local solutions to local design problems than about universal about universal than problems solutions to local design landscape. They have evolved along hereditary regimes that that regimes along hereditary evolved landscape. They have over time. Stankiewicz argues that the technological regimes technological regimes that the argues time. Stankiewicz over spaces. design is a conjunction of several evidently of the that state 228–232) (2000, Clark and Baldwin designs, opportunities, consensus or individual choice. To use Simon’s term, search term, search use Simon’s consensus or individual choice. To not final are in human systems optimisation. The goals of design of materials, production methods and other means available means available methods and other of materials, production landscape fitness a in as searching can be defined design activity and design problems are situational (ibid., 222). situational (ibid., 222). are problems activity and design design conscious” design process happens not by making and using using making and not by happens process design conscious” environment. Testing of artefacts in the professional “self- of artefacts in the professional Testing environment. design problems almost always are incomplete and incorrect. incorrect. incomplete and are almost always problems design which they call the “space of designs”. Within this space of Within this space of which they call the “space of designs”. within which the search for new solutions is undertaken. new solutions is undertaken. for within which the search as fallacies of the evolutionary analogy. He highlights that that of the evolutionary analogy. He highlights as fallacies and convergence of design spaces. The present dwelling product dwelling product spaces. The present of design and convergence accumulate and transmit technological knowledge (cf. Geels Geels (cf. knowledge technological and transmit accumulate and limits of the ways determine and skills within a regime and socially determined. For instance, it can be based on on based be can it instance, For determined. socially and The (ibid.). itself in end desirable a be may variety and as drawings. This according to Alexander (cited by Steadman Steadman (cited by according to Alexander This as drawings. are evolving “into each other”, which is leading to expansion evolving “into each other”, which is leading to expansion are the architectural regime, and the research regime. Knowledge Knowledge regime. research the and regime, architectural the to them at that moment. its search. Design spaces are structured by “design languages” languages” by “design structured spaces are Design its search. mapping of designs to value can be pictured as a landscape, as a landscape, can be pictured to value mapping of designs by design is more about “satisficing”, finding good enough about “satisficing”, finding good enough is more by design hereditary types and forms. Designers respond to particular respond Designers and forms. types hereditary situations with the repertoire in specific historical problems but in the mind and by means of externalised models such models such of externalised mind and by means but in the of structure the about conceptions mental designers’ because Changing contexts and purposes define artefacts, not just and purposes define artefacts,Changing contexts not just Steadman mentions functional and historical determinism functional and historical determinism Steadman mentions (e.g. Products according to him are embodiments of design spaces. spaces. design of embodiments are him to according Products A design space can be used to map a corresponding fitness fitness corresponding a map to used be can space design A 2002). These include the craft regime, the engineering regime, regime, engineering the regime, craft the include These 2002). 2000; Simon 1996, 124). Fitness in human systems is relative relative is human systems in Simon 1996, 124). Fitness 2000; 2008, 176) is a major cause of failure in modern design practice practice modern design in of failure cause major a 176) is 2008, “design space” which refers to the domain of possibilities possibilities of domain the to refers which space” “design “human enquirers can cultivate change strategically” (Perkins (Perkins change strategically” can cultivate “human enquirers One can argue that users as individuals have largely been excluded from the “value landscape” of industrial urban housing, which has led to its narrowing down and domination by producer value. Increasing demand for diversity and user-centredness of housing calls for expansion of the value base of housing production and acceptance of user value as a driving force. The housing system from an evolutionary viewpoint should seek to develop methods to strategically direct the population of dwellings towards user value. Various strategies of search in the fitness landscape are available to designers. Perkins (2000) suggests that adaptation can happen by revision after trial, by variation and selection, or by coding, which combines the two. In adaptation by coding, “the search involves adaptive forms on two levels that may be called the code and the construction” (ibid., 166). Again a comparison can be made with genome and organism. The code in design can be a rough idea, sketch, blueprint, design algorithm, procedure to produce the artefact, or other set of instructions. The construction is typically a prototype or in the case of architecture more likely the actual building. There exist chains of code-construction relationships: an idea functions as a code for a sketch, which acts as a code for a prototype, whereof a blueprint is constructed that becomes the code of the final product. On all levels, the code can be revised on the basis of experience with the construction. The aim of the search (design activity) is to provide a more fit construction through adjustments in the code. There is opportunity for independent search at both the code level and the construction level. Code is much more portable and replicable than construction. It is easier to variate and modify the code than the construction. One argument in this dissertation is that concept in housing can be seen as one level of code (see Chapter 3.3). Regarding general strategies for achieving variation/innovation in complex modular artefacts, see Fleck (2000, 264) and Baldwin & Clark (2000, 228). A problem in evolutionary theories of design concerns the unit of evolution. Artefacts do not breed, so what are the replicating entities that vary and are selected in designed systems like dwelling? To Fleck (2000, 251), the process requires human agents: “The genetic code for an organism is written within the organism. In contrast, the equivalent for an artefact is written outside the artefact proper, but within assemblages of people involved in producing the artefact, that is, within organizations.” De Landa (1994) identifies two kinds of non-genetic replicators in human systems: memes (see Dawkins 1976) that replicate by imitation and norms that replicate by obligatory repetition. As seen, Steadman (2008, 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 112 113

within within such as as such designs

languages

systems could also be be could also systems thematic (amalgam of artefact, knowledge artefact, of (amalgam knowledge and couple types

and their associated design and their Karina Moraes Zarzar (2003) has researched the the Zarzar (2003) has researched Karina Moraes Regarding the mechanics of heredity in in mechanics of heredity Regarding the as the unit of evolution in architecture. Habraken’s Habraken’s architecture. of evolution in as the unit patterns, spaces

features design artefact-activity situations. In building engineering, technical solutions can play situations. In building engineering, technical solutions can play stored in the form of episodic schemata to tackle new design of episodic schemata to tackle new design in the form stored suggesting endless variation of designs based on combinatorial based on combinatorial of designs suggesting endless variation with its culture design in the present is apparent systems, stability of reproduction. seen as such. Stankiewicz (2000) discusses the evolution of of evolution the discusses (2000) Stankiewicz such. as seen same way, Lawson (2004) describes how designers use precedent use precedent same way, Lawson (2004) describes how designers designers and craftsmen. It is the continuity by which most most which by continuity the is It craftsmen. and designers constraints. Re-use often gives rise to design innovations. In the innovations. rise to design Re-use often gives constraints. designs. She introduces the notion of “design feature”, a a feature”, the notion of “design She introduces designs. dwelling as permanent archetype, a universal image or prototype prototype or image universal a archetype, permanent as dwelling by compositions, as propagated elements together into variable evolve. Moraes Zarzar (2003) insists on fragmental design fragmental on insists (2003) Zarzar Moraes evolve. dwelling architecture, two main lines have been recognised recognised been have lines main two dwelling architecture, and organisation): human productive activity, moulded by moulded by activity, productive human and organisation): ensuring other, each condition mutually thus activity and architectural theory (van Zeijl 2005, 113–116). One sees sees One 113–116). Zeijl 2005, (van theory architectural a similar role (Groák 1992, 6): “There exists a repertory of well- a repertory exists 1992, 6): “There (Groák a similar role and recombining them so that form is fitted to environmental is fitted to environmental them so that form and recombining as an origin of all architecture. Another way is to approach way is to approach Another of all architecture. as an origin modular objectified arranging of matter as architecture tried technical solutions, which provide reliable precedents for for precedents reliable technical solutions, which provide tried tendency towards modularity and computer-generated designs. designs. tendency towards modularity and computer-generated that is imitated by architects. This view is represented by Marc- is represented This view that is imitated by architects. technological evolution proceeds via reproduction of the the of via reproduction proceeds evolution technological types of which particular artefacts are concrete realisations realisations particular of which types concrete artefacts are in contemporary design culture that relate back to early early to back relate that culture design contemporary in instructions and instructions about suitable technique and suitable technique and instructions and instructions about in the early 19th century. Especially the latter approach, the latter approach, 19th century. Especially in the early previous artefacts, constitutes a template for production of of artefacts, production for a template constitutes previous new artefacts, Artefacts which again become its template. re-use of design precedents in the conception of architectural of architectural in the conception precedents of design re-use building proceeds, but which also enables gradual innovation.” innovation.” but which also enables gradual building proceeds, neo-classicist architectural theorist Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand theorist Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand neo-classicist architectural hereditary regimes. Finally, Fleck (2000, 260) suggests that that Fleck (2000, 260) suggests Finally, regimes. hereditary precedent component, as unit of evolution in architecture. in architecture. component, as unit of evolution precedent materials. Moraes Zarzar maintains that architects draw on on draw architects that maintains Zarzar Moraes materials. time, adapting over accumulated features design precedent (2000) Design features as replicating entities contain configurational configurational contain entities as replicating features Design Antoine Laugier’s famous idea from 1755 of the primitive hut hut 1755 of the primitive famous idea from Antoine Laugier’s 78) suggests that in architecture, abstract architecture, that in suggests 78) Here can also be mentioned Darke’s (1979) notion of “primary generator” and Vincenti’s (1990) notion of “fundamental design concept” that act as instructions for design. The use of precedents in product design is discussed by Pasman (2003). Art historian George Kubler in The Shape of Things (1962) examines the interplay of invention, replication, discard and retention in the history of objects. He sees objects as sequences, linked successions distributed in time that follow evolutionary trajectories. He claims that most objects are offspring of original “prime objects”, created by replications and inventive mutations of them over time. Mere replication suffices to produce some variation because of inevitable minute differences in the production process. More profound changes require invention, which can result from meeting of previously divergent information in a way that opens up new solutions, or from “artistic” invention untied to earlier thinking. Kubler argues that replication and invention in society need to be in balance: perpetual replication leads to stagnation and overflow of inventions to chaos. When objects become less viable in their changing environment, they are gradually discarded and replaced by more viable objects. Kubler claims that the purpose of objects affects their rate of obsolescence. Useful objects that fulfil specific functions surrender more easily to new inventions than artistic objects that are retained longer because of their metaphysical value. Other objects also influence the histories of objects. The car drove the horse cart near to extinction and instigated a major change to the design of cities. Adaptation of complex systems necessitates what Simon calls “near-decomposability”: that the system is not fully joined but consists of relatively independent subsystems, each of which can adapt in partial isolation from other subsystems, so that the efficiency of one component does not depend on the detailed structure of other components (Simon 1996, 193; Steadman 2008, 173). Housing is an example of a complex system in which the “adaptive plan” is decentralised to many independent actors (cf. Baldwin & Clark 2000, 221). De Landa (1996) adds that replication in complex systems is variable. It may occur separately on different levels and modules of the system. Dwelling as product combines multiple elements and subsystems each with their own evolutionary trajectory. Distribution of the adaptive plan and possibility of independent adaptations means that some parts of the dwelling product may advance in leaps while others lag behind or are declined. The “silent industrialisation” of housing has enhanced its technical performance but impoverished its spatial and typological diversity. It also seems that some parts of the dwelling product sustain replication relatively unchanged for 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 114 115 individual individual design but with design Landa (2003), a large chunk chunk large a (2003), Landa At the end of the day, it is less importantAt the end of the day, to try to The elements and their interactions in a dwelling in a dwelling The elements and their interactions The urban reality emerges out of the conjunction out of the conjunction emerges The urban reality undesignable and undifferentiable, “naturally” accounted accounted “naturally” undifferentiable, and undesignable systemic dwelling product no more than a city should be seen than a city should be seen no more dwelling product systemic system whose components are partly in cooperation and partly partly and partly cooperation in are components whose system longer, while other parts change or are eradicated more easily. easily. more eradicated other parts while longer, or are change changing their “code” on the basis of environmental feedback. changing their “code” on the basis of environmental by the system. for evolving entity where various design increments conjoin, some conjoin, some increments design various evolving entity where that continues to change during use of dwelling as a product design increments” (ibid., 175). Marshall’s view of evolution of evolution (ibid., 175). Marshall’s view increments” design of local purposive interventions and non-purposive, unplanned unplanned non-purposive, and interventions purposive local of even if it would not be equivalent in detail to natural evolution. evolution. in detail to natural if it would not be equivalent even of artefactsor planning. He suggests that the evolution such over time according to him is evident in the built environment time according to him is evident in the built environment over of dwelling then would be beyond the means of design – – the means of design would be beyond of dwelling then dwelling instructs some aspects of dwelling to stay constant to stay constant of dwelling instructs some aspects dwelling to “essential” parts that it is the related of dwelling could argue choice tend to differentiate in response to individual desires to individual desires in response choice tend to differentiate different from the component actions. Cities thus can have thus can have Cities the component actions. from different with Habraken and Brand, this promotes an understanding understanding an promotes this Brand, and Habraken with are perhaps more restricted than in a city. Nevertheless, the than in a city. Nevertheless, the restricted more perhaps are as a fixed outcome of a single definitive design act but an an but act design definitive single a of outcome a fixed as accommodates both immediate micro-scale actions and long- accommodates both immediate micro-scale applied to all scales of human artefacts and systems as well to all scales of human artefacts as well systems and applied case from varies nature as to biology, though its precise even De Along conditions. local and and others to variate. In reflection to Baudrillard (1996), one one Baudrillard (1996), to reflection In to variate. and others as cities involves both “designed” and “organic” change. change. and “organic” both “designed” involves as cities term, large-scale effects. Design as activity contributes to local local to contributes activity as Design effects. large-scale term, to case. A real evolutionary effect of adaptive transformation transformation of adaptive evolutionary effect to case. A real increments of change but also to the evolution of artefacts of change but by increments interactions between elements and agents through what what through between elements and agents interactions are that outcomes trigger together the environment in in competition and where the order of the whole arises from order of the whole arises from the in competition and where holistic design the parts between than from interactions rather its purpose, basic functions and core spatial configuration that that configuration spatial and core basic functions its purpose, more fundamental and long-lasting than others. Consistent others. Consistent than fundamental and long-lasting more prove the evolutionary analogy to last detail. Stephen Marshall analogy evolutionary the Marshall Stephen detail. last to prove remain, while the “inessential” parts while the “inessential” on (aesthetic) depending remain, (2009, 171–175) sees evolution as a generic effect that can be be can that effect a generic as evolution sees 171–175) (2009, (Marshall 2009, 260–261): Marshall calls “adaptive emergence”, where individual actions actions individual where emergence”, “adaptive calls Marshall Marshall approaches the city as a complex adaptive nested nested complex adaptive the city as a Marshall approaches In this way, the socially and materially written genetic code of code of genetic written and materially socially way, the In this “functional order without overall In the evolutionary paradigm, designers and planners are only ever partly – only temporarily – in control. [...] [W]e know that what the city does when ’left to its own devices’ is unpredictable, and no more and no less than the sum of all the interactions of the individual actors with each other and the environment. This opens the door to the recognition of the role of the people in shaping their own environment.

Industrial housing production is based on repetition. In reference to a distinction by Shlomith Rimmon-Kenan (1980), this at worst is “destructive repetition” that produces sameness through mechanical copying. The evolutionary perspective opens up another mode, “constructive repetition” that produces difference, operating by affirmation and reinforcement (in everyday living) as well as change and variation (in design). Sameness was a central design objective in modern industrial housing. In late modernity, it has become important to find ways to create differences. As noted before, this happens strictly under the conditions of the capitalist system. Mass customisation and co-configuration are examples of production methods that aim at variable repetition without direct replication. Looking at the realised dwelling products through the evolutionary lense, I have detected several “types” of difference inscribed in their features that result from different factors and processes impacting the formation of dwellings. Firstly, dwellings in various parts of the world are culturally diverse, which is expressed for example by their different spatial organisation. Secondly, there is generational difference in housing created by the overall change of housing over time. Despite typological and individual variation, the dwelling stock built in certain period is recognisably different from the dwelling stock built in another period. This “meta- style” is influenced by dominant architectural styles and design conventions, the way of building, technology and regulation. Thirdly, there is what could be called individual difference in housing that is consequence of the one-of-a-kindness and localness of housing design and delivery. No two buildings are the same because of changing clients, changing architects with penchant for novelty, temporary production organisations, and varied local contexts. Individual difference is partly designed, partly random variation within the range of the generational meta-style. The fourth type could be called strategic difference and is illustrated by the housing concepts. It is a result of intentional differentiation of dwelling products in relation to other products in the market and to the needs of various user 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 116 117

15. Socio-technical is a configuration set of heterogeneous tangible and intangible together elements linked that works to fulfil function and a societal is embedded in society. transition Technological a change from involves one socio-technical to another. configuration (Geels 2002, 1258.)

, that results from from that results use (such as housing) to to (such as housing) 15 , and socio-technical landscape, and socio-technical regimes Niches – peripheral areas protected from market market from protected areas Niches – peripheral The overall dynamics of change within the within the dynamics of change The overall ), they continue to diverge. ), they continue oeuvre leading to transformations in landscape. A new regime grows grows landscape. A new regime in leading to transformations levels form a nested hierarchy: regimes are embedded within embedded within are regimes nested hierarchy: a form levels structural trends and other large-scale economic, cultural, cultural, economic, large-scale other and trends structural that set an external developments social and environmental scientific knowledge. Regimes rely on established routines routines on established knowledge. Regimes rely scientific set of rules who guide and coordinate the development of of development the coordinate and guide who rules of set socio-technical long-term technological changes in the way societal functions functions long-term technological changes in the way societal landscapes, which influence the emergence of niches and shape shape and of niches emergence the influence which landscapes, level is slow and incremental, as actors are bound to resist bound to resist as actors are incremental, is slow and level landscapes and niches within regimes. Socio-technical regimes regimes Socio-technical regimes. within niches and landscapes groups. Lastly, there is difference through through difference is there Lastly, groups. fulfil societal functions. The dimensions in a regime include include in a regime functions. The dimensions fulfil societal designs along which the regime reconfigures itself, eventually itself, eventually reconfigures along which the regime designs out to regime level – often by linking up with established – often by linking up with established level out to regime out of the previous one in an evolutionary series of adaptations of adaptations series evolutionary an one in previous of the out others fail. Geels explains technological transitions (major, (major, transitions technological explains Geels fail. others occur. This happens in the context of existing regimes and and of existing regimes occur. This happens in the context context for the regimes. It changes at an even slower slower at an even It changes the regimes. context for disturbances and gain from sticking to incumbent technology. technology. incumbent to sticking from gain and disturbances of actors across different social groups following a common a common following social groups different of actors across dwellings undergo adaptations during their life cycle (become cycle (become during their life adaptations undergo dwellings among precarious networks – are where radical innovations innovations radical where networks – are among precarious of existing to the problems and geared and capabilities and practices and favour dominant designs. Change at this Change at this designs. dominant and favour and practices as described by Geels comprise relatively stable networks networks stable relatively comprise by Geels described as a multi-level perspective for understanding the process of of understanding the process for perspective a multi-level an are fulfilled) as evolutionary reconfiguration processes where where processes as evolutionary reconfiguration fulfilled) are technologies – and, if successful, stabilise into new dominant – and, if successful, stabilise into new dominant technologies the innovations bred in them. As put by Geels (ibid., 1261), put by Geels (ibid., 1261), in them. As bred the innovations technology, user practices and markets, culture and symbolic symbolic and culture markets, and technology, practices user technological change that consists of technological niches technological of consists that change technological the interaction of dwellings and residents over time. When When time. over and residents dwellings of the interaction regimes”. Some innovations challenge the existing regime while while challenge the existing regime Some innovations regimes”. break cumulated in niches gradually innovations radical than regimes. rate learning experimentation and that allow creativity, pressure meaning, infrastructure, industry structure, policy and techno- policy and structure, industry meaning, infrastructure, process. Research on technological transitions has proposed has proposed transitions on technological Research process. housing system can also be explained as an evolutionary evolutionary explained as an can also be system housing various socio-technical configurations socio-technical various (Geels 2002; cf. Stankiewicz 2000; see Figure 14). The three 14). The three 2000; see Figure (Geels 2002; cf. Stankiewicz The macro-level socio-technical landscape consists of deep socio-technical landscape consists of deep The macro-level “[n]ovelties are produced on the basis of [present] knowledge knowledge on the basis of [present] produced are “[n]ovelties LANDSCAPE Macro-level developments Physical and societal context of housing 3

REGIME Culture, meaning THE HOUSING Techno-scientific SYSTEM Industry knowledge structure EXISTING MODIFIED REGIME User practices REGIME and markets Infrastructure Policy 2

Technology

NICHES Failed Research, strategic development, novelty demonstrations and pilot projects, 1 avant-garde design, lead users

1 Novelty, shaped by existing regime. 2 Evolves, is taken up, may modify regime. 3 Landscape is transformed. Time

over time, such as the inclusion of new specialised actors. FIGURE 14. Socio-technical regimes can be seen as a selection mechanism The dynamics of socio- technical change in in relation to radical variety generated in niches and as a housing. After Geels retention mechanism ensuring continuity. 2002 (1262, 1263). If housing is a socio-technical configuration that fulfils a societal function, the housing system is clearly a regime.16 Innovations in housing such as new housing concepts 16. initiated by user communities have a hard time breaking As pointed out by my pre-examiner Markku through because the housing regime is attuned to its existing Norvasuo, housing also has ways. On the other hand, systemic selection by multiple many “technology-external” actors in the regime makes sure that unviable and harmful characteristics arising innovations most often fail. The system seeks equilibrium from its close relationship with the basic human by adjusting itself to external conditions. We can see how needs, social structure and landscape level trends (demographic change, individualisation, place that in fact tie it digitalisation) have impacted the housing regime (instigating a to the landscape level. tendency towards user-centredness, diversity and flexibility in housing) and fostered the emergence of niche activities around specific problems in these areas (collaborative design efforts, research on user needs). In Finland, these developments have in fact gained evidence already in the late 1970s (see Table 1). The regime has taken up some inputs but the transition to user- 3 DWELLING IN TRANSFORMATION 118 119 act as linkages between between act as linkages , it adds the dimension of , it adds the dimension of , evolutionary thinking allows , evolutionary thinking allows and use , it emphasises the reciprocality between reciprocality the emphasises it , perspective

perspective

perspective

user system of dwelling, designsystem collectively. collectively. system generate and select form on the bases of collectively acquired acquired on the bases of collectively and select form generate peaks. of value design. This connects to the ideas of concept and conceptual This connects to the ideas of concept and conceptual design. material adaptive reproductive, In the hereditary, design. of historical continuum where models, types and dominant dominant and types models, where continuum historical of are descent of lineages distinct with dwelling of designs “co-evolution”) (their product dwelling the and living everyday acknowledges that both independently can be the object of can be the object of acknowledges that both independently instruct, that transmit, and future artefacts in past, present and the inseparability of dwellings, their environment, and the and the of dwellings, their environment, and the inseparability user It also highlights from. actions of agents that they result and phenotype”) of the dwelling product, that is, its is, its that product, dwelling and phenotype”) of the and configurations, material and variant structure abstract time to analysis of the dwelling product and posits it as part product of the dwelling time to analysis the separation of the “code” and “construction” (“genome of the “code” and “construction” (“genome the separation knowledge, traversing the landscape of opportunities in search in search the landscape of opportunities knowledge, traversing being replicated and gradually transformed by the housing by the housing transformed and gradually being replicated From a From From a designFrom From a productionFrom value as a measure of “fitness” of the dwelling product. of “fitness” of the dwelling product. as a measure value To conclude with, evolutionary thinking seems evolutionary thinking seems conclude with, To The regime as discussed so far refers to the to the refers discussed so far as The regime

• • • scale, the role of urban regimes in the diffusion of new housing the diffusion of new housing in of urban regimes scale, the role attention. that would require solutions is a topic governance takes in a specific urban area. The regime comprises comprises The regime urban area. in a specific takes governance urban economy. The Helsinki Metropolitan of the local growth dynamics of governance. Even if my focus is not in the urban urban the in not is focus my if Even governance. of dynamics of dwelling. Adopting an evolutionary perspective has has perspective of dwelling. Adopting an evolutionary confronted by another, somewhat contradictory and perhaps and perhaps contradictory somewhat by another, confronted centred housing is in progress. At present, the regime is being is being the regime At present, is in progress. housing centred which the realisation of housing largely depends on the local depends on the local of housing largely which the realisation an overview of which is given by Sari Puustinen (2010, 309– (2010, by Sari Puustinen given of which is an overview study: the study: the following implications from the three perspectives of of perspectives the three from implications the following industrial housing system in general. The urban regime theory, theory, The urban regime in general. housing system industrial relevant for understanding certain important characteristics certain understanding for important characteristics relevant ecological sustainability. that towards transition, profound more public and private actors working for common goals such as the common goals such as the actors working for public and private Region, as an example, would constitute an urban regime within within regime would constitute an urban Region, as an example, An urban regime refers to the particular form that the local to the particular that the local form refers An urban regime 317), provides a more contextualised definition of regime. of regime. definition contextualised a more 317), provides 4 PRODUC TION PERSPE CTIVE THE COMM ODIFIED DWELLING 4 PRODUC TION PERSPE CTIVE THE COMM ODIFIED DWELLING TAKING THE THEORIES of dwelling as a hierarchically layered systemic artefact, as a differentiable product in the market, and as an evolutionary realm as my instrument, I will now depart on exploration of the first empirical case. This section of the dissertation will give an overview of the commodification of housing production in Finland. The focus is on duplicable housing concepts as a special case that demonstrates the commodity aspect of dwelling and how design is used to mediate between the realms of production and users. The exploration begins with an overview of the trends in technology and manufacturing that drive the development of dwelling as product (Chapter 4.1). To position the housing concepts in a historical continuum, I will then briefly outline the evolution of industrial urban dwelling and gradual distinguishing of it as a commodity (Chapter 4.2). After that, I will examine how commercial and other housing concepts in the market in Finland are constructed as composite, systemic products in relation to users and the hierarchy of built form (Chapter 4.3). The section concludes by discussion of the present residential product development process in the industry and the role of users and design within it, including identification of bottlenecks of diversification in the process (Chapter 4.4). 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 122 123

4.1 MODULARITY AND AND MODULARITY OF COMMODIFICATION OF and manufacturing SERIALITY AS VEHICLES VEHICLES AS SERIALITY Trends in technology in technology Trends Jean Baudrillard (1996) has examined mass mass Jean Baudrillard (1996) has examined Baudrillard (ibid., 29) describes the consumer the consumer Baudrillard (ibid., 29) describes

, which today defines its aims by reference to what is to what is , which today defines its aims by reference system of fashion)” (ibid., 7–8, italics mine). This brings into mine). This brings into of fashion)” (ibid., 7–8, italics system sociological sphere of needs and desires that is subjective and and that is subjective and desires of needs sociological sphere systematic of a “total vehicle become have objects society, similar developments than other products in the experience in the experience other products than similar developments longer left to the whims of individual demand and manufacture, longer left to the whims of individual demand and manufacture, levels, of which domestic objects and interior are the most the most and interior are of which domestic objects levels, society as being obsessed with the perfect circulation circulation perfect the with obsessed being as society objects. Importantly, only inessential aspects of objects can be objects. Importantly, inessential aspects of objects can be only from objects industrial distinguishes What variate. to easier “[...] the inessential is no objects is that in the former, craft connotations at the level of objects (cf. Schulze 2005). of objects (cf. Schulze 2005). connotations at the level of consumers. Objects are powerful signs in their own right that that in their own right powerful signs of consumers. Objects are economy (Klingmann 2007, Schulze 2005; see Chapters 1.3 1.3 2007, Schulze 2005; see Chapters economy (Klingmann of housing, as is the one indication of the commodification emergence of housing concepts and brands is is and brands of housing concepts obvious. The emergence of messages via products. He notes that simultaneous notes that simultaneous He of messages via products. whereas properties like colour and other accessory features are are colour and other accessory features like properties whereas process are carefully differentiated just to be consumed. This happens happens This consumed. be to just differentiated carefully are and 3.4.2). The consumer society reaches into dwelling on many into dwelling on many reaches consumer society 3.4.2). The and that mere technological analysis of such objects is inadequate of such objects is inadequate technological analysis that mere to market forces. Yet, the dwelling product is subject to is subject to the dwelling product Yet, forces. to market inessential (and by reference to the universal combinatorial combinatorial to the universal inessential (and by reference because they are not only objects in the technological sphere objects in the technological sphere not only because they are picked up and systematized by the production production the by systematized and up but instead picked personalised: their purpose and structure are relatively fixed, fixed, relatively are personalised: their purpose and structure by systematic construction (design, I might add) of cultural cultural add) of might I (design, construction systematic by to industrial is characteristic personalisation and integration practice” of consumption that has little to do with the needs of consumption that has little to do with the needs practice” branding of residential areas and cities. areas of residential branding He notes viewpoint. a systems domestic objects from produced rooted in its local environment prevents its total subjugation its total subjugation prevents local environment in its rooted (and hence “essential”) but objects in the psychological and in the psychological and (and hence “essential”) but objects 4.1.1 The nature of dwelling as publicly protected basic necessity basic necessity protected of dwelling as publicly The nature “inessential” (ibid., 3). Baudrillard argues that in the consumer the consumer that in argues “inessential” (ibid., 3). Baudrillard industrial objects a “secondary seriality” (ibid., 153) that can be manipulated independent of their functional essence to provoke ever new marketable connotations. This arguably also concerns market-driven housing. Modular components to Baudrillard are key means for organising this. Modularisation serves the alignment of objects along manufacturing lines and isolation of specific features that can be subjected to differentiation. Also the relationship of objects to each other is increasingly modular and calculated. Concerning domestic interiors with matching standard furniture, Baudrillard suggests objects having been simplified into components of an overall “code” (ibid., 23). He (ibid., 147–161) also discusses the relationship between model and series in mass production, pointing out that serially produced objects almost always refer formally and psychologically to models (unique high-status prototypical objects). Models, previously limited to the use of the elite, have been opened to serial distribution and are being promoted by the mass media. Consumer society as explained by Baudrillard relies on marginal differentiation of objects within the confines of serial production. This creates an illusion of personal distinctiveness and freedom of choice while actually categorising people and imposing the society and its economic order upon us. Objects rather rigidly “police social meaning”. The consumer society is also reflected in dwelling as demand for aesthetic control during use. Baudrillard (ibid., 25) describes “man the interior designer” who is not just consumer or user but an “active engineer of atmosphere” who “dominates, controls and orders” objects and “discovers himself in the manipulation and tactical equilibration of a system”. This implies “[...] a world no longer given but instead produced – mastered, manipulated, inventoried, controlled: a world, in short, that has to be constructed” (ibid., 28). In reference to Baudrillard and other theorists of late modernity, it seems evident that the process of commodification also in the case of dwelling not only operates on the level of product image but impacts the physical product structure as well. The commercial housing concepts in the market illustrate how tangible designable components of dwelling come to serve the strategies of producers as they are differentiated with the aim of appealing to various consumer segments and highlighted by marketing (cf. Schulze 2005). 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 124 125 TOWARDS THE SMART HOME SMART THE TOWARDS DIGITALISATION AND THE DRIVE DRIVE THE AND DIGITALISATION Since introduction of the early technological technological of the early Since introduction Frances Aldrich (ibid., 34–35) describes five 34–35) describes five Aldrich (ibid., Frances The products and services in intelligent and services in intelligent The products

(1996, 70–71) states that the technology paradigm the technology70–71) states that (1996, paradigm ubiquitous computing embedded in everyday objects and objects and in everyday ubiquitous computing embedded stand-alone intelligent objects, homes in which the intelligent intelligent the which in homes objects, intelligent stand-alone facilitates the development of smart dwellings and increases smartof development the facilitates increases and dwellings objects are constantly registered to control technology in technologyin control to registered constantly are objects create intelligent spaces and environments. Technology Technology spaces and environments. intelligent create century ago, the development of domestic technology of domestic technology development century ago, the objects communicate with one another, connected homes where connected homes where objects communicate with one another, equipped with computing and information technology which technology information and computing with which equipped embeddedness. Electronic devices are evolving from separate separate evolving from are devices embeddedness. Electronic communicating, programmable, objects to remote-controlled, change transforms the dwelling product in several ways. The The ways. in several the dwelling product change transforms intelligence of ubiquitous computing and ambient development on information, pervasiveness of technology in all domains, technology of domains, all in pervasiveness information, on dwellings can be related to comfort, energy management, to comfort, management, energy dwellings can be related Society working to promote their comfort, convenience, security security their comfort, convenience, working to promote within the home and connections to the world beyond” to the world beyond” within the home and connections anticipation of the users’ needs. access to services and information, learning homes where the the learning homes where access to services and information, and the data recorded activity patterns of the occupants are and behaviour which in homes attentive and accordingly, anticipates and responds to the needs of the occupants, needs of the occupants, to the anticipates and responds the management of technology and entertainment through anticipatory and intentional devices that network to that network to anticipatory and intentional devices that intelligence inducing in dwellings an ambient activities, the pervasiveness of technology in domestic space. the pervasiveness technologies into a highly integrated system. Technological Technological system. integrated highly a into technologies is penetrating the domestic environment in the form of of the form in environment the domestic is penetrating innovations such as plumbing and electricity for over a a over for electricity plumbing and as such innovations is used to predict their needs and to control the technology their needs and to control is used to predict internal and external networks allow control of systems and and of systems internal and external networks allow control in global information society is characterised by reliance reliance by is characterised society information in global more responsive. A smart home can be defined as “a residence A smart defined as “a residence home can be responsive. more makes them more sensitive to our presence, more adaptive and and adaptive more to our presence, sensitive more them makes networking logic, increasing flexibility, and convergence of of convergence flexibility, and increasing logic, networking has proceeded towards automation, convergence and and convergence towards automation, has proceeded multimedia and entertainment, healthcare, safety and and safety multimedia and entertainment, healthcare, hierarchical classes of smart homes: homes which contain smartof classes contain which homes homes: hierarchical 2003, 17). (Aldrich 2003, 17). The Rise of the Network Network of the Rise book The in his influential Manuel Castells 4.1.2 security, or communication. Not only an increasing amount of appliances and equipment, but various highly computerised systems such as home automation, security, multimedia and telecommunication systems need to be fitted into buildings and dwellings as a consequence. In the future, a growing proportion of the construction and operating costs of buildings will go into sophisticated electronic components. The hardware and software components of buildings will need to be modular and removable, as they become obsolete at different rates. (Mitchell 2000, 65–66.) Stewart Brand (1994, 192) notes that designing buildings too tightly around a new technology leads to poor adaptivity and performance during their life cycle. He advocates the separation of technology from built form through lightweight and flexible solutions rather than its total integration. When the technological complexity of dwellings grows, the compatibility and interoperability of its heterogeneous devices, networks, services and applications becomes a focal issue. To users, control over the settings and operations of the home is a pivotal requirement. Hence, the user interface as well as software of the home are being recognised as components of the dwelling and as design problems. (ibid., Bierhoff et al. 2007.) A Finnish roadmap of building automation and home automation anticipates application of open-source software, sensory technology, distributed systems, and mobile and multimodal user interfaces in housing in the near future (Nurmi et al. 2010, 80). In the long term, the development of ubiquitous technology may be leading towards virtually augmented living spaces where the digital and the physical converge (Mitchell 2000, 60). Acceptance of new technology to the domestic sphere depends on its obvious advantages to users, overall user experience, financial viability, and adaptability to current dwellings, as well as the user’s individual capacities. New products should relate to existing habits of users and stay user-determined. (Bierhoff et al. 2007, 131.) Aside from the benefits brought by technology to everyday living, infiltration of control and surveillance to our most private space raises ethical questions, and dependency on technology makes the living environment vulnerable to disturbances. Obstacles to consumer take-up of technology include unsuitability to old housing stock, high initial cost, poor usability of the solutions, and technology push by suppliers (Aldrich 2003, 29). In Finland, heterogeneity of the offering and lack of common technology platforms has slowed down the penetration of smart home applications (Nurmi et al. 2010, 55). The level of 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 126 127 Negative impacts of digitalisation include include impacts of digitalisation Negative Mitchell (2000, 67–68) envisions how 67–68) envisions how Mitchell (2000, The demand for ecological sustainability is is sustainability ecological for demand The specialisation, and privatisation. This is leading to “totally This is leading to “totally specialisation, and privatisation. systems), intelligent operation (sustainable use of resources (sustainable use of resources operation intelligent systems), green” smart cities that should be applied in product design, design, in product that should be applied smart cities green” globally. Another challenge faced by the construction sector in sector in challenge faced by the construction Another globally. fragmentation and segregation of cities. Our presence is is Our presence of cities. and segregation fragmentation decisions. In commercial housing production, services such services such production, housing In commercial decisions. cataclysmic change). cataclysmic demobilisation (diminishing the need to travel by developing by developing to travel demobilisation (diminishing the need climatic conditions, but to changes in the prices of the utilities in the prices of the utilities climatic conditions, but to changes existing houses shall be upgraded to comply with the new with the new to comply be upgraded existing houses shall requirements. energy and devices to buildings wearable embedded on all scale from and distribution system, constructs “a global market, cities currently driving the technological development of housing of housing development the technological driving currently control of indoor conditions are slowly gaining acceptance. acceptance. gaining slowly conditions are of indoor control of the housing stock, causing an upsurge in renovation needs needs in renovation causing an upsurge of the housing stock, distributed and interlinked digital technology that is technology that is digital interlinked distributed and while the urban space is experiencing functional disintegration, functional disintegration, while the urban space is experiencing when the bulk of housing built during the production peak of peak of housing built during the production when the bulk of and services enabled by electronically mediated production production mediated and services enabled by electronically architecture, urban design and planning: dematerialisation planning: dematerialisation and urban design architecture, agora”. Buildings of the future can be programmed not only not only can be programmed future Buildings of the agora”. (ibid., 62), to operate” and conditions that they need in order as apartment-specific monitoring of resource use and central central use and as apartment-specific of resource monitoring through smart automation) and soft transformation (“subtle, (“subtle, smarttransformation automation) and soft through telecommunication and compact mixed use neighbourhoods), use neighbourhoods), telecommunication and compact mixed to adapt themselves to the behaviour of the occupants and to of the occupants and to to the behaviour to adapt themselves the supplies for intelligently them. As they “forage that serve the 1970s is coming of age. When undergoing major renovation, major renovation, of age. When undergoing the 1970s is coming increasingly dispersed and impersonal, electronically mediated, mediated, dispersed and impersonal, electronically increasingly incremental, nondestructive transformation” instead of instead of transformation” nondestructive incremental, people. (Madanipour 2003.) polarisation between high-value and devalued places (Castells (Castells places devalued and high-value between polarisation mass customisation (automated personalisation of products of products mass customisation (automated personalisation new markets based on efficient use of resources will emerge. emerge. will of resources use efficient on based markets new houses, where the residents themselves make the purchase purchase the make themselves residents the where houses, home automation is more advanced in custom-built detached detached in custom-built advanced is more automation home managed” environments that often exclude some groups of of groups that often exclude some environments managed” (substituting material artefacts with electronic equivalents), equivalents), (substituting material artefacts with electronic Mitchell (ibid., 147) sums up the principles of “lean and principles of “lean and Mitchell (ibid., 147) sums up the Finland and individual housing companies alike is the ageing ageing the is alike companies housing individual and Finland Future applications include ambient assisted living for seniors. for living assisted ambient include applications Future 1996). Technology is accelerating the socio-spatio-temporal the socio-spatio-temporal is accelerating 1996). Technology 4.1.3 TRANSITION TO FLEXIBLE AND COLLABORATIVE MANUFACTURING

Digitalisation is facilitating the convergence of the design, engineering, and construction processes of housing. The traditional building production process, still prevalent in the housing industry, proceeds from conceptual design to form generation, selection of materials, and conventional constructive system. In emerging component-based design and manufacturing process, site, building, systems, subsystems, assemblies, subassemblies, components and parts form a nested modular hierarchy with compatible interfaces, where design and manufacturing tasks can be distributed to a network of producers and take place simultaneously. (Lyon 2011.) Building information modelling used in the construction industry not only increases efficiency, saves time, enhances logistics, and reduces errors at the building site, but more importantly, transforms the emerging building into a three-dimensional digital representation that can integrate information provided by multiple parties and be modified by many actors in a seamless process. Architects and engineers can utilise extensive virtual libraries of building parts and other components. When connected to production management, digital product modelling ideally increases flexibility and variability of production. It enables virtual testing and modification of of buildings and dwellings, and visualisation of the unfinished products to customers. (Vainio 2008, 10.) On the other hand, it may narrow the possibilities of architectural diversification and nurture repetition (Krokfors 2010). Along with technological change, industrial production is experiencing a shift from mass production to flexible production that allows variability in products and processes and relies on synergy between multiple actors (Castells 1996, 167). Victor and Boynton (1998, see also Virkkunen 2007 and Mäntysalo & Puustinen 2008) identify five types of work in the history of industrial production: craft, mass production, process enhancement, mass customisation, and co- configuration. They state that each successive phase is based on reconfiguration of the capabilities created in the previous one in order to adapt to changing conditions, and that each phase presumes specific knowledge. Mass production has necessitated the articulation of tacit knowledge created in craft work into standardised practices, which in turn has generated practical knowledge that can be used for enhancing the industrial processes. Transition to mass customisation, where products that meet individual customers’ needs are delivered with near 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 128 129

17. of mass Definition by Tseng customisation 685. & Jiao 2001,

, requires “architectural knowledge” knowledge” “architectural , requires 17 Co-configuration builds upon mass customisation, builds upon mass customisation, Co-configuration Mass customisation and co-configuration have have Mass customisation and co-configuration Mass customisation is based on the modular­ on based is customisation Mass shorter product life-cycles (Pine 1993). Essentially, they they 1993). Essentially, (Pine life-cycles shorter product solutions to their own needs (“choice navigation”). navigation”). solutions to their own needs (“choice specifications, ideally in an on-demand order-to-delivery in an on-demand order-to-delivery specifications, ideally active role. role. an active given of increasing scale versus increasing scope of industrial scope of industrial increasing scale versus of increasing consists of product platform and interchangeable modules, modules, interchangeable and platform of product consists can also be seen as “using technology to accommodate the technology “using as the seen be also accommodate can to emerged in response to markets characterised by heterogeneity by heterogeneity characterised to markets in response emerged of existing organisational and value-chain resources (“robust (“robust resources and value-chain of existing organisational of the product attributes along which customer needs diverge which customer needs diverge attributes along of the product customers to articulate their needs, identifies the solutions to the solutions to customers to articulate their needs, identifies to product the alter to themselves users enables customisation to differently is presented customisation a standard product of the representation the merely customers, variating different of which individual configurations are assembled to customer to customer assembled are configurations of which individual can be collaborative, adaptive, cosmetic or transparent. cosmetic or transparent. adaptive, collaborative, be can within collaborative value creation systems where users are users are where systems creation value within collaborative when moving to mass customised production: identification identification production: when moving to mass customised and fragmentation, demand for product variability and and variability product demand for and fragmentation, and processes, development adaptability, faster product demands the between the contradiction aim at solving aims at delivering unique products or services based on deducing or services based unique products aims at delivering about the whole system and its interconnections (Victor (Victor its interconnections and system the whole about the individual experience of the customer” (Victor & Boynton (Victor & Boynton of the customer” the individual experience the needs of individual customers without their participation.the needs of individual customers without their needs without interaction with the company. In cosmetic In cosmetic with the company. interaction their needs without the most (“solution space definition”), reuse or recombination or recombination reuse the most (“solution space definition”), isation of products and production along the scope of customer scope of customer along the production and products isation of production. Personalisation of products and environments and environments of products Personalisation production. products are continuously improved in long-term interactions in long-term interactions improved continuously are products process design”), and helping customers to identify or build and helping customers to identify or build design”), process production. of and continuous form collaborative but is a more product for example by packaging. Transparent customisation customisation Transparent example by packaging. for product meet the needs, and makes the customised products. Adaptive Adaptive products. customised the makes and needs, the meet needs. The product architecture in mass customisation customisation in mass architecture product needs. The mass production efficiency production mass process supported by online configurators (Pine 1993). 1993). (Pine supported by online configurators process & Boynton 1998, 99). & Boynton Salvador et al. (2009) identify three fundamental objectives fundamental objectives et al. (2009) identify three Salvador It entails “building and sustaining a fully integrated integrated a fully It entails “building and sustaining and adapt to that can sense, respond, system [production] collaborative customisation, the company helps the the company helps the customisation, In collaborative According to Gilmore and Pine (1997) mass customisation customisation mass (1997) Pine and Gilmore to According 1998, 195). In co-configuration, intelligent and adaptive adaptive and intelligent co-configuration, In 195). 1998, differences between individuals” (Bruce Kasanoff as quoted by Piller & Tseng 2009, 7). New production methods challenge the prevalent design culture. As opposed to mass production where emphasis is either on maximal design uniqueness or minimal variable cost, they favour designs that have synergy with other designs by way of shared parts and processes (Salvador et al. 2009, 77). Flexibility on the level of the dwelling can be achieved by developing both the physical structure and the production process of dwellings towards more modularity and openness. Open building is a technical enabler making variation and customisation of mass-produced dwellings feasible. In open building, the static load-bearing structure of the building (“support”) is separated from a changeable layer (“infill”), consisting of the skin of the building, internal walls and built-in furnishings, technical installations and access space (Leupen 2006a, 32). This ideally enables flexibility of space and services within individual dwellings both before and during occupation. An overview of applying open building in residential architecture is given by Kendall and Teicher (2000). Open building has not been widely employed by the Finnish housing industry even if some individual housing projects and commercial housing concepts exhibit certain characteristics of it.18 Tiuri and Hedman (1998), Tarpio and Tiuri (2001), 18. and Kahri et al. (2011) have discussed the topic in Finland. Of the few examples of residential open building Karin Krokfors (2006 and 2008) has put forth an interesting can be mentioned two alternative approach in her study on flexible dwelling types apartment houses in based on dividability and combinability of dwellings. Jyrki Helsinki that offered Tarpio in his forthcoming dissertation (due in 2014) investigates the residents extensive customisation options of spatial strategies for achieving flexibility in dwelling. the floor plan: a rental Constant changeability of the dwelling and housing project by VVO in specificity of it in relation to the actions of individual users Laivalahdenkaari 18 (1995) and the pilot project of that characterise many “high-tech” approaches to housing can the PlusHome concept by be contrasted by the notion of polyvalence introduced by Sato in Kaj Franckin katu 1 structuralist architectural theorists in the 1960s (Hertzberger (2005), both designed by architect Esko Kahri and 2005; Leupen 2006a and 2006b). It refers to a form that can resulting from building be used for many purposes without changing itself. A polyvalent technology competitions. space invites “all” uses due to its generality or incompletion, as opposed to functionally segregated modern dwellings that are designed to tolerate one function exclusively. In Finland, Krokfors (2008, 2010) has used the term “neutral space” in a somewhat similar meaning. Some level of mass customisation is common in prefabricated detached house industry, where the buyers usually have the opportunity to customise some parts of their house. Concerning dwellings in blocks of flats, most large developers offer their customers pre-designed options that are based on 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 130 131 driven by by driven Perceiving the dwelling as a platform (product (product the dwelling as a platform Perceiving Advanced mass customisation models for housing housing customisation models for mass Advanced user-centred, collaborative change collaborative managementuser-centred, ). Mäntysalo and and ). Mäntysalo C1 (Interview similar tendency shows a states that the field should reorientate itself from construction construction itself from should reorientate states that the field searches for matching subassemblies of the dwelling offered by by offered dwelling the of subassemblies matching for searches demands. They state that developing true alternatives in in true alternatives that developing demands. They state objectives such as wellbeing and regeneration of the existing of the existing regeneration such as wellbeing and objectives of the customership of housing in a longer time perspective. of the customership of housing in a longer time perspective. on, and allows local builders to bid on the assembly of the flat. of the flat. on the assembly on, and allows local builders to bid on standard interfaces but agreement assemblies, of integrated expert users to elicit their preferences into an architectural an architectural into expertpreferences users to elicit their configurator (“design engine”) that allows consumers to design engine”) that allows consumers to design (“design configurator of prefabricated standard units such as bathroom modules modules bathroom such as units standard of prefabricated evolving composite offering (rather than finished artefact) (rather evolving composite offering where various new producers and service providers will need need will providers service and producers new various where as well as the role of designers. (Larson et al. 2004.) al. 2004.) (Larson et of designers. as well as the role array of unique dwelling layouts. The system enables non- The system of unique dwelling layouts. array algorithm which matches their personal living styles to a vast living styles to a vast algorithm which matches their personal adoption of co-configuration methods in the development of of methods in the development adoption of co-configuration the current “superficial” mass customisation approaches in in approaches mass customisation “superficial” the current of individual meeting the scope inability in for the market to plug into during its entire lifecycle. This directs producers’ producers’ This directs lifecycle. to plug into during its entire that the users can further iterate and receive expert feedback expert feedback further and receive that the users can iterate It would also compatibility of the components. to ensure their own interior room layouts through an intelligent search search intelligent an through layouts their own interior room the value network in housing as well. The new production well. The new production network in housing as the value interest to the use phase of housing and proposes thinking thinking proposes and housing of phase use the to interest in the light of Victor and Boynton’s theory. They criticise criticise They theory. Boynton’s and Victor of light the in new housing concepts. built environment (Airaksinen et al. 2011, 68). (Airaksinen built environment business to service business and from house-building to house-building to business to service business and from profoundly transform the building and construction business business the building and construction transform profoundly programme within constraints set by architects and engineers, and engineers, set by architects within constraints programme layouts alternative generates globally, designers and producers production aim at opening the design and manufacturing and manufacturing aim at opening the design production users. and designers of producers, to communities process an online dwelling design at MIT involves group research housing would require deeper and more continuous interaction interaction continuous more and deeper require housing would on the reflect and and producers, between users, planners mass customisation. In construction engineering, development development engineering, construction In customisation. mass platform and platform for living) calls for redefinition of of redefinition living) calls for for and platform platform as a continuously philosophy suggests seeing the dwelling Indeed, the roadmap for Finland’s building industry until 2050 Finland’s building industry until 2050 for Indeed, the roadmap Puustinen (2008) have analysed Finnish housing production production housing Finnish analysed (2008) have Puustinen This would require not only disentangling buildings into layers buildings into layers disentangling not only This would require model of “open source building” proposed by House_n by House_n building” proposed The model of “open source 4.2 Housing concepts and the commodification of housing in Finland

4.2.1 SHAPING OF THE INDUSTRIAL URBAN DWELLING INTO PRODUCT

Examination of the history of urban housing reveals a gradual shaping of the individual dwelling into a distinct, designable and differentiable product. Modernisation has also meant the commodification of dwelling. Present housing concepts and brands are one phase in a development that can be paralleled to that of other industrial products in late-modern society. The evolution of the dwelling product has been driven by social and technological change and is connected to major transitions in the housing regime. It is manifested as gradual transformation of the “inner state” of the dwelling product and as changes to its “dominant design”. A comprehensive overview of the history of the Finnish housing provision system and housing policy is provided by Anneli Juntto (1990). Kirsi Saarikangas (2002) has studied the formation of the modern standard dwelling in Finland, and Johanna Hankonen (1994) the post-war suburbanisation period and concurrent industrialisation of housing. The development of urban housing in Finland can be divided into three distinctive periods (see Table 1). They are characterised by differences considering perception of the user, dwelling design, dominant discourses in housing, technology and building methods, focus in urban planning and development, structure of the housing industry, position of architects within the housing system, and housing policy. The division of the periods is my interpretation based mainly on Jallinoja (1997), Juntto (1990) and Neuvonen (2006). The periods should be seen as a generalisation of many parallel and overlapping developments, features of which continue to influence the housing of today. As Juntto (1990, 364) has pointed out, the transition between recognisable periods of housing is not sudden but happens as continuous gradual transformation beginning from the formation of new ideologies. Geels (2002) would call this the breaking through of niche activities to regime level. The prototype of the modern standard dwelling, for instance, was created by avant-garde architects over two decades before it reached the mainstream housing production in Finland by the 1950s (Saarikangas 2002). 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 132 133 . Around the the . Around family was constructed as the basis of habitation. basis the as constructed was family inhabited by universalised faceless nuclear families, families, nuclear faceless universalised by inhabited nuclear privatized The discussion. and planning of housing consisting of mother, father and children. Mothers and and Mothers children. and father of mother, consisting Urbanisation in Finland has begun later than in than in later has begun in Finland Urbanisation small children in particular were made into the nucleus nucleus the into made were particular in children small Modern dwellings, considered classless and equal, were equal, and were classless considered dwellings, Modern The formation of the modern dwelling according dwelling according of the modern The formation universal model inhabitants who perform measurable functions. functions. measurable model inhabitants who perform universal urban dwelling were largely set. The bourgeois apartment was set. The bourgeois largely urban dwelling were space experienced rapid standardisation and functional standardisation and functional rapid space experienced styles. Housing needs were perceived as predetermined by class by class as predetermined perceived were styles. Housing needs like electricity, water piping and drainage, water closet and water closet and water piping and drainage, electricity, like same time, there was a paradigm shift in urban design whereby whereby design shift in urban was a paradigm same time, there family rooms, and a hidden service section (see Saarikangas service section (see Saarikangas and a hidden rooms, family one or two-storey wooden houses in larger cities increasingly increasingly cities houses in larger wooden one or two-storey differentiation. The modern dwelling was designed for abstract, abstract, for dwelling was designed The modern differentiation. of living in cities. The basic components of the present day day The basic components of the present of living in cities. of modernism was characterised by social differentiation, social differentiation, by characterised of modernism was concerns about as means of social reform, emphasis on housing of urban housing (circa 1880–1940) before the breakthrough the breakthrough 1880–1940) before (circa of urban housing were replaced by densely built multi-storey houses with houses with multi-storey built by densely replaced were and 1950. This meant a major shift in the housing regime in the housing regime and 1950. This meant a major shift and its Finnish version, national romanticism, raised the the raised national romanticism, version, and its Finnish design. dwelling other of quality the artworkimproved also but and dwelling types for various strata of the society such as such as of the society strata various for and dwelling types to Saarikangas happened in Finland between about 1930 happened in Finland between about 1930 to Saarikangas and industrialisation. The dwelling towards democratisation the society and city begun to be perceived as objects that could could that objects as perceived be to begun city and society the the bourgeoisie and the workers were developed separately. separately. developed were workers the and bourgeoisie the interestingness of dwelling design among architects. This led to led to This among architects. of dwelling design interestingness improved the technical quality of buildings and the comfort quality of buildings and the comfort the technical improved many other European countries. The urban block of flats as a as a of flats block The urban countries. other European many 1880s, when traditional in the began to spread housing type housing architecture paved way for the modern dwelling. way for paved housing architecture highly refined examples of the upper class dwelling as complete complete as dwelling class upper the of examples refined highly bathroom, central heating, and reinforced concrete, that that concrete, heating, and reinforced central bathroom, private rooms, reception based on clear division to public hygiene and health, and alternation of distinctive architectural architectural and alternation of distinctive and health, hygiene be planned with foresight (Juntto 1990, 100). The early period period (Juntto 1990, 100). The early be planned with foresight brick construction, based on Central European models of the the of models European Central on based brick construction, apartment and the Mietskaserne house bourgeois From the 1920s onwards, classicist and early functionalist functionalist onwards, classicist and early the 1920s From As described by Saarikangas (2002, 559): (2002, As described by Saarikangas 2002). International aesthetic movements such as Art 2002). International aesthetic movements Nouveau This period witnessed some major technological innovations innovations technological major some witnessed period This The modern dwelling accentuated the privacy of the nuclear family and separation of work and habitation. It consisted of kitchen, bathroom, living room, and separate bedrooms for each member of the family. Development of the modern functional kitchen was one of the main technological advancements in this period. Dwellings increasingly had an open plan where the kitchen was opened to dining space and living room. Standardisation reduced random variation into basic types for different purposes that had undergone need analysis (Juntto 1990, 182). New dwelling types were based on family size, income level and age segment. Dwellings begun to be produced for anonymous market rather than for own use or for known clients. The functionally differentiated modern standard dwelling was enforced by norms and regulations and replicated with the help of type-planned and avant-garde housing designs by leading architects. Characteristic to the modern design paradigm was continuity in scale from “city to door handle”. The material environment as a whole was seen as an object that should be designed to meet societal objectives such as healthiness, cleanliness, rationality and efficiency. Housing design concentrated on the ordinary, the practical and the everyday. Saving of time and optimisation of space in dwellings became the concern of architects and designers. Their consideration of the smallest details in the domestic environment at best produced beautiful examples of humane, well-designed economic dwellings for the masses. At the same time, consumer culture reached ordinary homes in the form of cheap mass-produced furniture and other objects. Modernity completely infiltrated the everyday experience via town planning, housing architecture, and product design (Saarikangas 2002, 569). Standardisation of the elements and subsystems of the dwelling product gradually pushed the industrialisation of building. This reached a culmination during the massive suburbanisation period (circa 1960–1975), when a large number of satellite areas were built in the outskirts of cities to house people moving away from rural areas and from poor dwelling conditions in cities. Hankonen (1994) has exhaustively researched this period. She describes how efficiency, planning and progress became the driving forces in design and production of housing and how the built environment was transformed by a technostructuralised production system to support a modern, consumption- oriented way of living. Large-scale industrialisation of housing was enabled by prefabricated concrete elements and mechanisation of the building process that allowed serial on- site assembly. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 134 135 production was divided into three was divided into three production with the mass market of durable consumer goods. At At goods. consumer of durable market mass the with ostensibly differentiated branded products. branded differentiated ostensibly the same time, exceeding this standard in continuous continuous in standard this exceeding time, same the new production and justify the extension of the range of of range of the extension the justify and production new social comparison [...] became to sustain the demand for for demand the sustain to became [...] comparison social produced in long series in the industrially built suburbs suburbs built industrially the in long series in produced The planning system connected the standard dwelling dwelling standard the connected system planning The Standardisation on all levels of the built built the of levels all on Standardisation Hankonen attests that architects during the the during architects that attests Hankonen After the peak production volumes in mid- in volumes production peak the After seventies and waning of the suburbanisation project, housing housing and waning of the suburbanisation project, seventies locations, as was the whole prototype of the suburb. Large of the suburb. Large the whole prototype locations, as was essentially infinite. Design activity was centralised and and centralised was activity Design infinite. essentially financiers. The same dwelling designs were repeated in multiple in multiple repeated were designs The same dwelling financiers. housing, state-subsidised rental the offering: the basis of form commodity and object of consumption became established. established. became consumption of object and commodity on people the normality of consumption (a “housing career”) (a “housing career”) on people the normality of consumption (ibid., 181): desires design for ever more consumers. Within the housing system, consumers. Within the housing system, more ever for design environment was promoted by the industry as well as authorities authorities as well as industry the by promoted was environment Adoption urban structure. dwelling with the integrating designs” to homogenisation a fixed norm led standard as of the minimum details disappeared crafted and design Custom of the offering. anonymised. The ideal was that fewer designers would would designers fewer anonymised. The ideal was that a system dominated by engineers and economists that by engineers and economists that dominated a system be to thought was that demand a market satisfy to aimed and free-market housing with more individual dwellings for for dwellings individual more with housing free-market and areas were realised under agreement between banks, builders between banks, builders under agreement realised were areas The and local politicians. and designers with growing interest in modularity and “total and “total in modularity interest growing with and designers and producers by streamlined was product dwelling the as and the idea of continuous unfulfilment of housing needs and of housing needs and and the idea of continuous unfulfilment towards more individualism and diversity, as is the general as is the general individualism and diversity, towards more on state relying Welfare in late-modern societies. trend these developments according to Hankonen was new kind of was new kind of to Hankonen according these developments imposed This consumers. individual to marketed could be that those who could afford them (ibid., 459). those who could afford industrialisation period became subordinate members in subordinate members in industrialisation period became production in Finland has been characterised by a tendency by a tendency in Finland has been characterised production marketisation of housing. The nature of dwelling as a mass a mass of dwelling as of housing. The nature marketisation research, product development and marketing emerged as as emerged marketing and development product research, One facet of (ibid., 469). activities new type of professional main categories directed at different social segments that still still that segments social different at directed categories main price-controlled owner-occupied housing of medium standard, standard, housing of medium owner-occupied price-controlled Suburbs as well as individual flats were defined as products defined as products were Suburbs as well as individual flats Technological Electricity, water piping, drainage, Modern kitchen, standardised building Home automation, digitalisation of design innovations (4, 5, 7) water closet and bathroom, central parts, prefabricated concrete elements, and manufacturing, building information heating, reinforced concrete mechanisation of the building process modelling, mass customisation

Building methods (5) Craft-intensive on-site brick and wood Concrete element construction based on Variable industrial construction systems, construction, later cast concrete prefabrication and serial assembly increase of technical installations

Focus of urban Building the town centres, new inner-city Post-war reconstruction, building Densification of the urban structure, development (4, 5, 7) districts and small suburban communities of the satellite suburbs brownfield development, mixed use

Charac­teristics Private founder-contractors and Local commercial or non-profit Concentration of the industry; nationally of the housing investors building singular blocks of flats construction companies partnered with or globally operating residential industry (1, 3, 7) within the existing urban structure banks, building whole areas at a time developers executing mid-scale projects

Position of architects Architects replace master builders in After a leading role until the 1960s, Architects work as consultants in projects; in the housing overall charge as interest towards urban architects become subordinate members of emergence of residential development system (1, 4) housing as object of design grows an engineer-dominated technostructure and marketing as new roles

Phases of housing From the era of philantropy to the birth Rise of the welfare state relying on From welfare state to privatisation, policy (3) of the public institutions of housing; the ideals of linear growth and central market-orientedness and deregulation; building plots as means of policy planning; state loans as means of policy consumption subsidies as means of policy

TABLE 1. An overview of the three distinctive periods of industrial urban housing in [1] Figures below 1.000 are not shown. The figures especially in the Finland. Sources: (1) Hankonen 1994, (2) Jallinoja 1997, (3) Juntto 1990, early period are not totally accurate. The volume of new production (4) Kahri & Pyykönen 1984, (5) Neuvonen 2006, (6) Saarikangas 2002, and has been larger, as part of older dwellings in blocks of flats have (7) Vainio 2008. The diagram above the table shows the number of dwellings been demolished or have changed their function. Nevertheless, the in blocks of flats in 2010 according to the five-year period when they chart describes the overall trend of production relatively reliably were completed (Statistics Finland 2010). [1] Of the roughly 2.6 million (cf. Neuvonen 2006, 10–11). Comprehensive statistics of new dwelling permanently occupied dwellings in Finland in 2013, about 45 per cent were production in Finland exist only from the year 1957 onwards. situated in blocks of flats, while detached houses and attached houses had respective shares of 41 and 14 per cent of the dwelling stock. 45 per cent [2] Statistics Finland, Dwellings and housing conditions. were one or two-room dwellings. One-third of the population (nearly 1.8 Various statistics retrieved from the StatFin database: million Finns) live in blocks of flats. 90 per cent of the dwellings now in use http://193.166.171.75/database/StatFin/asu/asas/asas_en.asp in Finland have been built after 1945.[2] 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 136 137

200 000

150 000

100 000

50 000

0 1880 1885 1890 1895 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 1884 1889 1894 1899 1904 1909 1914 1919 1924 1929 1934 1939 1944 1949 1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009

SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION STANDARDISATION INDIVIDUALISM

EARLY INDUSTRIAL HOUSING INDUSTRIAL HOUSING LATE INDUSTRIAL HOUSING CIRCA 1880-1940 CIRCA 1940-1975 FROM CIRCA 1975 Dense “stone urbanism” 1880–1920 Pre-industrial modernism 1940–1960 First (pre-recession) phase 1975–1995 Classicism and functionalism 1920–1940 Industrial rationalism 1960–1975 Second (post-recession) phase from 1995

Perception of Traditional: member of a social Normative: anonymous model inhabitant Individualistic: autonomous consumer with the user (2, 3) class with predetermined needs (nuclear family) who performs functions subjective demands and preferences

Development of the Parallel refinement of socially and spatially Establishment of the middle-class Partial questioning of the norm dwelling dwelling (3, 4, 6) segregated dwelling types such as the standard dwelling consisting of kitchen, due to lifestyle changes, tendency for bourgeois apartment and workers’ housing living room and bedroom(s) as a norm typological and contentual diversification

Discourses in housing Social reform, education, housing for the Type-planned dwellings, standardisation, Quality, diversity, flexibility, sustainability, (1, 3, 4, 7) underprivileged, healthiness and hygiene, rationalisation, industrialisation, regeneration, lifestyles, preferences, stylistic and typological renewal efficiency, integrated systems, planning participatory design, partnerships planning has given way to privatisation, market-orientation and deregulation. When the technical standard of living has been achieved by the majority, part of consumers have moved to lifestyle-based dwelling where choices are driven by desire for self-expression and fulfilment of individual needs. (Juntto 1990.) Discourses in housing have turned to topics such as quality, diversity, flexibility, sustainability, regeneration, lifestyles, preferences and participatory design. Aesthetic and typological variety are seen as important goals of design by professionals. A transition to “systematised tailoring” (mass customisation) in housing production was anticipated by Finnish architects already in the 1980’s (Kahri & Pyykönen 1984, 157). In the late-modern housing paradigm, residents are seen as autonomous consumers with subjective demands and preferences. This has led to partial questioning of the standard dwelling due to lifestyle changes. Yet, regular dwelling design has continued to be largely determined by norms and standards. The present social and technological trends were discussed earlier. To sum up, the evolution of industrial urban dwelling as a product is characterised by two major shifts. At first, norms have taken over tradition in the “genome” of housing. After that, market-driven individualism has come to define the goals of design and production. In reflection to Eger and Drukker’s (2010) model of qualitative product phases, the dwelling product would seem to have experienced the phases of performance (early technical and typological development of the urban block of flats), optimisation (establishment of a dominant design of the modern standard dwelling by the 1950’s), itemisation (marketisation of housing from the 1960s on), segmentation (demographic and lifestyle-based differentiation) and individualisation (aesthetic diversification since the 1980s, recent mass customisation efforts). Current focus on sustainability of housing suggests that part of it may be moving to the awareness phase. All of the phases, however, are present in the Finnish dwelling stock. As noted, the suitability of Eger and Drukker’s model as such to housing may pose some problems (see Chapter 3.4.2). Truly assessing the parallels between dwelling and other industrial products would require further research. That notwithstanding, housing concepts seen in the context of the evolution of housing seem a logical phase in the commodification process instigated by modernity. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 138 139

, the residents pay pay , the residents

right-of-occupancy right-of-occupancy in Finnish sources. 20. In housing fee a right-of-occupancy amounting to 15 per cent of price as well the purchase occupancy as a monthly not entitled They are fee. the dwelling. to purchase built First dwellings were in 1991. Residents of part-ownership housing of their a share purchase dwelling and obtain a for of residency right fixed period as tenants. After 5–12 years they may buy the whole dwelling. The financing in model was introduced 1993. (Finnish Ministry of the Environment, www.ymparisto.fi.) 19. literally The former, “living/dwelling concept”, is by definition broader than ambiguous and more the latter, “apartment/ housing concept”. I will use the English term “housing concept” of variation regardless (C3)

20 or HOUSING CONCEPTS HOUSING THE EMERGENCE OF OF EMERGENCE THE ) can be found in the media around the same the same the media around in ) can be found 19 way for financing housing to the market, part-ownership part-ownership market, the to housing financing for way models ofhousing new kind this When concepts. first the were concepts]. called were [they implemented were dwellings, and somehow wanted to brand them. As I see it, As it, them. see I brand to wanted somehow and dwellings, right-of-occupancy dwellings and part-ownership dwellings dwellings part-ownership and dwellings right-of-occupancy First concepts came in the 1990s. We introduced a new a new 1990s. the introduced in came We concepts First From financing, the commoditisation of dwelling financing, the commoditisation of dwelling From Both innovations had required political decisions political decisions had required Both innovations

asuntokonsepti slightly faded, perhaps due to economic uncertainty. faded, perhaps It needs slightly early 1990s (Piehl 1993; see also Chapter 3.3). First sporadic sporadic Chapter 3.3). First 1993; see also (Piehl 1990s early (asumiskonsepti concept” “housing of the term occurrences concepts to address housing design were senior housing housing senior were design housing address to concepts 2000) and the BoKlok concept, concepts (e.g. Aktiivikoti, fields of business. Indeed, first so named housing concepts concepts Indeed, first so named housing of business. fields ownership dwellings were offered to private consumers by by consumers private to offered were dwellings ownership end of 1990s and in the beginning of 2000s, when many new new in the beginning of 2000s, when many end of 1990s and concepts in the market (Väliniemi et al. 2008). Since then, the et al. 2008). Since then, the (Väliniemi concepts in the market developed in Sweden in 1997 and introduced to Finland in 2002 in Sweden in 1997 and introduced developed of the dwelling product beyond mere building necessitated building necessitated mere beyond of the dwelling product product as a differentiated composite aspect and new nature of the dwelling product now was something outside of the built now was something outside of the built of the dwelling product were thus picked up and commoditised by producers. Part- up and commoditised by producers. thus picked were would have been inapt because to both consumers and providers providers and consumers both to because inapt been have would and branding followed. In 2008, there were at least 28 named least 28 named at were In 2008, there followed. and branding and legislation. New opportunities opened by regulators regulators opened by and legislation. New opportunities that expansion artefact (the financing model). One can argue according to my informant with long career in the industry were were in the industry with long career according to my informant through concepts moved on to its material elements. First on to its material elements. First concepts moved through a “package”. the financing model and specific dwellings were that the notion of concept has infiltrated housing from other other from housing infiltrated has concept of notion the that time, in early 1990s. The term became more widespread in the in the widespread The term became more 1990s. time, in early the adoption of a term that could better accommodate its its accommodate that could better term a adoption of the industry’s enthusiasm to develop new concepts seems to have new concepts seems to have industry’s enthusiasm to develop in the market. To market the novelty simply as financing model model financing as simply novelty the market To market. the in idea (of a company)” first appeared in Finnish business language in Finnish business company)” first appeared idea (of a until the gain notable popularity 1970s. It did not in the late builders partnered with banks. The key differentiating element element differentiating with banks. The key builders partnered new financing models and tenure forms of housing: forms and tenure new financing models housing concepts were introduced to the market. This suggests suggests This to the market. introduced were housing concepts (see Chapter 4.3.1). An intensive period of commoditisation period of commoditisation (see Chapter 4.3.1). An intensive 4.2.2 The word “concept” in the meaning of “business idea or product idea or product of “business “concept” in the meaning The word to be added that some earlier novelties in housing can be considered concepts as well, even if the specific word was not in use at the time. An example are the central kitchen flats of the 1930s, a short-lived innovation brought about by the increase of single-person middle-class households in the cities. The type-planned post-war wooden single-family houses (so called frontmen’s houses) have also been considered a housing concept in recent discourse. Several factors have influenced the emergence of housing concepts in Finland. First of all, they are connected to the general trend in late-modern society towards individualisation and commodification that was discussed earlier. Positioning housing concepts in the continuum of housing production in Finland, they are one example of the development of housing towards more individualism that has begun in the 1970s after the peak standardisation period (see Table 1). At first, in the 1980s, emphasis was on restoration of the genius loci lost along industrialisation through architectural diversity and regionalism. As the field became more and more market-oriented, focus shifted to duplicable, differentiated, branded housing solutions targeted to specific customer segments. The development of housing concepts can be seen as the industry’s attempt to manage diversifying customer demand, growing technical complexity, large production volumes and increasing competition. It also implies that housing as product had reached a level of maturity that necessitated its more refined positioning and differentiation in relation to customers (cf. Eger & Drukker 2010). One key factor facilitating the commodification of housing must have been the structural change of the Finnish housing industry that begun in the 1980s (Juntto 1990) and was accelerated by the 1990s recession, when many small and medium-sized locally operating construction companies were forced to declare bankruptcy and were replaced by larger and more competitive multi-national corporations. This led to the concentration of the construction industry. Currently it is estimated that ten largest companies control 45 per cent of the market. Of the companies that are represented in this study, Skanska (founded in Sweden in 1887 as Skånska Cementgjuteriet) entered Finland in 1994. NCC (Nordic Construction Company, also from Sweden) began its housing production in Finland in 1998 after acquisition of the Finnish Puolimatka construction company. Sato (originally Sosiaalinen Asuntotuotanto, literally “Social Housing Production”), founded in 1940 as a non-profit housing contractor, was incorporated in the 1990’s. Companies producing large amounts of dwellings possibly in several countries profit from developing 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 140 141 has has , for example, the the example, NCC, for AND DEFINITIONS AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH RESEARCH PREVIOUS A further shift that has favoured the emergence the emergence A further that has favoured shift Two research reports from the fields of consumer of consumer the fields from reports Two research

societal aims such as sustainability are emphasised in the emphasised in the such as sustainability are aims societal studies and building economics map the offering of housing of housing and building economics map the offering studies standardised and partially modular solutions. On the other and partiallystandardised the other On solutions. modular latter. Aaltonen et al. (2011) approach housing concepts from housing concepts from latter. Aaltonen et al. (2011) approach development in the housing sector. These reports offer a a offer reports These sector. housing the in development in Finland at the time, of the offering overview comprehensive even on a more theoretical level. theoretical on a more even compared et al. (2008) have concepts in Finland. Väliniemi english). The project aimed at identifying new types of housing aimed at identifying new types of housing english). The project of design decisions (Sohlenius 2006). In 2006). (Sohlenius decisions design of construction and other types of in 2003 for division happened differentiation of products. differentiation the division has been housing concepts of duplicable This 2000s. the in areas business separate into construction out the immaturity of the field particularly in comparison to particularlyto in comparison out the immaturity of the field attractive concepts were identified on the basis of international on the basis of international identified concepts were attractive emphasis of practical the rather actors. Despite and private alternatives suitable to the Helsinki region. Several potentially potentially Several region. Helsinki the to suitable alternatives adaptations in a co-design process involving users and public users and public involving process adaptations in a co-design the United States, they propose a model for service concept service concept a model for the United States, they propose that the previous stress individuality and personalisation personalisation individuality and stress that the previous current After analysing of service business. the perspective the explicit contentual aims of commercial housing concepts to to concepts housing of commercial aims contentual the explicit of housing. They show subsidised pilot projects those of publicly the project, the publications of it (Norvasuo 2008 and 2010) 2010) and 2008 (Norvasuo it of the publications project, the in corporations of property development and building and building development of property corporations in in 2009 for housing. in 2009 for housing service concepts (their term) in Finland and pointing pointing and Finland in term) (their concepts service housing benchmarking and developed further towards locally feasible further feasible developed and benchmarking locally towards of housing concepts about the nature insights valuable provide most notable example being a research project called the Future called the Future project most notable example being a research meant the distinguishing of residential development as special special as development residential of distinguishing the meant and creation on value activity that concentrates professional singular and business issues beyond design strategic more centralisation increasing also meant This has building projects. hand, their market is large and de-regionalised enough to allow to allow enough de-regionalised and large is market their hand, Concepts of Urban Housing (2007–2010, see www.urba.fi/ Concepts of Urban Housing (2007–2010, (albeit on a rather superficial manner), while more “serious” “serious” superficial manner), while more (albeit on a rather Finnish housing research community during the last decade, decade, last the during community research housing Finnish Housing concepts have become subject of interest within the within the become subject of interest Housing concepts have 4.2.3 even if both rely in their analysis mostly on descriptions of concepts provided by companies in their websites for marketing purposes. The reports also have theoretical shortcomings. For instance, seeing housing concepts as directly analogous to service concepts, like Aaltonen et al. suggest, all but denies the materiality that is so essential to them according to the prepositions of the study at hand. A simple way to define housing concept would be as novel housing solution made up of variables like building type, spatial design, tenure form and service model (Norvasuo 2008). Väliniemi et al. (2008, italics mine) define commercial housing concepts as “specifically named products (e.g. dwellings or housing areas) that distinguish themselves from the mainstream by contentual aims and ideas”. This definition emphasises concepts as means of differentiation in the market and is close to the general usage of concept in industry. Norvasuo (2008) also gives a more open-ended and design- oriented definition, outlining three meanings for housing concept: as description of a new housing solution, as metaphor or goal of problem solving in design and development, and as new practice in the field. Mäntysalo and Puustinen (2008) have suggested seeing housing concepts as ambiguous “boundary objects” that have the capacity to foster creativity, create commitment and facilitate collaboration across systemic boundaries (see Chapter 3.3). At this point, I will bring in my own preliminary definition. Housing concept can be defined as a specification of key features of a novel housing solution. A housing concept is duplicable: multiple housing projects with variable design can be realised according to it. It typically contains some feature or element that is beyond the physical building. A housing concept defines a whole and its constituent parts to deliver a clearly articulated benefit or set of meanings to a user. It serves differentiation and positioning of housing production in the market as well as standardisation and systematisation of product variation. Concept is connected to the product development, design and marketing phases of housing production, preceding individual building projects and use. Housing concepts reflect the expansion of dwelling as an industrial product beyond architecture. The fact that they can be composites of tangible and intangible properties makes them especially interesting as an object of study from the perspective of expanding design activity. Housing concepts exhibit elements and characteristics that fall outside the traditional definition of housing as product and the hierarchical housing design system. The concepts mediate between the requirements of industrial production and individual residents. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 142 143

STUDYING THE CONCEPTS THE STUDYING . Typology in architecture can be seen as can be seen as . Typology in architecture Before continuing, we must clarify the relationship relationship clarify the we must continuing, Before

solutions. Concept by definition emphasises more the product product the more emphasises definition by Concept solutions. not may i.e. aspects that process, and production structure communicating values, linking to values” (Klingmann 2007, (Klingmann 2007, linking to values” communicating values, financing models and pure service concepts were therefore therefore service concepts were financing models and pure focuses on the product image. In a continuum from tangible tangible from continuum a In image. product the on focuses familiar units of space and form in a socially determined determined socially a in form and space of units familiar and continuity by collectively is created fashion. Type differentiating factor in a concept and concepts are typically typically and concepts are factor in a concept differentiating concepts, focus has been on concepts that impact the material has been on concepts that impact the material concepts, focus consistency of dwelling. Intangible concepts such as branded can also be based on the same underlying concept. can also be based on the same underlying designed. As defined by Habraken (2000, 278–284), type in (2000, 278–284), type in As defined by Habraken designed. of housing concept to two related notions, housing type housing notions, related two to concept of housing or combination of these that identifies the goods or services the goods or services these that identifies or combination of them from of sellers and differentiates of one seller or group and brand from how the terms are used. Housing concept seems seems used. Housing concept terms are how the from and brand and housing brandand housing type or dwelling A building historical precedents. amount of than rather constructed is socially It features. architectural the intention has been to detect the cases that are the most the most the intention has been to detect the cases that are to intangible dimension, housing concepts can be positioned can be positioned to intangible dimension, housing concepts to be a primarily Nordic and Dutch term whereas housing brand brand housing whereas term and Dutch Nordic a primarily to be those of competitors” (Kotler et al. 2008, 511). Brand aims aims 511). Brand et al. 2008, (Kotler those of competitors” contexts), lifestyles, a “set of associations (with to evoke the built environment derives from combination of specific, of specific, combination from derives the built environment type represents an ”average”, recognisable combination of basic of basic combination recognisable an ”average”, type represents the “productness” of dwelling. Rather than exercising value value exercising than Rather dwelling. of “productness” the interest lies in the compositeness and mediativeness of housing of housing in the compositeness and mediativeness lies interest in Finland during the last decade for closer analysis on the on the closer analysis in Finland during the last decade for is preferred in many other countries in reference to similar to similar in reference in many other countries is preferred idealisation based on abstraction and classification of large of large and classification based on abstraction idealisation in-between housing type and housing brand. Type can be one Type can be one brand. in-between housing type and housing basis of their ability for illustrating different aspects of aspects of different illustrating basis of their ability for necessarily have to be visible to the end user, whereas brand brand whereas user, end the visible to be to have necessarily brands Different public. the to benefits their signal to branded repetition over time, and is shaped and clarified by variation. by variation. time, and is shaped and clarified over repetition judgment for identifying the “best” concepts among the offering, the “best” concepts among the offering, identifying judgment for It is often difficult to distinguish between a housing concept a housing concept It is often difficult to distinguish between Brand on the other hand is “a name, term, symbol or design, design, or symbol term, name, “a is hand other the on Brand I have selected five housing concepts that have been realised been realised housing concepts that have selected five I have 4.2.4 306). In the built environment, branding is used on many levels. levels. many on used is branding environment, built the In 306). “revealing” in the light of the research question. Because my question. Because my of the research in the light “revealing” ruled out. Apart from my personal knowledge of the field and first theoretical hypotheses about dwelling as product, the choice has been informed by availability of source material about each concept. The selected concepts are Aktiivikoti (“Active Home”), a housing concept for the elderly that emphasises accessibility; BoKlok (LiveSmart), aiming to offer an attractive dwelling solution at an affordable price; PlusKoti (PlusHome) with extensive customisation options and background in open building; Neo-loft, an interpretation of the loft dwelling allowing for self-building of the interior space; and Loppukiri (“Sprint”), a communal senior house initiated by the residents. The first three concepts have been commercialised to the extent that they are being duplicated to several locations, whereas the last two concepts have so far only been realised as one-off pilot projects, even if the basic concept in both cases is duplicable. Information about the concepts has been gathered from various sources: research literature, articles in professional and popular media, websites and other advertising and marketing material produced by the companies, as well as direct observation of the physical artefacts in their environment. During the course of the initial analysis of the housing concepts it became evident that the sources did not provide sufficient information about the intentions and prerequisites behind the concepts from the developers’ side. In order to get an overview of the present state of the industry concerning the research question, it was deemed necessary to interview a few persons responsible of residential product development in construction companies. The candidates were identified on the basis of three criteria. Firstly, the companies that had realised the case concepts were targeted. Secondly, the persons who were approached should be involved in strategic and conceptual level product development beyond individual building projects. Thirdly, roles with customer orientation were preferred. Four candidates were contacted by email and telephone. Three of them agreed to participate. The persons who were interviewed are a product development manager in Skanska Homes Finland, part of

Skanska Group, one of the ten largest construction companies 21. globally; a development manager in NCC Housing Finland that Statistics Finland, belongs to NCC Group, the second largest construction company Building and dwelling in the Nordic region; and a marketing and communications production 1990–2013 by Construction stage, Year, director in Sato Corporation, a Finnish housing investment Quarter, Building type and development company owning about 23.000 rental and Data. Building starts, dwellings and also commissioning owner-occupied housing. Of 2010. Retrieved from the StatFin database: http:// the nearly 17.000 new dwellings in blocks of flats that were pxweb2.stat.fi/database/ started in Finland in 201021, Skanska begun 1.556 (9%), NCC StatFin/rak/ras/ras_en.asp 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 144 145

4.3 . THE CASE CONCEPTS: CONCEPTS: CASE THE Finland 2010, 2; Sato Annual Annual Sato 2; 2010, Finland NEO-LOFT AND LOPPUKIRI AND NEO-LOFT Housing concepts as Housing concepts as NCC composite mediative products composite mediative Housing Finland. It is primarily marketed to to marketed Housing Finland. It is primarily AKTIIVIKOTI, BOKLOK, PLUSKOTI, PLUSKOTI, BOKLOK, AKTIIVIKOTI, Apart from eliciting background information information eliciting background Apart from AKTIIVIKOTI

strategic and conceptual design. The interviews were conducted conducted were The interviews and conceptual design. strategic loft pilot was developed by Sato. The Loppukiri house was was The Loppukiri house by Sato. was developed loft pilot carefree life that people previously living in a building with living in a building with that people previously life carefree offered by NCC offered A special age of fifty onwards. the couples and singles from developed by Sato and built by NCC by Sato developed perception the company representatives’ main themes: on three as on dwelling and customership, their view of their customers was between 1 and 1.5 hours. The interviews were recorded and and recorded were interviews The hours. 1.5 and 1 between was about specific housing concepts, the interviews concentrated concentrated concepts, the interviews about specific housing of it, and an overview of on the differentiation and a product as it was during summer 2011. target group are ageing people who currently live in dwellings in dwellings live ageing people who currently are group target too cumbersome or do not meet the modern standards. that are the activities of individual companies. The companies are are companies The companies. individual of activities the C1, C1, as interviews to referred In the text, they are transcribed. the present development process with emphasis on the role of of emphasis on the role with process development the present no lift or a house that is too large and where there is too much is too much there and where no lift or a house that is too large referred to as Company X, Y, and Z. The situation is described described is situation The Z. and Y, X, Company as to referred by the author in the premises of the companies. Their duration Their duration of the companies. premises by the author in the the NCC the the BoKlok concept, Report offers 16.) Skanska 2010, As put by the marketers, “[a]n Aktiivikoti home offers the the offers home Aktiivikoti “[a]n marketers, the by put As Aktiivikoti (“Active Home”) is an apartmentan is Home”) seniors (“Active concept for Aktiivikoti Annual Report Annual 40; 2010, The Neo- PlusKoti concept. and Sato the concept, Aktiivikoti 1.858 (11%), of which 1.126 were developer-contracted and and developer-contracted 1.126 were of which (11%), 1.858 190 were owner-occupied and 375 rental dwellings. (Skanska (Skanska dwellings. rental 375 and owner-occupied were 190 4.3.1 (see the list of references for more information). information). more for C2 and C3 (see the list of references 4.4 where the main outcomes of the interviews are discussed. discussed. are of the interviews the main outcomes 4.4 where 732 built for investor partners, investor of which 565 (3%), and Sato built for 732 This is to protect the respondents and to avoid emphasis on on emphasis and to avoid the respondents This is to protect The identity of individual respondents is not shown in Chapter Chapter in shown not is respondents individual of identity The FIGURE 15. Advertisement for Aktiivi­ koti flats, highlighting the special features. NCC Housing Finland. Clockwise from upper left: No unnecessary doorsteps. Low step to the sauna bench. Controller of the sauna stove situated high up. Installation help when moving in. Door telephone. Secure locking. Automated lighting in the staircase. Good sound insulation. Accessible, comfortable yard. Safety stove. Socket situated higher on the wall. Surface materials according to own choice. Mains powered fire alarm. Glazed balcony. Internet access. yard work have longed for”. The producer describes Aktiivikoti flats as “comfortable, safe and stylish freehold flats for senior citizens”. (NCC Finland 2012.) The concept seeks to enable long-time independent living in a “normal” dwelling in spite of impaired mobility and other changes brought by old age. Aktiivikoti houses are conventional owner- occupied blocks of flats with added technical features that enhance the accessibility and safety of the house and dwelling. The features specifically mentioned in Aktiivikoti marketing material include modern appliances, fire alarms, easy-to-use secure locks and intercoms, spatial design suitable for people with impaired mobility, sound insulation according to latest standards, lifts with automatic doors, and outdoor areas that are easy and safe to move around (see Figure 15). It is possible to add safety and support devices such as support rails to bathrooms later on. The houses are located within short distance from shops, wellbeing services and recreational services, and within the reach of public transportation. There are no services or care staff in the houses. The residents are provided information about home service providers in the area. (NCC Finland 2012.) The concept was launched in 2000 with the name Seniorikoti (“Senior Home”). In 2002, based on experiences from the finished pilot projects, the content and attributes of the concept were defined further and it was renamed as Aktiivikoti. (NCC Finland Annual Reports 2000, 12, and 2002, 5.) Aktiivikoti is one of the oldest housing concepts in Finland still in the market. It can be argued that the original concept has been partly outdated by the general advancement of housing production. Some of its features presented as special 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 146 147 apartments ) (Skanska 2012). (Skanska BOKLOK The standard BoKlok apartment houses are The standard BoKlok apartment houses are The development of the BoKlok concept was BoKlok concept was of the The development , personal communication 1 November 2012.) Recently, the the Recently, 2012.) November 1 communication personal C2, still at university”. The concept attempts to tap into their their into to tap attempts concept The university”. at still low combining proposition a value with demands supposed services are emphasised as main attractions of the concept. the concept. of attractions emphasised as main services are special features. Instead, convenient location and access to to and access location Instead, convenient special features. living room. Qualitative features include wooden flooring, include wooden flooring, features Qualitative living room. floor plan and suggestions for interior fittings. The dwellings dwellings The fittings. interior for suggestions and plan floor contain two, three or four rooms plus kitchen, bathroom and and plus kitchen, bathroom rooms or four contain two, three of “decent quality” in peaceful surroundings. (Gómez Quesada Quesada (Gómez of “decent quality” in peaceful surroundings. et al. 2007, 32–33.) owned by construction company Skanska and furniture retailer retailer and furniture company Skanska owned by construction company has partnered up with a senior housing provider and and housing provider up with a senior company has partnered flats who at point of purchase may not yet be in need of the of the yet be in need may not at point of purchase flats who are sold at Ikea. The aim of the BoKlok concept is to provide is to provide The aim of the BoKlok concept sold at Ikea. are group and comfortable Its target home” (BoKlok 2012a). income, such with moderate small suburban families are families and young as “nurses, sales clerks, single parents, are in fact property of most new dwellings. Lately, the concept concept the Lately, new dwellings. of most property in fact are available for the Aktiivikoti residents. (C2 residents. the Aktiivikoti for available the upper ones accessed through a gallery. The gallery. a through accessed ones upper the target group. The initial aim was to achieve an overall cost cost an overall initial aim was to achieve The group. target that enables as many people as possible to afford a stylish a stylish to afford that enables as many people as possible toned down and presented more as readiness to modifications to modifications as readiness more and presented toned down assistiveness that “visible” It seems as standard features. than in 1995 and the first houses were completed in Sweden in completed in Sweden in in 1995 and the first houses were is planning to build some Aktiivikoti houses next to senior senior to next houses Aktiivikoti some build to planning is is not considered very attractive by the buyers of Aktiivikoti buyers of Aktiivikoti by the attractive very is not considered have space-saving features such as an open plan kitchen and such as an open plan kitchen and features space-saving have balcony or terrace; with respective floor areas of 53, 69 or or 69 of 53, areas floor with respective or terrace; balcony built mainly in Sweden but also in Denmark, Norway, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Finland, in Sweden but also in built mainly based on a detailed analysis of the economic resources of the of the the economic resources of based on a detailed analysis to customary 30 per cent compared of approximately reduction was begun Concept development (ibid., 67). housing projects price, rapid construction process, and functional apartments and functional apartments construction process, price, rapid houses with care and catering services that will also be made be made and catering services that will also houses with care has been implemented as versions where assistive features are are features assistive where as versions implemented has been Germany and the UK square metres (see Figure 17). Tightly planned apartments 17). Tightly (see Figure metres 81 square ( L-shaped two-storey blocks with three apartments on each floor, blocks with three L-shaped two-storey Ikea. Skanska builds the houses, and Ikea has developed the the has developed builds the houses, and Ikea Skanska Ikea. 1997. Since then, over 5.000 BoKlok dwellings have been been have dwellings BoKlok 5.000 over then, Since 1997. The BoKlok (LiveSmart) concept is co-developed and co- The BoKlok (LiveSmart) co-developed concept is “space-saving, functional and high quality housing at a price at a price quality housing functional and high “space-saving, relatively large windows, and slightly higher ceilings than is the norm. There are typically four to six houses in the plot that share a common green courtyard. (BoKlok 2012b.) The BoKlok concept has evolved through at least six product generations. More recent variants include a terraced house and detached house version of the concept. (Skanska 2012.) BoKlok houses are locally adjustable. The floor plan and basic structure of the buildings stay uniform (even if minor variation is possible), but their outer appearance can be modified according to local conditions, building regulations and stylistic preferences. The cladding, for instance, can be either wood or plaster depending on the environment. Two pre-designed style variants are presently offered in the Swedish market: a traditional model reminiscent of vernacular wooden houses, and a modern model reflecting the modernist functionalist style and more suitable to an urban site. Both are available in several colours. (C1, BoKlok 2012c.) The main prerequisites for the BoKlok concept to be viable as a business model are rapid turnover of capital tied to land and lower construction costs in comparison to mainstream production. These are achieved by extreme streamlining of both the product and the production process. The lower than average price of BoKlok dwellings is made possible by duplicating the standard design in large volumes, relying on serial industrial production. The houses are prefabricated as large elements in Skanska’s production plants, transported to the site, and assembled efficiently within just one day (Gómez Quesada et al. 2007, 32). Another key factor is access to inexpensive land that is planned for this type of housing and is readily buildable in a fast schedule, with the local authorities willing to cooperate. Ideally, the process may last only six months from land purchase to the residents moving in. BoKlok houses are erected on “semi- remote” plots on the outskirts of cities, yet within reach of public transportation. (C1) In Finland, the BoKlok concept was launched in 2002. Totally five housing projects (174 dwellings) were realised in Helsinki, Tuusula, Espoo, Porvoo and Vantaa between 2003 and 2006. The one in Helsinki contains 54 rental flats. Others are smaller blocks with owner-occupied dwellings (four or six houses with six flats in each). The owner-occupied BoKlok dwellings included a financing model that reduced the need of the buyer’s own share of capital to a minimum of 15 per cent. At least two more projects were planned but apparently withdrawn due to lack of reservations. (Skanska Homes Finland 2006. Information about the projects is collected from various electronic sources.) 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 148 149

18.

&

17

The standard floor plan The standard floor plan of a BoKlok apartment building and two variants of the exterior as realised and in Sweden (above) Denmark (below). Ikea (http://www.boklok.com/ theconcept/Media-Centre/ Download-press-material/) FIGURES 16, FIGURES Shortcomings in meeting the requirements listed listed Shortcomings the requirements in meeting sites proved to be ill-chosen regarding the target group. group. target the regarding ill-chosen be to proved sites standard houses by local planning and building authorities standard houses by local planning and building authorities eroded the benefits of duplication. Challenges in localisation the benefits of duplication. Challenges in localisation eroded and modification of a highly specific and standardised concept concept standardised and specific highly a modification of and above may explain the initial failure of BoKlok in Finland. Finland. of BoKlok in failure initial the explain may above Finland. In addition, the amount of changes demanded to the Finland. In addition, the amount of changes demanded to the ), some of the (C1), some of the representative According to Skanska’s company also did not have their own production plant in plant in their own production The company also did not have became a major barrier for its implementation. This shows the difficulty of importing a housing solution developed in certain context (national housing regime) directly to another. My informant also doubted the viability of offering housing at a significantly lower price than the general price level in an area. Evidently that is not very attractive to a housing developer. It is also unlikely that the resale prices of BoKlok dwellings would be any lower than those of other similar apartments in the area. Despite these considerations, the concept was relaunched in Finland in 2012, when Skanska started building a BoKlok project of 36 flats in Kivistö, Vantaa. This time the houses were designed according to local building regulations from the beginning. A second project, also in Vantaa, is due to be completed in 2014 (see www.boklok.fi). BoKlok relies on the idea of a complete, everyman’s “one-size-fits-all” housing solution instead of a highly individual or customised dwelling. Even if BoKlok houses do not represent the architectural avant-garde, it is possible to see the concept as continuation of the Scandinavian modern design movement that sought to provide aesthetic and functional industrially produced everyday objects for the masses. On the other hand, the internationally recognised Ikea brand connects the concept directly to global consumer culture where constantly changing, cheap and disposable home furnishings are used for expressing one’s individual lifestyle. The association between BoKlok and other Ikea products probably works for the concept by setting the expectations of the customers to an appropriate level, preparing them for the trade-offs of affordability. This might also turn to a disadvantage if the brand is equated with values that are in contradiction with permanence and durability, inherent to dwelling as product.

PLUSKOTI PlusKoti (PlusHome) is a flexible housing concept that offers the residents some individual choices concerning the spatial organisation and interior design of their dwelling. The origins of the concept are in a building technology and site-allocation competition for a plot in Arabianranta, Helsinki, that was launched in 2000 by the City of Helsinki and Tekes, the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation. The aim of the competition was to promote innovative user-oriented housing construction based on open building, where the residents could be given decision-making power on the floor plan, fittings and finishing materials of their dwelling as well as alterations to them in the future. A model of the resident service process was required in the competition brief. No specific target group of residents was defined. (Helsinki City Office [2001].) 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 150 151

FIGURE 19. FIGURE advertisement Detail from PlusKoti flats in Vantaa, for pre- Finland, showing four floor plan options designed and the logos of three themes interior design and “Elevation” (“Love”, “Wild”). Note how mainly the kitchen and bathroom Sato vary. arrangements 2008. Corporation, 19) gave gave 19) In successive implementations of the PlusKoti PlusKoti the of implementations successive In PlusKoti, the winning entry, was developed by by PlusKoti, the winning entry, was developed software company Tocoman. The proposal presented a flexible flexible a presented proposal The Tocoman. company software superficial mass customisation approaches in speculative in speculative superficial mass customisation approaches and of variation systematisation scope of user needs through somewhat diluted its original idea and distanced it from open open it from idea and distanced somewhat diluted its original slab-block apartment house where the building frame is is frame building the apartmentslab-block where house layer along the principles of open the infill from separated 16– (Ibid., customisation. mass on based was model service furniture. It was also possible to order additional modifications modifications additional order to possible also was It furniture. choice was between three stylistically different interior design interior design different stylistically choice was between three concept the scope of customer choice was restricted (C3), which was restricted concept the scope of customer choice customisation service where they could select alternative floor floor alternative select could they where service customisation of the dwelling. certain to alter the surface area constraints, was finished in 2005. The buyers were provided an online online an provided were buyers The 2005. in finished was and features outside the pre-designed collections at a separate separate a at collections pre-designed the outside features and themes comprising the interior finishes, materials, and fixed fixed and materials, finishes, interior the comprising themes the customers professionally designed options on two levels. options on two levels. designed the customers professionally the level of floors and individual dwellings. The customer of floors and individual dwellings. The customer the level price. PlusKoti in its later format is a typical example of current is a typical example of current price. PlusKoti in its later format mainly the kitchen and bathroom arrangements vary. The other The other vary. arrangements the kitchen and bathroom mainly building. The second version of the concept (see Figure (see concept the of version second The building. katu 1), comprising 77 individually configured dwellings, dwellings, configured 1), comprising 77 individually katu was also possible, within plans and interior fit-out options. It building, enabling an adaptable spatial structure both in both in spatial structure building, enabling an adaptable housing production that aim at efficiency in meeting the the meeting in efficiency at aim that production housing Sato, architectural office Kahri & Co, and building information information building and Co, & Kahri office architectural Sato, PlusKoti pilot project in Arabianranta (Kaj Franckin (Kaj Franckin in Arabianranta 21.) The PlusKoti pilot project They could choose among three alternative floor plans where plans where floor alternative They could choose among three The service included cost calculation. (Sato Corporation 2005.) calculation. (Sato Corporation cost included The service packaging of features. Most large housing developers in Finland nowadays provide a similar service. PlusKoti was a pioneer in the utilisation of software to guide the customisation process. In 2012, all owner-occupied dwellings produced by Sato were marketed under the brand name OmistusKoti (“OwnedHome”) and PlusKoti as a particular, named concept had ceased to exist. The basic OmistusKoti product, however, now exhibits the same characteristics as PlusKoti. (Sato Corporation 2012.) This illustrates how an innovative concept or operating model (or some features of it) has become mainstream. The idea of adaptability as such is not enough to differentiate the product from those of the competitors anymore. Nor is online customisation service. Recently, the company has introduced an interesting alternative approach. In some housing projects, qualitative variety is increased by realising very different professionally designed dwellings in the same house prior to any customer contact. The customers are given a choice among complete ready-made dwellings rather than engaged into a virtual customisation process that takes place before construction. (Ibid., C3.)

NEO-LOFT Neo-loft22 (Uusloft) is a modern interpretation of the loft 22. apartment as applied into new housing production in Finland. I use capital first letter for reasons of uniformity Original loft apartments are large adaptable open living spaces even if neo-loft is used as a with robust details, converted to residential use in former common noun referring to industrial buildings. Neo-loft aims to offer the same benefits newly built loft apartments. of “maximum living space at minimum cost” by means of an open construction system. The concept is based on unfinished apartment shells that the residents themselves can complete according to their own preferences, budgets and timetables. It promotes a do-it-yourself culture in urban housing. (Ilonen et al. 2011, 30.) The Neo-loft concept was developed by architect Pia Ilonen. Apart from the loft tradition, it was influenced by new housing architecture in the Netherlands (ibid., 31). The path of Neo-loft from the initial idea in 2003 to a finished pilot project in 2010 portrays the difficulty and slowness of getting novel solutions through in the industrial housing production system (see Niska & Laine 2006). Several construction companies originally condemned the idea as unmarketable and contradictory to building regulations. Eventually, the City of Helsinki committed to the concept and allocated a plot for the pilot project in Arabianranta. Sato had already become involved as the developer. When pre-sales began, all flats were immediately booked, which shows that there was a high demand for the concept. The construction was started in 2007. Technical defects found in the frame 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 152 153

FIGURE 20. FIGURE The interior of a larger apartment (102 m2) space to handed over as they were Architects. the buyers. Talli Photo: Stefan Bremer. FIGURE 21. 21. FIGURE Plan of the third floor and its mezzanine floor when completed. Pia Architects. Ilonen, Talli and facade of the already partly occupied building in 2008 postponed its completion until 2010 and caused significant harm for the residents (Nousiainen 2010). Negative public attention drawn to the project at the time and financial loss for the builder contributed to the fact that other planned Neo- loft projects have not been realised, even if the validity of the concept itself is commonly acknowledged in the field (e.g. C3). The six-storey Neo-loft house in Arabianranta (Helsingin Tila housing company, Posliinikatu 6) comprises 39 flats accessed through a gallery and seven workspaces in the ground floor connected to the flats above, plus some common facilities. The basic units are of two sizes, 50 and 102 square metres. The spaces are five metres high and have a balcony or, in the top floor flats, a large terrace. They were handed over to buyers as open space with just standard bathroom elements, service connections, and basic flooring material in place (see Figure 20). Steel beams for bearing a mezzanine floor were provided along the walls. Installation of kitchen furniture and other amenities, as well as construction of the mezzanine floor and partition walls were left to the residents. The residents acted as constructors of their dwellings, using professional help where required. 13 flats were sold as occupiable “raw space” where the buyer took care of the whole process from design acquisition to building permissions and construction. Four households mostly built their dwelling by own hands while the others used professional contractors. 26 flats were sold with the mezzanine floor, stairs and railings in place, their configuration chosen by the buyer among simple alternatives designed by the architect. In this case the role of the user was limited to choosing furnishings and surface materials. The completed flats exhibit a variety of spatial arrangements (see Figure 21). (Personal communication by Pia Ilonen, 6 September 2013; Ilonen et al. 2011; Mukala 2012.) Many of the occupants in the Neo-loft house are young families with small children (Ilonen et al. 2011, 34). The popularity of the concept illustrates their demand for individual and affordable urban housing. The concept can be seen as an avant-garde urban representation of the traditional ideal of self-built one-family house. In Neo-loft, the opportunity to almost completely design and construct one’s own dwelling has been a crucial attractiveness factor, perhaps even more so than affordability. It is noteworthy that several of the original residents were architects or other design professionals who had high motivation and the required design and craft skills to execute such a project. Information on the final costs of the flats is not available. It would be interesting to compare those of self-built and professionally finished dwellings. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 154 155 Loppukiri is operated as a “self service house”. as a “self service house”. Loppukiri is operated LOPPUKIRI The Loppukiri house is situated in Arabianranta, Arabianranta, The Loppukiri house is situated in service model. Use of delivery services for transportation of transportation of for services service model. Use of delivery spaces in the house. These include a large kitchen, dining room, room, dining kitchen, include a large These house. in the spaces floor. in the ground an outdoor terrace as well as storages, senior housing in Finland could offer. In 2000, they founded 2000, they founded In could offer. in Finland senior housing library-living room, television corner, office, laundry room and and room laundry office, corner, television room, library-living for others. They also needed to be physically able to participate They also needed to be physically others. for circulates on an interval of six weeks. As the residents get get of six weeks. As the residents on an interval circulates contractor in the project. The house, designed by architect by architect The house, designed in the project. contractor older, services can in the future also be purchased from outside outside from also be purchased older, services can in the future due to cancellations and other changes in the resident base base in the resident due to cancellations and other changes who residents actual the of half than less process, the during occupied flats ranging from 36 to 80.5 square metres. There There metres. square 80.5 to 36 from ranging flats occupied existing community in Stockholm was an importantwas an in Stockholm community existing example. and respect tolerance, joint responsibility, community, such as of the challenges caused by ageing of the residents to the the to residents the of ageing by caused challenges the of was 67. (Dahlström & Minkkinen 2009. The following text is text is & Minkkinen 2009. The following was 67. (Dahlström weekdays and clean the common spaces. The work shift and clean the common spaces. The work shift weekdays was initiated by a small group of senior persons who were who were of senior persons group by a small was initiated areas are accessible by wheelchair and have automatic doors. accessible by wheelchair and have are areas community in the five the whole supper for a three-course are 11 different dwelling types. The dwellings were individually individually were dwellings The types. dwelling different 11 are However, office. architectural the by led participatorya process also based on a discussion with Sirkka Minkkinen, herself a Minkkinen, herself a with Sirkka also based on a discussion an association (Aktiiviset Seniorit ry, “Active Seniors”) that that Seniors”) ry, “Active Seniorit (Aktiiviset association an A similar residents. people as future like-minded and recruit present, the community is becoming aware aware becoming is community the present, At needed. if in the common chores. The medium age of residents in 2008 in 2008 The medium age of residents in the common chores. interested in more social living than what the customary customary than what the social living in more interested pilots. It was built on a plot allocated to the association association the to allocated plot a on built was It pilots. and NCC as general by the city. Sato acted as developer roof terrace are situated on the top seventh floor. The common floor. The common situated on the top seventh are terrace roof modified according to the preferences of the future residents in in residents future of the according to the preferences modified Minkkinen & (Dahlström obtained a personalised flat in moved began to develop the concept of a new type of senior house of a new type of senior house the concept began to develop housing. It is based on a communal way of living where the the living where communal way of It is based on a housing. The project the common services. provide themselves residents Helsinki (Arabiankatu 19) near the PlusKoti and Neo-loft 19) near the PlusKoti and Neo-loft Helsinki (Arabiankatu It comprises 58 owner- Kirsti Sivén, was completed in 2006. Loppukiri resident, in 1 March 2013.) in 1 March Loppukiri resident, Loppukiri (“Sprint”) is a pilot project of communal senior senior of communal project is a pilot (“Sprint”) Loppukiri 2009, 132). There are nearly 400 square metres of common of common metres square 400 nearly are 2009, 132). There residents are divided into teams that prepare and serve and serve divided into teams that prepare are The residents saunas, fireplace room, exercise room, guest room and a a and room guest room, exercise room, fireplace Two saunas, The members were to commit to certain commit to of the principles basic were members The foodstuff and other means to ease kitchen work are examples FIGURES 22, 23 & 24. of topics that the residents are contemplating at the moment. The roof terrace (emptied for the winter), common The community gets together monthly to discuss and make kitchen and common dining decisions about common issues. A web-based calendar system room in the Loppukiri helps in managing the house, although at the time of writing it house. Photographs by the author, March 2013. was inactive. The residents also organise many social activities together. (Ibid.) 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 156 157 EMPLOYED BY THEM BY EMPLOYED THE COMPOSITION OF THE THE OF COMPOSITION THE CONCEPTS AND THE STRATEGIES STRATEGIES THE AND CONCEPTS A second house realised according to the concept concept to the according realised house A second

like surroundings. PlusKoti aims at making personalisation personalisation making at aims PlusKoti surroundings. like falls into the category of “normal” instead of “special” housing. housing. “special” of instead “normal” of category the into falls operate within the material hierarchy of built environment. environment. built of hierarchy material the within operate of dwelling easy by offering the first residents a palette of palette of a the first residents dwelling easy by offering of attract to seeks Neo-loft choices. aesthetic and functional of “decent and comfortable” living in peaceful, village- or promises around which the concepts are built connect to built connect to which the concepts are around or promises essentially relies on a shared immaterial agreement rather than than rather agreement immaterial shared a on relies essentially in old and human dignity lifestyle, of others, equality, an active duplicable and can be adapted to different contexts. However, However, contexts. be adapted to different duplicable and can because it cannot be commercialised concept of Loppukiri developer. Loppukiri is an example of a novel housing solution housing solution of a novel is an example Loppukiri developer. area. Depending on the decisions made by the residents, the the by the residents, the decisions made Depending on area. an accessible dwelling with assistive technical features that that technical features assistive with an accessible dwelling and augmented product (cf. Kotler et al. 2008). Each concept et al. 2008). Each concept (cf. Kotler and augmented product as differentiated products in the market and how they and how they in the market products as differentiated any material features of the dwelling product. It has a strong It has a strong of the dwelling product. any material features 2009, 69–70). & Minkkinen age (Dahlström themselves a truly individual urban home. Loppukiri relies on on individual urban home. Loppukiri relies a truly themselves the housing market. Aktiivikoti aims to provide senior persons senior persons aims to provide Aktiivikoti the housing market. the needs of specific target groups. They seek to tap into They seek to tap into groups. the needs of specific target that they can be divided into a core product, actual product product actual product, core a into divided be can they that that is developed by a community of enthusiastic laypeople to to laypeople enthusiastic of community a by developed is that the core emphasised that strongly I interviewed the resident the “creative class” by allowing them to design and build and build class” by allowing them to design the “creative is built as set of attributes aiming to provide an intangible an intangible to provide is built as set of attributes aiming is going to be built by the association to the new Kalasatama Kalasatama the new to the association built by to be is going building will not be totally identical to Loppukiri. (Aktiiviset (Aktiiviset identical to Loppukiri. will not be totally building problem-solving benefit for the resident. The main benefits The main benefits the resident. benefit for problem-solving meet a social need. It can also be seen as transfer of innovation innovation of transfer seen as also be can social need. It a meet concept is basically operating The regimes. between housing necessitates a group of committed residents. The concept concept The residents. committed of group a necessitates valuable needs of consumers that are currently underserved in in underserved currently are needs of consumers that valuable value base. The residents want to further tolerance and respect respect and further to want tolerance residents The base. value Seniorit ry 2012.) The second house, named Kotisatama Kotisatama named house, second The 2012.) ry Seniorit (“Home Port”) has the same architect but is built by another is built by another but architect has the same (“Home Port”) BoKlok targets families with moderate income with the promise income with the promise with moderate families BoKlok targets A comparative overview of the five case concepts is given in in case concepts is given of the five overview A comparative 4.3.2 housing concepts resemble other consumer products in in other consumer products concepts resemble The housing Table 2. I shall first analyse how the concepts are constituted constituted how the concepts are analyse 2. I shall first Table an operational model that enables a more communal lifestyle TABLE 2. than mainstream products. The main contentual aims of the The five case concepts compared. concepts thus relate to accessibility (Aktiivikoti), affordability (1) It is possible to order (BoKlok), aesthetic and functional personalisation (PlusKoti), some modifications or self-design (Neo-loft), and communality (Loppukiri). The basic select certain interior design features, but these value proposition in Aktiivikoti, PlusKoti and Loppukiri is are not central to the “more for the same”, whereas Neo-loft offers “more for less”. promise of the concept. BoKlok depending on interpretation offers “the same for less” (2) Concept development or “less for much less”, i.e. a simplified product at a significantly may have begun earlier. The concept was originally lower price (cf. Kotler et al. 2008, 442). called “NCC Seniorikoti”, The actual product in the case of housing concepts “NCC Senior Home”. consists of a bundle of attributes situated on different levels of (3) The concept was developed in Sweden, the built environment. In reflection to Baudrillard (1996), the where first houses were concepts are collections of “inessential” product features that finished already in 1997, have been picked up and systematised by producers. Figure and launched in Finland in 2002. 25 shows the main components of the concepts and their (4) Completion of the physio-spatial distribution. As seen, the concepts operate in pilot project was delayed the hierarchy of built form by harnessing various designable by almost two years due parts of the dwelling product to their service. The parts are to building defects. intentionally differentiated in relation to consumers and other products in the market and combined together to deliver a clearly articulated core promise. In two of the concepts the main differentiating component is outside of built form. In Aktiivikoti it is assistive technical equipment in the apartment level, and in Loppukiri the operational model of the house based on services provided by the residents themselves. PlusKoti and Neo-loft limit to physical form on the apartment level, whereas BoKlok comprises a complete standard housing solution extending from the level of furnishings to characteristics of the site and to a financing model. The concepts thus have different material “depth”. Moreover, they define just some attributes of the dwelling product and leave others to be solved by the design of each particular replication. Regarding the augmented product, customer service after sales is an integral component especially in those concepts that include some customisation. In PlusKoti, like in most production nowadays, the comparison of design alternatives is supported by a web-based service. The sales event of BoKlok in Ikea is made into a special happening even if the product as such does not allow any customisation. Developers see customer service as one differentiator in the market (see Chapter 4.4). In addition to specific physical elements, the concepts rely on overall design aesthetics and more abstract mental associations as means of differentiation. In BoKlok, the connection to well-known Ikea brand is a key differentiator 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 158 159

AKTIIVIKOTI BOKLOK PLUSKOTI NEO-LOFT LOPPUKIRI

Target group People in their fifties and Small families with People who value aesthetic Urban dwellers with high Seniors interested in sixties, “empty nesters” moderate income personalisation demand for individuality communal living Promise or benefit “I can live at home as long “I can live decently and “I can easily get a home that “I can design and make myself “I do not need to spend my old as possible despite the comfortably in peaceful suits my personal functional a truly different and individual age in loneliness and passivity” eventual deterioration of surroundings even if I and aesthetic preferences” urban home at a moderate cost” my physical ability” don’t earn a lot” Strategy for delivering ADDED FEATURES SIMPLIFICATION VARIABILITY INCOMPLETENESS NEW OPERATIONAL MODEL the promise Assistive technical equipment, A streamlined complete housing Elementary mass customisation, Unfinished apartment shell to Services provided by the physical accessibility or solution at an affordable price pre-designed­ floor plan and be completed by the residents residents themselves, readiness for modifications interiorit-out options common facilities Role of the user Passive customer (1) Passive customer (1) Semi-active: expressing Active: responsible for Dominant: defining the preferences and choosing design and execution of attributes of the house between design variants the apartment infill and acting as developer Relationship of Does not substantially Determines a total architectural Determines certain level of Determines the structural Determines the spatial the concept to determine architecture apart solution with standard floor modularity concerning building principle of the building: programme of the building architecture from accessibility requirements plan and variable exterior structure and dwelling design division into fixed frame and open infill Initiator(s) A developer A developer and a An architect and a An architect A group of senior persons furniture retailer software company in who founded an association conjunction of a building technology competition Main source of SPECIAL HOUSING CONSUMER PRODUCTS TECHNOLOGY AVANT-GARDE SOCIAL INNOVATION innovation, external Introducing features of Transfer of product Combination of open building ARCHITECTURE Based on examples of references assisted living into mainstream associations and business with a customer service model Loft apartments and new communal senior living in housing production logic from another field that based on mass customisation housing architecture in the Sweden and elsewhere is closer to consumers Netherlands as inspiration Approximate time 2 years, 2000–2002 (2) 8 years, 1995–2003 (3) 5 years, 2000–2005 7 years, 2003–2010 (4) 6 years, 2000–2006 from idea to pilot Duplication Duplicated, increasingly Discontinued in Finland in Duplications realised as Duplications planned One duplication as versions where assistive 2006 after five projects, more restricted version but not realised underway in 2012 features are tuned down re-launched in 2012 as than the pilot project, a modified version. discontinued around 2011 Critical issues Value loss of special Less durable housing Superficial mass customisation Requires design and craft skills; What happens when a resident features as caught up by for the masses? of insignificant features, sharing of legal responsibility becomes unable to commit the general progression creating an impression needs special attention to the common chores? of housing production of personalisation? that influences the expectations of customers. The BoKlok FIGURE 25. The composition of the houses bear resemblance to other mass-produced consumer case concepts. In the products of the company, transmitting its recognisable design middle, main benefit philosophy over the borders of product categories and fields of the concept to user of industry. The distinctive interior style packages in PlusKoti (core product). Above, the elements on different connect the concept to aesthetically reflexive consumption levels of built environment emphasising dwelling as sign of (chosen) lifestyle. Neo-loft that participate in already by its name evokes the image of highly individual loft delivering the benefit (actual product), primary dwellings epitomising an international urban lifestyle, familiar elements shown in darker from movies and television. Loppukiri with its ideological grey. Those with heavier background and service model based on international examples outline are outside built form. Lined area indicates of communal housing intentionally counteracts the way of the extent of user control. living suggested by mass market senior housing and challenges Below, the strategies the view on seniors as a homogeneous group. The examined that the concepts housing concepts evidently are commodities in the late- employ and their main (technological) enablers. modern experience market that deal with packaging of aspects of lifestyles according to market criteria (cf. Giddens 1991). How the messages embedded in the concepts are actually received and interpreted by people and how they affect the purchase decisions or user experiences of the dwellings realised according to the concepts cannot be answered in the light of my material. However, the popularity of Neo-loft and also of Loppukiri indicates that the concepts filled a gap in the offering that there was demand for. The housing concepts employ various strategies in design and production for delivering their promise that make use of technological and other enablers. Aktiivikoti relies on the addition of extra features to the mainstream dwelling product that correspond with special needs of the target group. The features are mostly home technology applications, although the concept also emphasises physical accessibility of the dwelling and the living environment. Aktiivikoti can be described as differentiation by “accessorising” the mainstream dwelling. As noted, some of its attributes highlighted as special nowadays are property of most market-oriented housing production. This has diminished the original difference of the concept in the market. Hence, Aktiivikoti threatens to be shallowed down into a mere marketing concept that creates an impression of difference by directing the attention of consumers to regular product features that are presented as special. BoKlok on the other hand is prime example of the strategy of simplification. The concept results from analysis of the financial resources of the target group and concurrent streamlining of the product and the production process. The concept provides a fixed uniform housing solution from which user choice is eliminated. Individuality is created merely by variating the building exterior according to the surroundings. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 160 161

AREA

Close to services and Semi-remote location in public transportation peaceful surroundings

BUILDING Complete solution for plot Services Common by facilities residents Accessible Fixed plan, dwelling variable facades space and APARTMENT common Streamlined Spatial areas design Assistive dwelling design options Customisa- Apartment shell to be technical Personalised apartment tion service equipment completed by residents Ikea Financing Interior furnishings model style options

OBJECTS

EXTENT OF OF EXTENT CONTROL USER

AKTIIVIKOTI BOKLOK PLUSKOTI NEO-LOFT LOPPUKIRI

I can live at home I can live decently I can easily get a I can design and I do not need to as long as possible and comfortably home that suits make myself a truly spend my old despite lowered even if I don’t my functional and individual home at age in loneliness physical ability earn a lot aesthetic preferences a mediocre cost and passivity

ADDITION OF SIMPLIFICATION VARIABILITY INCOMPLETENESS NEW FEATURES OPERATIONAL MODEL Prefabrication Mass customisation Open building Home technology Partnership with Ikea Open building Social agreement Co-design Key enablers of the concept are industrial prefabrication and collaboration with Ikea. PlusKoti on the other hand employs superficial mass customisation for delayed differentiation of dwellings. The customers are offered design alternatives on the levels of space and fixed furnishings. This strategy seeks to channel the demand for variety along a limited number of pre-designed chunks that are more viable for the builder to produce than personalisation of each individual part separately. The strategy necessitates certain degree of product modularity and a customisation service. Neo-loft is based on incompleteness of the dwelling space that is made possible by open building. In Loppukiri, activist users have initiated and controlled the entire development process. This was made possible by the founding of an association, and a collaborative design process facilitated by the architectural office. The concepts also differ in respect to their origin and external references. Aktiivikoti and BoKlok are developer- driven, born out of central strategic concept design activity aiming at replicability in large volumes and feasibility to producers. Aktiivikoti’s main design reference (intentionally or not) is in special housing, features of which it seeks to apply into regular production. BoKlok by borrowing product associations and business logic from another field which is more in tune with consumer diversity than housing cleverly utilises the strategy of suggestion identified by Schulze (2005). The Ikea brand provides homebuyers a recognisable frame of reference and highlights the nature of dwelling as a lifestyle product. This makes BoKlok perhaps the most advanced example of commodification of housing among the cases. Both PlusKoti and Neo-loft can be seen as continuation of the open building tradition. PlusKoti represents a more technology-oriented approach. Its original version is nearest to proper mass customisation among the concepts. Neo- loft albeit made possible by open building seeks its primary references from avant-garde architectural culture. Main innovator in both concepts was an architect. PlusKoti resulted from a building technology competition, whereas in Neo-loft the architect developed her idea into a housing project and negotiated it through the production system. In contrast to the other concepts, Loppukiri is grounded on social innovation by non-professionals. The initiators have learned from similar communities abroad. The role of an architect as a facilitator of the collaborative design process has also been important in the pilot of this concept. Architectural design in the artistic meaning is not a major differentiator in any of the case concepts. However, the creative and integrative skills of architects nevertheless 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 162 163 The role of the user in Aktiivikoti and BoKlok and BoKlok of the user in Aktiivikoti The role The ownership of the concepts and the partner of the concepts The ownership users. As seen in the Neo-loft case, the users may also face face also may users the case, Neo-loft the in seen As users. solutions are offered by other companies (with the exception of (with the exception of companies by other offered solutions are introduced first options customisation The novelties. successful seem to be important in getting new product ideas forward forward ideas to be importantseem product new in getting global trends in the housing field. The role of international of international The role in the housing field. global trends first pilot project of a new housing concept. On the other hand, concept. On the other hand, of a new housing first pilot project furnishings options, and individual modifications are possible possible modifications are furnishings options, and individual one can assume that the user value of a “deep” housing solution of a “deep” housing solution one can assume that the user value demand more skills and investment of time from the initial the initial of time from investment skills and demand more customer who can make choices between design alternatives alternatives design choices between customer who can make have Neo-loft of residents The process. building the during key able to decide on in a dominant role, of Loppukiri are customisation service. Neo-loft and Loppukiri by contrast are are Loppukiri by contrast customisation service. Neo-loft and examples in concept development is one topic that my that my is one topic development examples in concept expertise. of the tasks thus hint at diversification The concepts delivery. in housing of architects control is more limited. This especially seems to concern the seems to concern the limited. This especially is more control within the frame defined by the architect. The user-developers The user-developers defined by the architect. within the frame with public actors than the developer-driven ones. with public actors than the developer-driven attributes of the house and on many features of their dwellings. their dwellings. of features on many and house the of attributes an active hands-on relationship with their dwelling. They are with their dwelling. They are hands-on relationship an active at a separate price, but the concepts as such do not include not include price, but the concepts as such do at a separate and labelled with brand names. Nevertheless, nearly similar similar Nevertheless, nearly names. brand with labelled and and into the form of viable designs. The implementation of a a of The implementation viable designs. of form into the and to the development of which the resident has been strongly has been strongly resident of which the to the development is passive. Later versions of Aktiivikoti include customary include customary of Aktiivikoti Later versions is passive. in comparison to regular urban housing production but also but also urban housing production in comparison to regular not owned by or tied to specific companies. Neo-loft despite Neo-loft despite to specific companies. not owned by or tied higher financial and other risks than in production where their their where financial and other risks than in production higher responsible for the design and execution of the apartment and execution the design infill for responsible manipulation by user on any level of the dwelling product before before product dwelling the of level any on user by manipulation as a role a semi-active In PlusKoti, the user is given move-in. being “intellectual property” of the creating architect and and architect creating of the being “intellectual property” collaboration more included have concepts These anyone. by by PlusKoti, for instance, have become a standard in the field. in the field. become a standard instance, have by PlusKoti, for Key partnermaterial does not cover. in BoKlok is a furniture the company providing and in PlusKoti the software retailer network needed for producing them varies. Aktiivikoti, Aktiivikoti, varies. them producing for needed network new housing concept may necessitate more collaborative design design collaborative more necessitate may concept housing new technological more or require production than regular methods Loppukiri of the seniors’ association can essentially be copied be copied can essentially Loppukiri of the seniors’ association It might also be that the developers are just following the same same the just following are also be that the developers It might seems that competitors easily copy the features of of copy the features easily BoKlok). It seems that competitors BoKlok and PlusKoti are owned by construction companies companies owned by construction are BoKlok and PlusKoti The latter two concepts expand the user control significantly significantly The latter two concepts expand the user control committed is higher than the value of a more “superficial” solution offered by a developer. All people, however, probably do not value such individuality in dwelling, are not willing to undertake the arduous work the accomplishment of it would require in the present system, or do not have the necessary capabilities. The possibility for some degree of aesthetic personalisation or merely a generic well-designed flat presumably is quite satisfactory alternative for many users. In the case concepts, the main point at which user value is created varies. In Aktiivikoti and BoKlok, adding of value happens by producers before the users get involved. In PlusKoti, most value creation takes place in the delayed differentiation phase, facilitated by customer service personnel right after sales. Neo-loft and Loppukiri shift value creation towards the use phase. In Neo-loft, most active period is after the semi-finished apartment shells are handed over to residents and they start building the infill. In Loppukiri, users participate in value creation during both development and use. The collaborative design process as such adds value to the residents but most significant value of the concept is realised during residency when the communal service model is in operation.

4.3.3 HOUSING CONCEPTS AS MEDIATION BETWEEN USERS, PRODUCTION AND DESIGN

I will next discuss how the studied housing concepts act as mediative devices between the realms of use, production and design of housing. Here, a reference can be made to the three tensions impacting the design of dwelling in late-modern society that I identified earlier (Chapter 3.2.5). The housing concepts address all three of the tensions: the tension between singularity and seriality in housing production, the tension between specificity and generality of housing designs in relation to individual users, and the tension between novelty and conformity of designs in relation to other designs in the market. Firstly, the concepts serve the reconciliation of singularity and seriality on the level of the physical dwelling product, thus mediating between the requirements of industrial mass production and unique housing projects. The concepts define the essential design requirements or parts of the product that are to be duplicated to provide the intended benefit to user and/or the producer, but leave architects in charge of individual duplications considerable freedom in designing other features of the product. The concepts show examples 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 164 165 concept concept Along the evolutionary analogy, there are in a in a are Along the evolutionary analogy, there The case concepts exhibit different relationships relationships exhibit different The case concepts The independence of duplicable housing concepts concepts housing duplicable of independence The loft. Neo loft. users, like standardisation or opening of less significant components. components. of less significant or opening standardisation surroundings without compromising efficiency of production. production. of efficiency compromising without surroundings socially driven co-design methods (Loppukiri) are represented represented (Loppukiri) are methods co-design driven socially from specific house designs makes them resilient. The concepts The concepts them resilient. makes specific house designs from or unlock some parts so that they can be manipulated by or unlock some parts by so that they can be manipulated dwelling built according to a housing concept some attributes components of the end product. The underlying concept thus concept thus The underlying components of the end product. The partially product. dwelling final a determines only like can standardise or lock some parts of the product, designs. During the localisation of a concept, architecture and and During the localisation of a concept, architecture designs. of surface materials, furnishings and partitioning.of surface materials, furnishings and not It does accommodates of houses and the outer architecture constrain and open infill. frame of the building: division into a fixed exterior. The facades of the houses can be realised in many many in be realised can houses the of facades The exterior. complete specification of architectural form. Aktiivikoti does does Aktiivikoti form. of architectural complete specification companies and other agents into a whole. Intangible concept into a whole. Intangible concept and other agents companies model, a financing my material included a in components and a service model. customisation service customisation or co-configuration, they are connected to the to the connected they are or co-configuration, customisation paradigm. production collaborative and flexible emerging of differentiation of some significant components of the of the components significant of some of differentiation and needs user of range to the according product dwelling allow themselves to be realised as very diverse locally adapted adapted locally diverse very as to be realised allow themselves architectural styles. The facade variants of BoKlok demonstrate demonstrate BoKlok of variants facade The styles. architectural that enables easy a Baudrillardian “secondary seriality” fashions, tastes and adaptation of the concept to changing architectural solution with standard floor plan and variable solution with standard floor plan and variable architectural among the cases. The concepts also act as frameworks that that frameworks as act also concepts The cases. the among the geographic place with its special characteristics become become place with its special characteristics the geographic to any house type. Neo-loft determines the structural principle principle the structural to any house type. Neo-loft determines to housing architecture, ranging from near indifference to to near indifference from ranging to housing architecture, integrate heterogeneous components provided by multiple multiple by components provided heterogeneous integrate not substantially dictate architecture aside from accessibility accessibility aside from dictate architecture not substantially programme of the building, i.e. the joint facilities necessitated necessitated of the building, i.e. the joint facilities programme model. by the operational building structure and dwelling design mainly on the levels on the levels mainly and dwelling design building structure requirements. BoKlok on the other hand determines a total on the other hand determines a total BoKlok requirements. (some type of difference) that result from replication of the of the replication from that result (some type of difference) BoKlok, increase the variability of some parts, like PlusKoti, PlusKoti, of some parts, the variability like BoKlok, increase PlusKoti determines certain level of modularity concerning the certaindetermines PlusKoti the concerning modularity of level Both physical strategies of flexibility (PlusKoti, Neo-loft) and and Neo-loft) (PlusKoti, flexibility of strategies physical Both In Loppukiri, the concept merely determines the spatial the spatial determines merely concept the Loppukiri, In Even if the case concepts do not effectively employ mass mass employ do not effectively the case concepts if Even concept and other attributes that are moulded by the specific local context and the specific production organisation including the architect and other designers, as well as the user. Criticism about the homogenising influence of commercial housing concepts to the offering of housing therefore is partly unjustified. I would claim that there are more eminent factors within the housing regime that impose uniformity on housing production, possibly related to the established way of building and the fixation to a few dominant dwelling designs. Secondly, the housing concepts mediate between producers and users of housing, seeking to balance user value and producer value (user-specificity and mass- producible generality of products). They deal with translation and channelling of user needs into product features that are feasible for the producer to deliver. The concepts serve the differentiation of products both internally, within the product portfolios of companies, and externally, in relation to other products in the market and to various consumer groups. Through their experienced and marketable properties they single out and communicate to consumers a set of benefits anticipated to outweigh the benefits of competing products and thus provide the producer a competitive edge. According to my company interviews, there is a two-way tendency in the Finnish housing industry towards simultaneous standardisation of products on the level of product structure and production process, and their diversification and personalisation with respect to the market and individual customers (see Chapter 4.3.3). Housing concepts play an important role in this process. My interviews showed that housing concepts feature elements that can be visible or invisible to the end user. The delivery of their core benefit to user typically necessitates the fulfilling of certain basic requirements from the producer side. These “hidden” elements or specifications behind housing concepts have not been recognised in earlier Finnish research (e.g. Norvasuo 2008 & 2010, Väliniemi et al. 2008, Aaltonen et al. 2011). BoKlok provides a good example of the negotiation between user value and producer value and of the relationship between underlying specifications and the experienced product attributes in a housing concept. To make possible its promise of “affordable dwelling of decent quality and good wholesome design in peaceful surroundings”, several pieces need to be in place (see Figure 26). The first prerequisite for the business case to be realised is cheap land on the outskirts of a city that is rapidly buildable. The location should be accessible by public transportation and not too far from services. An important requirement is that the building process is highly industrialised, meaning prefabrication and rapid serial 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 166 167

FIGURE 26. FIGURE of visible The relationship and invisible elements in the BoKlok concept. Ikea brand Ikea Affordability THE USER BENEFITS FOR BENEFITS FOR “Decent quality”, distinctive design “Decent quality”, distinctive ) In BoKlok, careful selection of land, efficient efficient of land, selection careful ) In BoKlok, As a summary of the case analysis, I propose propose I analysis, case the of summary a As Thirdly, the housing concepts facilitate general the housing concepts facilitate general Thirdly, ENABLERS FOR ENABLERS FOR THE PRODUCER Prefabrication, rapid assembly rapid Prefabrication, Cheap land with rapid turnover Cheap land with rapid Partnership with Ikea in fit-out and sales with Ikea Partnership Optimised standard design with variable facades with variable Optimised standard design complements the theoretical understanding of housing housing of understanding theoretical the complements use of the industrial production system and (other) designers. and (other) designers. system use of the industrial production spatially optimised standard house design with variable variable with design house standard optimised spatially concerns such innovations that are beyond the scope of mere mere of scope the beyond are that innovations such concerns from specific designs can support collaborative product product support can collaborative designs specific from facades. (C1 facades. designed, made into a duplicable format and disseminated and disseminated made into a duplicable format designed, the concepts one-off housing projects, different of randomly development among diverse networks and across professional professional and across networks among diverse development beyond level and strategic on a conceptual that operates design The concepts show how new in the field. activity is rather design diversification of the offering of housing and diffusion of of housing and diffusion of of the offering diversification of affordability. enable the affordability of dwellings. Partnership with Ikea in in with Ikea of dwellings. Partnership affordability enable the “look” and price-brand in a distinctive and sales brings design of dwelling products beforehand and standardise them to the and standardise them to the beforehand of dwelling products a conceptual model of a housing concept (Figure 27). 27). a conceptual model of a housing concept (Figure articulated and implemented into production. This especially especially This articulated and implemented into production. and precedent to physical implementation design. This type of of type This design. implementation to physical precedent and assembly of the buildings. Replication is further is Replication buildings. of the assembly supported by that housing concepts in their heterogeneity and detachment and detachment that housing concepts in their heterogeneity innovations in the field. Via new concept development, Via new concept development, in the field. innovations in the market. Rather than counting on coincidental success Rather than counting on coincidental success in the market. innovation, whether technological or social by origin, can be can be whether technological or social by origin, innovation, industrial production method and simplified design conjoin to conjoin to design method and simplified production industrial represent a strategy that seeks to identify core success factors factors success that seeks to identify core a strategy represent boundaries. The concepts demonstrate a mode of housing a mode of housing The concepts demonstrate boundaries. in housing can be intentionally difference) (valuable novelty building design. As suggested by previous research, it seems it seems research, by previous As suggested building design. positioning that prepares people for the downsides downsides the for people prepares that positioning It This topic is elaborated furtherThis topic is elaborated in Chapter 4.4. concept provided by previous research. Approaches to housing concept in architectural and housing studies have somewhat overlooked its commodity aspect and correspondence with the general usage of concept in business. This may be due to prevalence in the perceptions of architects of the traditional artistic definition of concept, seen as guiding design idea (see Chapter 3.3). Architectural studies also have not properly grasped the composite nature of a housing concept as an entity that can comprise elements beyond built form. Business oriented studies about the topic, on the other hand, lack in comprehending the materiality of the concepts and their specific relationship to built form, as well as those peculiar characteristics arising from the singularity and locatedness of dwellings as artefacts that make housing concepts different from concepts in many other fields. My research sheds light on the conjunction of the differentiated commodity dimension and the material artefact dimension in housing concepts. Housing concept as manifested in my material can be defined as a specification of a novel housing solution where the core idea is duplicable. A housing concept defines a whole and its constituent designable parts to deliver an essentially intangible problem-solving benefit to the user. It typically corresponds to a recognised market demand or gap in the offering of housing. By singling out and suggesting to consumers features of the dwelling product anticipated to be experienced by them as valuable, commercial housing concepts serve the alignment of user needs and lifestyles along the industrial production system. On the other hand, they act as devices for collaborative product development within the housing system that can also help transfer users’ ideas into viable products. The concepts serve positioning and differentiation of dwelling products in relation to various user groups and to other products in the market. They deal with systematisation of product variation and systematisation of the relationship of the dwelling product to user. This makes them similar to other consumer products and demonstrates the commodification of housing in late-modern society. Regarding the types of concepts presented in Chapter 3.3, housing concepts represent one variation of the “standardising template” usage of concept prevalent in engineering, business and marketing. This demonstrates the becoming of industrial urban housing as a commodity among other commodities, and directly positions it to the realm of individualised consumption. However, housing concepts also display characteristics of the other types of concepts. A concept can rely on a guiding designerly idea, as the Neo- loft. Moreover, housing concepts serve the probing of new 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 168 169

USE USERS PLACE MARKET HOUSING REALM OF REALM OF adaptability Localisation, Target group, Target diversification Differentiation, Differentiation, personalisation FIGURE 27. 27. FIGURE A conceptual model of a housing concept.

AREA BUILDING APARTMENT OBJECTS OWNERSHIP COMMUNITY benefit Intangible BUILT FORM problem-solving problem-solving TEHNOLOGY SERVICES In the housing industry, producers develop and and develop producers industry, housing the In A housing concept provides a generic template a generic template A housing concept provides As mentioned, what also distinguishes housing housing As mentioned, what also distinguishes VALUE Partners, Partners, NETWORK PRODUCT PROCESS REALM OF REALM OF replicability STRUCTURE PRODUCTION PRODUCTION modularisation Standardisation, Industrialisation, common offerings sustain (portfoliossustain local singular, which of concepts housing of) limited to the product development process and where they they and where process development limited to the product specific relationship to built environment. The concepts are are concepts The environment. built to relationship specific of design beyond the scope of housing architecture. beyond of design which multiple particular, locally from “design” or rough dwelling, the concepts also contain differentiating elements elements dwelling, the concepts also contain differentiating constructed as bundles of attributes (designable elements of elements of constructed as bundles of attributes (designable of singular designs. of concepts is more the role industry, where consumer product driven concepts support collaborative housing development, housing development, concepts supportdriven collaborative concepts from other products and product concepts is their concepts is their product and other products concepts from adapted housing designs can be derived that are only partially partially only that are can be derived adapted housing designs adaptations are derived according to need. This differs from from according to need. This differs derived adaptations are anticipatory concepts in technology industry. The more socially socially anticipatory concepts in technology more The industry. The “code” objects”. of “boundary characteristics assuming instructors as role their to related is concepts housing in aspect the dwelling product) to deliver their anticipated overall benefit overall their anticipated to deliver the dwelling product) Even form. of built levels hierarchic on various situated that are such as services and technology. built form, beyond that are if most of the concept elements concentrate on the physical physical the on concentrate elements concept the of most if provide the basis for mass production of uniform, industrially industrially of uniform, mass production the basis for provide products. replicated markets and transfer of innovations to the field, much like the the much like to the field, of innovations and transfer markets This indicates the expansion of dwelling as a product and object object and product a as dwelling of expansion the indicates This determined by the concept. The extent to which a concept determines built form and the strategy by which it delivers its promise can vary. The concepts operate within the hierarchy of built form by standardising, variating and opening certain parts of the dwelling product. A key finding of my study is that housing concepts have a material depth. A concept can be materially superficial, operating on the surface levels of the dwelling product, or materially deep, addressing the building or the urban area. This affects its duplicability. There is variation in the origins of housing concepts and in their ownership. A concept can focus on different phases in the value creation process. What also varies is the relationship of the concepts to user and the extent of user control allowed by them. The case concepts can be divided into technologically oriented and socially oriented concepts, even if a concept can also aim at combining both dimensions. Some concepts (Aktiivikoti, BoKlok, PlusKoti) primarily rely on producer- driven technological product and process enhancement by utilisation of methods such as mass customisation. Other concepts (Loppukiri, Neo-loft) have resulted from user or designer-driven, publicly supported, collaborative product development efforts where producers have had a secondary role. An additional important dimension in concepts is that of marketing and branding. The materially more superficial concepts especially rely heavily on branding as means of differentiation. Housing concepts mediate between the contradictory realms of production and use. They serve the reconciliation of industrial mass production and the increasing demand for diversity and individuality of housing. A housing concept has a number of channels or interfaces to both directions through which the mediation happens (see Figure 27). These can also be seen as designable components of the concept. In the producer side, developing a housing concept typically involves identifying a partner network needed for providing its composite elements, modifying the physical product structure and design according to the concept, and changes to the production process. Here, overall emphasis is on streamlining and duplicability. The concept towards this direction serves standardisation and systematisation of product variation. On the use side, a housing concept seeks to establish connection to certain target group by tapping into their supposed or expressed needs. In addition, it often enables some degree of personalisation by user. Concepts also relate to other products in the market from which they seek to differentiate themselves. Towards the direction of use and the realised built environment, a housing concept thus serves the diversification 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 170 171

4.4 Users and design in in Users and design , www.ara.fi.) THE VALUE CREATION PROCESS PROCESS CREATION VALUE THE AND ORGANISATION OF PRODUCT PRODUCT OF ORGANISATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE INDUSTRY THE IN DEVELOPMENT residential product development product residential Main phases in a commercial residential residential commercial a in phases Main The production of market-oriented owner- of market-oriented The production

upkeep of the building and joint facilities. Market-oriented Market-oriented of the building and joint facilities. upkeep subdivided into programming, systems design and detailed detailed and design systems programming, into subdivided subsidised production with state loans or private loans with a loans with a loans or private with state subsidised production Development and Finance Housing (The subsidy. interest state flats. In 2006, nearly 80 per cent of new blocks of flats were 80 per cent of new blocks of flats were flats. In 2006, nearly founder contracting model, where the developer establishes a a establishes the developer where model, contracting founder housing company on whose behalf it executes the cooperative design, including both architectural and engineering design. and engineering design. including both architectural design, of a specific flat; the housing company is responsible for the the for is responsible of a specific flat; the housing company discuss the housing developers’ perceptions about dwelling as a about dwelling as a perceptions discuss the housing developers’ based on a so-called in Finland is usually housing occupied development process are land acquisition, project planning, planning, project acquisition, land are process development and customer care after move-in. The design phase can be be can phase design The move-in. after care customer and and individualisation of dwelling products. A further aspect products. of dwelling individualisation and that needs to be addressed on this side is the relationship of of the relationship side is on this be addressed needs to that housing projects. concept to singular the duplicable project before selling the shares of the company to customers. customers. of the company to selling the shares before project in the 2008, 12). The shares in this manner (Vainio produced house building essentially aims at maximising the profit on on at maximising the profit aims house building essentially product definition (design), construction, marketing and sales, and sales, construction, marketing definition (design), product housing company grant their owner the right of possession possession of right the owner their grant company housing state- and loans private financed with is housing production product and about its diversification. The section is concluded The section is concluded and about its diversification. product in of diversification bottlenecks by identification of several housing production. role of users (customers) and design in the process. I will also I will also process. in the design of users (customers) and role Centre of Finland ARA Centre value creation process in the industry and reflect upon the upon the in the industry and reflect process creation value Decision to break ground is based on advance booking of the booking of the is based on advance ground Decision to break Report 2010, 38; Sohlenius 2006, 8, 23–24.) Speculative Report8, 23–24.) Speculative 2006, Sohlenius 2010, 38; In the following, I shall give an overview of the residential residential the of an overview I shall give the following, In 4.4.1 The process takes approximately 5–7 years. (Skanska Annual Annual 5–7 years. (Skanska approximately takes The process investment in buildable land. The purchase of land is based on a detailed analysis of local conditions as well as economic and demographic factors. Early definition of the target customer category to provide guidelines for design and marketing is considered essential in value creation. The developers basically aim to “create a neighbourhood with clear character based on the potential offered by the surroundings” that would attract customers in the specific local market (Skanska Annual Report 2010, 38). The process involves business and project developers, architects, salespeople and builders, collaborating with urban planners, other public authorities and other companies. In large construction corporations, housing development and construction are separate business sectors. The developer is responsible of land acquisition, project development, design acquisition, marketing, sales and customer care. The builder takes care of the construction of the houses. For each housing project, a project team led by a project manager is set up. Architects and other external consultants are commissioned to individual projects. The extended value network includes myriad subcontractors and providers of building parts, technology and services. My interviews mainly focused on residential product development. That covers the early stages of the residential development process as well as more strategic and conceptual development activities aiming at creation of new products and services beyond individual housing projects. The residential product development team in Company X consists of six persons: the product development manager with a background in economics and business administration, one architect, one interior architect, one technical specialist with expertise also on sustainability issues, and two market analysts. The team is responsible for product development, market analysis and consumer insight. Product development includes design and development of the customer offering and new concepts, as well as management of the assortment selection process and assortment concept development. Product development is also done in individual housing projects. In addition, technical product development activities take place on the corporation level. There is a cross- Nordic unit that creates technical solutions, specifications, processes and tools, which are being applied in national residential projects. In Company Y there is a combined housing development and marketing team comprising less than 10 persons, led by a development manager who is architect by education. There are one or two other architects in the team 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 172 173 . tools similar to tools similar to HOUSING PRODUCTION HOUSING USER KNOWLEDGE AND AGENCY AGENCY AND KNOWLEDGE USER OF USERS IN MARKET-DRIVEN MARKET-DRIVEN IN USERS OF Company Z does not have a designated product product designated a Z does not have Company . The development team follows professional and and professional team follows . The development

. The value creation process begins with identification begins with identification process creation . The value beginning of the development process is dominated by by dominated is process development the of beginning users in different phases of the residential development development of the residential phases users in different the market the group selection of dwelling types and sizes. One informant said said One informant selection of dwelling types and sizes. little influence on the design of the product. Designing the the Designing of the product. little influence on the design out options. A further source of knowledge is general trends of knowledge is general out options. A further source in developers utilise customerdevelopers segmentation according to their of thousands of respondents on the profiling is questionable. They show of segmentation to the offering of the potential group of buyers whom the specific area, area, specific the whom buyers of group potential the of about the local analysts by market provided on information targeted typically are Housing projects demand and offering. customer knowledge and user knowledge (Hyysalo 2009, 19). 2009, 19). (Hyysalo customer knowledge and user knowledge developed further.developed to services, technology, Expertiserelated it does not As the company is not a builder, development. close collaboration with a larger technical development unit unit development technical a larger with collaboration close the under activity is organised Development team. development brought service ideas are concept and of finance. New director and one interior designer. Product development is done in in done is development Product designer. interior one and at certain age groups or family types. This mainly affects the the affects types. This mainly or family at certain age groups those used by other companies in consumer business, building in consumer business, building those used by other companies that a target group is mostly just used in marketing and has and has just used in marketing is mostly group that a target the thin local housing market. As seen in the previous chapter, chapter, previous the seen in As market. thin local housing the into the management group where they are discussed and discussed and they are where management group into the mainly in marketing and as stylistic variation in interior fit- in interior and as stylistic variation in marketing mainly doing. public discourse on housing and what competitors are products too specifically for a narrow group would be a risk in would be a risk in group a narrow for too specifically products process, relying on a distinction between market knowledge, knowledge, on a distinction between market relying process, phase, the user is planning knowledge. In the project market of a local demographic as member perceived primarily target marketing and investment are considered important in product importantproduct in considered are investment and marketing of its own. The activities development pursue technical product initiating pilot new solutions is through main way to develop with committed partners. together projects mainly employing construction engineers. employing mainly price level and type of project would attract. This is based This is based would attract. and type of project price level values, lifestyles or consumption preferences. The actual impact The actual impact or consumption preferences. lifestyles values, I will first look at the specific types of knowledge about of knowledge about I will first look at the specific types 4.4.2 They may also participate in research projects The When real customers become involved in the process, emphasis shifts to customer knowledge. Main sources of customer knowledge are surveys and direct customer feedback. In marketing and advance sales phase of a new housing project, the developer gets information about customer response to the product and its features. Standard customer satisfaction surveys are used for measuring product satisfaction and quality of service. Surveys can be realised after purchase, at move-in, after warranty repairs, regularly during residence, and when moving out. They can be complemented with segmentation tools. The providers of rental housing receive additional information about their customers through application forms. This data is presently not much utilised. Customer feedback is recorded by the customer service personnel, reclamations being one important source of knowledge. One of the companies has a web-based customer panel comprising 400–500 persons that is used for targeted surveys and getting rapid feedback on new product ideas. 4–5 surveys are realised annually. In addition, concept testing with customers is done occasionally. There is a marked lack of user knowledge, in- depth contextual knowledge about individual users and user communities, in the residential development process. At least this type of knowledge was not explicitly referred to in the interviews. It may be that knowledge about some aspects of user experience such as functional requirements of dwelling is so self-evident and inbuilt within the housing system that it does not need highlighting. The regular architectural design process perhaps solves many of the issues related to human experience sufficiently well so that they need not become the concern of developers. As will be discussed later, the mainstream dwelling product may be “locked” by the regime so that its further refinement or differentiation is considered purposeless or downright impossible. In any case, I would argue that in the otherwise so calculated and seemingly rational value creation process of market-oriented housing, no systematic methods are available for ensuring the realisation of user value. There is a gap between knowledge about individual users and the designable attributes of dwelling. The developers are partially at loss about which product attributes mean what to whom, how to effectively impose knowledge about users to the development process, and how to measure the user value of end products. Despite access to extensive market and customer knowledge, the relationship between products and their anticipated users is weak, random and uncontrolled. At best, design decisions happen through “informed guessing” based on professional experience. In the light of my data, users and user knowledge are not a fully 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 174 175 as wanted’. This incipient conservatism is tempered by the need need the by tempered is conservatism incipient This wanted’. immediate rivals. immediate they have sold, they must have provided ‘what the market market the ‘what provided must have they sold, have they market real any Lacking competition. the with up keep to demand ofmarket illusion an create builders to, refer to to unscramble the ingredients of success, builders routinely routinely builders of success, ingredients the unscramble to and, unable to quantify the precise value of innovation or or ofinnovation value precise the quantify to unable and, know what they words, their In experience. on previous rely by constant reference to the actions and decisions of their of their decisions and actions the to reference constant by sells houses because their houses have sold. And because And sold. because have houses their sells because houses Customership is the sole channel through through channel sole the is Customership It is difficult to know exactly why a house did or did not sell notsell did or a house did why know to exactly difficult is It The interviewees did not see co-design The interviewees The difficulty of translating obscure, unknowable unknowable obscure, of translating The difficulty customer-user is mainly able to exercise power by approving approving by power exercise to able mainly is customer-user shifts to attending to repair needs. Warranty repairs are over over are repairs needs. Warranty shifts to attending to repair singular projects. ease the work of customer service personnel, many personnel, many ease the work of customer service flat. To feelings and tradition: feelings experience and degree of user involvement. Customer service Customer service of user involvement. and degree experience or rejecting pre-designed elements of dwelling. For producers, For producers, elements of dwelling. pre-designed or rejecting user expectations, user customership is means to regulate companies offer online services where customers can try out the customers can try out the online services where offer companies owner-occupied housing, customership begins from the deal the deal housing, customership begins from owner-occupied typically are booking. At that point, the clients or advance where manipulation of some aspects of own dwelling is dwelling is manipulation of some aspects of own where which users are given personal agency in regular commercial commercial personal agency in regular given which users are assigned a customer service person with whom they go a customer service person with whom they go assigned about house design, layout and specification mostly on gut on gut mostly and specification layout about house design, through the specification and customisation process of their of their and customisation process the specification through to compete in the market. in about 1.5 years, after which customer contacts decline. decline. contacts customer which after years, 1.5 about in influence the price. After move-in, emphasis of customerhip emphasis of customerhip influence the price. After move-in, in a predefined process with designated points of interaction points of interaction with designated process in a predefined integrated part either of strategic level residential design and and design residential part level integrated strategic either of is considered an important phase in value creation and a way and a way an important creation phase in value is considered possible within limits set by the producer. In the case of In the case of producer. possible within limits set by the range of design alternatives as visualisations and see how they and see how they visualisations as alternatives of design range housing production. Being a customer means playing a part playing means a customer Being production. housing reluctance to tamper a proven product and ground decisions decisions and ground product to tamper a proven reluctance research. According to a British study on the perceptions of of perceptions study on the British to a According research. a common builders share 1999, 135), (Shove house builders product development activity or of architectural design within within design of architectural or activity development product very realistic in the case of industrial housing. One reason in the case of industrial housing. One reason realistic very A “market demand” into product attributes is attested by previous by previous attributes is attested demand” into product “market for that is the long lead-time in housing production which is believed to hinder the willingness of people to commit to such processes. It is also uncommon that all residents of a house would be together already in the design phase. One company had tried out giving a small group of residents the opportunity to participate in the design of their dwellings in a housing project where that exceptionally was the case. In this sense, delayed differentiation represented by the current interior customisation services seems one of the few ways available for providing individuality within the constraints of the existing production process, and as such quite viable. Selecting between pre-designed alternatives was seen as suitable mode of “participation” for laypeople. More extensive inclusion of them to the development of housing would be expensive, complicated and perhaps even harmful, as implied by one informant. The industry’s reluctance to assign any influential role to users other than as customers can be interpreted as attempt to protect against all threats to market hegemony. Superficial levels of the product are those that the user can be allowed to control without compromising the profitability of the housing business. “Deeper” user involvement transforming the more “wicked” (and possibly more significant) levels of housing is prevented by the system. On the other hand, it may be that flexibility in the furnishings and partitioning levels of dwelling in fact is what makes enough difference for the majority of users and therefore is quite satisfactory. Considering user-initiated housing projects and new production models such as group building, the developers did not see them as a viable business case for themselves. Despite that, innovative new projects in the field are followed closely because they show for what kind of housing solutions there is demand in the market and provide valuable input to companies’ own product development.

4.4.3 DEVELOPERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF USERS AND OF THE DIVERSIFICATION OF DEMAND

The developers had a rationalistic view of the decision-making process of customers. Location is considered the primary factor steering housing choices. Then come number of rooms and price per square metre. People are thought to be well aware of the local offering and average price of housing in the area. The price level in the neighbourhood determines the type of buyers and therefore also to a large extent what kind of housing 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 176 177 80 per cent of the present customers of Company customers of Company of the present 80 per cent Housing preferences were perceived by developers by developers perceived were Housing preferences segments. The harmonious emphasise home as safe and and home as safe segments. The harmonious emphasise status. The stereotypical division between families with children with children division between families status. The stereotypical looking for a detached house and small households preferring preferring households small and house a detached looking for of Most of of the two other products. groups the target living are factors in the housing business. Note the distinction. the housing business. factors in dwellings with extensive customisation options, to name some customisation options, to name some dwellings with extensive environment living the towards attitudes Apartexamples. from consumer segmentation in housing business is not that evident. consumer segmentation in housing business is not that evident. customers beyond demographics, the informants mainly drew drew mainly the informants demographics, customers beyond utilised in the companies. on customer segmentation models couples or single parents with child(ren). They are also also They are with child(ren). couples or single parents of owner-occupied group described as city dwellers. The target customer base along its three main products. The basic product The basic product main products. its three customer base along similar rather are probably customers The group. target defined company are expensive and in smaller towns “families with with and in smaller towns “families expensive company are divides its in blocks of flats”. Company Y do not live children quality of the dwelling, especially the kitchen and bathroom, and bathroom, the kitchen the dwelling, especially quality of can be over 60 years old. Typical customers are couples couples are 60 years old. Typical customers can be over whose children have moved away. Families with children are are with children away. Families moved have whose children and customisation of dwelling, values may affect people’s people’s may affect and customisation of dwelling, values as means of self-expression, and the efficient as functional as functional and the efficient as means of self-expression, as overt generalisation. When asked about differentiation of of about differentiation When asked as overt generalisation. as dependent on life stage, family size and socio-economic size and socio-economic stage, family as dependent on life and price, customers emphasise the functional and aesthetic and aesthetic the functional emphasise price, customers and and possibility to customise the flat. Location and quality of of quality and Location flat. the customise to possibility and attract certain segments. The efficient choose a location close choose a location close certainattract segments. The efficient the dwelling. Aside from marketing, the role of customer or or of customer role the marketing, the dwelling. Aside from the rental customers of Company Z are small families – singles, – singles, small families Company Z are customers of the rental than those of Company X. Seniors from their late fifties on, and on, and fifties their late X. Seniors from than those of Company the product were thus seen as the two main competitiveness competitiveness main two the as seen thus were product the to train station and shopping mall and the trendy move into into move station and shopping mall and the trendy to train investment in dwelling: investment is undifferentiated in the sense that it does not have a clearly a clearly have in the sense that it does not is undifferentiated is built there and the price of it. Secondary to location, size size location, to Secondary it. of price the and there built is instrument supporting a life that mainly happens outside instrument supporting happens outside that mainly a life private realm, the social as arena of togetherness, the trendy of togetherness, the trendy the social as arena realm, private blocks of flats came up in the interviews but was also criticised but was also criticised blocks of flats came up in the interviews on location. depending mainly varies production rare because in the Helsinki region the flats produced by the by the the flats produced because in the Helsinki region rare however, it can be seen that the projects often unintentionally often unintentionally it can be seen that the projects however, (younger) one or two person households looking for affordable affordable one or two person households looking for (younger) For example, Company X has identified four value-based value-based four For example, Company X has identified X. When looking at the residents of finished housing projects, of finished housing projects, X. When looking at the residents X are in their forties or older. In some houses the majority majority or older. In some houses the in their forties X are At present, segments do not show in the offering of Company of Company segments do not show in the offering At present, Given 5.000 euros, the trendy would buy the latest designer chair, the social throw a party for their friends, the harmonious build new shelves to the garage and buy an exercise bike, and the efficient travel somewhere and definitely not invest it in their home.

Purchase process analyses indicate that customers also diverge along the phase of the purchase process that they value most. For rational investor types, making a good deal is the high point. More intuitive persons may focus on the exciting moment of finding their dream dwelling and consider the ensuing choices and practicalities a nuisance, whereas some people value the customisation phase most. For do-it-yourself types seeking for old flats that they can personalise, the most value-adding phase begins after moving in. In rental housing, duration of residence is recognised as one differentiating factor. There are “lifestyle renters” who spend their entire housing career in rental flats. Some people “pass through” a phase of renting, typically in conjunction of a life change. Settling down for good increases the weight of dwelling features. Quality of dwelling and its compatibility with own preferences become more important. Temporary commitment makes it easier to overlook or adapt to unsatisfactory solutions. Relationship to dwelling is also influenced by tenure. For owners the dwelling is more an “asset” whereas renters perhaps see it more as “service”. Interestingly, the interviews suggest that diversification of customer demand concerns just a limited group of customers and is concentrated to certain type of areas. According to the developers, the demand for personalised solutions is significantly higher in bigger cities and there in the premium end of the offering. New housing projects in expensive areas like Lauttasaari in Helsinki attract customers who value the aesthetic quality of dwelling and demand a high degree of customisability.

Experience has shown us that in cheaper housing developments in smaller towns people don’t really need more choice, they are quite happy with the basic solutions. [...] Whereas in the premium end, it’s a rule that nothing serves [laughs]. There people have much greater need for customisation just for the sake of it. It’s terribly important for them that their place doesn’t look the same as the neighbour’s.

Individuality in housing production here appears as a relatively marginal question that can be answered by increasing the modification options available to customers 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 178 179 unsold, those about which you had thought ‘wow, for once once for ‘wow, hadthought you about which those unsold, works during economic boom and in the capital region on on region capital the boom in and economic during works they make something nice and different’. So differentiation So differentiation different’. and nice something make they downturn all even slightly different dwellings were left left were dwellings different slightly all even downturn good sites, but elsewhere...goodsites, becomes hugely critical. During the recent economic economic recent the During critical. hugely becomes same, they somehow seem to expect the same. If you make make you same. If the expect to seem somehow same, they loft apartments,location like different, a bit something Even if the customers whine about everything being the the being abouteverything whine customers the if Even Yet, the informants were of the opinion that the of the opinion that the were the informants Yet, developers brought forward that the majority of customers customers of majority the that forward brought developers largely universal and hence undifferentiable. universal largely lifestyles or hobbies) are becoming more important. In general, important. general, In more becoming are hobbies) or lifestyles segmented and in a different way than present customers. customers. present than way different a in and segmented future and the customers more diverse. Due to continuous rise rise continuous to Due diverse. more customers the and future of qualitatively differentiated customer groups in the future but but in the future customer groups differentiated of qualitatively came up as one distinctive customer segment that sets new segment that sets new customer came up as one distinctive the flexibility of dwellings. It was also suggested demands for comfortto connected living” “thematic living, of easiness and of the living standard, people’s expectations about the dwelling about the dwelling of the living standard, people’s expectations demand for housing is becoming more differentiated in the the in differentiated more becoming is housing for demand create a feeling of individuality and distinction from others. others. from and distinction of individuality a feeling create and impact of diversification of customers to the designable customers to the designable of and impact of diversification and the market will still be dominated by middle-of-the-road will still be dominated by middle-of-the-road and the market are conservative and avoid risks which makes them reluctant them reluctant risks which makes and avoid conservative are one of the “consumer myths” This is in the market. available and by superficial mass customisation on furnishings and and furnishings on customisation mass superficial by and the developers thought that there will be an increasing number number will be an increasing thought that there the developers small and close to each other will be relatively the groups that that experiential goals in dwelling (service experiences, goals in dwelling (service experiences, that experiential to adopt novel housing solutions even if those would be made be made if those would solutions even housing to adopt novel increasingly heterogeneous group. Households with a changing a changing with Households group. heterogeneous increasingly in the future especially young people in cities will be more more be will cities in people young especially future the in identified by previous research (Rask et al. 2008). (Rask et research by previous identified in the configuration of one’s own dwelling can be enough to to can be enough of one’s own dwelling in the configuration partitioning levels of the dwelling product (cf. Mäntysalo (cf. Mäntysalo partitioning product dwelling of the levels end the of (difference) individuality of actual regardless masses looking for conformity with existing housing ideals. existing housing ideals. with conformity masses looking for to be considered were of dwelling, which material features number of members (e.g. due to shared residence of children) of children) residence number of members (e.g. due to shared product were deemed to become higher. It was anticipated that It was anticipated that higher. deemed to become were product result, the customer service process and ability to participateability and service process the customer result, On the other hand, seniors were mentioned as a growing and and mentioned as a growing On the other hand, seniors were & Puustinen 2008). What the quote also implies is that that is implies also quote the What 2008). Puustinen & The The participants were also sceptical about the significance also sceptical about the significance The participants were I believe that there will be more diversity [among customers] than there used to be. But how big the differences are and how they will affect the dwelling itself, I don’t know. Perhaps the dwellings will be the same but the way to relate to them will vary.

4.4.4 THE DWELLING PRODUCT: DIFFERENTIATION, EXPANSION AND STANDARDISATION

The interviews support my preposition of the qualitative homogeneity of industrial housing production. The participants readily admitted that most producers in the market offer the same. It can be argued that the properties and overall quality of the mainstream dwelling product are determined by the regulatory system and requirements of the building industry and consolidated by conventional housing design. The dwelling product has been optimised along the ends of the housing regime and locked into what has become a shared standard, a dominant design that is bred as endless minor variations across the market. Attempts to relock the situation meet systemic resistance and are a risk to companies. Finland is seen as too small a market to allow substantial differentiation of housing. As explained in the previous chapter, customers are conservative or at least perceived as such. Housing is so expensive that most people are not willing to pay extra for special solutions. It is also felt that urban planning and the building regulations force similarity on housing. All this contributes to why the mainstream housing industry delivers homogeneous products that just about meet but rarely exceed the expectations of users. Following quotes are from the three informants respectively:

Well, the offering doesn’t really differ. The product is more or less the same, but if service and such things are counted in there may be small differences [between companies]. [...] Then there are competitors who come out with one building where the energy issues are taken care of or there’s something exclusive, wanting to showcase that we are doing something like this. But the truth is that we are very much in the same train. I would argue that we all practically offer the same product.

It’s true that [the housing concepts] are all rather similar. I would guess that for consumers these concepts and [brand] names mean quite little these days. [...] It’s just a selection of a target group whom to address. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 180 181 [our . The physical physical The . them. We have been very very been have We them. of the physical physical the of service design or hates them either, they are just okay. [...] I think we are are we think I [...] okay. just are they either, them or hates timid in arousing emotions. arousing in timid dislike it. It shouldn’t matter if someone doesn’t someone shouldn’t like if It matter it. dislike afraid to make anything special because someone might might someone because special anything make to afraid products] if someone else someone loves if products] The challenge is that nobody falls in love with our products, our products, with love in falls nobody that is challenge The Meaningful differentiation of products was was of products Meaningful differentiation The quality of customer service was deemed an deemed an The quality of customer service was user needs reasonably well. It was felt that there are not many not many are there that well. It was felt user needs reasonably service, branding with carefully fabricated connotations to fabricated connotations to with carefully service, branding experiences of difference among a homogeneous offering are are among a homogeneous offering of difference experiences by cosmetic means such as personalised customer created enhance the service experience include packaging of services services of packaging include experience service the enhance customer satisfaction, whereas to 70 per cent of the customers customers the of cent per 70 to whereas satisfaction, customer evident in both the current offering and the new product and and and the new product offering evident in both the current concept ideas described by the respondents. the physical considered had personnel service customer being the main factor contributing to dwelling product dwelling product (although perhaps influencing some of its some of its influencing (although perhaps dwelling product That is and object of design. expansion of dwelling as a product deemed difficult, even if the question of diversification diversification of question the if even difficult, deemed relevant. was considered in general of housing production ways in which the prevalent physical dwelling product can can dwelling product physical in which the prevalent ways according to customer segments or individuals. Efforts to according to customer segments or individuals. Efforts to the and concepting of customer communication throughout already exist in the market, and producers “only” supply things things supply “only” and producers exist in the market, already to truly differentiate by service or branding is rather limited. limited. is rather by service or branding differentiate to truly to an internal survey according to which 60 per cent of the according to which 60 per cent of the to an internal survey that they recognise there is realistic demand for (cf. Shove (cf. Shove demand for realistic is there that they recognise the scope of most significant to cover evolves that the offering it had been the people they had met and the service process and the service process it had been the people they had met in development product that This participantitself. argued important means of differentiation. One participant referred One participant referred important means of differentiation. in the market by the participants. This demonstrates the by the participants. the This demonstrates in the market physical dwelling product has led to a situation where has led to a situation where dwelling product physical process. Another interviewee maintained that the possibility maintained that the possibility Another interviewee process. product might remain the same but the service process variate variate process the same but the service remain might product hallway and bathroom”. Elements outsidehallway and bathroom”. means of differentiation seen as central were features) physical be differentiated apart from “natural” architectural diversity. diversity. architectural “natural” apart from be differentiated people “only” demand things that they know of and that mostly mostly that and of know they that things demand “only” people housing is moving closer to to closer moving is housing One could claim that the systemic locking of the mainstream locking of the mainstream One could claim that the systemic the words of one participant, “everyone needs the kitchen, needs the kitchen, In the words of one participant, “everyone 1999). The dynamics of the market thus was thought to ensure thus was thought to ensure of the market 1999). The dynamics informants stressed reciprocality of demand and supply: supply: of demand and reciprocality stressed The informants lifestyles, or marketing that inflates the significance of regular FIGURE 28. product attributes. Differentiation is achieved by adjusting Differentiable (designable) elements of the dwelling intangible elements through which perception of the product product mentioned in can be altered without having to variate its physical features. the company interviews. Housing concepts and brands here act as filters that mediate The elements roughly follow the phases in between users and the offering of housing by helping/forcing value creation process of them to channel their needs and preferences along product housing as they deal with features suggested by producers as matching. strategic positioning of The interviews indicate that the definition of the product, the production process, properties of customership in market-oriented housing is extending towards the physical product, the use phase. There seems to be a tendency among developers customer experience, and to see a more continuous role for themselves in value creation. use (cf. Swink 2000). Several reasons for this were mentioned. Legal responsibility of the board in housing companies has increased which means that they need more professional expertise. The real estate management field is fragmented and the companies small, which opens up opportunities for new players. Increased amount of technology in buildings and the demand for energy efficiency highlight the impact of residents’ behaviour to sustainability and durability of buildings during their life cycle. The residents are, for instance, given guidance to the proper use and maintenance of the technical equipment of their dwelling by Company Y. Steering of user behaviour towards sustainability with the help of energy consumption monitoring and other smart home solutions was seen as growing field by one participant, who also anticipated the diffusion of complete facility management services (“housing operators”) from workplaces to residential buildings. Differentiation in the housing industry simultaneously aims at cost-efficiency of production. Product development not only deals with creation of variety but systematisation of it: widening of the product range but with increasingly standard parts and processes. In market-oriented owner-occupied housing, packaged interior design themes like those in PlusKoti nowadays are the norm. Company Y for instance has five themes to choose from. Within each theme, there is a further level of choice between alternative colours and materials. It is also possible to make choices across the packages or order additional upgrade packages or individual modifications at separate price. This can be described as delayed differentiation relying on some level of mass customisation. The degree of personalisation can also be used as a differentiating factor. Highly modifiable dwellings can be offered for individualistic upmarket customers and more generic standard dwellings at a lower price for other segments. In addition, the companies divide their product portfolio according to demographic customer segments (such as families 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 182 183

PRODUCTION PHYSICAL CUSTOMER LIFE-CYCLE POSITIONING PROCESS PRODUCT EXPERIENCE MANAGEMENT

Location Business model Building type Brand, product image Duration of residence

Type of production Partners, value network Building architecture and details Brand, product image Customership during residence

Tenure form Production process, industrialisation Range and positioning of dwellings Seller, sales event Smart home management

Funding, loaning Production structure, modularity Dwelling type, size and functions Customer service Energy management

Price category Design guidelines, solution libraries Quality of dwelling design Customer communication Guidance to use and upkeep

Quality level Collaborative design methods Degree of flexibility Customisation process and tools Maintenance services

Target group Degree of completion Care services, other services for users

Position among local offering Degree of personalisation Interior fit-out assortment Real estate management services

Position in product portfolio Addition upgrade packages Possibility for other individual modifications Building renovation services

Concept, brand Technical services, equipment, smart home solutions Assistive features

“Theme”, connection to lifestyle Experiental quality, views Joint spaces and facilites

Quality of the outdoor environment Access to transportation services with children, seniors) and price categories. Company Z is using star rating familiar from hotels to classify its stock of rental flats and to manage the expectations of customers. The urban housing production of Company X is divided into two price categories, “Core” and “Premium”. These “production concepts” relate to construction technology and are not seen by customers. They originate from a cross-Nordic, corporation level project that concentrates on industrialising the housing production process. More basic Core production seeks cost-efficiency by utilisation of prefabricated building elements, such as wall elements and bathroom modules. The external architecture and apartment plans are still relatively variable. The Premium production uses less standard elements. It is applied in more expensive locations. Showing features of mass customisation, this type of technical standardisation not only serves efficiency of production and the building process but allows diversification of the offering in a more sustainable way. The firms are continuously seeking for a balance between those components of the dwelling product that can remain the same and those that need to be variated.

One thing that we are increasingly developing is that even if we might be standardising, concepting and copying behind the scenes, outwards it’s more about differentiating [the products]. Two housing projects can be completely different even if they are similar with respect to building technology.

The building industry is still so local and culture-specific that some essential work stages are done differently in various parts of Finland. [...] On the other hand, quality of the end product and certain visible product specifications that brand our product should be the same everywhere. The interior design themes are an example of a solution that goes through regardless of culture, we sell the same concept to all customers. [...] There are many things that definitely are worth standardising but also things that should never be standardised. [...] The benefit of standardisation also varies depending on the project. In some projects, the stairway is a central element that should be made individual. For the majority of production, it would suffice to design a beautiful staircase once and duplicate that. You only need to look at the present offering to see that all solutions are nearly similar. In my opinion, we shouldn’t use resources to that but focus on special quality, digging up those points where we could provide most value to the customer. [...] That would lead to standardisation but with individual outcomes. 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 184 185 What we can do is introduce smaller [subsolutions like] like] [subsolutions smaller introduce is do can we What themselves rather than any real need to change things things change to need real any than rather themselves different this time. [...] I’d claim that in over half of the half of the I’d [...] over time. in that this claim different repeat something that they have already done. already have they that something repeat excited about doing something new again. [...] When you are are you When [...] again. new something about doing excited slightly it make well as might you anyway, it build to going express to need managers’ about project the just it’s cases but that we don’t remember to duplicate them, being so so being them, duplicate to don’tbut we that remember smart home solutions that are packaged so that the next next the that so packaged are that smarthome solutions [laughs]. [...] It’s much about people’s unwillingness to to unwillingness much about people’s It’s [...] [laughs]. were who realised, was howsee it will manager project The problem is not that we wouldn’t make good things good wouldn’t things we not that make is problem The To be able to make a difference, conceptual and and conceptual difference, a be able to make To The realisation of new concepts and product ideas ideas product and concepts new of realisation The less haphazardly in individual housing projects realised by by realised in individual housing projects less haphazardly streamlining and duplicability of production. Standardisation Standardisation production. of duplicability and streamlining strategic product development needs to be integrated with with to be integrated needs development product strategic seems to depend critically on project managers in charge of of charge in managers project on critically depend to seems from strategic product development. On the other hand, strong On the other hand, strong development. product strategic from of building and the professionals’ inherent preference for for preference inherent professionals’ the and building of concern of developers: change and variety thus work against the central directives of of directives thus work against the central change and variety the Overcoming boundaries. project across features design is an important chasm between singularity and duplication housing. in housing. innovation for ground cases as a breeding concepts. Because of problems in acceptance of centrally of centrally in acceptance of problems concepts. Because and solutions developed centrally. Local, one-off nature nature one-off Local, centrally. developed solutions and and other product or process enhancements born more or or enhancements born more or process and other product and also what they have done before”. Company X used to have have to used X Company before”. done have they what also and housing new envisioned that unit development product Nordic a temporary project teams do not easily transfer to subsequent to subsequent transfer teams do not easily project temporary teams that collaborate more closely with technical development. with technical development. closely more teams that collaborate imposed (too avant-garde) concepts in the project level, level, project in the concepts avant-garde) (too imposed is seen as effective way to transfer best practices and successful and successful practices best way to transfer is seen as effective in projects. This reflects the importance of tangible real-life importance the real-life tangible of reflects This projects. in innovation and sticking to “what they believe in, what they can, can, in, what they to “what they believe and sticking innovation projects, let alone cumulate into organisational learning. learning. into organisational let alone cumulate projects, concepts hinders the diffusion of new practices, control project real-life projects. Currently, good design solutions, practices solutions, practices good design Currently, projects. real-life product development activities were relocated closer to actual closer to actual relocated were activities development product development national product now are There projects. housing housing projects. According to developers they tend to resist tend to resist they to developers According housing projects. over viability practical emphasising above, from novelties Considerable amount of product development also takes place place also takes development amount of product Considerable expertise of project managers also seems to be disconnected managers also seems to be disconnected The expertise of project the partners, what was the system and the interface. So you don’t have to give it too much thought, it’s there ready. Or if we have a loft project that has sold well, we can say, ‘these things were essential and these not, copy it’. Or if we are building in more rural locations we can say, ‘this was a good and functional [design of] four floors and 30 flats, what’s the size of your plot, let’s make it one floor higher or expand it a bit’.

Regarding trends in the field and new solutions that there is anticipated to be demand for, the participants were quite unanimous. Affordable housing came up as a pressing dilemma that the industry is trying to develop solutions to from its own premises. The area was seen as highly interesting but problematic as business and hindered by inflexible regulation. Cheap land, simplification of dwelling space and equipment, modular building systems and prefabrication were mentioned as prerequisites of affordable production. BoKlok is example of this type of products as are the unfinished flats that the companies are selling in Eastern Europe. Request for new forms of collective urban housing e.g. by seniors is another trend recognised by the participants. This was seen as relatively marginal topic with little business interest for developers. Adding services to dwelling was identified as a third area with increasing demand but lack of actors and viable business models. Services could be care services (for seniors) or services related to dwelling such as cleaning or renovation services. Finally, sustainability of housing was not seen as way to differentiate in the market or as something that customers would particularly demand but as profound technological transition in the field that all producers are forced to comply with. It was noted that apart from changes directly imposed by law, the industry has not been very innovative in this area. This is partly because enhancement of technology makes the end product more expensive.

4.4.5 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND NEW DESIGN TASKS

The developers use a large amount of architectural offices, some more frequently than others. The choice is rather random and the quality of design varies according to project. There is, however, a tendency towards identification of a few preferred architects with whom to establish longer-term partnerships. This is seen as a means to gain competitive advantage and to help managing the ongoing transition of the construction field 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 186 187 , and quality designguidelines , understand variably well. I have to say that architects architects that say well. to I have variably understand bad but houses bloody designing goodin quite are usually We try to give architects the same information [that the the [that information same the architects try give to We in designing homes. They put all the energy to sketching sketching to put energy all the homes. They designing in of the project managers. They are given the target group group target the given are They managers. project of the the house and some summer apprentice divides it into flats. flats. into it divides apprentice summer some house and the development team has], depending on the briefing skills skills briefing on the depending has], team development existing cultural atmosphere. If we would have a highly a highly have would we If atmosphere. cultural existing analysis and the segment description as well as information information as well as description segment the and analysis about, the thinking are of we people kind aboutwhat Sometimes the floor plans we get are just horrible. just are get floorwe the plans Sometimes sophisticated public who would understand [avant-garde] [avant-garde] understand would who public sophisticated price level, type, and so forth. Architects then listen and and listen then Architects forth. so and type, level, price Even the most enlightened architect can’t change the can’t the change architect enlightened most the Even As seen here, architects are criticised for focusing focusing for criticised are architects here, seen As . The design brief is given by the project manager and and manager by the project is given brief . The design control significance to residents, whereas the quality of apartment the quality of apartment whereas to residents, significance sustainability of housing. The developers control architectural architectural control developers of housing. The sustainability few exceptions. It was implicated that one reason for this is the the is this for reason one that implicated It was exceptions. few functionality and optimisation of space as well as in the design as well as in the design functionality and optimisation of space functional and other requirements. Realisation of the initial of the initial Realisation requirements. functional and other designs. In any case, architectural design seems not to play a not to play a seems design In any case, architectural designs. of kitchens and bathrooms were mentioned as typical problems. mentioned as typical problems. were of kitchens and bathrooms in One should keep quality often just passes through. design on the exterior of buildings and those details that have little little details that have on the exterior of buildings and those in the quality A lot of emphasis mediocre. is deemed design floor plans. Shortcomings phase is put to evaluating in control of architecture. In the quality control phase, plans delivered delivered plans phase, control quality the In architecture. of skills in interpreting on architects’ greatly depends objectives of architect is considered one of the key factors contributing to to contributing factors the key one of considered is of architect of design by means design brief the mainstream commercial housing production, apart from a a apart from housing production, commercial the mainstream their own generic design guidelines that specify certain specify that guidelines aspects design generic own their typically includes specification of target group, project size, size, project group, of target specification includes typically to comply with tightening environmental demands. The choice choice The demands. environmental tightening with to comply brief. the design mind that this is the developers’ side of the story. Architects side of the story. Architects mind that this is the developers’ mundaneness of popular taste (cf. Östman 2005): major value adding, differentiating or transformative role in in role or transformative adding, differentiating major value probably would argue that tight budgets and the industry’s budgets and the industry’s that tight would argue probably them to compromised force conventionality for preference by architects are assessed against economic, technical, against economic, technical, assessed are by architects house type and quality level. The companies may also have have also may companies The level. quality and type house Despite recognition of these issues it seems that unsatisfactory it seems that unsatisfactory of these issues Despite recognition architecture, we would make houses that look different. In Estonia, for instance, housing architecture is much more ambitious. [...] The same construction companies are active there but the customer demand and general culture are different. Everyone sees new architecture in the same [appreciative] way, which I don’t think is the case in Finland. But despite that, one should always aspire the highest possible architectural quality. It’s always been so that the general public hasn’t cared much for new architecture.

One major challenge for architects is the reconciliation of uniqueness and seriality of designs. Developers are looking for ways to duplicate successful design solutions (such as well-proven spatial configurations) and to use standardised modular elements (such as prefabricated bathroom elements), while the architectural design process still mostly relies on creation of unique artefacts. Paradoxically, however, the uniqueness of housing projects does not seem to guarantee the diversity of designs. Countless one-off projects still largely replicate the same architectural patterns. One may contemplate whether better utilisation of standard designs on the building and systems level could free designers’ resources to attend those differentiating features of dwelling that are truly valuable to users. A Swedish study on centralisation of design in the housing industry (Sohlenius 2006) attests that local adaptation of housing projects is harder today because of central control and proposes that only “objective” qualities of products should be standardised, whereas more subjective ones should be left open in the centrally controlled product development process. Two of the companies had recently hired a design manager (interior architect) who is responsible for the specification and management of the interior design assortment. The development teams also occupy themselves with developing standard design guidelines for architects considering dwelling design. These kind of designer roles are relatively new in the industry. Another trend is increasing employment of architects to development teams where they are involved in more central and strategic level design and decision-making alongside businesspeople and technical developers. These changes not only indicate growing importance of design in strategic differentiation of housing but also show the expansion of design activity away from singular buildings and its centralisation. Two distinct types of product development that focus on different parts of the dwelling product meet in housing production: technical product development led by engineers that concentrates on technical 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 188 189

are where generic concepts and and generic concepts where are OF THE DWELLING PRODUCT DWELLING THE OF THREE PHASES OF EMERGENCE EMERGENCE OF PHASES THREE forms a centrally controlled realm where where realm controlled a centrally forms Housing projects

users in housing development is typically general market market general typically is development housing in users development so that its objectives are satisfactorily realised in the specific in the specific realised satisfactorily are so that its objectives stage can be speculative and partly abstract. Knowledge about Knowledge about and partlystage can be speculative abstract. such as interior design assortments and other choices offered assortments offered and other choices design such as interior strategic design objectives are given concrete form in singular in singular form concrete given are objectives design strategic geographic locations. Project teams contracting architectural architectural teams contracting locations. Project geographic on a level beyond singular housing projects, feeding the the feeding singular housing projects, beyond on a level furnishings assortments, and service design. Standardisation furnishings assortments, Standardisation design. and service concepts, general design guidelines, the design of interior of interior guidelines, the design design concepts, general context, preferably so that architectural value is added. added. is value so that architectural context, preferably design here concentrate on the specification and manufacturing on the specification and manufacturing concentrate here design task is to artefacts.of dwellings as physical The architect’s constraints within given brief the design interpret creatively different aspects of design. There are breaks between the the between breaks are There design. of aspects different with in close connection activities design conceptual level development often led by architects that aims at attractiveness at attractiveness that aims led by architects often development to the market in respect differentiation product on concentrates enhancement of buildings and industrialisation of the building building the of industrialisation and buildings of enhancement whole. Architectural design in housing projects can be can be in housing projects design whole. Architectural and modularisation of designs and streamlining of the building of the building and streamlining and modularisation of designs architectural design in projects. in projects. design architectural and variety of products in the eyes of consumers. The latter latter The eyes of consumers. in the of products variety and to consumers, visible are that specifications product and those also constitute distinctive realms of design activity can be be can activity design of realms distinctive constitute also to customers. Both types of product development operate operate development types of product to customers. Both technical product development, aiming at the creation of of aiming at the creation development, technical product recognised in the residential value creation process (see (see process creation value in the residential recognised paralleled with traditional product design. Some knowledge Some knowledge design. product with traditional paralleled design. of remote characteristics phase displays new products and subsolutions that can be duplicated across that can be duplicated across and subsolutions new products new housing deal with creating here Designers production. this in product dwelling The here. focus in also are process residential product development teams exercise strategic and and strategic exercise teams development product residential process, aiming at standardisation, and residential product product residential and standardisation, at aiming process, Housing in the next subchapter. discussed phases that are knowledge. Compared with Keinonen’s (2009) model, this (2009) model, this with Keinonen’s knowledge. Compared various subsystems, products and components into a coherent and components into a coherent products subsystems, various Based on the interviews and literature, three phases that that phases three and literature, interviews the on Based Designers in this phase deal with practical integration of of integration in this phase deal with practical Designers 4.4.6 Table 3). Each has different agents in control and emphasises and emphasises agents in control 3). Each has different Table about specific customers or at least the local target group is typically available in this phase. Use of housing is the third, currently less emphasised phase in the becoming of dwelling as product. After the residents move in, the outcome of the technical- economic production system turns into a lived-in oeuvre that is appropriated by users to their own purposes during its entire life cycle. Design activity in the use phase deals with modification of existing environments and can be professional or non-professional. In this kind of immediate design, actual individual users are present and in control. Interest shifts to in-depth contextual knowledge about individual users and user communities. Expansion of design activity in the field of housing towards this direction is demonstrated by recent collaborative and user-initiated housing projects, and by the growing interest among companies to develop services for the use phase of housing that was indicated in my interviews. Companies during the use phase can have a role in management, upkeep and renovation of buildings. They can also seek to tap into ideas and innovations growing out of the everyday experiences of users and utilise those in the industrial product development process. My data suggests that housing just like many other branches of industry is witnessing the stratification of the design object and the expansion of design activity away from product design both upstream and downstream that has been detected by design researchers (Falin 2011, Findeli & Bousbaci 2005, Keinonen 2009). The commodification of housing, transition to flexible manufacturing, and the demand for sustainability are giving rise to large-scale systemic and strategic design problems. On the other hand, diversifying customer demand is forcing builders to turn closer towards the users and everyday living. Architectural design increasingly has to negotiate between these two other design realms. Ideally, designers and developers are able to draw on all three.

4.4.7 BOTTLENECKS OF DIVERSIFICATION IN HOUSING PRODUCTION

As a conclusion of this section of the study, I shall present seven bottlenecks in the residential development process that hinder diversification of the offering and realisation of user-centredness in market-oriented housing production (see Figure 29). They came up in the company interviews and reflect the developer’s professional experience. The bottlenecks for 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 190 191

USE OF OF USE HOUSING TABLE 3. 3. TABLE Three phases of emergence phases of emergence Three of the dwelling product. FIGURE 29. FIGURE The residential process development with its bottlenecks. Move-in, management management Move-in, renovation and upkeep, CONTROL CUSTOMER Owners and occupants, the housing company DESIGN IMMEDIATE by and with users, Design modification, replacement USER KNOWLEDGE USER In-depth contextual knowledge about individual users and user communities APPROPRIATION as The dwelling product used, in, experienced, lived time and adapted over 7 USE OF HOUSING HOUSING HOUSING PROJECTS 6 Product definition, definition, Product construction, and sales marketing CONTROL PROJECT Construction team company, project including architect DESIGN PRODUCT Architectural and systems design, components design KNOWLEDGE CUSTOMER Knowledge about the actual customers, on feedback features product MATERIALISATION Specification and manufacturing of dwelling as singular, tangible, located product 5 4 HOUSING PROJECTS The realisation bottleneck 5 The realisation 6 The adoption bottleneck 7 The diffusion bottleneck 3 HOUSING HOUSING 2 DEVELOPMENT 1 Regulation, planning CENTRAL CONTROL CENTRAL company, Development team housing development DESIGN REMOTE design, Strategic conceptual technical design, development Need analysis, Need analysis, land acquisition, planning project KNOWLEDGE MARKET knowledge about General potential customers and customer segments CONCEPTUALISATION Dwelling as emerging, intangible, speculative, conceptual product

Everyday living, Everyday the urban landscape The regulation bottleneck 1 The regulation 2 The user agency bottleneck bottleneck 3 The innovation network bottleneck 4 The value Control Control dominance (Sohlenius 2006) Emphasis of design (Keinonen 2009) Typical knowledge about users (Hyysalo 2009, 19) Phases in the Phases in the creation value process Phase of Phase of of emergence the dwelling product HOUSING DEVELOPMENT their part complement the barriers of diversification in the Finnish housing delivery system identified by previous research (Krokfors 2010).

THE REGULATION BOTTLENECK: WHAT IS ALLOWED BY THE SYSTEM? The developers frequently mentioned that laws, regulations and local building codes block diversification and prohibit significant differentiation of products. The participants wished for more flexible regulation that would allow alternative definitions of the dwelling product. For instance, it is not possible in Finland to sell flats in different stages of completion. Other specific hindrances that came up were the rule about average apartment size in Helsinki, which diminishes the production of small flats, and the requirement to build a certain number of parking slots in each housing project. The tradition among builders to complain about overregulation has been noted by many scholars (Habraken 2000, Brand 1994, Shove 1999). Habraken points out that exhaustive codification and shared design conventions are essential to make the professionally fragmented building process work. Brand sees building codes as manifestation of social learning that embody common sense acquired from generations of recurrent problems. It nevertheless seems that relaxation of some building regulations could encourage developers to increase the diversity of production. As illustrated by the Neo- loft case, getting innovations through in the system presently requires a lot of bargaining with authorities. On the other hand, rigid regulation provides a convenient justification for not undertaking innovation efforts.

THE USER AGENCY BOTTLENECK: HOW ARE USERS REPRESENTED IN THE PROCESS? A second bottleneck concerns the agency of users in the development process. How the users of housing are conceived by housing professionals, how actual users are represented in the process, and whether they are given design control are central issues concerning the realisation of user-centredness in housing. As seen, users in the mainstream market-oriented urban housing production are merely present as customers. The extent of their control, apart from choosing a flat in the first hand, is mostly limited to making choices among pre- designed options on surface levels of the dwelling product. Developing user-initiated housing projects requires a lot of time and resources, and developers do not see a profitable role for themselves in such production. Including users in design 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 192 193

HOW TO BREED TRANSFORMATIVE TRANSFORMATIVE BREED TO HOW HOW TO FIND GOOD PARTNERS PARTNERS GOOD FIND TO HOW PRODUCT IDEAS AND AND IDEAS PRODUCT PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS? DEVELOPMENT PRODUCT AND MANAGE COLLABORATIVE COLLABORATIVE MANAGE AND INITIATE CHANGE? INITIATE THE INNOVATION BOTTLENECK: INNOVATION THE THE VALUE NETWORK BOTTLENECK: BOTTLENECK: NETWORK VALUE THE solutions. Constantly changing project partners in housing partnershousing in changing project solutions. Constantly is a that there felt The developers sharing of best practices. small and people’s housing preferences so homogeneous that that so homogeneous small and people’s housing preferences lacks both innovative capacity and courage. Expensiveness Expensiveness courage. capacity and lacks both innovative general trend in the industry towards building longer-lasting industry towards building longer-lasting in the trend general for combining users to housing production in a mutually in a mutually combining users to housing production for emerging conceptual and strategic design activity is organised. is activity design strategic and conceptual emerging concepts show examples of more user-oriented innovation innovation user-oriented concepts show examples of more of demand. Ideas for by the diversification efforts instigated dominated, professionally fragmented production system are are system production fragmented dominated, professionally is seen as so the market difficult to change. On the other hand, companies reluctant to take the risk of trying out something the risk of trying out something to take reluctant companies convenient to address them merely in marketing. The housing housing The marketing. in merely them to address convenient lead user innovation methods like methods, let alone design disturbs the established processes of builders. It is more is more It of builders. processes established the disturbs of construction and extensive legal responsibilities make make legal responsibilities of construction and extensive with other companies and organisations when developing new new when developing and organisations with other companies where some design tasks are outsourced to users. Profound Profound to users. outsourced are tasks design some where and sustainability. Ground-breaking transformative innovations innovations transformative and sustainability. Ground-breaking the to just follow seem Producers in this area. even scarce are the concepts have come from many sources, often outside of of often outside many sources, come from the concepts have in ecosystem One can say that the innovation the companies. the potential for meaningful change is limited. Innovation in in meaningful change is limited. Innovation the potential for industry has not been good in utilising any collaborative collaborative in utilising any has not been good industry tools and methods channels, lacks industry The field. the in housing is underdeveloped. A key question here is how newly is how newly question here A key housing is underdeveloped. new. Established ways of doing things within the technology-new. Established ways production can hinder the development of new products and and of new products can hinder the development production partnerships well-chosen partners and that can provide process enhancement, driven by objectives like standardisation standardisation like by objectives enhancement, driven process housing The competitors. and law by defined standard minimum housing has largely been regarded as technological product and and product as technological been regarded housing has largely housing field does not support that the industry and innovation housing field mass customisation or co-configuration have not been realised realised been not have co-configuration or customisation mass way. valuable The participants stressed the importance of collaboration the importanceThe participants of collaboration stressed The developers felt that the general climate in the Finnish the Finnish climate in that the general felt The developers significant competitive edge. The companies are seeking to identify right competencies to complement their own and to make deals with other companies where both parties can benefit from each other. The value network can include service providers, technology providers, furniture manufacturers and other actors in or outside the construction field. Standardisation and packaging of common offerings enables their duplication in many projects. Added value can be sought from different ends of the network depending on the project. As an example, Company X has built a sustainable pilot house together with an energy company and a home technology provider where “green smart” solutions are tested. Company Y is seeking synergy from building regular apartment houses next to senior houses built by another developer. A service component in this way is made available for the residents of the regular house. Partnerships were also seen as a key requirement in concept development:

Development of new concepts absolutely requires a cooperation network. There needs to be a shared understanding about doing this thing together. The whole idea of concept as means to increase competitiveness is lost if a partner is doing exactly the same with others. It requires a shared strategic intent and commitment. Joint development efforts. [...] It’s important for us to have partners who are ready to join, get the idea of the concept and know how to realise it. And usually there are several partners whose components need to be matched. Willingness to innovate and try out new things is also crucial.

The person added that in reality, because of scarcity of buildable land, the landowner often tends to dictate what is developed. A major challenge in new concept development according to my interviewees is aligning the product development processes of several companies along a common goal and integrating the parts provided by them. Strategic level collaborative product development among large value networks requires time and special skills. Powerful concept ideas were seen as one tool that can facilitate multi- partner product development. Problems in building common offerings have made the developers realise the importance for each company to develop their own standard ”sub-concepts” or product or service modules that should be compatible with those of the partners and ready for them to use. The participants also wished for better and earlier collaboration with city planners. The urban plan was seen as major factor impacting the sustainability and cost-efficiency of building. One participant argued that much resources now go to fulfilling 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 194 195

We must have a product description of the new concept concept new of the description product a must have We idea is adopted. Every project manager should understand should understand manager project Every adopted. is idea of help the with through passes concept] [A basis. on its supervision. and instructions the first thing. It’s very much between the ears how the how the ears the much between very It’s thing. first the and then push it through here internally – that this is our our is this that – internally here through it push then and [the concept] and ensure the functioning of the product product of the functioning the ensure and concept] [the product and it always fulfils these requirements, that’s that’s requirements, these fulfils always it and product HOW TO GET A PILOT PROJECT PROJECT PILOT A GET TO HOW MEETS IT THAT ENSURE AND BUILT The realisation bottleneck not only concerns the concerns the bottleneck not only The realisation THE REALISATION BOTTLENECK: BOTTLENECK: REALISATION THE OBJECTIVES? INITIAL THE slow, democratic processes of planning and the faster, market faster, market of planning and the processes slow, democratic such requirements in plans that have little to do with the with the to do little have that in plans requirements such large and costly one-off artefacts, and costly it is not possible to test large generic product descriptions into specific design features play play features descriptions into specific design generic product from the conceptual realm to production, new ideas need to new ideas need to to production, the conceptual realm from developers and the project team are realised as physical product product as physical realised team are and the project developers differences between the attitudes of the parties. The architect The architect of the parties. between the attitudes differences team, development the product the side of of a concept. From directors and project managers. As shown by Sohlenius (2006) (2006) Sohlenius by As shown managers. project and directors diversification of housing production. In the case of housing, case of housing, In the housing production. of diversification development and singular housing projects that easily kills kills that easily housing projects and singular development attributes. The individual skills of architects in translating translating in architects of skills individual The attributes. that It was noted by my informants here. an important role and indicated in my interviews, there often are fundamental fundamental are often there interviews, my in indicated and attractiveness of the realised products to customers. Important to customers. products the realised of attractiveness and profit driven processes of developers. of processes driven and profit an efficient barrier to testing new things. In order to move order to move to testing new things. In barrier an efficient turned down already by regulators and planners, they are planners, they are and by regulators turned down already take-off of novelty but how the good intentions of product of product but how the good intentions of novelty take-off the situation looks like this: the situation looks like implemented requires a decision to start a real housing housing a decision to start a real implemented requires is one more agent that needs to be convinced of the benefits to be convinced of the benefits agent that needs is one more not If not ideas tend to dilute during the process. design radical be “sold” by strategic level product developers to business to business developers product level be “sold” by strategic new ideas coming from both directions. To get a new concept a new concept get To both directions. from new ideas coming the in crucial is projects pilot of role The it. on based project or world with the help of prototypes in the real new designs here is to know when and how to collaborate and with whom. whom. and with collaborate to how and when know to is here Co-design in the urban scale requires matching between the between the matching requires in the urban scale Co-design There seems to be a gap between central residential product product residential a gap between central seems to be There “beta versions”. Slowness and expensiveness of building are of building are expensiveness Slowness and “beta versions”. repressed by business objectives. During the implementation process, project teams are faced with the housing regime’s systemic resistance for making something new. Producers of innovative pilot projects often meet unexpected technical and regulatory problems that threat to compromise the concept, the solving of which can be time-consuming and expensive. Many things have to be done the hard way when new housing solutions are piloted.

THE ADOPTION BOTTLENECK: WILL USERS FIND AND VALUE THE OUTCOME? Next bottleneck in the process relates to the adoption of new products by users. In order to be successful, they need to be approved by users both in the form of quantifiable market response (sales) and through satisfaction to the product attributes during use. The latter aspect was not so much discussed by my interviewees. A key question to them is how customers find the new product in the market. The developers emphasised that customer demand for new housing solutions is often latent. If people do not know that a certain kind of solution exists or is possible to be realised, they do not know to desire or demand for it. Exemplary pilot projects have a crucial role in creating awareness of novelties and expanding people’s expectations of the attainable. The interest risen by the pilot project, realised as sales, gives the builder indication whether to continue duplicating the product. Unpredictability of local demand and obscurity of real users make it hard to foretell the success of a new concept. Even if a target group would be recognised, it is difficult to direct marketing directly at them. Market analysis and general consumer insight are basically the only ways for making predictions about attractiveness of products before pre-sales. The developers try to recognise emerging new demand by following the housing field and public discussion. Advertisement and media publicity greatly influence the creation of demand. The success of a novelty requires the conjunction also of other benefits to consumers than those related to core concept of the product, such as location and price.

Regarding new styles and models of living, the group who wants a novelty in the beginning is small. If you build a houseful of something new it can be left in your hands. [...] Because of that, [the development of new products] is more like this gradual proceeding and offering of possibilities, sort of passive marketing that makes people to start looking for let’s say loft apartments. When those became 4 PRODUCTION PERSPECTIVE: THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING 196 197

was so affordable. Then people noticed that they have other other have they that noticed people Then affordable. so was industrialise and standardise the building process because because process building the standardise and industrialise of the efficiency the eroded That roof. or that wall of this every municipality demanded little changes to the design design the to changes little demanded municipality every available the demand was high, largely because their price price their because largely high, was demand the available made it difficult to stick to the concept. You could not could not You concept. the to stick to difficult it made benefits as well. slightly different requirements and regulations, which which regulations, and requirements different slightly work. to concept the for been have should process so that the price proposition could not be what it it couldnot be what proposition price the that so process One problem was that every municipality in Finland has has Finland in municipality every that was problem One As shown by my cases, there are many sources many sources are As shown by my cases, there HOW TO MAKE IT AGAIN, AGAIN, IT MAKE TO HOW AND BETTER? AND THE DIFFUSION BOTTLENECK: BOTTLENECK: DIFFUSION THE spin-offs necessarily aren’t. Integrating a novel solution as part solution a novel Integrating aren’t. spin-offs necessarily subsidised in the form of a plot or funding, which subsequent of a plot or funding, which subsequent subsidised in the form good practices and synergetic partnerships born unexpectedly partnerships unexpectedly born synergetic and practices good from which new housing concepts can come from. The realms of of The realms can come from. which new housing concepts from can provide seeds for viable new dwelling products. However, However, viable new dwelling products. seeds for can provide undertaking duplications. from stakeholders discourages can act as breeding ground for product ideas. Corporation level level Corporation ideas. product for ground breeding as act can successful designs, and technical innovation; concept design of regular production may necessitate some stripping down of necessitate some stripping down of may production of regular the for one reason were concepts. Challenges in localisation on a decision by the builder, whereas the duplication of a the duplication of a the builder, whereas on a decision by of engaging a new group require Loppukiri might concept like with planners. and collaboration enthusiastic user-developers challenge for new housing concepts. The deeper into the the concepts. The deeper into new housing challenge for Offering locations. new in it replicate to be to seems it difficult and a duplicable product in the market seems to be a major a major be to seems market the in product duplicable a and depends merely interior fit-out options in dwellings alternative the cumbersomeness and riskiness of the first project often often the cumbersomeness and riskiness of the first project to diffusion especially in the case of highly industrialised industrialised highly of case the in especially diffusion to in individual housing projects; and collaboration with users all with users all and collaboration in individual housing projects; initial failure of the BoKlok concept: of the BoKlok initial failure in companies and media attention. They are often publicly often publicly are and media attention. They in companies its original features, as seen in PlusKoti. Localness of housing of housing as seen in PlusKoti. Localness features, its original housing development, housing projects, and use of housing each each housing of and use housing projects, development, housing production and building regulations easily become a barrier become a barrier easily regulations and building production hierarchy of built environment the concept extends, the more concept extends, the more the of built environment hierarchy Innovative pilot projects get a lot of development resources resources get a lot of development pilot projects Innovative Finally, overcoming the gap between a singular pilot project gap between a singular pilot project the overcoming Finally, Technical problems and resultant bad publicity in the Neo- the in publicity bad resultant and problems Technical loft case led to failure of the concept in taking off. The chasm between one-off pilot projects and mainstream production according to my material hinders the diffusion of novelties in housing. As crystallised by one participant,

What annoys me is that even if many concepts with slight differences are being developed in Finland, they often tend to be a bit like single-use concepts [‘kertakäyttökonsepteja’]. You don’t get the right picture about whether this would be the thing that would really take off. Maybe there’s too little courage in the field. We go quickly back to the old at the smallest setback.

5 USER PERSPE CTIVE THE EXPE RIENCED DWELLING 5 USER PERSPE CTIVE THE EXPE RIENCED DWELLING IN THE PREVIOUS section we saw how the dwelling products in the market are constructed as differentiated bundles of benefits that operate across the hierarchic levels of built form, constituting heterogeneous composites of designable elements. In this section, I will further define and expand the understanding of dwelling as a product and object of design from the perspective of users. The section is grounded on a series of user studies conducted with 44 persons about their dwelling, their living environment, and their everyday experience of living. The aim is to provide empirical knowledge about people’s relationship with the dwelling product and to open up some key problematics of user-centred design in the case of housing. I will begin by discussing the relationship of user and the designable dwelling product: how an idea of user is constructed into the dwelling product and what kind of connections there are between individual users and the designable features of dwelling (Chapter 5.1). The interviews of residents representing six different user groups as my empirical material (see Chapter 5.2), I will then examine how dwelling as product is defined in everyday living (Chapter 5.3) and how users interact with their dwelling to appropriate it to their needs, preferences and values (Chapter 5.4). 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 202 203 settle settle

artefact which to 5.1 : a satisfactory match : a satisfactory match EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE EXPERIENCE EVERYDAY OF DWELLING AND THE THE AND DWELLING OF QUEST FOR CONGRUENCE FOR QUEST and the dwelling product dwelling and the Relationship between users users between Relationship We experience our dwelling holistically, with with our dwelling holistically, We experience

used differently depending on meanings attached to it. What What it. to attached depending on meanings differently used smallest details of our daily life” (Shove 1999, 130). Dwellings Dwellings 1999, 130). (Shove life” smallest details of our daily shelter and basic facilities to enable survival but conveys but conveys to enable survival facilities shelter and basic location, shape, and form of our homes impinge directly on the on the of our homes impinge directly location, shape, and form emotional significance of dwelling attributes changes from from changes attributes dwelling of significance emotional design of dwelling can bring about, support or discourage supportabout, bring can discourage dwelling or of design 2002.) Psychologists define certain (Saarikangas behaviour. of people and the material environment. A dwelling becomes a A dwelling becomes a of people and the material environment. connection to broader built, social and natural context. The context. The built, social and natural broader to connection the from and space perceived measurable the from different dwelling means control by resident over physical elements on elements on physical over by resident dwelling means control where the material environment is emotionally effective effective is emotionally the material environment where and becomes emotionally significant through manipulation manipulation through significant and becomes emotionally abstract space conceived by designers and scientists (Lefebvre (Lefebvre and scientists by designers space conceived abstract are delivered by an intricate professional system that embodies that embodies system professional by an intricate delivered are rhythms seamless in and daily by synchronised as senses, all inhabitation as “motivated person-environment transaction, transaction, person-environment inhabitation as “motivated information about social status and ownership to others. others. to ownership about social status and information is aspired in inhabitation is congruenceis aspired We relationship. long-lasting intimate, an has user its into a dwelling and make it ours. Dwelling not only provides provides Dwelling not only it ours. make into a dwelling and person to person. The same environment can be experienced or or can be experienced person to person. The same environment emotional between own emotional needs and the perceived home by attachment of meanings to it and by repetitive activities activities repetitive to it and by of meanings home by attachment and designable its experienced Through it. of making use communicates appropriate a dwelling both properties, The behaviour. to user and accommodates user’s behaviour mentally constructed “lived space” of dwelling is fundamentally is fundamentally space” of dwelling constructed “lived mentally encounters daily in created is space lived Meaningful reciprocal. historically evolved socio-technical knowing. socio-technical evolved historically various hierarchical levels of the built environment (Habraken (Habraken of the built environment levels hierarchical various (behavior and use over time)” (Kaiser & Fuhrer 1996). The The 1996). (Kaiser & Fuhrer time)” and use over (behavior gives us comfort, privacy and independence. The act of us comfort,and independence. The act of It gives privacy In this study, dwelling is approached as a used is approached In this study, dwelling 1991). The relationship between a dwelling and its user is and its user is between a dwelling 1991). The relationship 2000). At the same time, the dwelling controls its user as “[t]he its user as “[t]he controls 2000). At the same time, the dwelling 5.1.1 significance of the environment (ibid.). The experienced quality of dwelling is formed in interaction between the “ideal world” of dreams and desires, and the “real world” of perceived opportunities in the environment (Kyttä & Kahila 2006). Also the production and consumption of housing are co-dependent and condition each other. Producers adjust their offering to (supposed) consumer demand and consumers align their goals and expectations along what they know that exists. The strategies of producers and consumers in the experience market correspond with each other (Schulze 2005, see Chapter 1.3). Despite criticism on the qualitative uniformity of housing production, people’s housing desires and the offering of housing as a whole to a large degree mirror each other. It is rather the unattainability of desired solutions due to economic and other constraints that poses a problem to individual users. Housing purchase is a point where public, corporate and domestic decision-making intersect, and sometimes clash with each other (Shove 1999). Purchase decisions are influenced by both rational and emotional factors and guided by opportunities and constraints. Buyers in the market need to make their preferences explicit, weigh them against the attributes of available products, and in most cases prepare for compromises and trade-offs. In reflection to the evolutionary analogy, one can state that the consumption and use as well as the production of housing are characterised by satisficing rather than optimisation. In human systems like housing there is not a universal measure of “fitness” that products can be optimised to. The value of a specific dwelling to its user is individually defined. Theories about user value in product design connect value with the holistic user experience of a product: “Since products enable an experience for the user, the better the experience, the greater value of the product to the consumer” (Shove et al. 2005, 16, citing Cagan and Vogel). Shove et al. (ibid., 18) discuss different perceptions of user value. Value can be understood as the extent to which objects fulfil pre-existing symbolic and functional requirements of users. Another way to see user value is that interpretations of value are mobile, contextual and not inscribed in objects themselves. A third view, most relevant for this study, is that material artefacts themselves configure the needs and practices of those who use them and thus have an essential role in value creation. Design researcher Suzan Boztepe (2007) distinguishes between exchange and use value, sign value, and experience value in everyday living. She states that user value is created as a result of the combination of product properties and what users and their local contexts bring to the interaction with 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 204 205 of production and and of production , i.e. various individual strategies in in individual strategies various i.e. , , the residents’ cultural, social and economic and social cultural, residents’ the , of use and consumption. Strategies pursued pursued Strategies of use and consumption. dispositions Users’ strategies are also emphasised by Estonian by Estonian also emphasised are Users’ strategies French sociologist Michel de Certeau sociologist Michel 34– (1984, French tactics , and experiences user-centredness in industrial urban housing, one must look at in industrial urban housing, one must look at user-centredness users and dwellings together. The next two subchapters discuss understand the mutually definitive relationship between users between users relationship definitive understand the mutually users’ actions upon the dwelling product that result in valuable in valuable that result users’ actions upon the dwelling product capacities strategic power. Bound by the strategies of authorities and and authorities of strategies the by Bound power. strategic situational ways of making use of the given places in time. places in time. given of making use of the situational ways level of strategy. In continuation, I will use the word strategy of of strategy word the use will I continuation, In strategy. of level elements of dwelling contribute to in everyday experiences experiences everyday to in contribute of dwelling elements everyday everyday change, even if some of the actions seen in a broader context context if some of the actions seen in a broader change, even other hand, tactics in everyday environment are what create what create are environment other hand, tactics in everyday can design Collaborative playing with the constraints. cleverly power. The people who initiated endow people with strategic of operating in the domestic environment are tactical by nature. nature. by tactical are environment domestic the in operating of On the the material circumstances. impact cannot profoundly distinguishes between normative strategies normative distinguishes between everyday according to Boztepe include utility value (convenience, quality quality (convenience, utility value to Boztepe include according (social value significance economy), social and performance, argues that rather than diversity of design solutions, the problem the problem solutions, of design than diversity that rather argues are merely tactical. merely are and the dwelling product and the specific problems related to to related and the specific problems and the dwelling product and used on the level of tactics. Everyday practices and ways and ways practices of tactics. Everyday and used on the level and spiritual value. and spiritual the residence and during housing career (cf. Bourdieu 1984). She (cf. Bourdieu and during housing career the residence the social construction of residence happens by joint effect of of happens by joint effect the social construction of residence the lived space, taking advantage of its opportunities and and opportunities its of advantage taking space, lived the acting on the were clearly instance, the Loppukiri house, for the product. Categories of user value that the designable designable the that value user of Categories product. the into the dwelling product, and how users themselves actively actively and how users themselves into the dwelling product, interact with institutional strategies such as urban design and and such as urban design with institutional strategies interact how the user is defined by the housing system and inscribed inscribed and system housing the by defined is user the how own their for product dwelling the appropriate and redefine the system. purposes, sometimes counteracting housing policies. Various theories aside, it seems evident that to that evident seems it aside, theories Various policies. housing regarding user-centredness of housing is how different residents residents of housing is how different user-centredness regarding their strategies and in what ways to their residence relate housing researcher Katrin Paadam (2003) who maintains that that maintains who (2003) Paadam Katrin researcher housing by those in power define and rule places, whereas tactics are tactics are define and rule places, whereas by those in power prestige, identity), emotional value (pleasure, sentimentality), sentimentality), (pleasure, value emotional identity), prestige, producers, only tactical moves are available to them that to them that available are tactical moves only producers, De Certeau maintains that the users of space are derived of of derived De Certeau of space are maintains that the users Dwellings are designed and produced on the level of strategy of strategy on the level and produced designed Dwellings are 39; see also Saarikangas 2002, 31 and Juntto 1990, 35) famously 1990, 35) famously 2002, 31 and Juntto Saarikangas 39; see also 5.1.2 STRATEGIES OF PRODUCERS: THE CONSTRUCTION OF USER INTO DWELLING

The concept of the user is a quintessentially modern invention. In traditional societies where design, making and use of dwellings was intertwined and where the future occupant most often was personally known and participating in the process, there was no need for such a concept. It was the professionalisation and industrialisation of building, the separation of design as independent activity, and the emergence of a housing market that necessitated anonymisation and abstraction of the user. To Lefebvre (interpreted by Forty 2013, 312), the concept of the user was “[...] a particular device by which modern societies, having deprived their members of the lived experience of space (by turning it into a mental abstraction) achieved the further irony of making the inhabitants of that space unable even to recognize themselves within it, by turning them into abstractions too”. Viewed critically, the idea of user can be seen as the capitalist system’s way to dominate people by forcing them into narrow, predetermined roles. In this dissertation, I use the notion in a more positive meaning. To me, it connects to user-centred design research and emphasises the relationship between individual persons and the dwelling as artefact. As noted by Hill (ibid.), the term user suggests positive action and the potential also for misuse. Saarikangas (2002) defines user as a general term for describing the occupants of dwellings that renders them as active agents and enables analysis of the use of space. An implicit, conceptual user according to her is necessarily presupposed in dwellings. How architects conceive the user affects what they design and the relationship between the user and the architect (Hill 2003). Historical changes in conceiving the user of housing were discussed in Chapter 4.2.1. Adrian Forty (2013, 312–315) notes how the term user has served different purposes in the history of architectural discourse. He connects the term to the birth of the welfare state, when it was adopted in an abstract and general meaning for referring to the occupants of buildings. The term at that time held strong connotations to the disadvantaged and disempowered, legitimating the architects’ belief that their designs were done for “people”, when in fact their clients were state institutions. Along the participatory design movement, a (fantastically) positive and emancipatory meaning of user emerged. Individual users were now seen as active agents who could provide valuable input to architecture. As the welfare state weakened and the limits of democracy in 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 206 207 (1927) (1927)

23. the Hill’s examples are Weissenhofsiedlung of modern as a prototype the Dessau- housing area, housing estate Törten a (1928) that pioneered serial construction method, and the Frankfurt kitchen a of (1926), the forerunner modern standard kitchen. that that . Various . Various . and how each has how each has and 23 a subject of analysis. a subject is to their response. The user is absent from a production line line a production from absent is user The response. their to consumer. In the scientific management of labour, the user user the of labour, management scientific the In consumer. enthusiasm for a product, which may be modified according according be may modified which a product, for enthusiasm but appears at the end of the construction process as a a as process construction of end the at the butappears One purpose of a prototype is to gauge potential users’ users’ potential gauge to is of a prototype purpose One Despite the individualisation process, the implicit the implicit process, individualisation Despite the Along the lines of Akrich (1992), we can see see can we (1992), Akrich of lines the Along user is one reason that makes user-centredness in industrial in industrial user-centredness that makes user is one reason user are configured by the designer, and the user is disciplined disciplined and the user is by the designer, configured user are labour are evident in functionalist housing functionalist in evident are labour experienced dwelling product. Systemic fragmentation of the of the fragmentation Systemic dwelling product. experienced of the user. Consequently, multiple and sometimes contrasting contrasting sometimes and multiple Consequently, user. the of over the dwelling product. It also seems that the understanding It also seems that the understanding the dwelling product. over fragmented is of user within the housing system of prototype, production line and scientific management of management of line and scientific production of prototype, of architecture as work of art undisturbed by the presence of of as work of art undisturbed by the presence of architecture definition of form and use. Functionalism assumed a universal, a universal, and use. Functionalism assumed definition of form the way the a space learns to operate user who “[...] obedient means for architects to criticise their own practice own their criticise to architects for means to tied to be housing remains of user in industrial definition design became evident, the user began increasingly to be seen be seen to increasingly user began the evident, became design a distinct relationship with the user: with the a distinct relationship according to Hill include reduction of user to measurable measurable to user of reduction include Hill to according the user, and contemplation directing actions, architecture and optimized fit”, and be moulded by a programme and and optimized fit”, as a nuisance and threat to the architect’s intentions. In recent recent In intentions. architect’s to the and threat nuisance as a technician learns to operate a machine – the correct way” (Hill (Hill way” a machine – the correct operate technician learns to the principle of functional specificity – that “form should should functional specificity – that “form the principle of times, according to Forty, talking about the user has become a Forty, to according a times, become has user the about talking the user. Hill (ibid., 12–13) points out how the Fordist ideas ideas the Fordist points out how 12–13) user. Hill (ibid., the inscriptions of user can be present in the components of the in the components of the inscriptions of user can be present professions each have their own angle to and understanding their own angle to and understanding each have professions mass produced housing, the relationship between the dwelling between the dwelling housing, the relationship mass produced and homogeneous as seen are Users locked. is user and product control superficial only in most cases given and are passive production system. The characteristics and behaviour of the of the and behaviour characteristics The system. production into the of user is inscribed by the technology. A projection In modern along its evolution. product dwelling physical precisely accommodate inhabitation in a tightly engineered engineered in a tightly accommodate inhabitation precisely the eliminated This 134). 2000, (Habraken design precedes self- mutual blocked and multifunctionality of possibility modern functionalism. Functionalism introduced to housing to housing introduced Functionalism modern functionalism. how a definition of user is constructed into housing by the into housing by the how a definition of user is constructed 2003, 17). Specific ways to undermine the user in architecture to undermine the user in architecture ways 2003, 17). Specific housing complicated. Enhancing the user experience of one component of the dwelling product can only have limited effect to the holistic experience of dwelling. Moreover, the relationship between user and the design of dwelling in industrial production is not direct but mediated through powerful structures by which the housing system produces the user (see Figure 32). Some of these are discussed below. There are discontinuities in the process, which mean that design decisions only partially come to determine use (see Figure 30). As noted by Steadman (2008, 230), the relationship between built artefacts and their users is relational, which means that some features of dwellings are always beyond predictions:

The particular meanings which attach to artefacts, the aims which they serve, the exact ways in which they are seen and evaluated aesthetically, hence to some extent people’s behaviour in relation to them, are all products of the specific historical situations in which the objects or buildings are made and from which the observers or users come, and they are changed at every step by the new problems which those situations throw up and by the new and individual responses which those problems evoke.

DESIGNERS’ REALISED PRODUCT, USERS’ IDEAS AND MARKETING AND INTERPRETATIONS SPECIFICATIONS TARGET GROUP AND ACTIONS

Partly realised as Binds but does not determine product attributes the use of the product

The user is becoming constructed into the dwelling FIGURE 30. product on many levels and scales. Culture, housing ideology The relationship between the design and housing policy set the overall landscape for housing and use of a product production. Laws, norms and standards as well as unwritten (Hyysalo 2009, 144). conventions and practices within the housing regime regulate the outcomes. Housing designs are grounded on historically accumulated images, archetypes, models, types, and dominant designs. They embody styles and aesthetic schemata. There is engrained in each of these structures an understanding or definition of user that becomes mediated to the end product and is detectable in its designed features. Tacit experiential knowing plays an important role in the mediation between users and the dwelling product. 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 208 209 ensure the basic usability the basic usability ensure regulation and Norms The role of tacit knowing arising from use and use and of tacit knowing arising from The role mass produced public housing types by contrast are purely purely are contrast by housing types public produced mass user, seen mainly as performer of functions. During the During the of functions. as performer user, seen mainly users have been excluded. Commercial mass-market housing housing mass-market been excluded. Commercial users have standardisation period, housing needs were translated translated were needs housing period, standardisation liberated by flexible production methods, now is turning. by flexible production liberated local contexts is threatened in late-modern housing. Habraken Habraken in late-modern housing. local contexts is threatened experience of dwelling. Unlike with many other industrial industrial many other with Unlike dwelling. of experience designs has left out some needs and users, towards which the has left out some needs and users, towards which the designs disabled, thought to be homogeneous and defined by their disabled, thought to be homogeneous and defined by their design. Norms based on the acceptable minimum still largely largely still minimum acceptable the on based Norms design. 337–338, 345) argues determine what is built. Juntto (1990, the category of abnormal. Failure definition of normal creates codification. They transmit a quantified understanding of of understanding quantified a transmit They codification. developed by international networks is limited in comparison networks is limited in comparison by international developed experiences and on shared professional and cultural knowledge. knowledge. cultural and professional shared on and experiences seeking instead of truly “themselves” for to design designers with the meaning and functions of dwelling. This ensures that that This ensures of dwelling. meaning and functions with the and technical viability of dwellings through extensive design design extensive through and technical viability of dwellings architecture as put by Brand (1994, 141) is guided by a (1994, 141) is guided by a as put by Brand architecture able to design dwellings that respond to the majority of the of the to the majority that respond dwellings able to design along which expectations are attuned. She also notes how the attuned. She also notes how the along which expectations are that norms are adopted by people and become the normality and become the normality adopted by people that norms are to those emerging locally. Variations of housing born in small in small of housing born Variations locally. to those emerging to understand other, different users. users. different to understand other, into numbers. Price per square metre and room per person per person and room metre into numbers. Price per square in the form of “special housing” for groups like seniors or the seniors or the like groups of “special housing” for in the form inescapable and unchallengeable”. is close correspond well with local preferences and lifestyles. lifestyles. and local preferences well with is close correspond in following a “normal” housing career, for instance, has been instance, has been for a “normal” housing career, in following products, both designers and laypeople are deeply familiar familiar deeply are and laypeople both designers products, housing system, driven by the individualisation discourse and by the individualisation discourse and driven housing system, narrowing down of the dwelling product into a few “normal” “normal” into a few down of the dwelling product narrowing punished by housing policy. The needs of “abnormal” people punished by housing policy. The needs of “abnormal” people or accentuated by the housing regime been overlooked have became the basis of production. The average begun to drive drive to begun average The of production. the basis became professional products from the development of which local of which local development the from products professional national, but world-encompassing, not even and often regional markets where the relationship between builders and users users builders and between the relationship where markets regardless of the level of user involvement, architects are are architects involvement, of user of the level regardless their own on they draw well. Here relatively needs residents’ On the other hand, the familiarity of dwelling can make make can dwelling of familiarity the hand, other the On (2000, 292–293) argues that the variety of building types types of building that the variety argues (2000, 292–293) All of us, including housing professionals, have our own our own have professionals, housing us, including All of The “difference”. Continuing Juntto’s argument, one could claim that that claim could one argument, Juntto’s Continuing “difference”. “standard homogenized pool of building lore which is no longer which is no longer lore “standard homogenized pool of building Previous designs also act as channels between users and production. The basic types and forms of dwelling are socially shared by both professionals and laypeople. They constitute the overall framework for the variation of designs and steer users’ expectations of the attainable. Innovations and fashions of housing from Finland and abroad trickle down the social ladder. Architects look up to leading avant-garde designs and interpret the features of them in their work. The media disseminates suggestive images of dwellings designed to perfection. Brand (1994, 132) emphasises informal pathways of influence that drive continuity between buildings via builders and users. For example, clients typically borrow ideas from what they have seen and suggest to architects. People observe other people’s dwellings and learn from the dwellings that they experience during their housing career. How user needs are realised in housing critically depends on user knowledge, representations of users, and agency of users in the housing delivery process. A key issue is how professionals conceive users and their needs. Juntto (1990, 16–17) notes that competing definitions of needs have coexisted in housing. Everybody can be thought to have the same needs, needs can be based on the average or the demand of many, or they can be left to the market to define. Whether it is policymakers, designers or producers who approach the users also influences how needs are defined. Users can be approached on the level of demographics or as individuals. Knowledge about users can be market knowledge, customer knowledge, or in-depth user knowledge. They can be conceived as human beings, citizens, local residents, members of a household, or individual personas. There are secondary users in dwellings such as visitors and service providers. Users can be classified on the basis of gender, income, education, profession, family type or life phase. Their identity, lifestyle, taste, needs, dreams and desires, preferences, housing choices or consumption patterns can be investigated. Measurement of preferences and needs can be compositional, measuring preference for each attribute of dwelling separately, or conjoint, measuring overall preference for a housing solution (Coolen 2008, 3). Further distinction has to be made between stated preference and one revealed by behaviour. Concerning the users’ relationship with the dwelling product, aspects like meaning, value, cognition, affordances or user experience can be emphasised. Focus can be on certain types of users such as lead, crucial, lay or expert users. Interest can lie in the users’ individual capacities, skills, strategies and tactics, or in the shared practices, activities and tasks of dwelling. Methods for eliciting information about users range from 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 210 211 emphasises emphasises specific problem of of problem specific high-level milieu The gap between social sciences and design has has and design between social sciences The gap There is considerable body of sociological sociological of body considerable is There status and striving for position. Its typical representatives position. Its typical representatives status and striving for surveys is that the respondents live in dwellings that are built built are that dwellings in live respondents the that is surveys specific designable features of dwelling and often overlooks of dwelling and often overlooks features specific designable studies can concentrate on different parts of dwelling, such partssuch of dwelling, on different concentrate can studies lifestyles in housing is essentially a middle class phenomenon. a middle class phenomenon. in housing is essentially lifestyles Users as active shapers of their environment are typically typically are environment their shapers of active Users as living. They may also become seduced by the user-centred user-centred the by seduced become also may They living. generic design criteria of good living environment but less but less criteria of good living environment generic design general insights of social scientists into specific product product specific into scientists social of insights general features. As discussed previously, studies on housing housing on studies As discussed previously, features. overlooking the lived experience and local knowledge and local knowledge experience the lived overlooking education (see Figure 33). The education (see Figure expressed in housing consumption and the domestic interior. in housing consumption and the domestic interior. expressed segment. customer segment. of a small urban upmarket quality of new production (Vainio 2008). It has been claimed has been claimed 2008). It (Vainio quality of new production outcomes that are too general to make a difference to the the to a difference to make too general outcomes that are to lacks connection of housing. Housing research design overlooked in housing research. One research. housing in overlooked without the creative input of designers automatically leads leads automatically designers of input creative the without and everyday interactions with the material environment to to environment material the with interactions everyday and are middle-aged people with high education and conservative education and conservative middle-aged people with high are about the systemic challenges of getting novel solutions solutions novel getting of challenges systemic the about approach, believing that directly responding to user needs needs user to responding directly that believing approach, as architecture, technology or outdoor areas. as architecture, the way they perceive dwelling and make decisions about it. decisions about it. dwelling and make the way they perceive taste. They dwell comfortably and often have large property. property. large have often and comfortably dwell They taste. that housing studies is dominated by market hegemony, hegemony, market by dominated is studies housing that through. The studies rarely take into consideration people’s people’s into consideration take rarely The studies through. to better solutions. There is lot of knowledge about the about the is lot of knowledge to better solutions. There in different periods. The results thus do not reliably reflect the the reflect thus do not reliably results periods. The in different individual housing histories – the effect of past experiences of past experiences – the effect individual housing histories individual differences in experiencing them. On the other them. On the other in experiencing individual differences everyday in design of role the and importance novelty of preferences and needs tend to produce rather predictable predictable rather needs tend to produce and preferences by different consumption preferences and everyday aesthetics. aesthetics. and everyday consumption preferences by different been noted by many design theorists (e.g. Buchanan 2001). 2001). theorists (e.g. Buchanan by many design been noted measurement to surveys, interviews and ethnography. User User ethnography. and interviews surveys, to measurement research about lifestyles and social class and how they are and social class and how they are about lifestyles research hand, researchers and designers may overemphasise the the overemphasise may designers and researchers hand, (Allen 2009). Klingmann (2007) notes that the emphasis on on emphasis the that notes (2007) Klingmann 2009). (Allen For example, Schulze (2005, 277–330, 384) presents five five For example, Schulze (2005, 277–330, 384) presents A key challenge to design is how to transfer or translate the the translate or transfer to is how design to challenge key A The milieus are partially determined by age and level of partially of level determined by age and are The milieus The developers in my interviews saw individuality the concern saw individuality the concern in my interviews The developers “taste milieus” in the German society that are characterised characterised that are in the German society “taste milieus” In the harmony milieu, security and cosiness are primary goals. This milieu is characterised by popular taste and avoidance of eccentricity. Its members are often middle-aged or older people with less education. They are home-centred but have lower living standard and home ownership rate. The integration milieu is driven by conformity to social expectations. Typical members are employees living in own house with high dwelling satisfaction. They seek harmony and perfection by mixing the aesthetics of high and popular culture. This milieu is close to Bourdieu’s (1984) petit-bourgeoisie. In the individualistic self-realisation milieu, choices are motivated by fulfilment of personal goals and differentiation from others. Aesthetic perfection, variety and unconventionality are valued. People here could be described as the “creative class”: urban, educated professionals. Finally, the entertainment milieu is characterised by spontaneous need satisfaction and sensory stimulation. This action-oriented milieu relies on tools (television, car) that provide external excitement and entertainment and connection to popular subcultures. It mostly comprises young people with less education. Most housing developers in Finland use consumer segmentation models based on similar classifications. As noted in Chapter 4.4, they are mainly utilised in product development and in marketing. On the level of the physical product, segmentation at least superficially influences the selection of house type, dwelling sizes, and interior design styles. Various stereotypical perceptions of the user of housing can be read from literature, my data and the ways in which users are referred to in the housing field. “Consumer myths” in the housing industry (Rask et al. 2008) were discussed earlier. These probably influence the relationship between users and housing production although few studies on the subject exist. The “user stereotypes” listed below are to be taken as caricatures that reflect some implicit assumptions in the field. Real users are irreducible to such categorisations. The stereotypes are my interpretation based on discourses about users in the field.

• Ideal, universal user is the abstract and anonymous creation of modernity who looms behind the norms, standards and dominant designs of housing. He is constructed of numbers and predefined functions and is taken for granted. At best, he represents the shared human experience of dwelling in the design process relatively well, ensuring the suitability of designs for the majority. Because he does not really exist, anyone can define him as they like and use him to further their own goals. 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 212 213 is met by developers marketing marketing is met by developers is how laypeople are typically typically are laypeople is how is present in the populist complaints is present is the favourite of design researchers, researchers, design of favourite the is up with new solutions that challenge those of expert designers. expertof those challenge that solutions new with up designers. unconventional. He is called forward whenever justification is is justification whenever forward He is called unconventional. speech of builders and property owners. speech of builders and property special needs or disabilities that are not easily met by regular met by regular not easily that are special needs or disabilities seen by housing professionals. He is a member of the masses the masses of He is a member professionals. by housing seen gratefully admires architecture and technology, using them as architecture admires gratefully on technology push. His actions can be directed and his his and directed be can technologyon actions His push. He is the user who by the designer. provoked experiences from doing harm to property. He occasionally flashes in the flashes in the He occasionally doing harm to property. from dwelling the “correct” way. He is to be controlled and prevented and prevented way. He is to be controlled dwelling the “correct” quality and high degree of personalisation. He is challenging He is challenging of personalisation. degree quality and high of lifestyles. differentiation environment, always willing to participate, always capable of coming environment, conform to rules, and does not know or care enough to use his his use to enough care or know not does and rules, to conform with supposedly known and homogeneous needs, considered considered needs, homogeneous and known supposedly with architects as well as home technology providers counting counting well as home technology as providers architects among landlords and building managers about “misuse” and and “misuse” about managers building and landlords among adopting the suggestive messages of producers. messages of producers. adopting the suggestive their products in higher-end urban areas. He demands premium He demands premium urban areas. in higher-end their products but is allowed to do so the homogeneity of housing production that lifestyle a marginal the category of “others”. He may have is manifested as unconventional housing preferences, have have housing preferences, as unconventional is manifested intended and accommodating his daily life to their demands. demands. to their life his daily intended and accommodating incompetent, and driven by avoidance of risks and of anything of by avoidance and driven incompetent, production, or represent an ethnic or other minority. He may an ethnic or other minority. He may or represent production, stepped outside of the mainstream been pushed or have have housing market. Developing solutions for him often involves him often involves solutions for Developing housing market. public intervention. the norms of living, does not neglect of dwellings. He ignores because he pays well. He drives product differentiation in the in the differentiation product well. He drives because he pays about discourse the of centre the at is and industry housing participatory design activists and forward-looking business­ activists and forward-looking participatory design inventive, “good” – knowledgeable, people. He is fundamentally towards other people and the considerate resourceful, needed for continuing the business as usual. business as usual. continuing the needed for Rebellious, dangerous user Individualistic, demanding user demanding Individualistic, is assumed by many avant-garde avant-garde is assumed by many user malleable Reactive, Active, user creative Passive, conservativePassive, user is not one of “us” but belongs to is not one of “us” but belongs to user extreme Exceptional, He subsumes to the imagery of popular consumer culture, culture, the imagery of popular consumer He subsumes to • • • • • • FIGURE 31. Who is the user of housing? Artist Irmeli Huhtala plays with assumptions of normality in the real estate market in her project “Koti etsii ihmistä” (“A home is seeking for a human”, 2007). Modified advertisement of a real estate agency chain shows a Roma family in traditional dress. Courtesy of the artist.

Agents within the housing regime employ different strategies for adjusting the products along the supposed needs and lifestyles of users. In this way, research, design, production and marketing of housing participate in the construction of user. Identification of user needs is an integral part of the generic industrial product development process (see Ulrich & Eppinger 2004, 54–55), where the aim is simply to translate customer needs to product specifications. This takes place after identification of a particular market opportunity and setting of broader constraints and objectives of the project, and is seen as straightforward data gathering and interpretation process. More advanced user-centred design methods were discussed in Chapter 3.2. An example of a research strategy that attempts to overcome the gap between users and design is the means- end theory originating from marketing studies that links product features with values of consumers. It has been applied to housing (Coolen 2008) and the living environment (Arvola et al. 2010). The means-end approach sees the attributes of dwelling as functional for achieving people’s goals and values and seeks to reveal the individual meanings that they have 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 214 215 in Leupen (2006a) identifies alterability, alterability, Leupen (2006a) identifies Architectural design determines use, even if use if use determines use, even design Architectural users, enabling the users to develop a “hands-on” relationship a “hands-on” relationship users, enabling the users to develop user. User-oriented adaptive environments have empowering empowering have environments adaptive user. User-oriented 32). 32). undetermined or multiple uses) (Ibid., use or adapt to them. At the same time, flexibility extends time, flexibility extends use or adapt to them. At the same users’ values. Means-end chains are constructed by ladder by ladder constructed chains are Means-end users’ values. suggests a more symbiotic relationship between dwelling and and dwelling between symbiotic relationship a more suggests sometimes plays with intentional user-unfriendliness or or with intentional user-unfriendliness sometimes plays flexibility assumes a reactive user who performs predetermined predetermined user who performs flexibility assumes a reactive for residents. How people judge various attributes of dwelling of dwelling attributes various judge How people residents. for can also be designed to act against use. Artistic architecture Artisticuse. against to act architecture also be designed can of a means-end chain is “five rooms – more space – privacy” space – privacy” – more rooms is “five of a means-end chain capabilities. They can intuitively respond to users’ practices to users’ practices respond They can intuitively capabilities. in their agents theory become active dwellings can at least in own that engage in a dialogue with users. extendability and polyvalence as types of spatial flexibility as types of spatial flexibility extendability and polyvalence dwelling allows individual during use. A polyvalent by and repair dwellings so that they allow easy maintenance contribution of specific designable features to realisation of of to realisation features of specific designable contribution according to Hill (2003) include flexibility, polyvalence (2003) include flexibility, polyvalence according to Hill and needs and bring about valuable transformations. Smart transformations. valuable about needs and bring and also depends on other circumstances. Physicalother circumstances. also depends on strategies Form a wealth of experiences. produce aiming to architecture attribute can have different meaning to different users and users and to different meaning different attribute can have to their dwelling. Hill (2003, 36) argues that physical physical that argues 36) (2003, Hill dwelling. their to the user to complete. Brand (1994, 189) suggests designing (1994, 189) suggests designing the user to complete. Brand the designer’s control of use into the future (Hill 2003, 31). (Hill 2003, 31). of use into the future control the designer’s the dwelling product for supporting an active role of user user of supporting role for active an product dwelling the that a value can be satisfied by different attributes. Example Example attributes. different by be satisfied can a value that their experienced consequences and to abstract values that that values and to abstract consequences their experienced an chains shows that in to. Variation relate the consequences interpretations by the user. Some elements can also be left to left to be elements can also Some by the user. interpretations interviews. They extend from physical product attributes to to attributes product physical extend from They interviews. moves suggested by form, whereas flexibility by technology by technology flexibility whereas by form, suggested moves means on the level of spatial organisation. means on the level incorporation of flexibility into of flexibility into of users. The incorporation provocation the relationship seeks to defrost buildings as a strategy absorb changes in by making form between use and form redundancy (excess space), or open plan (space with space), or open plan (space with (excess redundancy provides information about their housing preferences and the the and preferences housing their about information provides via generality or incompleteness of space, and “hedonistic” and “hedonistic” or incompleteness of space, via generality (open building; movable or changeable parts), technology parts), changeable or technology movable building; (open spatial environments), responsive intelligence, (ambient (Coolen 2008, 6). The end of privacy in this case is met by by in this case is met The end of privacy (Coolen 2008, 6). Flexibility in a dwelling can be achieved by physical means means by physical Flexibility in a dwelling can be achieved Collaborative design involves users more directly to housing design and production. The degree of user control during the design process can range from self-building to self-design, co-design with professionals, co-configuration, mass customisation, selecting among pre-designed options, or accepting a finished solution. Advanced production methods relying on modularity can utilise automated search tools and sophisticated design algorithms for compiling designs that match the user’s profile (see Chapter 4.1.3). Participatory strategies can target different levels or parts of the dwelling product and focus on different phases in the delivery process. Users can be engaged to one-off design acts or to continuous transformative activity. Users can be represented in planning and design processes through democratic decision-making, interest groups, activists, or lead users. They can be initiators of a housing project as in group building or become involved only as clients of finalised products. They can develop solutions for themselves or also for the market. When the designers are also the users, designing, making and using merge into each other. Collaborative design involves the users deeply and creates commitment but can lead to over-specificity to needs of the immediate users, hindering the adaptivity of the end product to future changes and new users (Brand 1994, Hill 2003). It also seems that involvement of laypeople to design mostly leads to incremental improvement of existing products. User-builders usually rely on established solutions to avoid risks and have little means to invest in design (Östman 2005). The relationship between user and designer is one factor that influences the user-centredness of design. Jääskö and Keinonen (2006, 110–115) identify several types of user-designer relationships where the roles of agents and closeness of interaction vary. A successful user-centred design according to them contains features of them all. The relationship of “engineer designer and component user” is evident in situations where design deals with fitting together of available components so that performance goals are met. The user here is one of the components, a generic human operator performing measurable tasks that need to be accounted for by design. The mode of “doctor designer and patient user” shifts focus to the interaction between a particular artefact and its user. Here, a designer looks at a user like a doctor at a patient. A user brings in a problem that is to be solved. In the case of “student designer and master user” designers are observing users in real life, trying to become familiar with their behaviour. Users are seen as experts that designers learn from. The roles of “coach designer and athlete user” are effective in participatory design where users are given an equal opportunity to influence 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 216 217

USERS FIGURE 32. 32. FIGURE Mediating structures between users, designers and dwelling artefacts. of user The realisation needs in housing can be depicted as a cyclical consisting of process of users and interpretation their needs by designers, of the needs translation attributes, into product of and appropriation the finished products by users. The mediating act as filters structures in the process.

Everyday living Everyday

N O

I

T

A and tactics Strategies

I identity Meaning, value,

R

Capacities, skills, resources Capacities, N P

O needs preferences, Lifestyles,

I O

T R

A P

T P E A

User knowledge Agency of users R Conceptions and

P

representations of users representations R E The built

environment T

DWELLINGS

N I

N O I AT TR ANSL system The housing DESIGNERS User-centred design does not necessarily require require not necessarily does design User-centred Tacit knowing Tacit Design references Design Design conventions Design Types, dominant designs Laws, norms and regulations can lead to unsustainable solutions that become the burden burden the become that solutions unsustainable to lead can user participation. It is possible to create more user-centred user-centred more user participation. It is possible to create system should aim to develop responsible design-driven design-driven responsible should aim to develop system unexpected for possibilities up open that strategies from them, the relationship becomes one of “artist designer one of “artist becomes designer them, the relationship from of subsequent generations. Instead of responding directly to to directly of responding Instead of subsequent generations. housing people, agents within the of whim and desire every design problems in a process facilitated by professionals. professionals. by facilitated process in a problems design and individual housing solutions solely relying on the expertise the on relying solely solutions housing individual and Expanding and other professionals. of designers and creativity and muse user”. “Chef designer and customer user” describes describes user” customer and designer “Chef user”. muse and user a for solution a concocts designer a where a situation user the creating themselves designers implies user” actor and living. everyday in breakthroughs value user and transformations the control of users in dwelling production has its fallacies. fallacies. has its of users in dwelling production the control trusting his personal taste and experience. “Director designer designer “Director experience. and taste personal his trusting the design. Designers provide the users tools for dealing with dealing with for users tools the provide Designers the design. by imagining potential future users of designs. future by imagining potential designers turn to interesting users to get inspiration get inspiration users to interesting turn to When designers It 5.1.3 STRATEGIES OF USERS: THE CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLING BY USE

It is justified to argue that despite the powerful definitive strategies of the housing system, the actual construction of dwelling from the perspective of users happens through everyday living. User experiences take place in singular used dwellings and depend on individual ways of acting and giving meaning. Examination of the relationship between users and the dwelling product therefore needs to include the use phase: dwellings as continuously changing artefacts in the making of which their users have a crucial role.

To use built form is to exercise some control, and to control is to transform. There is thus no absolute distinction between those who create and those who use. [...] For designers and planners, use is typically set a priori – immobilized – to allow optimized problem solving during programming and design. But in reality, use is neither static nor passive. (Habraken 2000, 7–8.)

Users are only partially tied by the strategies of producers. They have active strategies and tactics of their own that aim to correct misfits and appropriate the dwelling product to their purposes. Importantly, their choice in the market is not limited to just new production. There usually is enough generational and individual difference within the local offering to make it much more diverse than new production. Individual modifications made to the dwelling stock by other users create further diversity. Despite financial and geographic constraints, many possibilities for achieving congruence and user value are available to people both before housing purchase and during use. They can usually with some effort modify the interior of their flat after purchase. They can choose to ignore or get used to non-optimal solutions. They can invent ways to overcome problems and use their dwelling in ways not foreseen by designers. People are free to discriminate and counteract the norms and forms imposed on them by the housing regime. Dwelling as private territory even accommodates socially inappropriate behaviour. Activities within the four walls of home range from boringly mundane to secret and shameful. The user experience of dwelling also includes those facets of living not shown to public. Inhabitation usually triggers some transformations of the dwelling. Users manipulate the elements in their control to enhance the fittingness of the dwelling to their changing 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 218 219 the imagined desires of a potential buyer. Seeking to be be to Seeking buyer. ofa potential desires imagined the (Brand 1994, (Brand 73.) nobody’s. becomes houseit anybody’s more standard, stylish, and inspectable in order to meet meet to order in inspectable and stylish, standard, more more idiosycratic and highly adapted over the years. years. the over adapted highly and idiosycratic more Maximizing market value means becoming episodically episodically becoming means value market Maximizing If you maximize use value, your home will steadily become become steadily home will your value, use maximize you If I have mentioned how user experience is taken is taken experience mentioned how user I have People have different attitudes to repair and and to repair attitudes different have People unique skills and ways of acting of the agents in control of it of it of acting of the agents in control ways unique skills and some kind of tolerable fit”. Adaptation by users happens on on by users happens fit”. Adaptation of tolerable some kind life situations. When they age and are used, dwellings wear and and wear used, dwellings age and are they When situations. life grow bored, frustrated or embarrassed by what they see” (Brand they see” (Brand by what or embarrassed frustrated bored, grow for granted by architects (Chapter 3.2.7). As an example, Ola (Chapter 3.2.7). As an example, Ola by architects granted for fantasy-based change driven by lifestyles and fashion that and fashion that by lifestyles fantasy-based change driven change constant reality-based comes in blurts, and more experienced quality of dwelling. He identifies several “fields “fields several identifies He dwelling. of quality experienced can help of which in design of attributes”, the consideration and connection with the present of reality sense a strong create of objects and furnishings. Most intensive remodelling often often remodelling Most intensive of objects and furnishings. with attention to every detail and involvement of building building of involvement detail and with attention to every are willing to spend different amounts on their dwelling. amounts on their dwelling. to spend different willing are attributes” that according to him are indispensable to the indispensable to the attributes” that according to him are already exists and can be officially invisible. However, many many invisible. However, exists and can be officially already all scales between major renovation extending deep into the deep into the extending major renovation all scales between as a reciprocal process where “[t]he dwelling and the dweller dweller the and dwelling “[t]he where process reciprocal a as they can be solved by do-it-yourself solutions requiring just just solutions requiring by do-it-yourself they can be solved tear. Living with their dwelling every day, users “[...] rapidly “[...] rapidly users day, every dwelling their Living with tear. takes place when moving in, after which the cycle slows down. which the cycle slows down. place when moving in, after takes must shape and reshape themselves to each other until there’s there’s to each other until themselves and reshape must shape related to functional needs and upkeep of the dwelling. of the dwelling. to functional needs and upkeep related moment. These include materials and detailing, axiality, moment. These include materials and detailing, axiality, people also undertake comprehensive refurbishment projects projects refurbishment people also undertake comprehensive balancing The adaptation of dwelling requires professionals. value: and resale between use value perfect”, users typically reduce problems just enough so that just enough so that problems reduce users typically perfect”, issue. instead of becoming a professional modest investment, built form and continuous short-term and continuous built form on the levels adjustment on the thus depends a dwelling develops begins anew. How (Habraken 2000, 29). 29). 2000, (Habraken Modifications are done without plans by improving on what on what improving by plans without done Modifications are Brand (1994, 159) detects two types of home improvement: (1994, 159) detects two types of home improvement: Brand Every time the residents of a dwelling change, the process change, the process of a dwelling time the residents Every Nylander (2002) writes about “non-measurable architectonic architectonic Nylander (2002) writes about “non-measurable opposed to professional designers who are “paid to make “paid to make who are designers As opposed to professional 1994, 20). Brand (ibid., 164) describes dwelling adaptation dwelling adaptation 164) describes (ibid., Brand 1994, 20). enclosure, movement in space, spatial figures, daylight and organisation of spaces. Nylander like many other architectural scholars (e.g. Alexander 1979) at least implicitly assumes that the user experience of the dwelling space is constant and universally shared and thus can be captured by the architect and provoked by specific design solutions in a predictable way. This view is criticised by writers like Jonathan Hill (2003) who stresses the relationality and individuality of user experience and claims that inability of architects to acknowledge the role of users as active co-creators of architecture through use and appropriation is a major weakness in present design culture. Hill (ibid., 28) identifies three types of use: passive, reactive and creative.

The passive user is predictable and unable to transform use, space and meaning. The reactive user modifies the physical characteristics of a space as needs change but must select from a narrow and predictable range of configurations largely defined by the architect. The creative user either creates a new space or gives an existing one new meanings and uses. Creative use can either be a reaction to habit, result from the knowledge learned through habit, or be based on habit, as a conscious, evolving deviation from established behaviour.

The passive and reactive users are dependent upon existing conditions, which they are unable to fundamentally transform, whereas the creative user as argued by Hill has a role as important as architect in the formulation of architecture. In the rich and complex user experiences of everyday living, all three types of use can occur together, their composite being “a particular type of awareness in which a person performs, sometimes all at once, a series of complex activities that move in and out of conscious focus” (ibid., 88). Hill (ibid., 44) identifies five types of user creativity: mental, bodily, physical, constructional and conceptual. These can be accidental or intentional and occur singly or in combination. Mental creativity implies a change of perception, such as renaming a space or associating it with a memory. Bodily creativity happens when the user makes a movement that is independent of or in juxtaposition to a space, such as “a picnic in a bathroom”. Physical creativity involves rearranging a space or objects within it. Constructional creativity deals with making of a new space or modification of an existing form, space or object. Conceptually creative users are capable of envisaging (designing) new uses, forms, spaces or objects to be constructed. Hill’s writings suggest that the engagement of 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 220 221 and SRV and

5.2 Probing the user experience the user Probing OVERVIEW OF THE USER STUDY USER THE OF OVERVIEW Four separate user studies were realised in the in the realised were user studies Four separate

users with the dwelling product is not only determined by the the by determined not only is product dwelling with the users groups participated in the studies. They were recruited on the on the recruited They were participated in the studies. groups get a rich picture of the needs and experiences of individual individual of experiences and needs the of picture rich a get day with the help of a clock face. day with the help of a clock face. of the studies, the participants were customers of housing customers of housing the participants were of the studies, open question cards related to lifestyle and the meaning of and the meaning of to lifestyle open question cards related the participants were where assignment dwelling, a camera on the housing career, housing preferences, and experienced and experienced housing preferences, on the housing career, is discussed in Chapter and validity dwelling. Their reliability dissertation, outcomes of probes studies are treated as data as data treated are studies dissertation, outcomes of probes on originate from a series of user studies that were conducted conducted that were studies of user a series from on originate information inspirational to provide developed ethnography, of four parts: a background questionnaire eliciting basic facts eliciting basic facts questionnaire parts:of four a background extent of user control allowed by built form but by individual by individual but built form by allowed control of user extent ways of relating to the form during use. during the form to relating of ways about the respondents and their current dwelling conditions conditions dwelling current their and respondents the about of series a adulthood, during career housing their as well as and a topics in their living environment, to photograph asked about users to the design process (Mattelmäki 2006). In the 2006). In the (Mattelmäki process about users to the design was to The aim of the user studies analysis. objective a more and 3). Probes is a “designerly” research method grounded in in method grounded research is a “designerly” and 3). Probes task where they were asked to describe the course of a typical to describe the course of a typical asked they were task where in the context of academic research, which has necessitated which has necessitated in the context of academic research, in applied research projects, utilising the probes method method probes the utilising projects, research applied in name lists retrieved from the customer databases of the the of databases customer the from retrieved lists name projects. A total of 44 persons representing different target target different A total of 44 persons representing projects. positive and negative qualities of the respondents’ present present respondents’ the of qualities negative and positive study consisted The probes with minor modifications. projects persons in the domestic environment. The interviews focus focus The interviews persons in the domestic environment. based on self-documentation by users (see Appendices 1, 2 1, 2 by users (see Appendices based on self-documentation providers who participated in the projects (VVO, who participated in the projects providers basis of criteria identified in the projects (see later). In three (see later). In three in the projects basis of criteria identified Susanne Jacobson. It was applied in three consecutive research research consecutive three in applied was It Jacobson. Susanne residents were recruited from from recruited were The VVO and SRV residents Asokodit). 6.4. The probes study was planned by the author together with with by the author together was planned study probes The 6.4. 5.2.1 The interviews that this section of the dissertation is grounded that this section of the dissertation is grounded The interviews companies and via contacts of customer service personnel. The Asokodit residents were recruited from the respondents of a web survey about housing needs that was published in the company’s website. The fourth group, disabled persons, were found through an ad in a magazine targeted at people with physical disabilities. The studies were realised by project researchers at Future Home Institute at the University of Art and Design Helsinki. The probes study kit was delivered personally to the participants by researchers. They were asked to complete the assignments within a couple of weeks and send the material back by post. The photographs taken by the respondents were then developed. After that, one or two researchers interviewed the participants. Most of the interviews took place in the home of the participant. In the interviews, the researcher went through the completed probes material together with the participant, asking him or her to describe and clarify the answers. The interviews hence discuss most of the content of the probes. They lasted from 1.5 to 2 hours. The interviews were transcribed. The transcriptions (924 pages in total) and the background questionnaires are primarily used as sources in the dissertation.

5.2.2 THE PARTICIPANTSWV

Of the 44 participants, 34 were living in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area (Helsinki, Espoo or Vantaa), 7 elsewhere in the Uusimaa region (Järvenpää, Kerava, Kirkkonummi, Porvoo) and 3 in other Finnish towns (Jyväskylä, Lappeenranta, Turku). 28 of the participants were women and 16 men. Their mean age was 42, youngest respondent being 26 and oldest 61 years old. 7 of the participants were living alone and 14 as single adults in households with one or more children who in some cases had shared residence. 12 participants came from households of two adults and 11 from households of two adults and a child or children. One of the latter also included a third adult (an elderly relative). Details of individual participants can be seen in Appendix 2. The participants represent various groups that were identified according to the objectives of the projects. Five of them are persons with physical disabilities living independently in their own homes (U1–U5). Six are immigrants living in rental flats owned by VVO rental housing corporation (U6–U11). Five are persons with “untypical” work also living in VVO flats (U12–U16). By this was meant types of job that differ from regular daytime work, such as shift work, part-time work or self-employment, including precarious work 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 222 223

24. on Recent Finnish studies based resident lifestyle (e.g. Kyttä et al. profiling 2010b, see Chapter 1.2) on the levels tend to focus and building. of area Schulze’s experience better suited are milieus my topic because for to the they also relate interior of dwelling. 33. FIGURE Rough segmentation of the participants along the (after milieus experience Schulze 2005, 384), n=44. , AGE U26 , . The figure . The figure 24 5 12 16 can be U44). They can be HARMONY MILIEU HIGH-LEVEL MILIEU INTEGRATION MILIEU customers seem to be closest to the customers seem to be closest to the 6 5 MILIEU Distribution of the participants according to year It is possible to try to profile the participants participants the profile to try to possible is It ) and three other persons who were recruited to the to the recruited who were other persons ) and three SELF-ACTUALISATION ENTERTAINMENT MILIEU U35

–

U36– Helsinki ( Eiranranta, SRV in EDUCATION same user study. In addition, the material comprises interviews addition, the material comprises interviews same user study. In segments, the needs and preferences of whom they wanted to to they wanted of whom preferences the needs and segments, situations with high degree of irregularity or uncertainty. Third of irregularity degree high with situations said that most participants in the high-end spectrum would said that most participants would spectrum in the high-end milieus, and self-realisation seem to divide between high-level leaving the middle ground, mainstream owner-occupied urban urban owner-occupied mainstream ground, middle the leaving residents is made up of six single parents (U17 – parents of six single up is made VVO residents of group occupation of the participants. As a generalisation, it can be occupation of the participants. it can be As a generalisation, of nine persons who had bought an expensive new flat built built flat new expensive an bought had who persons nine of of completion, building type and tenure status of dwelling status of dwelling of completion, building type and tenure described as members of the socio-economic elite. The flats The flats of the socio-economic elite. described as members whereas many of the VVO whereas were under construction at the time of the study. construction at the time of the study. under were according to Schulze’s experience milieus presented earlier, earlier, presented milieus Schulze’s experience to according are emphasised in the material: suburban rental housing housing emphasised in the material: suburban rental are to the integration milieu. to the integration thus centres on opposite ends of the housing spectrum, on opposite ends of the housing spectrum, thus centres is presented in Table 4. Two very different types of housing types of housing different 4. Two very in Table is presented interpretation of the interview material, as well as the age and as well as the age and material, of the interview interpretation keeping in mind that the data has not been collected by a by a the data has not been collected in mind that keeping built in the 1970s and new high-end inner-city housing inner-city housing built in the 1970s and new high-end 34–37). The data (see Figures by Eiranranta represented by know more about. The participants also include 10 residents of of participants about. The residents also include 10 know more (U24 Asokodit owned by dwellings right-of-occupancy housing, underrepresented. In reality, the data is not quite not quite the data is In reality, housing, underrepresented. harmony milieu, and residents of right-of-occupancy dwellings dwellings right-of-occupancy of residents and milieu, harmony method that would allow an accurate classification allow an accurate method that would my and based on tentative below is only presented as key customer customer as key by VVO identified were groups U22). These U28 that polarised because the interviews cover a long time span. The respondents describe their entire housing careers, which in most cases have included variation in building type and tenure status. Many respondents now living in rental blocks of flats had previously been living in owner-occupied detached houses, just as several home owners even in the elite group had been renting. What also makes the polarisation less problematic is that I am not as interested in demographically or socio- economically determined differences in housing as I am of the everyday user experience of dwelling which I assume to be at least partially independent of such factors. It cannot be denied, however, especially when discussing the control of users over their dwelling, that those living in rental flats are in a weaker position, often lacking both resources, permission and incentive to invest in their dwelling. It should be kept in mind when interpreting the results that typical customers of market-driven housing production are largely missing from the data. Families and couples with medium purchasing power living in owner- occupied dwellings are underrepresented in the material. They possibly would have emphasised different properties of dwelling than the present participants and exhibited different consumption patterns. This diminishes the relevance of the results to commercial housing production. In hindsight, the outcomes probably are somewhat overtly biased towards economic problematics in the lower end and hedonistic goals in the higher end. However, from the perspective of design, looking at “marginal” users has been effective for opening up the variation in user needs. In design studies, a small number of very diverse participants is an accepted approach.

5.2.3 APPROACHING THE DATA

My interest in this part of the dissertation lies in charting and making visible some of the wealth of individual experiences and strategies of dwelling as they were communicated by residents. I am not attempting to prove the prevalence of the experiences and strategies or claim generalisation to larger populations. Here I rely, among others, on British housing researcher David Clapham (2005, 150) who argues that research on the meaning of housing and homes has been driven by overt generalisation and search for universal meanings. He suggests examining the differences between individuals in experiencing housing as more fruitful approach. He also points out that the explanatory power of simple variables like tenure in understanding these differences is limited (ibid., 148). 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 224 225

)

had not yet moved into into had not yet moved their new flats (finished marked in 2008) but are because the here concentrate interviews on the new flats. They living in various were residences. (temporary) TABLE 4. TABLE of the The distribution participants according to year of completion, and tenure building type status of dwelling. one part-[1] Includes ownership dwelling. are [2] Two of these semi-detached houses. [3] The Eiranranta (U36-U44 residents

Pre- 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 TOTAL 1950 ------1954 1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004 2009

Building type (block/terraced) b t b t b t b t b t b t b t b t b t b t b t b t b t 38 6

Owner-occupied 1 1 1 1 1 93 14

Right-of-occupancy or other 3 31 2 32 11

Rental 1 1 1 1 2 10 1 1 1 19

TOTAL 1 1 2 1 3 11 1 1 3 7 4 9 44 FIGURES 34 & 35. View from the Suvela residential area in Espoo, built in the 1970s, and floor plan of a typical one-bedroom flat in the area (59.5 m2, Joupinmäenrinne 6, owned by VVO). With its prefabricated concrete element houses and high share of social housing, Suvela is example of a relatively low-end neighbourhood built during the peak suburbanisation period. 14 of the participants (U6–U11, U14, U16–U22) lived in rental flats owned by VVO here or in similar 1970s housing estates. At the time of the user study, their flats were about three decades old. (Photographed by the author in 2014, floor plan retrieved 6 March 2013 from www.vvo.fi.)

FIGURES 36 & 37. View from Eiranranta, Helsinki, and floor plan of a two-bedroom flat in the area (129.5 m2, Piritanaukio 1, built by SRV). Nine of the participants (U36–U44) had purchased a new flat built by SRV in here. The Eiranranta residential area was built in 2006–2008 on industrial wasteland by the sea near the prestigious old neighbourhoods of Southern Helsinki. It represents most expensive urban housing production in Finland of its time. (Photographed by the author in 2014, floor plan retrieved 6 March 2013 from www.kiinteistomaailma.fi.) 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 226 227 experiences. What kind of combinations of valuable attributes attributes valuable of combinations of kind What experiences. to and how do they relate the data from of dwelling emerge 5.3.) (Chapter detected? can be housing present with conflicts adopt for seeking fit and accommodating the dwelling product product dwelling the accommodating and fit seeking for adopt to their needs and preferences? (Chapter 5.4.) to their needs and preferences? the systemic dwelling product and to design? What kind of What kind of and to design? dwelling product the systemic product? What kind of (active and creative) strategies do they do they strategies and creative) What kind of (active product? product as described by users and as revealed through everyday everyday through revealed as and users by described as product How do users interact with and manipulate the dwelling dwelling the manipulate and with interact users do How The composition and meaningful properties of the dwelling dwelling the of properties meaningful and composition The Excerpts from the interviews quoted in the quoted in the the interviews Excerpts from In my analysis of the user data, I have I have data, the user of analysis In my

• • understanding of how dwelling as a product and object of of and object how dwelling as a product understanding of looked at the following issues: issues: at the following looked following text have been edited. Filler words and repetition has has repetition Filler words and edited. been text have following dwelling product. This hopefully contributes to an increased increased an to contributes hopefully This product. dwelling users of different the perspective is to be defined from design concentrated on the relationship between users and dwelling dwelling users and between relationship on the concentrated has Another objective attributes. and its designable dwelling as valuable by them. The analysis combines qualitative content content combines qualitative The analysis by them. as valuable theory- of the data with the help of and classification analysis as a systemic, designable product. The main objective has been has been main objective The product. designable as a systemic, and what specific attributes or elements of it are experienced experienced attributes or elements of it are and what specific as the mismatches between everyday living and the composite and the composite living everyday between as the mismatches translated by me from Finnish language transcripts made by made by Finnish language transcripts by me from translated to discern connections between the everyday user experience of of experience user everyday the between connections discern to the respondents as accurately as possible. The quotes are as possible. The quotes are as accurately the respondents into readable paragraphs. Lengthy discussions around a subject a subject Lengthy discussions around paragraphs. into readable research assistants of the recorded interviews. assistants of the recorded research based frameworks presented earlier. More specifically, I have I have specifically, More earlier. presented based frameworks been to shed light on the reciprocality and congruence as well as well and congruence reciprocality on the light been to shed have sometimes been compressed. I have, however, tried to to tried however, I have, sometimes been compressed. have by content and meaning expressed the original preserve been omitted, and separate sentences in many cases combined sentences in many cases combined been omitted, and separate 5.3 The dwelling product as defined by users

5.3.1 DWELLING AS A BUNDLE OF VALUABLE ATTRIBUTES

My initial hypothesis was that similarly to the housing concepts fabricated by producers, the users of housing understand and describe their current or desired dwelling as a collection of valuable attributes (designable elements of the dwelling product). Eliciting these bundles of attributes from the empirical material could provide valuable information about how dwelling as a designable product is – or how it ought to be – defined from the perspective of users, and diminish the gap between specific design solutions and user knowledge that has been identified by previous research. To get an overview of the data, I first collected all important attributes mentioned by the users in the interviews and background questionnaires, taking into account their relative weight as expressed by the users. Figure 38 shows the distribution of the attributes in their present dwelling experienced by the participants as positive and negative situated on levels of the dwelling product. It is mainly based on the part of the user study that concentrated on evaluating the pros and cons of the users’ present domestic environment. There are three specific instances in the material where the users talk about the attributes of dwelling that are important and valuable to them, each emphasising slightly different type of user value. One is when the users describe their housing history and reasons for moving. Here they reflect on the desirable properties in dwellings that have influenced their housing choices and differentiated their dwellings from each other. These often relate to quantitative aspects of dwelling, such as location, price and size. Another instance is when people evaluate the user experience of their present dwelling. Here they give more detailed opinions about tangible dwelling features in use, as experienced in everyday living. The third perspective to valuable attributes is provided by housing dreams and desires. The users here come to reveal attributes of high emotional value. The three aspects merge in the narratives of users, like in this account by a young woman (incidentally with physical disabilities) of the reasons for choosing her present flat. It serves as good example of what I mean by a bundle of valuable attributes (see Figure 41): 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 228 229 ) U3 previous flat was impossible because it was on the the on was it because impossible flat was previous floor with just a few steps at the entrance. The bathtub bathtub The entrance. at the steps a few just floorwith little yard in the row house [that I dream of]. And the And the of]. I dream house [that row the in yard little too fancy. ( fancy. too of anything is something that I’ve always liked. Own parking slot is is slot parking Own liked. always I’ve that something is third floor and there was no elevator. This is on the ground ground on the is This no elevator. was floorthere and third definitive because it’s difficult for me to take care of the of the care take meto for difficult it’s because definitive area is quite verdant. The price was one reason as well. well. as one reason was price The verdant. quite is area car in the winter. The balcony is a substitute for my own own my for a substitute is balcony The winter. the in car Our The area was close to services and to our workplaces. our workplaces. to and services to close was area The the beginning of your working career you can’t think can’tyou think career working of your beginning the In Before continuing to more detailed analysis of of detailed analysis continuing to more Before Plenty of quantitative surveys about the weight weight the about surveys quantitative of Plenty An owner-occupied dwelling is financially more sensible. sensible. more financially is dwelling An owner-occupied least valued attributes in this survey. The results of another of another The results in this survey. attributes least valued and emphasis on experiential indicate increasing survey large general observations from the whole data. In the following the whole data. In the following from observations general dwelling design and the environment. Unsurprisingly, kitchen, kitchen, Unsurprisingly, and the environment. dwelling design of sustainability, safety and entertainment, of sustainability, safety the last attribute of attributes and their connection to design. To mention two mention two To to design. of attributes and their connection amount lists a sufficient survey nation-wide examples, a recent living costs, and own peace and privacy of space, affordable of dwelling attributes to residents have been realised in in been realised have to residents of dwelling attributes provide rarely but trends general of indicators as useful be can dwelling attributes mentioned by the users on different levels levels dwelling attributes mentioned by the users on different the common characteristics I will then discuss of built form. of each user group. wanted objects of refurbishment in own dwelling in the survey. in own dwelling in the survey. wanted objects of refurbishment with more in-depth knowledge about individual collections collections in-depth knowledge about individual with more aesthetic qualities of dwelling (Hasu 2012). Among the options options the Among 2012). (Hasu dwelling of qualities aesthetic as the most important (ROTI 2013, 14). attributes of dwelling and generalisation are among the most common methods of of methods most common the among are generalisation and third of the respondents would have opted for a larger living living a larger opted for would have third of the respondents individual collections of attributes and their relationship to the to the individual collections of attributes and their relationship or kitchen. room pages, I will first go through the typical positive and negative and negative the typical positive pages, I will first go through hierarchy of built form (in Chapter 5.3.2), I will present some some (in Chapter 5.3.2), I will present of built form hierarchy bathroom and the interior surfaces were identified as most most as identified were and the interior surfaces bathroom new insights for design. I wish to complement such approaches approaches such complement to wish I design. for insights new producing knowledge about users in the housing field. They They field. housing the in users about knowledge producing vague term denotes experiences created by both technology, created term denotes experiences vague Given the opportunity to have ten extra square metres, a a metres, square ten extra the opportunityGiven have to (“viihteellisyys”) was rated as most important. This rather as most important. was rated This rather (“viihteellisyys”) Home automation, sustainability and accessibility were the the were accessibility and sustainability automation, Home Finland. This type of queries that aim at statistical validity validity that aim at statistical of queries Finland. This type FIXED p p p + + + + + + p + + + FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS – – m m – – – – – – – – p p p p SURFACES AND + + + + + + + + + + + MATERIALS – m – m – – – – – – p p p p p p FURNITURE AND + + + + + + + + + + OTHER OBJECTS –

TENURE, COST, + + + + + p + + + + + + FINANCING, INVESTMENT – – – – – – m

OWNS DWELLING X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

SAUNA P S S P S S S S S S S S P S S S S S S S S S P S P P S S P P P P P P P P P P P P (SHARED/ PRIVATE)

SECONDARY 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 DWELLINGS

DREAMS OF X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X A VILLA

USER ID 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

USER GROUP Disabled Immigrant Untypical job Single parent Right-of-occupancy resident Eiranranta resident

FIGURE 38. The distribution of the attributes in (present) dwelling experienced by the participants as positive and negative on levels of the dwelling product. The main levels from above are area, house, apartment, objects, and ownership. Circled symbols mark strong emphasis, indicating either a concentration of several different attributes on one sub-level, or an attribute of high significance to the user. The attributes mentioned by the Eiranranta group mainly concern their future dwelling. Columns show the total amount of attributes on each sub-level (n=44). Based on analysis of the user interviews. 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 230 231

LOCATION, p p p p CONNECTIONS, + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + LOCAL SERVICES m – m – – – m – p p p p IMMEDIATE + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ENVIRONMENT – – – m – – – p NEIGHBOURS, + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + COMMUNITY – – m – – – – – – –

HOUSE MANAGEMENT + + + AND MAINTENANCE – – – m – – – –

BUILDING p + + + + + p + + + TYPE AND PROPERTIES – SHARED p p p p p FACILITIES + + + + + + + + + + + + IN- AND OUTDOORS m m – – m – – m – p p ACCESS, + + + + + + ELEVATOR – – – – –

BALCONY, + p + + + + p + + + + + + + + p p p + + + + + TERRACE, GARDEN – – – – p p p p POSITION IN + + + + + + + + + + + HOUSE, VIEW –

FLOOR AREA, + + + + + p + + + + + + + + + + NUMBER OF ROOMS – – – – – – – – – m – SPATIAL p p p p p p p p p p p p p ORGANISATION, + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + FUNCTIONS, PARTITIONING – – m m m – m m – – m m – – – m m m – – – m – m m m –

HOME p p + p p + p p + + + p + p + + + + TECHNOLOGY, APPLIANCES – – – m – – m Figure 38 shows that the attributes mentioned by participants are distributed across the levels of the dwelling product. However, two concentrations of attributes can be detected that attracted more user response. These are the location of dwelling and quality of the immediate living environment on one hand, and the spatial and functional qualities of the dwelling proper on the other hand. The importance of these two levels was rather expected and is corroborated by previous research. The users’ evaluation of their living environment was predominantly positive. This is in accordance with surveys on the subject (Strandell 2011, ROTI 2013), but may also tell of users’ ability to selectively distantiate themselves from the downsides in their environment. By contrast, attributes connected to spatial configuration of the dwelling were both positive and negative. The interior of the dwelling seems to have a very tangible presence in both good and bad. There are some typical attributes on each level that were frequently mentioned by the users. They are presented here beginning from the area level. Figures in brackets indicate the number of users who mentioned the attribute. In the area level, the majority of respondents (32) considered the location of their dwelling in the urban region good. This meant easy (public) transport connections to work, school, hobbies and more central parts of the city, and conveniently situated local services, most importantly a grocery store. A good school in the area had been the decisive attraction for one family (U33). Even the users who had initially ended up in a less preferred area due to sudden life change or sacrifice of central location in favour of more living space most often had grown to like their living environment (e.g. U22). However, three persons considered the suburb where they were living too remote, socially unfamiliar and lacking of services (U8, U16, U19). One of them did not want to go outside from her flat in the evening because she perceived the neighbourhood as unpleasant and dangerous. This kind of experiences were rare among the material. Most users did not express special concerns about safety or security. The users who assessed their environment negatively could still be very content with their flat and vice versa. Following quotes sum up some of the mixed experiences:

I like being at home, but the environment is hopelessly glum. Suburban living is not for me. I don’t know anyone here and the environment doesn’t inspire me to leave from home. In the city, I can walk around for hours and always find something interesting. Here, there really isn’t anything even in the centre. (U19) 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 232 233 , safety ). The safety ) U43 , U16 U41 , U40 , ) U24 U9 , ). ). The users with disabilities also also disabilities with users The U1). atmosphere is homely and it feels safe and good to good and to safe feels it and homely is atmosphere ). is hardly noticed in the neighbourhood. That’s how it is is how it That’s neighbourhood. the in noticed hardly is the nowadays. ( nowadays. because] it’s colourful and I have pictures on the wall, wall, the on colourful pictures it’s have I and because] sucks. ( Butbe area in. the [Our present flat is the best in which I have lived lived I have which in best the flat is present [Our Goodpeace­ connections, closeness to nature, Concerning the quality of the immediate immediate Concerning the quality of the I believe that our family is rather invisible, our existence our existence invisible, rather is our family that I believe For the users with disabilities, the fact that they the fact that they disabilities, For the users with U33 , U32 , U20 users. This meant lack of too much traffic or busy activities or busy activities traffic users. This meant lack of too much using mobility aids (U3 liked her neighbourhood because several care institutions and institutions and care because several her neighbourhood liked surroundings, presence of nature was an often mentioned was an often mentioned of nature presence surroundings, social encounters (U23 special housing in the area had made the local residents to to had made the local residents the area special housing in lively, walkable and dense urban environment with a feeling with a feeling and dense urban environment walkable lively, greenery in their own yard or an open view to nature from from to nature or an open view in their own yard greenery get used to different people so that she did not stand out out people so that she did not stand get used to different fulness and safety are the qualities almost universally valued by by valued universally almost qualities the are safety and fulness of being in the centre of things and with many possibilities for for of things and with many possibilities of being in the centre to by was referred children for living area of their present be to seemed attribute this of realisation The users. four semi-public territory in demarcated connected to a clearly when moving outside ( outside moving when was also connected to low density of housing. On the other other of housing. On the was also connected to low density are being noticed most of the time when moving outside could outside could most of the time when moving being noticed are thus consolidate what is known and as such do not provide many thus consolidate what is known and as such do not provide their window. Peacefulness of the area was emphasised by six was emphasised by six of the area their window. Peacefulness the neighbourhood inaccessible for a young woman who was woman who was a young inaccessible for the neighbourhood the subsidised transport services that are a requirement for for requirement a are that services transport subsidised the slopes of steep The independently. them to be able to live in the area, as well as undisturbing neighbours. Peacefulness Peacefulness as well as undisturbing neighbours. in the area, be source of negative experiences. One participant especially One participant especially experiences. negative of be source new insights. Previous research has suggested that some people has suggested that some people research Previous new insights. human scale and with suitable degree of social control (U30 of social control human scale and with suitable degree hand, all users living in central urban areas highly valued a a valued highly areas urban central in living users all hand, realised by many elements in the environment ranging from from ranging the environment by many elements in realised to blocks residential leafy and parks public forests, natural pedestrian underpasses and other public areas made parts of areas pedestrian underpasses and other public had problems with the accessibility of local shops and with local shops and with with the accessibility of had problems positive attribute by the participants (12). This could be by the participants attribute positive This could be (12). ). Knowing one’s neighbours increased the feeling of safety of safety the feeling increased U33). Knowing one’s neighbours ( Finns according to surveys (e.g. Strandell 2011). The findings 2011). The findings (e.g. Strandell Finns according to surveys prioritise the environment in their housing choices whereas others focus more on properties of the dwelling (Hirvonen et al. 2005). There appear to be some more environment-oriented users (U12, U25, U34) and some more dwelling-oriented users (U16, U19, U44) among my sample. Such division, however, is not evident in the case of the majority and may just reflect the value compromises that people have had to make during their housing career. The affluent users most often had been able to optimise both variables. In the interviews the respondents were asked to describe their living environment broadly, which probably also explains the relatively even distribution of attributes on different levels. On the building level, joint spaces and facilities took an eminent role in the participants’ evaluations (17). In general, they appreciated the joint facilities in their house such as sauna, laundry room, common yard, playground, and parking place. Common areas in suburban rental apartment houses from the standardisation period also received negative comments. Untended and broken facilities, bleak playgrounds and lack of places that would encourage social interaction such as benches in the yard were a cause of uncomfortableness. For the Eiranranta residents, the indoor parking hall in their future house was an anticipated comfort factor. An elevator was an essential technological component in their house for eight users. Lack of it was considered a downside by a few others. The role of house maintenance and management was usually noticed in situations where they did not work properly. Agreeable social relationships in the house were emphasised by a third of the participants (16). In some houses the residents were engaged in lively social interaction with their neighbours, whereas other participants hardly knew anyone in their house or considered the neighbours unfriendly or a cause of disturbances (10). This topic will be discussed more in detail later. Mentions concerning building type and architecture were scarce in the material, mainly referring to newness of the house and quality of construction and building materials. This seems to be in accordance with the notion by developers in my interviews about the unimportance of external architectural features to residents. On the other hand, house type and architecture were not specifically addressed in the user study. Housing architecture beyond functional and spatial properties of own dwelling perhaps is taken for granted by users or perceived as unproblematic. Laypeople may not have a language for describing architecture equivalent to the language of professionals. This does not mean that architectural design would not contribute to valuable user experiences. One can assume that properties of architectural design hide behind 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 234 235 , U8). , U6, ; see Chapter 5.4.1). ; see Chapter 5.4.1). U18 , In the dwelling level in control of individual individual of control in level dwelling the In 16 interviewees were satisfied with the size of of with the size satisfied were 16 interviewees There is variation in attitudes towards home home towards attitudes in variation is There ). Another common complaint was lack of storage space space lack of storage ). Another common complaint was spatial design and usability of their dwelling. Unsatisfactory of their dwelling. Unsatisfactory and usability spatial design storage space, received more negative comments. As noted, noted, As comments. negative more received space, storage sea, was equally valued. A middle-aged immigrant woman, for for woman, A middle-aged immigrant valued. sea, was equally flats were lacking aesthetic qualities and lagging behind by and lagging behind by lacking aesthetic qualities flats were floor because of direct access to outdoors. Others liked Others liked access to outdoors. direct floor because of disabled users despite modifications to their flats had some to their flats had some disabled users despite modifications dwelling type in old suburban blocks of flats with spacious spacious old suburban blocks of flats with dwelling type in view. or a better view. or own garden were very important features to the participantsthe to important very features were garden own or epithets like cosy, nice or smart-looking nice or cosy, of used that people like epithets either in the form of walk-in closets or built-in cabinetry. The of walk-in closets or built-in cabinetry. The either in the form who had those (23). Open view from own dwelling, preferably preferably own dwelling, from Open view had those (23). who was deemed to perform well in this respect, even if the if the even well in this respect, was deemed to perform a higher position above the ground because of safety (U6) because of safety the ground above position a higher and appliances in their home (U17 and unpractical, kitchens too open to the living space, or or kitchens too open to the living space, and unpractical, accessibility problems. and negative mentions. One should keep in mind that the study in mind that the study keep mentions. One should and negative the overall Many users appreciated also emphasised this level. and typically having smaller kitchens and bedrooms and less and less and bedrooms smaller kitchens having and typically their dwelling while 10 had too little space. The standard standard 10 had too little space. The their dwelling while technology and the technical equipment of dwelling among the the among dwelling of equipment technology technical the and the right-of-occupancy flats, mostly designed in the 1990s in the 1990s designed flats, mostly the right-of-occupancy its different of the interior space of dwelling and organisation to nature, and in Eiranranta towards an urban park and the the and park urban an towards Eiranranta in and nature, to the buildings in which they were living. they were in which the buildings inadequate. Some had themselves upgraded the equipment the equipment upgraded inadequate. Some had themselves identified by them. Bathrooms and kitchens could be small kitchens could be small and by them. Bathrooms identified instance, named seeing the sky from her window the single window the single her from the sky seeing named instance, blocks of flats found the technical standard of their dwelling standard of their dwelling the technical blocks of flats found Examples of added technology participants with disabilities. participants. A person could be happy with well-functioning ( water warm and heating like necessities basic bedrooms too large or small at the cost of other rooms (U11 other rooms or small at the cost of too large bedrooms rooms and functions attracted a concentration of both positive positive both of concentration a attracted functions and rooms problem spatial typical a was rooms of proportions relative modern technical standards. Spaciousness is arguably the the is arguably modern technical standards. Spaciousness attribute of these flats to users. In comparison, most valuable plan and large, almost equally sized rooms (see Figure 35) 35) (see Figure sized rooms almost equally plan and large, ). Some users preferred ground ground in her dwelling (U7). Some users preferred best feature households, semi-private outdoor spaces like a balcony, terrace terrace a balcony, spaces like outdoor semi-private households, U14 However, especially the users with children living in the rental living in the rental the users with children especially However, The importance of assistive technology was emphasised by importanceThe technology by emphasised was assistive of FIGURE 39. Photographs taken by participants of positive attributes in their domestic environment. From top row left: Forest in front of house (U21); garden allotment (U26); lake view (U15); urban courtyard (U40); balcony (U13); hobbies (dogs, U34, golf, U17); summer cottage (U33); living room (U40); favourite easy chair (U24); bed (U44); inherited cabinet (U27). FIGURE 40. Photographs of negative attributes. From top row left: Derelict house in the neighbourhood (U24); car park next to own yard (U2); steep stairs (U19); no hallway in flat (U24); plastic flooring (U18); old electricity installations (U20); too high balcony doorstep (U3); unnecessary sauna used as storage (U34); lack of storage space in hallway (U5); cable clutter (U31). in their dwellings include automatic doors, electronic locks, wireless security systems, air conditioning, motorised kitchen cabinetry, and motorised bed (U1, U2, U4). For the Eiranranta customers, the high technological standard of the flats with district cooling was again a valued attraction. Positive attributes related to fixed furniture and furnishings highlighted their functionality and good condition, aesthetic quality, and matching with the resident’s own taste. Outdated, worn, unmatching or aesthetically displeasing furniture especially in kitchens and bathrooms was assessed negatively. “Own-looking”, “stylish” wall and floor surfaces and durable good quality materials that are easy to maintain and feel good to touch were valued by the users. On the level of objects, pieces of furniture apart from obvious functional needs served pleasure, expression of identity and connection to personal history. Many named bed or sofa as the best place in their home. Home decoration, pictures and textiles as means of personalisation were especially important to users who were not allowed to touch upon their flat or were less committed to staying in it (U16, U23). Finally, positive attributes related to the ownership of housing that came up were affordable rent (6), financing models that had enabled some interviewees to purchase an owner-occupied flat with less capital, and good value of own dwelling as investment. Expensive rent, constantly rising occupancy fee and bureaucracy of the right-of-occupancy system earned negative remarks. Segmentation of residents is not in the interest of my study. Despite some common characteristics resulting from the recruitment criteria, each participant should be seen as individual. The number of them also does not allow statistical generalisation. There nevertheless are some patterns that seem to distinguish the experiences of the user groups at large from each other and are perhaps worth pointing out. (These may be influenced by variation in the content of the substudies, see Appendix 3.) To understand the differences one must also look at the dwellings that the users were living in. The persons with disabilities in general had less privacy in living. They were in many situations dependent on various service providers or personal assistance, which sometimes very tangibly penetrated their home and intimacy. On the other hand, they were inventive and experienced in negotiating enhancements to their dwelling together with authorities and producers. The immigrants can be described as modest and family-oriented. They in general were contented with their dwelling even if it was of basic standard. They hoped to avoid conflicts with neighbours and did not want to disturb others. Some perceived the Finnish housing culture and manners 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 238 239 ) U43 ) U39 working as they should. ( should. they as working adults where we can spend some quality time away from the the from away time quality some spend can we where adults ( it. describe to word the Quality is everyday. environment to be pleasant and everyday living comfortable, comfortable, living everyday and be pleasant to environment so that you don’t have to concern yourself with things not not things with yourself don’t you concern that to so have [The flat in Eiranranta] will be a secondary home for us us homefor be a secondary will Eiranranta] flat in [The In living, what you aspire is feeling good. You want the the want good. You feeling is aspire you what living, In It is difficult to isolate what in the user It is difficult to isolate what in the user As mentioned, the right-of-occupancy residents residents right-of-occupancy the mentioned, As granted. They used words like comfort, harmony, uniqueness comfort, harmony, uniqueness They used words like granted. could live as long as possible. They emphasised the aesthetic as long as possible. They emphasised the aesthetic could live the On the other groups. than members of the career housing future for now focused on managing everyday chores and had put their their put had and chores everyday managing on focused now for other participants. They seemed to have higher hopes of their of their hopes higher other participants. They seemed to have of the neighbours. Short-term jobs and uncertainty of future Short-term and uncertainty jobs of the neighbours. future of experiences tells about differences in individual lifestyles and and in individual lifestyles tells about differences experiences phase, and what situation and life economic position, family career as entrepreneur who now were seeking a pleasurable pleasurable a seeking were now who entrepreneur as career their taste confident about quality of their dwelling, were other hand, many were socially active and committed to their and committed to their active socially other hand, many were diminished their ability and willingness to invest into dwelling. into dwelling. and willingness to invest diminished their ability of neighbours as unsocial. They valued gatherings among family family among gatherings They valued unsocial. as of neighbours of their housing needs. Several were “empty nesters” with long “empty nesters” with long were of their housing needs. Several of residents due to shared residence of children. residence due to shared of residents were less satisfied with the design of their dwelling than the of their dwelling than the with the design less satisfied were attributes mentioned by the users. My findings then would would then findings My users. the by mentioned attributes and took high quality in all levels of the dwelling product for for of the dwelling product quality in all levels and took high when discussing their housing choices. and good investment and constrained by the location of their ex-spouse. Many were of their ex-spouse. Many were by the location and constrained and friends. They typically maintained large foodstuff reserves reserves foodstuff large maintained typically They and friends. insufficient. standard kitchens space in the storage and found that dwellings as material artefacts have influenced and and that dwellings as material artefacts influenced have transport. Their rhythm of living sometimes clashed with that transport. Their rhythmthat clashed with of living sometimes is consequence of the properties of the dwelling in which they of the dwelling in which they is consequence of the properties perhaps even to a large degree determined the bundles of determined the bundles of degree to a large even perhaps happen to be living – that is, results from use. It is evident use. It is evident from happen to be living – that is, results housing preferences, what is explainable by the users’ socio- housing preferences, house and living environment. The majority of the future future the of majority The environment. living and house personal needs aside. Their dwellings had a changing number number Their dwellings had a changing personal needs aside. had special requirements related to enablers like public public to enablers like related requirements had special Eiranranta residents had the financial resources to fulfill most to fulfill most had the financial resources residents Eiranranta People with untypical jobs due to irregular work-life rhythm rhythm work-life irregular to due jobs untypical with People The housing choices of single parents had often been sudden been sudden had often of single parents The housing choices “second last home” close to attractions of the city where they they of the city where “second last home” close to attractions tell more about the reciprocal relationship between users and the material environment than about users themselves or about their preferences. In this sense, it can also be considered a weakness of the study that it concentrated so much on evaluating the users’ present dwelling instead of attempting to elicit bundles of attributes with methods less constrained by the everyday experience.

5.3.2 THE MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF THE ATTRIBUTES

There is variation in the consistency and scope of the bundles of attributes that users employ for describing dwelling. When evaluating their present dwelling or talking about their housing wishes, they do not describe the “whole” of dwelling but highlight those parts or properties of it that are personally valuable to them or meaningfully differentiate it from other dwellings. Other parts or properties that are less valuable or are valuable but belong to the expected basic functions of housing, such as its function as shelter, are not emphasised in the users’ depictions. The dwelling product “in the mind” of the users can be defined as a heterogeneous bundle of benefits where designable components on different levels of built environment are assigned value depending on their congruence with the needs and preferences of the individual user. Dwelling features can contribute to different types of value, such as economic, social or aesthetic. The collections of attributes communicated by users address different elements of the dwelling product and are distributed variably within the built hierarchy. In this way, they resemble housing products in the market that were analysed in Chapter 4. Examples of attribute bundles elicited from the user interviews are shown below (Figure 41). The examples are from a 26-year-old waitress living with her child in a rental flat in a typical 1970s concrete housing estate in Vantaa (U22), a young office worker woman from Espoo living with her partner in an owner-occupied flat from the same period (U3, see the first quote in Chapter 5.3.1), a male architect living with his family in an old residential block in inner-city Helsinki (U40), and a single 54-year-old engineer who was moving to Eiranranta (U38). He described his wishes as follows:

In the new flat I was looking for certain comfort of living and a good address. I was also thinking of it as an investment. Perhaps I will never need to move again. In a new house there won’t be any big renovations coming, like the plumbing 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 240 241 ) U37 ) U38 ). Many of them also ). Many of them also U39 , come quietness and peacefulness. Temperature is important important is Temperature peacefulness. and quietness come and clarity surfaces, clean well. materials, as Surface [...] are views and environment stuff The out of sight. all extra because partly suburb, a in live well.as I could never crucial ( it. within dwelling a then and first area the choose renovation that forced us out from a previous flat. So newness flat. Sonewness a previous outus from forced that renovation of never prospect The attractions. main the were comfort and mornings the in window car the from ice scrape to needing ( ofcourse. view Andsea the anymore. harmony are also important. Harmony for me is having having me is for alsoHarmony important. are harmony Space and lightness are the most important qualities. Then Then qualities. important most the are lightness and Space I’m so rooted to this area where I’ve lived since 1979. So you 1979. So you since lived I’ve where area this to rooted so I’m The first example represents a relatively neutral neutral relatively a example represents The first The diagram shows how designable elements elements shows how designable The diagram social component into his definition of dwelling. He adheres adheres into his definition of dwelling. He social component sensible economic choices. The third bundle illustrates the the illustrates bundle third The choices. economic sensible goal (“comfort”). The interviews thus reveal connections connections thus reveal goal (“comfort”). The interviews expressed similar preferences (U36 similar preferences expressed quality of the interior: on the experiential focused closer to the high-level milieu. He emphasises comfortable comfortable emphasises He milieu. high-level the to closer emphasise different types of benefits or value when talking when talking types of benefits or value emphasise different (“parking hall”) with meaning, value, of the dwelling product quality and diversity of old urban environment and likes to to and likes of old urban environment quality and diversity dwelling product. Bundles like this are common in the material material the in common are this like Bundles product. dwelling collection of attributes covering the basic elements of the of the the basic elements of attributes covering collection on various levels of built hierarchy combine to provide an an combine to provide of built hierarchy levels on various about their housing preferences. In the interviews, the users users the interviews, the In preferences. housing their about and careless living made possible by technology,by possible living made as housing and careless and can be considered a core set of dwelling requirements that that set of dwelling requirements a core and can be considered to personally valuable ends and participate in creation of user of user ends and participate valuable in creation to personally typically connected a physical or other designable element element or other designable connected a physical typically to the self-actualisation milieu in Schulze’s classification. in Schulze’s classification. to the self-actualisation milieu immaterial benefit or value to user and how individual users to user and how individual users immaterial benefit or value investment, and high social status. A few Eiranranta dwellers dwellers Eiranranta social status. A few and high investment, between user value and dwelling features in a similar in a similar features and dwelling between user value benefit, anticipated impact in everyday living or experiential living or experiential benefit, anticipated impact in everyday manner than the means-end approach touched upon earlier. upon earlier. touched approach than the means-end manner mix work and living. This person also specifically included the included the This person also specifically mix work and living. probably is shared by the majority of residents and forms the the and forms by the majority of residents is shared probably a shows example second The variations. individual for basis preferences of a creative professional who values aesthetic aesthetic who values professional of a creative preferences variation that emphasises pleasure, accessibility of space and of space and accessibility pleasure, that emphasises variation fourth example illustrates the preferences of a person of a person the preferences The fourth example illustrates examples show how dwelling components serve as means as means The examples show how dwelling components serve AREA

Mixed Workspace Good

LIVING Relatives

urban area + in the area address DIVERSITY WORK SOCIAL LIFE SOCIAL

BUILDING

Design of courtyard Parking Joint sauna Neighbours and staircase hall New house

ATMOSPHERE and flat, HIHG STATUS HIHG no APARTMENT renovation COMFORT Personalised needed

CARELESSNESS District Good Sea functional Family cooling investment view dwellings PLEASURE INDIVIDUALITY OBJECTS ,

). U38 , U40 U38 U40 , in dwelling (U22 in dwelling U3 of valuable attributes attributes of valuable Individual combinations combinations Individual FIGURE 41. 41. FIGURE 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 242 243

AREA Close to Good Close to Nature Verdant daycare and transport services in area area school connections and work PLEASURE EASENESS OF OF EASENESS THE EVERYDAY EVERYDAY THE PEACEFULNESS ACCESSABILITY BUILDING

Peaceful Parking Elevator neighbours place

APARTMENT Personalised Good plan Bath- Ground Moderate surfaces in with large Low rent Balcony Owning tub floor price own style rooms SENSIBILITY AFFORDABILITY INDIVIDUALITY FUNCTIONALITY OBJECTS

U22 U3 value. However, the connection between design features and FIGURE 42. value is not always evident. Some users list tangible attributes The material composition of the experience of without delving into their meaning, while others emphasise safety (security) with generic experiential qualities of dwelling like “atmosphere” individual variation. without associating them with specific designable parts. It is also important to keep in mind that the lived experience of dwelling is holistic. Dwelling in use cannot be reduced merely to an aggregate of its parts. Examining the relationship between dwelling features and user value further, we can see that experiences and needs penetrate the levels of built environment. Their fulfilment most often necessitates the confluence of many elements or design acts in various scales. Lightness in a dwelling and view from it to the surroundings, for instance, are attributes to the realisation of which multiple elements in the built environment partake, including building density and block structure, design of outdoor areas, house type and form, positioning of flat in the building, and windows and their direction. Lightness is also contributed to by surface materials and colours, pieces of furniture and objects like lamps (U23, U37). Individual material constructions leading to valuable experiences in dwelling can be extracted from the material. An example is provided by a woman (U26) whose enthusiasm for gardening and being in touch with nature was supported by a chain of physical elements extending from windowsills filled with plants to a balcony that acted as a planting room, the common courtyard that she was taking care of with a neighbour, a gardening allotment leased from the city on the other side of the street, and public parks and forests in the area. In this way, valuable user experiences constitute chains of interlinked design requirements across the built hierarchy. Importantly, a given experience can be met by different elements and their combinations depending on the person and the dwelling. A design element can also contribute to many experiences. The figure below (Figure 42) portrays the variety of elements that users connected to one immaterial attribute of dwelling, safety. This particular attribute is presented as an example because of the richness of interpretations it evoked among the participants. As noted, safety in housing as such was not seen as a crucial problem by them. The elements of safety divide into at least five categories that were emphasised differently by the users. One aspect is the protection of private territory against others by technological and physical barriers like locks, intercoms, security systems and walls. Some users had experiences of theft and feeling of unsafety in their living environment, but safety in general was not seen a problem in Finnish housing. 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 244 245

AREA Rollator, Peaceful area Lack of car scooter, shoe Big car with less social traffic in area spikes (U41) problems (U9, U32) (U1, U3) (U42, U33)

BUILDING No dangerous Clear spatial No disturbances Trust in Preparing with Parking Enclosed Maintenance, elements for hierarchy and conflicts neighbours, neighbours for hall common repair, tidiness children from public to (U7, U11, social control emergencies (U36, yard (U4, U7, (U9, U10, private U16, U29, (U15, U30, (U15, U30, U39) (U32, U33) U15, U28) U14) (U40, U44) U30, U33) U33) U33)

APARTMENT Safety net Security Security system Dwelling Good Reliable Safe technical Home Safe of family, system in in dwelling above visiblity to basic installations insurance tenure friends, dwelling (U1, U3, ground environment utilities and equipment (U41) (U26) peers (U1, U43) U39, U44) (U6, U39) (U5) (U8) (U20) (U19, U20)

OBJECTS Mobile phone, wristband alarm (U1)

SAFETY Several users in the elite group stressed that security systems and walls may create more unsafety (U38, U43, U41, U42), even if a few also appreciated the security system in their future house. Two participants stated that they usually keep their door unlocked during daytime and sometimes even in the night. Another particular aspect of safety that came up was the safety of children in semi-public and public areas – demarcation of space for children and their protection from dangers. A third aspect is related to safe mobility, and accessibility. Furthermore, there is a material everyday living aspect to safety. Secure functioning of the dwelling and its utilities, proper maintenance and upkeep, and security of tenure all contribute to feeling of safety. Finally, safety has a social dimension related to minimising of disturbances and conflicts, trust between neighbours, social control, and social support. Multiple levels of the material environment also contribute to negative experiences. For an immigrant man in his thirties living in a 1970s suburb (U8), elements such as the bleak and uniform children’s playground, the balustrade of his balcony that was too high to allow a view to the environment when sitting down, and the master key in possession of the landlord had become tangible tokens of social suppression experienced in an alien society. The whole suburb here takes the role of a device of domination, a kind of trap that with all its material properties seeks to amplify the state of mind of its captive. The excerpt below not only conveys a feeling about lack of control over his own dwelling but also indicates a mistrust towards authorities, perhaps grounded in previous experience. They are seen as threat to security rather than as source of protection or neutral service provider.

It’s difficult [to feel at home] in a rental flat. You should be allowed to do what you like even if it’s rented. Then I could say that this is my place. I don’t understand why the housing company has to have our keys. [...] There’s no security because the police or maintenance man can come in anytime. [...] You can’t trust [that they respect your privacy]. It doesn’t feel like your own. (U8)

The experience of another immigrant man (U10) of the same age living in a similar environment was quite different. For instance, he liked the high balustrade because it is safe for children. Solitary moments in the balcony on quiet Sunday mornings for him were among the most pleasurable. This shows how individually the designed material elements of dwelling can be experienced by people who seemingly belong to a same demographic group and live in nearly identical dwellings. 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 246 247 ) U35 ) U28 ) U10 don’t disturb others. [...] I would take visitors directly directly visitors take I would [...] others. don’tdisturb What I’m really happy about is the balcony. It’s fantastic! fantastic! It’s balcony. the about is happy really I’m What to great It’s [...] there. from down peak children the when we sit on each other’s balconies and barbecue and do things things do and barbecue and balconies other’s on each sit we like that, and tend the green areas together. ( together. areas green the that, tend and like the balustrade]. [Otherwise] there might be an accident accident be an might there [Otherwise] balustrade]. the ( balcony. the to go and don’t have to think about ( it. don’t and go think to have lively, more it’s summertime the In sleep. home to come and Users’ individual personalities and ways of living of living and ways Users’ individual personalities have clean trousers on. In the summer cottage you can just just can you cottage summer the on. In trousers clean have sit on the balcony, just gaze outside and have a coffee. a coffee. have and outside gaze just balcony, on the sit you always have to get properly dressed and see that you you that see and dressed properly get to have always you You It’s glazed all over. It’s also safe because of the height [of [of height of the because also safe It’s all over. glazed It’s In the winter nothing happens here. People just go to work work to go just People here. happens nothing winter the In It’s ghastly to live in a flat in the summer. When you go out out go you When summer. the flat a in in live to ghastly It’s Also seasonal change affects how the built how the built Also seasonal change affects To sum up, multiple designable elements on elements on sum up, multiple designable To garden extended the users’ dwelling space and offered them them space and offered garden extended the users’ dwelling finds well-fitting based on her attitude towards housing and and based on her attitude towards housing finds well-fitting found mobility in winter a major problem. Poor accessibility of of accessibility Poor mobility in winter a major problem. found different levels of built hierarchy combine to provide user value value user provide to combine hierarchy built of levels different due to coldness, ice and snow significantly diminished their their diminished significantly and snow due to coldness, ice the period. In summer the most inconvenient other hand, found environment is experienced. Nearly all users with disabilities disabilities with users all Nearly experienced. is environment other experiences in life. It is therefore difficult to predetermine difficult to predetermine It is therefore in life. other experiences differently. These may influence a user’s evaluation of her flat of her flat influence a user’s evaluation may These differently. as well as diversity in their previous housing pathways mean mean pathways housing in their previous as well as diversity and importance of dwelling features, most basic functions functions most basic and importance features, of dwelling terraced house where the person quoted after her was living, person quoted after her was living, the house where terraced the social rhythm the house was alternating along seasons. of territory during winter months. In the summer, a balcony or or balcony a summer, the In months. winter during territory community. The woman quoted below, on the to the surrounding the outdoor areas, immediate neighbourhood and local services services local and neighbourhood immediate areas, outdoor the the value of a specific dwelling design to user. The meaning meaning The user. to design dwelling specific a of value the that they approach the designable elements of dwelling of dwelling elements the designable that they approach in housing. A given element can contribute to the creation of of contribute to the creation element can in housing. A given if the physical design of environment with its affordances also also with its affordances of environment design if the physical inasmuch as the “objective” effect of its designed features, even even features, of its designed effect inasmuch as the “objective” pleasure, a hands-on connection to nature, and a secure outlook outlook and a secure to nature, a hands-on connection pleasure, defined. and individually notwithstanding, seems relational plays a part in the experience, as the balcony balustrade above. above. balustrade balcony the as part a experience, plays the in A person can be dissatisfied to a design that another person that another person to a design A person can be dissatisfied different types of value. On the other hand, the same value FIGURE 43. can be met by different elements depending on the specific Requirements and characteristics on levels dwelling and the user. To add complexity, the same element of the dwelling product can have different meaning to different users. Experience or arising from different life value of an element may also change according to its context situations or traits of users. (adjacent elements) and external circumstances. Moreover, it seems that there is variation in what types of value people emphasise in housing. All this means that the relationship between a user and the dwelling product remains partially unpredictable and relational. The findings also suggest is that dwelling design for user value necessitates design across multiple levels of built environment.

5.3.3 QUESTIONING THE STANDARD DWELLING

The dominant dwelling design replicated in industrial housing production is largely defined during the standardisation period. The notion of user inscribed within it essentially still is the nuclear family with uniform needs that performs its predefined functions in synchrony with other households. The components of the prevalent dwelling type are consolidated by regulation, design conventions and the way of building, and are rarely questioned. However, the experiences of users in my material show that there are situations in which their lives clash with the standard dwelling and where they come to question its design. In this subchapter, I will discuss three such instances: non-standard users, contested functions in dwelling, and the need for multifunctional reserve space.

NON-STANDARD USE(R)S Overall characteristics of the user groups were outlined previously. I will here analyse more specifically what requirements certain user needs and life situations that diverge from the average set for the dwelling product and how they contradict the standard dwelling. The examples I shall examine are precarious shift work, shared parenting and physical disability. Rather than as inherent characteristics of a person, they can be seen as different types of use. Each directs attention to different designable attributes of the dwelling product (see Figure 43). An example of the impact of work to housing needs is provided by a 28-year-old single woman working as a youth leader in short-term employment and doing shift work (U13). The consuming nature of the job itself, irregular working hours, and uncertainty of the continuity of work in 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 248 249

AREA Public transport Location of Wish to connections a ex-partner and avoid necessity that childrens’ school negative restricts location restrict choices attention

BUILDING Need for Accessible peer support entrance Elevator Divergent (men, single and outdoor daily fathers) areas rhythm sets APARTMENT demands Renting Affordable for dwelling Renting to Domestic Modification to enable rent to Alternating Accessible Added Service design afford large appliances of standard swift survive needs for dwelling assistive providers enough flat to ease furniture and relocation fluctuating use of space space technology at home for children living equipment for work home

OBJECTS Starting Objects as anew with Assistive only means of divided devices personification possesions

PRECARIOUS SHARED PHYSICAL SHIFT WORK PARENTING DISABILITY (U13) (U17) (U1) her case were reflected as special needs on several levels of the dwelling product. Her choice of location, for instance, was guided by reachability by public transport at late hours and eventually to ever new parts of the city:

I work mainly in two shifts. It’s crucial to be able to get home with public transport after the evening shift. The local train operates until the early hours. If I would live somewhere more remote that would be a challenge. Due to shift work I often need to cook and clean late at night. I have a different rhythm of living than my neighbours who go to work in the morning. [...] [In late evenings] I try to tidy up silently and walk in woollen socks because of some complaints [from a neighbour].

A user’s rhythm of living that is in asynchrony with the collective rhythm of the community here sets demands for material elements of the dwelling such as sound insulation and the surface materials. Peacefulness, privacy and freedom to do what she likes inside the four walls of her home were very valuable to this person as counterbalance to hectic, social work. At the same time, precarious employment had taught her to avoid getting too attached to a particular dwelling. Uncertainty also prevented her from investing money and effort into her flat. Both literally and regarding her housing career, she had to be on her toes all the time:

This is kind of a forced solution. When you are in short-term employment it’s good to have a cheap dwelling so that you don’t need to worry about it. If I would live more expensively I would have more anxiety.

I would like to improve my flat but am reluctant because of uncertainty about where work will take me. I would love to paint the walls and do some little enhancements that also the landlord would support. But it’s always just left in the air because I feel that I may have to relocate soon for work. I still have some unopened boxes [from previous removal].

Shared parenting presents other type of demands for dwelling. As noted, the housing choices of single parents had typically been sudden and constrained by proximity to the other parent. After separation, they had prioritised the children’s need for staying in a familiar area over their own housing wishes and had often accepted the first dwelling on offer in the area. Some had been forced to move from owner-occupied to rental flat because they could not afford a 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 250 251 ) U17 wheelchair, rollator and walking sticks. That narrows the the narrows That sticks. walking and rollator wheelchair, which would be the only that I could afford without having having without I could afford that only bewould the which of money it’s not easy to find [accessible housing solutions]. solutions]. housing [accessible find to not easy it’s of money to move too far [from work and the children’s mother]. mother]. children’s the and work [from far too move to to find a woman who would get interested [in sharing a a sharing [in interested get would who a woman find to choices]. It has also restricted my choices. Even with a bit a bit with Even choices. my also has restricted It choices]. with around move to be able to I have and taxi, regular children I can’t move into a one bedroom or studio flat, flat, or studio a one bedroom I can’t into move children housing loan]. Alone I have no chance. Because of the ofthe Because no Alone chance. I have loan]. housing ( I need to be reached by ambulance, special taxi and and taxi special ambulance, by bereached to I need I will most probably stay in a rental flat if I don’t happen don’t I flatif happen a rental in stay probably most I will Accessibility has been the common thread [in my housing housing my [in thread common the been has Accessibility The users with physical disabilities such as the such as the disabilities The users with physical other summed up his alternatives: ). The other summed up users when you in some significant aspect diverge from the the from aspect diverge in some significant users when you spaces indoors and outdoors, design and measurements of of and measurements spaces indoors and outdoors, design seem to fail in responding to their needs: flexibility of the size size the of flexibility needs: their to responding in fail to seem living was characterised by rotation of two very different different of two very by rotation characterised living was large enough dwelling to accommodate the children on their their on children the accommodate to dwelling enough large of them experts in the personalisation of the dwelling product. experts dwelling them the of of personalisation the in of the dwelling such as doors, doorsteps, locks and handles locks and handles of the dwelling such as doors, doorsteps, independent solutions, hindering collided with standard design living. The users’ insistent and often tedious efforts everyday disease affecting her mobility, had concrete experience of what of what experience her mobility, had concrete disease affecting accessibility and had necessitated modifications demand for of dwelling, and level of technical equipment and appliances appliances of technical equipment and of dwelling, and level put forthespecially standard equipment in older that the own. Shared residence of children meant that their everyday everyday their that meant children of residence Shared own. they had excess living alone, when and periods of demanding, were points at which their individual functional requirements functional requirements points at which their individual were woman quoted below, who is short in stature and has a genetic a genetic has and short is who below, quoted woman stature in average. Their housing choices had been governed by the the by governed been had choices housing Their average. their special needs and the standard dwelling had made many their special needs and the standard dwelling had made many to dwelling space, furnishings and technology. Circulation technology.to dwelling space, furnishings and Circulation to ease the everyday chores. Two single fathers in the study in the study Two single fathers chores. to ease the everyday time and space at their disposal. The experiences of single single of The experiences space at their disposal. time and in correcting the mismatches arising from the clash between the clash between the mismatches arising from in correcting it means to live in a dwelling that is designed for average average for in a dwelling that is designed it means to live kitchens and bathrooms, as well as minor subcomponents subcomponents minor well as as bathrooms, and kitchens parents highlight two features of the dwelling product that that product of the dwelling two features highlight parents modes: periods with children, when their dwelling had many had many when their dwelling with children, modes: periods logistically and more rhythm was busier daily and the residents rental flats is insufficient for a family with children (U16, children with family a for insufficient is flats rental U17 choice. The dwellings of my childhood were not particularly accessible. I had my parents and siblings to carry me and objects around, which made the issue less crucial. But to be able to live independently and autonomously, accessibility is an absolute requirement. (U1)

The disabled users can be considered as innovative lead users whose expertise in resolving barriers of accessibility in the domestic environment could potentially be useful in developing products for other users as well, such as seniors (Jacobson & Pirinen 2007a, 2007b). They criticised the customary accessible design solutions as hospital- looking. Aesthetics, pleasure and connotations to lifestyle were important features for them in assistive products and in the home that sometimes could outweigh functionality. For example, a woman had kept her inaccessible bathtub instead of the accessible shower automatically suggested to her by the city authorities because of the pleasure and freedom of movement she experienced in bath (U3). The users with disabilities had invented creative and aesthetically pleasing improvements to their flats and realised them together with authorities and service providers (see Chapter 5.4.1). The suitability of barrierless dwellings for all users was stressed by several participants:

Many solutions based on disability would also be quite good for so called healthy people, but those made for the healthy are not suitable for the disabled. [...] We all get older and can any day become incapable in some way. (U28)

Indeed, the demand for accessibility came up when non-disabled users were planning their housing career forward. Some middle-aged participants in particular were contemplating the eventual impact of own ageing to the usability of their dwelling. They had begun to critically assess the capability of their current dwelling to accommodate lowered physical ability anticipated in old age. Those living in multi-level flats, for instance, were worried about the design of their flat becoming a concrete barrier in the future (U30, U33). A man’s evaluation of the accessibility of his terraced house flat here is epitomised to the stairs:

As yet, the stairs do, but when you get older they will become too much. Or if something happens so that you get a cast on the leg, then it’s difficult to use stairs. Stairs are always bad. Carrying things up and down is inconvenient and risky. (U30) 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 252 253 ). On the building level, elevator was was elevator building level, ). On the U22). 18 participants including all in the elite Four of the participants sauna. 22 had had no A cast on her leg had made a single woman in in single woman made a leg had on her A cast CONTESTED FUNCTIONS CONTESTED sauna although some at the same time deemed it too costly sauna although some at the same time deemed it too costly saunas in blocks of flats and have since become a standard standard become a since and have flats blocks of in saunas lowered mobility (U26 lowered seen by her and other participants approaching seniority as as seniority participantsby her and other seen approaching group had a private sauna in their flat. All but three of them of them sauna in their flat. All but three had a private group for them (U20, for considered it an essential feature. In the material, a sauna a sauna material, the In feature. essential an it considered at but many to value experiential high having as up comes did not use it, or disliked using it. 12 of the users with access using it. 12 of the users with access did not use it, or disliked ecological awareness has begun to counteract the building of of the building to counteract has begun ecological awareness distinguishes higher-end owner-occupied housing from other other housing from owner-occupied distinguishes higher-end of the dwelling product, the sauna. A sauna is arguably one of of one arguably the sauna. A sauna is of the dwelling product, Finnish of homogeneity cultural the question and dwelling, of evaluations in my material culminate to one designable element element in my material culminate to one designable evaluations a joint sauna in their house to which they typically could could they typically a joint sauna in their house to which area level via house level to the level of individual dwelling. individual dwelling. of to the level via house level level area assessments made by users illustrate how the present dwelling dwelling how the present illustrate made by users assessments are needs which future against artefactact as mirror can apartment saunas. the same time as a controversial feature that divides opinions. that divides opinions. feature the same time as a controversial the few components in the streamlined mainstream dwelling dwelling mainstream streamlined components in the the few functions about negotiation of the space and towards sauna tell to joint sauna or without a sauna would have wanted their own wanted their own to joint sauna or without a sauna would have in free-market housing production. A private sauna in the the in sauna private A production. housing free-market in in each housing company became the rule. The suburban rental rental suburban rule. The the became housing company each in in advance. important enabler of independent living. The accessibility important living. The accessibility of independent enabler reserve a regular weekly shift. Half of them appreciated the the appreciated them of Half shift. weekly regular a reserve housing which less often has such feature. Lately, however, however, Lately, feature. housing which less often has such residents used. During the standardisation period, a joint sauna used. During the standardisation period, a joint sauna residents this type of sauna. have houses among my material all but one product that the users find possible to contest. Their attitudes attitudes Their contest. to find possible users the that product been parthousing. Sauna has always in of urban housing reflected, helping the user to plan and prepare for changes changes for and prepare helping the user to plan reflected, her fifties realise the difficulties of living in her house with with in her house of living difficulties the realise her fifties joint sauna, while the rest either did not mention the sauna, either did not mention the sauna, joint sauna, while the rest Many users proclaimed themselves either as “sauna persons” or either as “sauna persons” or themselves Many users proclaimed Finnish housing culture signifies good standard of living and and standard of living good signifies Finnish housing culture Finland. As a component, it has gradually migrated from the the from migrated Finland. As a component, it has gradually that the local in cities public saunas were there Historically, joint the 1980s on, apartment saunas begun to replace From Both some of the most positive and the most negative user user and the most negative most positive Both some of the “not sauna persons”. Sauna for me is automatic, I have a sauna in every dwelling. If there wasn’t one, I’ve had it built. (U42)

Let its name be sauna but for me it’s a walk-in closet. (U26)

A typical customer comment we get is: ‘We wouldn’t really need a sauna’ – ‘Great, let’s leave the sauna out, would you like a walk-in closet instead?’ – ‘Oh no, best to leave the sauna there so it will be easier to sell’. (C1)

A wealth of meanings is invested by users to this one designable element. Private sauna especially for the elite group was a self-evident standard component in a dwelling, “a comfort factor that you can’t manage without” (U36). It was also thought to ensure the resale value of dwelling. The value of sauna in everyday living was connected to pleasure, relaxation, and soothing the mind. For many, going to sauna was the best moment during the week. The middle-aged men in particular used sauna as a way to relax and switch from work mode to leisure mode. Sauna also has social meanings. The users who stressed not needing a sauna considered it a useless element that consumes space and increases the cost of living and energy consumption (U25, U27). Those who nevertheless had a sauna used it for storing clothes or dog food (U26, U34). An immigrant woman perceived the sauna in her flat as a foreign cultural feature that just increases the rent (U6). Own sauna had originally enticed a user to her present flat, but changes to physical ability had diminished its use and value to her even if the sauna had been modified to suit her special needs (U28). Regarding joint saunas, the male members of an immigrant family had found the common sauna shift a good opportunity to get to know their native Finnish neighbours, whereas another immigrant family had experienced difficulties in cancelling the unwanted sauna shift automatically assigned to them by the landlord. One inner-city resident valued the urban tradition of communal saunas (U40). Sauna plays a part in people’s negotiation about the space of their dwelling both in the market and during use. For sauna enthusiasts, it can be a key criterion in housing choices. Those with neutral or negative attitude need to weigh whether they are able or willing to pay for the space taken by it. Some participants had ideas of replacing their sauna with other function, such as workspace or walk-in closet, but cumbersomeness of the task and consideration of resale value discouraged them from doing so. The high status of sauna in the Finnish housing ideal despite its low personal value and need for economic rationalisation affected this woman’s decisions: 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 254 255 , ) U26 U34). , U31 U25 , U28, ). ) was using her balcony for this purpose this purpose ) was using her balcony for users would have wanted a spare room to be be to room spare a wanted have would users uses. It acts as my home office but is also a TV but is home office my acts as guest It uses. room, when I had one, I only used it a couple of times a year. year. a oftimes couple a it used I had one,I only when of a weekly sauna shift] that’s not very attractive. Also my Also my attractive. not very that’s shift] sauna of a weekly a sauna. ( have to flat,own like I would euros per month. Compared to 8 euros per month [the cost cost [the month per 8 euros to month. Compared per euros sauna, a and for need the than greater is space for need room, library and hobby room. Sometimes there’s a knitting a knitting there’s Sometimes room. hobby and library room, sauna consumes space. Eventually though, when buying my my buying when though, Eventually space. consumes sauna same building with a sauna, the sauna would cost me 50 me 50 cost would sauna a sauna,the with building same The room resembles a workshop with a combination of of combination a with a workshop resembles room The once counted that if I would move into a bigger flat in the the flat in bigger a into move I would if that counted I once Not having a sauna occasionally bothers me despite that that me despite bothers occasionally a sauna having Not The talk about sauna renders visible the visible the sauna renders The talk about “ONE EXTRA ROOM” EXTRA “ONE , (U12 used as home office and/or guestroom use, without the need to tidy everythingneed to use, without the up. In detached houses, laying out of things. What they basically wished for was a was a wished for laying out of things. What they basically accommodate changing uses that could flexibly room spare function that at present is demanded by regulations even if if even is demanded by regulations function that at present found it very important: it very found quantitative (an own room for each family member), which member), which each family for (an own room quantitative changes. Some changes. contradiction between use value and market value in the in the value and market between use value contradiction and multifunctional “low road” spaces, to use Stewart Brand’s spaces, to use Stewart Brand’s and multifunctional “low road” and be closed off from the primary living space when not in living space when not in the primary and be closed off from term, seem not to be available in urban housing types. types. housing urban in not to be available seem term, durable a similar function. Such durable may serve the cellar or garage tinkering, workout, storing tools or hobby equipment, and all tools or hobby equipment, and all storing workout, tinkering, tells about confinement of present dwelling due to family dwelling due to family tells about confinement of present in their dwelling with unspecified, open use (U23 use open unspecified, with dwelling their in in the company interviews, the requirement of building a a building of requirement the interviews, company the in and may not be needed by the price of dwellings it increases in the terraced house flat where she was living on her own she was living on her own house flat where in the terraced in the summer. A participant who had this kind of extra room room participantA summer. the in extra of kind this had who more room to their dwelling. In some cases the need was to their dwelling. In some cases the need was room more between the two (cf. Brand 1994, 73). It can be added that that 1994, 73). It can be added (cf. Brand between the two contested each dwelling came up as similarly parking slot for physical dwelling product and how users are seeking to balance to balance seeking and how users are product dwelling physical kinds of other activities that need space and involve temporary temporary involve and space need that activities other of kinds many residents in inner-city urban areas (C2 urban areas in inner-city many residents One participant (U26 ). Such extra space they would use for hobbies, handicrafts, handicrafts, hobbies, use for would space they U27). Such extra However, several users expressed the need for reserve space space reserve the need for users expressed several However, Almost a quarter of the participants one wished for (10) machine lying around, sometimes I use my exercise bike in there or roll out a gym mat on the floor. It’s like this multi- use dump [‘monitoimimörskä’]. (U2)

The wish for extra space with open use (cf. Hill’s [2003] idea of spatial redundancy and Hertzberger’s [2005] notion of polyvalence) reveals shortcomings in the standard urban dwelling. The dominant dwelling design, based on predefined functions each with their own precisely tailored space, has low tolerance to other, changing uses. Urban blocks of flats lack a spatial reserve that would enable flexible expansion and subtraction of dwelling space as demands fluctuate. A balcony to some extent can serve this need. The question of extra space is evidently also an economic one. Above, the need for space was met by simply purchasing a flat with one more bedroom than is needed. This solution is unattainable to many in larger cities. Less vital needs that fall outside the basic functions of dwelling and are poorly taken into account by housing design are easily sacrificed when people negotiate about expensive square metres. Economic reasoning and attachment to her present flat restrained this woman’s willingness to pursue her wish for extra space:

I would like that one extra room but then again, I don’t know if I could really afford it. When I also fit in here. And on the other hand I have made this place [look like mine]. There begins to be a lot of emotions attached to this flat. (U26)

The user study suggests that regardless of eventual differentiation of lifestyles or individualisation of the society, there is diversity in user needs concerning components of the dwelling product that challenges the dominant design in mainstream housing production. The study also indicates that residents actively weigh the value of dwelling attributes to themselves as they negotiate in the housing market.

5.4 Users’ strategies for seeking fit

I will now examine more closely the ways in which users seek to adapt the dwelling product to their purposes. Along the lines of Brand (1994), dwelling adaptation is seen as reciprocal 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 256 257 . I will first analyse analyse . I will first ADAPTIVE STRATEGIES ADAPTIVE IMMATERIAL STRATEGIES IMMATERIAL

superficial; think of de Certeau’s tactics) to “strong” (long- superficial; think of de Certeau’s tactics) to “strong” taking market housing the in strategies Obvious separately. strategies mentioned by participants on levels of the dwelling participantsby mentioned dwelling the of levels on strategies some key constraining factors and experiences during housing during housing factors and experiences constraining some key lasting, materially deep). Economic strategies addressing the the addressing deep). Economic strategies lasting, materially of a young man recently moved to Helsinki because of work to Helsinki because of work moved man recently of a young dwelling product, such as browsing, searching and selecting and selecting searching such as browsing, dwelling product, not included in the examination. criteria, are ownership and financing of housing, and social strategies strategies social and housing, of financing and ownership dwelling. They range from immaterial to profoundly material material immaterial to profoundly from dwelling. They range of on the practices use (Hill 2003) and shed light creative in the domestic sphere doing, adapting, making and creating career that had influenced the participants’ that housing decisions career dwelling product as they were manifested in the interviews interviews the in manifested were they as product dwelling I will then open up of housing (Chapter 5.4.2). experiences dwellings delivered by the industrial production system system production by the industrial delivered dwellings own dwelling: among the local offering based on preferences and constraining constraining and based on preferences among the local offering approximate sequence from “weak” (temporary, materially materially (temporary, “weak” from sequence approximate and target different levels and physical parts and physical of the dwelling levels different and target and perceptions of dwelling features (Chapter 5.4.3). (Chapter of dwelling features and perceptions are appropriated by residents, made to fit their lives, and and lives, made to fit their by residents, appropriated are and extending deeper into the built hierarchy. They form an an form They hierarchy. built the into deeper extending and to each other” until a satisfactory fit is achieved. My objective objective My achieved. is fit satisfactory a until other” each to of the levels various targeting strategies adaptive the users’ is to shed light on the exact strategies and tactics by which and tactics by which exact strategies on the light is to shed in this way gradually become an oeuvre become an gradually in this way participants had employed when seeking for fit in their participants fit in their employed when seeking for had primarily passive relationship with their dwelling. The account with their dwelling. The account relationship passive primarily towards his of impermanence and disinterest a feeling reflects related to neighbours and the local community are discussed discussed and the local community are to neighbours related material the to impact no having and purchase before place product is depicted in Figure 44. The strategies will be will be 44. The strategies in Figure is depicted product the surface of the dwelling product beginning from presented product. They reveal occurrences of passive, reactive and and reactive of passive, occurrences They reveal product. precedent reference designs to housing preferences and user and user preferences to housing designs reference precedent process where the dwelling and the resident “shape themselves themselves “shape the resident and the dwelling where process 5.4.1). After that, I will discuss the impact of I will discuss the impact of (Chapter 5.4.1). After that, (Sanders & Stappers 2008). The types and extent of the types and extent of the (Sanders & Stappers 2008). The 5.4.1 There are individuals in the study who seem to have a a individuals in the study who seem to have are There The material displays a variety of strategies that the that the of strategies a variety The material displays SURFACES AND 11 8 11 8 10 10 8 8 11 8 11 11 8 16 11 MATERIALS

FURNITURE AND 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 14 16 17 16 OTHER OBJECTS

TENURE, COST, 18 20 19 18 20 20 FINANCING, INVESTMENT

SECONDARY 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 DWELLING

DESIGN 22 23 23 23 CONTROL ON BUILDING LEVEL

OWNS DWELLING X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

USER ID 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

USER GROUP Disabled Immigrant Untypical job Single parent Right-of-occupancy resident Eiranranta resident

FIGURE 44. The types and extent of adaptive strategies (1) Renting an allotment, (12) Upgrading the technical equipment mentioned by participants on levels of the dwelling (2) Initiative to get a forest thinned, (13) Personalised assistive products, product. Immaterial strategies are not shown. (3) Neighbour help, (14) Home decoration as means of personalisation, Grey area indicates a realised strategy and lined (4) Activism in housing company (15) Subdivision of space by furniture, area an unrealised or planned strategy. or residents’ committee, (16) Professional interior design, (5) Tending the common areas, (17) Changing all objects when moving, (6) Purchasing two parking slots, (18) Sharing dwelling to reduce costs, (7) Accessibility modifications (19) Right-of-occupancy as subsidised by the city, springboard to ownership, (8) Do-it-yourself or self-contracted (20) Housing as investment, home improvement, (21) Secondary dwelling, (9) Combination of adjacent flats, (22) Acting as architect of own block of flats, (10) Improvement paid by landlord, (23) Hiring an architect, co-design. (11) Customisation service after purchase, 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 258 259

LOCATION, CONNECTIONS, LOCAL SERVICES

IMMEDIATE 1 2 ENVIRONMENT

NEIGHBOURS, 3 3 3 3 3 COMMUNITY

HOUSE 4 4 4 4 4 MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE

BUILDING TYPE AND PROPERTIES

SHARED 5 5 5 6 FACILITIES IN- AND OUTDOORS

ACCESS, 7 7 ELEVATOR

BALCONY, 8 TERRACE, GARDEN

POSITION IN HOUSE, VIEW

FLOOR AREA, 9 NUMBER OF ROOMS

SPATIAL 7 7 8 7 11 11 11 8 16 ORGANISATION, FUNCTIONS, PARTITIONING 8

HOME 7 12 7 7 12 12 12 12 12 12 8 7 8 16 TECHNOLOGY, APPLIANCES 12

FIXED 7 7 7 10 8 8 7 11 11 8 16 11 FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS 11 This is quite unlike a flat where I would want to live in. It doesn’t look like me. It just looks like a place with cheap furniture got at some point that has followed along for years. (U25)

The same person was involved in hobbies and social activities outside his home and was actively exploring the city by car in his free time. Passivity regarding the use and adaptation of one’s dwelling does not necessarily extend to other areas of living and may be explained by age, family situation and tenure (renting). Hardships in life had made some participants concentrate on personal survival and directed their attention away from the material environment (U6). A “passive” user could also simply be contented with her dwelling (U15) or less interested in material values. Passive use as such should not be seen as a negative trait. The activeness of their use also does not correlate with the importance or meaning of objects in the domestic sphere (Paavilainen 2013, 158). Moreover, the user study method somewhat overlooked common strategies on the object level such as home furnishing and decoration. Several participants’ (more often non-owners’) relationship to their dwelling was characterised by making do – adapting oneself to the dwelling as it is despite possible mismatches (U6, U8, U21, U25). These persons had more or less intentionally “settled with what they’ve got” and attuned their everyday living and expectation level along the existing environment. They did not find a pressing need to alter anything particular in their dwelling or else lacked permission, resources or skills to do so.

Previously, I couldn’t have imagined that I would adapt to living in a block of flats. When it’s a forced choice, you just get used to it. [...] I guess I’m easily contented. After a flat has become a home I can’t really think of it [as lacking something]. Of course, if I would own the flat I would probably perceive it differently and have more of a need to improve it. When you are renting, you are sort of prepared to settle with what you get. (U21)

Making do as a strategy is arguably employed by most people considering some features in their living environment. Being able to loosen up on the quest for congruence of every attribute of the dwelling product helps in managing the unavoidable mismatches in real-life dwelling. Minor defects in dwelling can be endured if the overall dwelling product meets its purpose. People’s tendency to get used to FIGURE 45. Photographs depicting some of the adaptive strategies of users. From top row left: Masking defects by decoration (sheet metal walled bathroom element, U13); subdivision of space by pieces of furniture (music corner, U23); custom-made fixed furniture (cutlery cabinet, U43); upgrading the technical equipment (air conditioning, U2, and laundry tower in hallway, U17); co-created accessible kitchen (U1); self-made accessible doorsteps of oak (U4); renovation of surfaces to match own taste (U27). their dwelling, learn to overlook its downsides, and find ways to bypass them in everyday living lessens the importance of complete user-specificity in dwelling design. Much of users’ adaptation to dwelling seems inherent, unproblematic. Creative (mis)use of the dwelling is another type of immaterial user strategy that came up in the interviews (cf. Hill 2003). The dwelling space or some of its parts could be used in unconventional or unintended ways. Examples of physical creativity are the already mentioned cases where sauna was used as walk-in closet and for storing dog food. Bodily or conceptually creative use did not noteworthily surface in the material, perhaps because the study method emphasised the physical dwelling artefact.

OBJECT STRATEGIES Personalisation of the dwelling interior by pieces of furniture and domestic objects serving functional and aesthetic ends represents an obvious strategy on the object level that all users in control of their dwelling employ. The furnishings and interior decoration of a dwelling express its residents’ individual taste and identity, personal history and social status. This is the level that users can easily and rapidly modify and as such relatively unproblematic considering the realisation of user value. I will therefore not delve much deeper into this topic. Heidi Paavilainen (2013) has researched the practices by which design objects are domesticated in Finnish homes. Her study shows that people have different styles of dealing with objects in their home as well as different attitudes towards them. People also invest different amounts of money and time into the management of their home interior. The object level was highlighted in some of my interviews. Assistive products were an essential part of living for the users with disabilities. Many had personalised mainstream products to match their individual needs and aesthetic preferences. An example of a creative user who employed a product-based strategy outside of dwelling for increasing her feeling of social belonging is provided by a young woman who is short in stature (U3). She had adopted a trendy scooter instead of a rollator as assistive product that enabled her to be perceived as a regular sporty person when moving outside and thus helped in managing the stigma related to disability. Young female renters especially brought up the importance of interior decoration as means of personalisation (U12, U13, U14, U16), this evidently being the only personalisation strategy that is available to them. Apart from aesthetic and functional personalisation (making the home 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 262 263 ) or home automation ) or home automation ). ). ) and to solutions penetrating the surface of the the surface of the ) and to solutions penetrating An interesting strategy on the level of technology the level on strategy interesting An STRATEGIES IMPACTING IMPACTING STRATEGIES THE BUILT FORM BUILT THE U17 ) to installing a dishwasher or washing tower (in the tower (in the U1) to installing a dishwasher or washing ). In confined dwellings, the living space could have been been have could space living the dwellings, confined In U34). users had abstained from upgrades because “comfort has a “comfort because has a upgrades users had abstained from some in the elite group were unsatisfied with the variety of the of the with the variety unsatisfied were some in the elite group ). In the 1970s housing estates, add-ons were were add-ons estates, housing 1970s In the (U42). system separated distinct areas for music, work and laundry care in in laundry care music, work and for distinct areas separated subdivided into functional areas by pieces of furniture or other or other of furniture by pieces areas into functional subdivided lightweight, remountable structures. For example, one user had had user example, one For structures. remountable lightweight, should never be bought at once but reflect the residents’ the residents’ but reflect once at bought be never should delayed differentiation relying on some product modularity modularity on some product relying delayed differentiation embedded technology with the intention of enhancing its technologyembedded its enhancing of intention the with options plus additional modifications at a separate price (see price (see options plus additional modifications at a separate dwelling such as air conditioning (U2 dwelling such as air conditioning everyday performance and increasing the comfort and safety comfort the safety and increasing and performance everyday phone security a from range users by upgrades The living. of out by embellishing it with plants and decorative elements elements decorative and plants with it embellishing by out creativity. Strategies on the object level were also emphasised emphasised also were level object on the Strategies creativity. as strategies are not present in the material. However, some some in the material. However, not present are as strategies accessorised the existing dwelling with extra appliances or appliances or with extra accessorised the existing dwelling at every removal and were using the services of professional professional of services the using were and removal every at that allows the customer choices among pre-designed fit-out fit-out that allows the customer choices among pre-designed had They had by themselves. technical standard of their dwelling that quite many participants had resorted to was upgrading the the that quite many participants to was upgrading had resorted the sheet metal walls in an element bathroom. One interviewee One interviewee element bathroom. metal walls in an the sheet increased the experienced value of their dwelling. However, of their dwelling. However, value the experienced increased interior designers. Others stressed that objects in a home home a in objects that stressed Others designers. interior in the elite group. Some had renewed most of their furniture of their furniture most Some had renewed in the elite group. point at which free-market owner-occupied dwellings are dwellings are owner-occupied point at which free-market made possible by manipulated by users. This is typically been used by at least six participants and had significantly participants six least at by used been significantly had and to them. fit-out assortment offered predefined price tag” (U19 hallway, or simplification Downgrading by many as outdated. perceived personality and family history (U40 personality and family ). This kind of rearrangement of space by of space by ). This kind of rearrangement her dwelling (U23 physical that requires yet another strategy means of objects is misfits on other levels of dwelling, such as an ugly radiator or or radiator ugly as an such of dwelling, levels on other misfits stand flat house terraced her in entrance uniform the made had Chapter 4.4.2). Customisation service before move-in had had move-in Chapter 4.4.2). Customisation service before Customisation service provided by the producer is the first is the first by the producer Customisation service provided justified by the basic technical equipment of the dwellings, by the basic technical equipment of the dwellings, justified ( ( “look like ours”), objects were used for masking defects and and defects masking used for were objects ours”), like “look [I like this dwelling most] because I could move into a brand new one without traces of anyone else, and was really able to make choices about the floor plan and such. All my previous dwellings have had something I would have done differently, had I been able to decide myself. I would not have built like this or furnished like that or selected those colours or surface materials. (U2)

This flat is our own so we have been able to decide everything ourselves. That gives you courage to invest in it and put yourself at stake. You are able to choose the materials and paint the walls freely and don’t need to restore them to the original colour if you don’t feel like that. We could select the cabinets and everything exactly according to our preferences. In addition to [aesthetic] modifications paid by ourselves, I was able to order functional modifications necessitated by my disability. (U4)

Interior design is the most interesting and fun part of the process. Since the floor plan was quite functional, we ordered just a few modifications to the flat itself. One doorway was blocked and we selected the fixed furnishings and surface materials. (U43)

Publicly subsidised functional modifications to the dwellings of persons with disabilities and seniors are another route leading to personalised dwellings. The resident’s active role in ideating these modifications and getting them realised is crucial, as suitable and aesthetically satisfactory ready-made solutions can be hard to find. Modifications of this type range from supporting handles, widened doorways and lowered doorsteps to electronically adjustable kitchen cabinetry and automatic entrance doors. A few users with disabilities had come up with own design ideas and realised them in collaboration with small manufacturers despite initial challenges. A prime example is the kitchen renewal project of a woman who is short in stature:

I found one [kitchen furnishings company] on the Internet specialised in people with special needs. The guy who came here was so full of what disabled people should have. I told him, please, there’s the door. I don’t like the fact that so called accessible solutions often look somehow disabled. [...] There should be aesthetic values as well. (U1) 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 264 265 the the

would have thought of. [...] So we just envisioned it. Asit. envisioned just So[...] we of. thought have would on my own anymore. During the years, the flat has been been flathas the years, the During anymore. own on my other gimmicks too that make the kitchen look less disabled. disabled. look less kitchen the make that too gimmicks other the stage I’m in. That was something I alsowanted. something was That in. I’m stage the that is usable with a wheelchair and rollator. There are some some are There rollator. and wheelchair a with usable is that good details that I hadn’t realised myself, like the waste bin bin waste the like myself, I hadn’t that realised gooddetails are bad, I wanted a dish draining closet with as few doors doors few as with closet draining a dish I wanted bad, are I than nicer and muchprettier it designed He possible. as modified in many ways. The [accessible, self-designed] self-designed] [accessible, The ways. many in modified balcony The ago. a year than less built new, brand is kitchen for reason Andoriginal the [accessible]. made been has the had made resident previous the that flat was this buying accessible. bathroom moved to another wall. The kitchen transforms according to to according transforms kitchen wall. The another to moved modifications were partially paid by the city, a master a master city, the by paid partially were modifications really some added He by. alsocame there from builder [I thought that] perhaps it’s only good. Because my hands hands my good. Because only it’s perhaps that] thought [I She then found a small kitchen manufacturer with with manufacturer kitchen small a found then She I have decided to live here until I die or am not able to live live to not able or am I die until here live to decided I have If I will need to use a wheelchair, some work surfaces can be be can surfaces work some a wheelchair, use to need will I If In rental and right-of-occupancy housing, housing, and right-of-occupancy In rental He said that they don’t know anything [about accessibility]. accessibility]. [about don’t know they that anything said He At worst, a very specifically tailored dwelling can dwelling can tailored specifically At worst, a very users to adapt their dwelling according to their preferences. preferences. their to according dwelling their adapt to users surfaces, flooring and fixed furniture. Many rental and and Many rental surfaces, flooring and fixed furniture. long-term commitment to it: landlord that included materials and tools for do-it-yourself do-it-yourself landlord that included materials and tools for especially right-of-occupancy residents had also modified modified had also residents right-of-occupancy especially colours that match their own style had been enough to make colours that match their own style had been enough to make creativity into a dwelling and self-designed features increase increase features self-designed into a dwelling and creativity able to build upon modifications made by previous users, as in users, as in by previous able to build upon modifications made their dwellings during use at own initiative and cost. In VVO their dwellings during use at own initiative this case where the user benefited from moving into a house moving into a house from the user benefited this case where to co-create: in conjunction removal present a third type of opportunity for opportunityof type third a for present removal conjunction in many users very satisfied with their home: satisfied many users very houses, the residents had been provided renovation kits by the kits by the renovation had been provided houses, the residents painting. Being allowed to paint the walls of their flat with renovations and repair work realised by the owner typically owner typically the by realised work and repair renovations become a barrier to the next resident. At best, the resident is is At best, the resident to the next resident. become a barrier In any case, it seems that investing war veterans. built for no previous experience in accessible kitchens but willingness willingness but kitchens in accessible experience no previous These renovations mostly limit to basic updating of wall limit to basic updating of wall mostly These renovations When I signed the lease the walls were just going to be repainted by the landlord in conjunction of other repair work. I was told that I could choose the colours myself as long as they weren’t too garish. The other rooms were painted by the landlord [using the colours that I had chosen]. The kitchen wall I painted and paid for myself because I didn’t dare to ask for pink paint. (U19)

When the flat was painted and everything fixed I really felt that this was my home. I thought that I will not move away any time soon. [...] This has felt like a home since the beginning. (U22)

Several renters put forth that allowing more extensive personalisation of a rental flat would increase its user value, lengthen the duration of residence, and heighten the social status of the housing form. Apart from painting walls, installation of floor laminate and removal of minor walls are examples of changes that renters would have wanted to make into their flats by themselves. The plastic flooring that is a standard in older low-end housing was perceived by users as an outdated feature that negatively distinguishes rental housing from other housing production. As expressed by the shift- working youth leader met earlier (U13),

It would be lovely to be able to modify your dwelling according to your own preferences. If I would own this place I would take the wall between kitchen and living room down to make the space more open. In a rental flat what you can realistically do is limited to furnishing. Being able to bring anything personal to the flat makes it much more pleasant.

The Finnish culture is all about the owner-occupied dwelling in the terraced house and the housing loan. Rental housing is not considered a real alternative. It’s funny for instance that you are not allowed to install floor laminate into these flats. I understand the point that some people have done it improperly so that it has had to be removed. But if someone is planning to stay in the flat and wants to make it better to enhance her living. [That could make] rental housing more realistic alternative, not just a place where you stay until you have managed to save enough for a housing loan.

This kind of unfulfilled or merely planned adaptation strategies were common especially among non- owners. 17 participants would have wanted to manipulate some element in their dwelling, had they been in control 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 266 267 U25). ). It seems that ideating changes to one’s to one’s that ideating changes ). It seems from what it is now, and yet the first impression when I was I was when impression first the yet and now, is it what from orange in 1961. It’s primarily about sensing the spirit of of spirit the aboutsensing 1961. in primarily It’s orange when away straight comes feeling The [...] way. inexplicable inspect it more closely. more it inspect the flat – whether it’s potential for me or not in some some me or notin for potential it’s flat – whether the don’t matter. I’m not put off if the kitchen was painted painted was not put kitchen off the I’m if don’t matter. almost everything else in a flat is changeable. I can I can changeable. a flat is else in everything almost things such so preferences my to according it renovate standing in the hallway was so positive that I wanted to to I wanted that positive so was hallway the in standing The overall feeling is the most important factor because because factor important most the is feeling overall The She had learned her do-it-yourself skills from her her from skills She had learned her do-it-yourself I step in. This flat for instance looked totally different different totally looked instance flat for This in. I step The strategies discussed so far were made possible possible made were far so discussed strategies The fashion (cf. Brand 1994). Do-it-yourself home improvement home improvement 1994). Do-it-yourself fashion (cf. Brand form, the majority of residents highly valued the possibility to possibility to the valued highly residents the majority of form, effective strategies whereby the user can rather directly directly rather the user can whereby strategies effective or a public authority. During the life cycle of a dwelling they they cycle of a dwelling During the life or a public authority. questions about work phases and tools. She spoke for creative creative for questions about work phases and tools. She spoke described herself as “serial renovator” who has “all the time a time a has “all the who renovator” as “serial described herself dwelling is also something that people entertain themselves that people entertaindwelling is also something themselves U23, to dwelling adaptation ( diminished the motivation of its deeper levels or had the means or skills. Some had had skills. Some or the means or had levels deeper of its organisation, spatial to changes desired the envisioned common yard (U44 common ideas are not necessarily striven to be fulfilled. to be fulfilled. striven not necessarily with. The ideas are with “fantasy-based” adaptation driven by lifestyles and and by lifestyles driven with “fantasy-based” adaptation and home improvement with the help of professionals are are with the help of professionals and home improvement and to a large degree controlled by the producer, the landlord the landlord by the producer, controlled degree to a large and by the initiated and paid for complemented by strategies are the partitioning and technology. 11 interviewees had employed the partitioning had employed and technology. 11 interviewees One of them (U27) dwelling. in their present this strategy hands-on trying out of things with the dwelling artefact: renovation planned or ongoing”. This had also motivated her her ongoing”. This had also motivated planned or renovation housing choices: manipulate several levels of the dwelling product, including including product, dwelling the of levels several manipulate dwelling. personalise their adaptation that mix “reality-based” themselves residents of the dwelling needs and upkeep to functional related materials, furniture or equipment in detail. Others may have Others may have in detail. or equipment furniture materials, dwelling but did in their with certain features been unsatisfied Eiranranta One future solution in mind. a specific not have of the wished to participate in the design would have resident Nevertheless, the user study indicates that regardless of tenure of tenure Nevertheless, study indicates that regardless the user Temporary residenceship and lack of ownership clearly ownership clearly and lack of residenceship Temporary “extremely handy” father whom she had followed around asking asking around handy” father whom she had followed “extremely I’ve learned since childhood that there’s a lot you can do yourself at home, I don’t consider it as anything strange. You need to try things out. If you realise that you don’t know how to grout a wall you just need to get help, these things are quite remediable. Also you shouldn’t take renovation too seriously. [...] This is a hobby as well.

Another participant stated renovation as her hobby, too. Her refurbishments due to more money and near- professional contracting skills extended deeper into the dwelling product. She had for instance realised privately a dwelling-specific plumbing renovation. She had also upgraded the technology in her new Eiranranta flat by installing an advanced home automation system.

I do a lot of renovating and building myself, it’s like a hobby. I know quite much about it as well. I mostly contract the work. My own contribution is limited to occasionally working on the surfaces. I like to plan and coordinate building projects. [...] I have completely refurbished all my dwellings. Their original condition has been very bad, so I’ve had to renovate electricity, plumbing and all surfaces. This has been done with respect to the old buildings. In my previous flat I had a massive renovation made that included changing all the plumbing separately for this one flat to avoid the need for plumbing renovation in the future. (U42)

Three participants had acted as constructors of an own house during their housing career (U41, U42, U43). Two of them had initiated the building of a terraced house with several dwellings together with other families. The projects had involved close collaboration with the architect. The other family had hired the same architect also later for designing their one-family house:

We have participated in the design of all our dwellings. We have a local architect here who designed the refurbishment of our old house, the three-family terraced house that we built after that, and our present one-family house. (U43)

As a strategy targeting the quantity of space, a couple had combined two adjacent flats in Eiranranta into one (U41). These examples illustrate relatively “deep” user strategies that require manipulation of several levels in built environment and collaboration with architects and builders. There are no occurrences in the user data of co-design in the 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 268 269 ) U41 ) U34 important that we both feel comfortable in the nest, but nest, the but in comfortable feel both we that important ). Another had managed to access a large right- a large ). Another had managed to access for six years, like a sister and brother, enjoying it and and it enjoying brother, and a sister like years, six for wondering that how on earth did this happen [laughs]. [...] [...] [laughs]. happen this how that on earth did wondering We have moved many times. The last two homes we sold with with sold two homeswe last The times. many moved have We weren’t really any studios or one bedroom flats available. flats available. or onebedroom studios any weren’t really it. The next day he called and asked me to come see this this see come me to asked and he called day next The it. objects are not something to hang onto, we can just as well well as just can we hang onto, to notsomething are objects dwelling because his rent was going up and there were were there and up going was rent his because dwelling times. ( at times. all the furniture. Everything has changed, which is not that not that is which changed, has Everything furniture. all the abandon how I can ask might You yet. Finland in common built have We looksdifferent. always just nest a nest. The anew. times many scratch the from ourselves for a place enjoy a beautiful and comfortable space. In life, you have to to have you life, In space. comfortable and a beautiful enjoy he in the other. He said that he will need to think about about think to need he will that said He other. the he in my home. But small things that make up the home like home like the up make that home.my But things small you when of a chair leg the to cling Why me everywhere. about me,building home is For [...] go? people let to have me that he was thinking of getting a [right-of-occupancy] a [right-of-occupancy] of getting thinking he was me that there big, so But flats are all the coming. renovations big be able to give up everything. ( everything. up give to be able sharing a flat. You know, I would live in one room and and one room in live I would know, a flat.You sharing here in lived have we Now of years. a couple for solution people, who anyway are friends and get along consider alongconsider get and friends are anyway people, who be would a temporary this that thought We him. with place photos and paintings won’t go of course, those I carry with won’t I carry with those of go course, paintings and photos Then I got this killer idea that why wouldn’t we two poor wouldn’ttwo poor we why that idea killer this I got Then It’s He travels a lot for work so I also get to live here alone alone here live to also I so get work for a lot travels He My ex-husband with whom I was still in good terms told told good terms in still I was whom with ex-husband My STRATEGIES OF OWNERSHIP OF STRATEGIES scale of urban housing. The user-creators of the Loppukiri Loppukiri the of user-creators The housing. urban of scale culture in housing: culture exceptional strategy, followed by a couple who had several several who had by a couple followed strategy, exceptional of-occupancy dwelling in a terraced house by teaming up with house by teaming up with of-occupancy dwelling in a terraced of living (U1 were mentioned by the interviewees. One had occasionally been been One had occasionally interviewees. mentioned by the were the dissertation. There remains to be mentioned one rather one rather to be mentioned remains the dissertation. There The the scratch. from home their entire times constructed her former partner. strategy: her former She explains her unconventional renting out the bedroom of her flat in order to reduce her cost her cost flat in order to reduce of her out the bedroom renting reader may contemplate whether it reflects detachment from from detachment whether it reflects may contemplate reader of consumer manifestation is an ultimate or values material house thus represent the most “in-depth” user strategy in in strategy user “in-depth” most the represent thus house Several strategies related to the economic aspect of dwelling to the economic aspect of dwelling related strategies Several Some users stated economic reasons for choosing a certain tenure form. In general, most renters, circumstances permitting, would have opted for an owner-occupied dwelling. A few, however, preferred renting because of its economic carelessness (e.g. U22). One person saw right-of-occupancy housing as a suitable tenure form for her at this stage of her housing career because when paying off the loan taken for the right-of-occupancy fee she was automatically forced to save capital for an owner-occupied dwelling (U31). The Eiranranta group in general saw their purchase as a good investment, the value of which was expected to rise in the future. The economic asset value of dwelling was especially highlighted in the stories of the two homeowners who had renovation as a hobby. One of them (U27) had since youth been following an intentional long-term strategy of buying, renovating and selling her flat at a profit, in this way gradually enhancing her living standard. The series of renovations had given her craft skills and experience that she was making use of in subsequent projects. The other person with private wealth had gradually acquired a portfolio of real estate property, some intended as her own dwelling and others as investment. She as well had added on the value of her property by letting completely renovate several of the flats. She now had a collection of dwellings to choose from:

I have been really lucky with my real estate deals, not having to suffer from market crashes and managing to trade in during economic booms. Our present dwelling is inherited from my father. At the moment we are pondering whether to stay in here, move back into our old flat, which is currently rented out, or move into the new one in Eiranranta. So there are too many options at the moment. Apart from these three large flats I own several others bought as investment. (U42)

Acquiring a second dwelling is an effective strategy to expand the space and experiential variety of living. This strategy seemed not to be available for the VVO tenants, none of whom mentioned a secondary dwelling such as summer cottage. 11 participants, including most members of the elite group, owned a leisure home in Finland. Five of them even had a second or third vacation home which typically was abroad. Some other users had access to vacation houses of relatives or employers. The freedom and change of environment offered by a secondary dwelling was greatly valued by the users. They appreciated the combination of a summer cottage amidst the nature or an old farmhouse in the countryside and a comfortable 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 270 271 ) U36 ). A person with such with such ). A person , retaining their house in house in their , retaining ) U8 would talk to each other and say hello, not just look away. lookaway. not hello, just say and other each to talk would living actually consists of is a totally different story. ( story. different a totally of is consists actually living occasionally the dwelling abroad make up the framework for for framework the up make abroad dwelling the occasionally eat. ( to a place where children would play together and people people and together play would children where a place place your to them or invite neighbours some with coffee my living. But that’s really just rather superficial. What my my What superficial. rather just But really that’s living. my The flat itself is not that important. I would like to live in in live to like I would important. notthat is flat itself The The inner city dwelling, the country dwelling and and countrydwelling the dwelling, city inner The By contrast, social relations among people living among people living social relations By contrast, And where you could sometimes go swimming or have a a have or swimming go could sometimes you And where SOCIAL STRATEGIES SOCIAL strategies for controlling privacy and social relations and and relations and social privacy controlling for strategies suburban housing estates more often than others had conflicts often than others had conflicts suburban housing estates more living in the form of noise, breakage and other disturbances and other disturbances of noise, breakage living in the form for their social activism. Informal social interaction, such as such as social interaction, their social activism. Informal for forming alliances. They had sought membership in informal and and alliances. They had sought membership in informal forming them some within the community that granted groups formal for managing common issues on the levels of house and of house and issues on the levels managing common for company or residents’ committee which provided a channel channel a provided which committee residents’ company or time together leisure or spending chatting with neighbours control over the environment and some decision-making power. power. decision-making some and environment the over control channels. Lack of social belonging and interaction among among and interaction channels. Lack of social belonging of environment that they were living in. The inhabitants of The inhabitants of living in. they were that of environment deep and powerful strategies at her disposal can afford certain can afford at her disposal powerful strategies deep and city flat in lively urban environment. One couple had purchased had purchased couple One urban environment. lively in city flat of their neighbours, too. of their neighbours, with them in the yard, was more common in this group. Several Several common in this group. with them in the yard, was more with their neighbours. Social problems invaded their everyday their everyday invaded Social problems with their neighbours. a strategy of quiet endurance rather than confronting the the confronting than rather endurance of quiet strategy a another town as primary residence (U43 as primary residence another town that they had little opportunities to escape. Most had chosen to escape. Most had chosen that they had little opportunities the flat in Helsinki as a pied-à-terre as in Helsinki the flat in terraced or semi-detached houses were characterised by by characterised were houses semi-detached or terraced in into three main types that roughly correspond with the type with the type correspond types that roughly main into three neighbourhood. The users’ social strategies can be divided can be divided users’ social strategies The neighbourhood. more communality. Their central strategy can be described as can be described as strategy communality. Their central more residents were also identified as problems in suburban rental rental suburban in problems as identified also were residents experiences positive had users flats, although many blocks of perpetrators or trying to change the situation through official official or trying to change the situation through perpetrators nonchalance regarding the importancehousing: of regarding nonchalance Several participants housing their in trust of positions held Several The participants employed various inclusive and exclusive exclusive and participantsThe inclusive various employed participants were tending the yard in their house on their own or together with other residents. Mutual neighbour help such as babysitting or watering plants during holiday was a further benefit from bonding with neighbours. The following quotes show examples of social control on the shared levels of the dwelling product based on common agreement:

Our area is very cosy. It’s like a small enclosed village with fences, gates and village roads. There’s a lot of greenery and we have some farming allotments. And there are many children playing traditional games like ‘church mouse’ or ‘ten sticks on a board’. We have intentionally taught them those games that nobody plays anymore. The children can move around safely because we insist on not allowing driving or parking in the yard. (U32)

The original residents who moved into this house made a decision together not to nag about small matters and always try to settle things rather than pin complaints on the walls. And so it has remained. It’s really nice to live in here and everyone has their own privacy. [...] People keep places tidy and you don’t need to get annoyed about rubbish lying around. (U15)

The data also comprises practical everyday strategies by which people were seeking to maintain personal social relations. As with the dwelling attributes, users’ strategies make use of multiple levels of the dwelling product. For example, the social interaction strategy of an elderly woman (U24) consisted of a daily visit to the mall, coffee in a nearby café run by the local congregation, time in the house clubroom with other residents doing handicrafts, membership in the house committee with guiding new residents as her special role, and Skype connection with 3–4 friends every night to solve quizzes, sing karaoke and comment on TV shows. Regarding the living area, owning a dog is a typical “strategy” that had enabled people to familiarise with their neighbourhood and get to know other local residents. Repetitive use of an area by walking, jogging or bicycling leads to it becoming personally meaningful:

We have given names to our regular walking routes. There’s the Bun Shop Route, the Half Bun Shop, the Somali Route and the Centre Route. When we go walking the dogs I can say, ‘Let’s take the Centre Route today’. (U34) 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 272 273 forest, forest, walking my dogs my dogs walking ) U41 installed in every place, but that’s also because they lower lower they place, butalso because that’s every in installed the insurance payments. [In the previous house] we had had we house] previous the [In payments. insurance the some down shut to push can you buttons that panic these pretty That’s immediately. come will police the and things borders themselves. Of course we have security systems systems security have we Of course themselves. borders The feeling of safety is individual, everyone sets their their sets everyone individual, is of safety feeling The USERS’ STRATEGIES USERS’ Finally, the principal strategy of people living in of people living in strategy the principal Finally, Participation can even increase the “mineness” the “mineness” increase can even Participation AS MEETING POINT OF OF POINT MEETING AS American I guess.( American THE DWELLING PRODUCT PRODUCT DWELLING THE same person felt proud and jokingly proprietory when meeting meeting when proprietory and jokingly proud felt same person good sound insulation and private parking hall), or technology or hall), parking private and insulation sound good granted them privacy and distantiation from others. This could This could others. from distantiation and them privacy granted give way to private strategies of variable material depth that material depth that of variable strategies way to private give of the particular user and in this way increasing its user user its particularof the this way increasing user and in of the producer, who determines the ways in which it can be in which it can be who determines the ways of the producer, dwelling the of form the that, Before user. first the by customised As the dwelling in the housing regime. others professionals other people who begun to frequent the area: “This is my the area: frequent who begun to other people of public space. After getting a small forest near her home home her near forest small a getting After space. public of was that of subtle exclusion. They reported neither conflicts conflicts neither reported They exclusion. subtle of that was the them beyond nor special contacts with with neighbours, aim at adapting the dwelling to the needs and preferences aim at adapting the dwelling to the needs and preferences a physical platform where strategies of users, producers and and of users, producers strategies where platform a physical time. in other each upon build and interact conjoin, authorities the resident (and the housing company). Corporate strategies strategies Corporate (and the housing company). resident the they had, intentionally or not, employed subtle strategies that that strategies subtle employed not, or intentionally had, they thinned by the city park department at her initiative, the departmentby the city park thinned the at her initiative, in here now! [laughs]”. in here in the parking hall; otherwise he felt like living in a detached a detached living in like otherwise he felt parking hall; the in in a block of flats noted that he only met neighbours in passing in passing met neighbours noted that he only in a block of flats becomes inhabited and begins to be used, control shifts to to shifts becomes inhabited and begins to be used, control has already become to embody the strategies of designers and and of designers become to embody the strategies has already measures in retrospect considered some of them exaggerated: considered in retrospect measures ). The elite stressed the egalitarian nature of of the egalitarian nature house (U39). The elite stressed with means (new house physical choice of area, be through high-end inner-city owner-occupied flats or in detached houses houses detached in or flats owner-occupied inner-city high-end living man A meetings. company housing and greetings regular (security system). The sole user who had taken more drastic drastic more The sole user who had taken (security system). In the beginning of its life cycle, the dwelling is in control is in control dwelling the cycle, of its life beginning In the Finnish housing and spoke against social segregation. However, However, against social segregation. spoke Finnish housing and have got it into shape! Just move over, I’m over, Just move got it into shape! I have To sum up, each individual dwelling artefact can be seen as To value. Changes to the dwelling involve networks of yet other producers and experts. At the same time, the easily adaptable finishing layer of objects gives the user leverage for fitting the closest environment to her needs. When dwellings age, they continue to evolve. Their components are repaired and replaced on functional and aesthetic grounds. Originally uniform flats in a building each embark on an individual career of adaptations, the course of which is set by the succession of users with their individual characteristics, resources and skills. Users’ strategies in this way contribute to diversification of housing. My study demonstrates that the relationship of the adaptive strategies of users to the material dwelling product can be additive or subtractive. Users upgrade or add upon the existing dwelling product or simplify it by removing less valuable elements. They can employ an expansive strategy in the housing market (an extra room, combination of flats, secondary dwelling) or seek to optimise the elements and use of dwelling within given constraints. Users combine long-term strategies (kitchen renovation) with short-term tactics (misuse of the sauna). Some have more adaptation skills, developed through hands-on experience.

5.4.2 MATERIAL REFLECTIONS

I will next present some findings about the role of exemplary dwelling products in housing careers and user experiences of housing. The user study demonstrates that valuable features of dwellings seen and used by people previously can be adopted as real-life design references to which other dwelling designs are compared. The existing dwelling stock as a whole also provides material for planning and dreaming about dwelling. Intimate memories of the home, learning from one’s own past dwellings, observing the built environment and how others live, and model designs in the market and media in this way influence people’s experiences and strategies of dwelling. This brings us back to the aestheticisation of housing consumption. It also renders visible some of the processes by which users transmit design increments within the evolution of housing.

THE IDEA OF NORMALITY The perception of a “normal” housing career frequently came up when people were talking about their housing histories. The participants often were reflecting their housing choices and experiences to the (imagined) actions of other people and seemed to be well aware of the social expectations connected to various ways and forms of dwelling. Following what peers in 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 274 275 ) U26 ) U37 ( quite similar as well, moving to a suburb so as to get more more get to as so suburb a to well, moving as similar quite to bigger like normal people. But then when life has started started has life people.normal But when then like bigger to going... life hasn’t been quite as [laughs]... steady as with with as steady going... [laughs]... as hasn’t quite been life smaller become have dwellings people, the so regular again. commuting, eternal darkness and never time to do anything. anything. do to time never and darkness eternal commuting, standard living, just like with everyone else. The history is is history else.The everyone with like just living, standard hellish get you As a downside money. less with metres square years in Martinlaakso [a high-rise suburb in Vantaa]. ( Vantaa]. in suburb high-rise [a Martinlaakso in years The beginning [of my housing career] was normal, changing normal, changing was career] housing my [of beginning The This so-called married life phase I think was rather rather was think I phase life so-called married This I didn’t really get to know anyone during my almost fifteen fifteen almost my during know to anyone get really I didn’t Discussions about housing dreams and desires and desires housing dreams Discussions about And I don’t necessarily consider myself a suburban person. person. a suburban myself consider And I don’t necessarily The same person, on the other hand, stressed the the The same person, on the other hand, stressed ). Even if such comments would be presented half half be presented if such comments would ). Even supposed to say wife, two children, a Volvo estate car and a estate car and a a Volvo children, two supposed to say wife, for me.” These incidents open up just some of the sensitivity just some of the sensitivity me.” These incidents open up for following what she thought is a normal housing career: following consolation that helped in accepting the downsides resulting resulting accepting the downsides that helped in consolation this”. through people going not the only them – “we are from or way of living is something that one seeks to adhere to or to or or way of living is something that one seeks to adhere could provide the users satisfaction and feeling of achievement of achievement feeling and satisfaction users the provide could of living standard (the size and quality of dwelling) until quality of dwelling) until of living standard (the size and dog?” (U25 with people’s assessment of their personal housing preferences housing preferences with people’s assessment of their personal was used as partialwas used as sort or own choices for justification of and complexity around the issue of social comparison and issue of social comparison and the and complexity around and choices. A customary housing career in the interviews of of in the interviews career and choices. A customary housing also reveal perceptions of normality. When asked about his his about asked When normality. of perceptions reveal also a similar life situation or social group are thought to be doing be doing to thought are group or social situation life a similar talking about Christmas baking in October”, stating that “I will will “I that stating October”, in baking Christmas about talking to the elite group almost apologetically reported her failure in in failure her reported apologetically almost group elite the to the homeowners typically meant continuous, gradual increase increase meant continuous, gradual the homeowners typically or seniority, at which stage it is the moving out of children individualisation in housing. Whether a “regular” housing career career housing “regular” a Whether housing. in individualisation individuality of her taste and lifestyle in comparison to her her to comparison in lifestyle and taste her of individuality rebel against that kind of things until the grave. No traditions No traditions until the grave. against that kind of things rebel neighbours whom she described as “standard families who start whom she described as “standard families neighbours permissible to change into a smaller, yet comfortablechange into a smaller, permissible to dwelling. A woman belonging of some anxiety. but also become a source housing dreams, a young single man responded, “Am I now I now “Am single man responded, a young housing dreams, jokingly, they illustrate how “normal” housing ideals interfere how “normal” housing ideals interfere they illustrate jokingly, Their quest for conformity with social expectations via housing with social expectations via housing conformity Their quest for distantiate from, it seems that socially shared perceptions of normality are something that one cannot avoid relating to during one’s housing career. People’s choices on different levels of the dwelling product are influenced by simultaneous needs for social conformity and individuality. When they discuss their dwelling strategies they also come to talk about what is normal.

DESIGN REFERENCES AND AESTHETIC REFLEXIVITY I will now look at the role of design and design references in the lives of the users and what they tell of individualisation and aesthetic reflexivity in housing. The material suggest several ways in which other existing housing designs influence people’s experience of their dwelling and expectations of the attainable. First of all, memories and reminiscences of past dwellings had an important role in the participants’ perceptions. Many of them brought up deeply significant emotional experiences from past homes. Certain house type like the post-war type-planned wooden one-family house could embody a wealth of valuable childhood experiences to a user (U1). The users elicited nostalgic memories from old wooden houses and neighbourhoods that while perhaps lacking by material standards had been socially and experientially very satisfying (U3, U13, U15, U30, U36). However, some saw it as achievement that they had managed to leave such environments behind and could now seek their housing ideals elsewhere (U23). The existing built environment offers another source of design references. A user, here sensitised by design education, can observe good design solutions elsewhere and adopt them as a benchmarks against which the design of own environment is compared:

I would like to have a real yard. In some housing complexes the buildings are situated around a central locus that is meant for the children. The idea is good but somehow they miss it. There’s only sand, concrete and a couple of shacks where the children can get hurt. [...] There should be grass and benches and alike. These things were taken into account in places like Tapiola [a garden city designed in the 1950s], which is still quite pleasant. You can find paradisiac spots in there. Since then, things have taken a wrong turn. Our small yard is not attractive. It lacks aesthetic qualities. (U9)

It is difficult to draw definite conclusions about differentiation of lifestyles or aestheticisation of housing consumption from the data. Many differences between users 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 276 277 ) U32 ( football training. As we tour different residential areas it’s it’s areas residential different As tour we training. football say things like ‘Imagine having that kind of house, kind but that having ‘Imagine like things say We lives in the archipelago right at the shoreline, which is is which shoreline, at the right archipelago the in lives aunt aunt My sea. the to be near to bewould lovely coast. It the dreams. always ‘Look how wonderful that house is, such a lovely a lovely such houseis, that how wonderful ‘Look always house’. Yesterday for instance we saw many nice houses. houses. nice saw many we instance for Yesterday house’. house with wooden a big have to like I would sea’. the by a [names model know specific the I already windows. bay company]. housing a prefabricated by offered house model just ‘wow’. But their house is not as fine as the one in my my one in the as fine not as house is But their ‘wow’. just Housing in other countries as a source of design of design as a source Housing in other countries I often go Nordic walking with another mum during our sons’ our sons’ mum during another with walking Nordic go I often I wouldn’t mind living some twenty kilometres away at at away kilometres twenty some Also I wouldn’t living mind local but of global comparison. This was evident in the case local but of global comparison. This was evident in the case design references were often brought up when criticising criticising when up brought often were references design of Australia, Canada, Denmark, Japan, Norway, Russia, Spain, Spain, Norway, Russia, Japan, Canada, Denmark, Australia, of of housing with relatives abroad as part of the decision about abroad of housing with relatives possible is what of perception users’ the enriched had dwelling conditions. This illustrates the aesthetic globalisation of the aesthetic globalisation of conditions. This illustrates exchanging experiences some of whom were of the immigrants, different dominant designs than the Finnish one had provided than the Finnish one had provided dominant designs different outside of Finland and four had access to secondary homes homes secondary to access had four and of Finland outside consumption. The following quote shows how housing dreams housing dreams quote shows how following consumption. The different “taste milieus” with typical aesthetic schemata and and aesthetic schemata with typical milieus” “taste different of lifestyle by consumption drawing on the imagery of popular popular the imagery of on drawing by consumption of lifestyle where to settle. In general, seeing different ways and forms of of and forms ways seeing different to settle. In general, where and broadened their horizon of expectations. International their horizon of expectations. International and broadened abroad at the moment. Experiences from the housing cultures the housing cultures from at the moment. Experiences abroad are fed by exemplary buildings and the commercial offering offering and the commercial by exemplary buildings fed are they were drawing on when evaluating their present dwelling dwelling their present on when evaluating drawing they were the participants. Experiences from other housing regimes with with other housing regimes from the participants. Experiences that references design the users housing ideals and concrete talk about design references provides some insights about about insights some provides references design about talk assessment and in housing aesthetic reflection of the role impacting the use of dwelling. The users evidently represent represent evidently users The dwelling. of use the impacting in relation to the dwelling product would seem to be explained explained be to seem would product dwelling the to relation in housing consumption. Housing designs are not only objects of objects of not only are housing consumption. Housing designs references also came up. Nine participants had history of living references mass culture is not evident in the material. However, the the material. However, is not evident in the mass culture media: in presented by their socio-economic status, life stage, or special needs needs special stage, or life status, socio-economic by their dwelling. regarding and capabilities attitudes possess individual were related by by related and USA were Vietnam Sweden, Thailand, Turkey, Aesthetic reflexivity in the meaning of conscious construction conscious construction in the meaning of reflexivity Aesthetic the local offering. The reminiscences sometimes seem a bit idealised, like this comment by a woman living in a terraced house in Espoo (U5):

In my husband’s home country everyone lives in a detached house. The average size of dwellings is something like 150 square metres. The standard of living is much higher and people have much more space.

She, an art historian specialised in building preservation, continued her criticism on the mainstream housing production:

Most terraced houses have been built in the 1980s or after. They are very uniform. There’s always living room and kitchen [downstairs], and bedrooms and sauna upstairs. Having seen a few, you know that they all look the same. [...] Architecture and the way of building in Finland are very rigid, new solutions are not sought for even if people’s appreciations are changing. What I always stress is changeability of the dwelling according to life phases, such as the possibility to alter room sizes and functions. In these houses it’s impossible or seldom considered. It’s always the same standard solution that has been used for a long time. If you go to Stockholm for instance, you see much more variation.

The user maintained that developers just build what they imagine that people are looking after, without real knowledge of user needs, and argued that most people are not used to demanding or have the capacity to demand anything different, so they are forced to settle for what is offered by the producers. Similar criticisms towards the offering of housing were presented by some other interviewees. The architect among them (U40) condemned the prevalent dwelling types in blocks of flats as “tubes” and suggested more vertical designs as means of diversification. “Uninteresting” spatial design and saving in the interior at the cost of “inessential” parts like the building facade were other design defects pinpointed by participants (U25, U26). Design in the avant-garde meaning or different design professions were almost solely referred to by the elite group. Several of them stated that they like modern housing architecture with clarity and open spaces (U36, U38, U39). They also emphasised personality and distinction from others through home interior and furnishings, as well as the role of artworks in their home and layers of time in the form of old 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 278 279 ) U39 ). As pointed pointed ). As U42 , U40 , much better within that space. ( space. that within muchbetter without proper maintenance they didn’t last in the the in last didn’t they maintenance proper without floor plan of our new flat is very well designed. designed. well very floor ofplan our flatis new simple and efficient. I don’t think that anyone could could anyone that don’t I think efficient. and simple falling apart and there’s soot everywhere and nodoby’s nodoby’s and soot everywhere apart there’s and falling where we lived for 12 years was very well designed with with designed well very was 12years for lived we where frames. window and doors balcony as such details wooden We set our eyes on Eiranranta by accident when walking walking when accident by on Eiranranta our eyes set We which was miserable. Then of course we were renting, we we renting, were we of course Then miserable. was which much less. with don’t settle you to want location looking steel and aluminium parts that spoiled the fine fine the parts spoiled that aluminium and steel looking doing anything about it we started looking for a new flat. flat. a new for looking started we about it anything doing was smart there and looking quite were They designed. didn’t own the flat. So when we felt that places are just just are places that felt we flat. the So own when didn’t changed the overall look and impression of the building, building, of the look impression and overall the changed coastal weather and begun to be replaced by hideous hideous by be replaced to begun and weather coastal it solved have by. We noticed that the houses weren’t actually too badly badly too weren’t actually houses the that noticed We by. house. If I was the architect I would cry [laughs]. It just just It crywould I [laughs]. architect the I was house. If The The [newly built high-end rental] house in Kaivopuisto Kaivopuisto house in rental] high-end built [newly The The difficulty is that when you have lived in such a good a good such in lived have you when that is difficulty The It’s But A good architect understands people’s housing needs. needs. housing people’s understands A good architect The same person stands out as particularly stands out as particularly The same person showed a marked trust in the expertise and taste of professional in the expertise trust marked showed a professional and taste of good quality professional design on all levels of the dwelling of the dwelling on all levels design good quality professional exquisite wooden detailing. He emphasised the importanceexquisite wooden detailing. He emphasised of design. His design ideals were largely based on his childhood childhood his on based largely were ideals design His design. out, many of them had used the services of architects or interior or interior of architects services used the had of them out, many this group Members of housing career. during their designers the appreciating and were registered They had designers. and flats, Eiranranta their in design architectural of quality of the choices respected basically modifications despite own objects and pieces of furniture (U37 of furniture and pieces objects aesthetically oriented and with an interest in high-end modern modern in high-end and with an interest oriented aesthetically a middle-aged man, traditional industrial compound with spacious representation industrial compound with spacious representation traditional took up names of avant-garde architects as well as names of as well as names of architects took up names of avant-garde product manufacturers and brands. Aesthetic considerations Aesthetic considerations and brands. manufacturers product his housing consumption: had also driven rooms, clear division to public, private and service spaces, and and service spaces, and clear division to public, private rooms, floor kitchen and bathroom, materials and details, product: sole person in the study plan, and the building facade. He as home, an architect-designed modernist director’s villa in a in a villa modernist director’s home, an architect-designed materials and furniture made by the architect. As expressed by by expressed As architect. the by made furniture and materials plenty of parks and open space around. [...] The other new developments that we went to see in Katajanokka and Lauttasaari were such slums, too densely built. The living spaces were deep and narrow and the kitchens just standard quality, not what you would expect at such high prices.

There is just one explicit reference to ethically and environmentally aware consumption in the material, also by a future Eiranranta resident. One can speculate whether the theme would have surfaced more prominently if the user study had been conducted some years later. The user stresses the responsibility of designers in making sustainable choices on behalf of the consumer:

I wanted a dark parquet floor. I didn’t know that the merbau wood I chose is so environmentally unfriendly and harmful to the rain forests. My own choice now makes me feel bad. I wish that this kind of aspect would have been considered by the designer when selecting the flooring options. Every time I see the floor I have bad conscience even if I like the look of it. (U44)

Notably, four interviewees were design professionals, including the art historian (U5), an interior architect (U9), an interior designer and journalist in an interior design magazine (U37), and an architect and lecturer in urban design (U40). One participant was a construction draughtsman (U26), and one had an architect son who had designed her previous house (U41). The architect incidentally was moving into a house designed by himself in Eiranranta. The decision was motivated by an interest to test his own design:

It’s partially about wanting to try out how the flat [designed by ourselves] works. We also knew that the house was made of good quality materials. As its architects we had the possibility to influence some things quite flexibly, even if we had to pay for the modifications just like everyone else. At the least, we know what kind of modifications are possible. (U40)

In general, the design professionals did not have a major advantage in the face of the industrial housing system. They were equally tied by the local offering of housing. At most, education and experience could help them in assessing the suitability of a dwelling to their needs and in foreseeing the ways in which it could be modified. Expertise as architect or interior architect had probably also eased the planning 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 280 281 ) U14 ( The bed beckons you to loll on it when it’s soft and puffy. softpuffy. and it’s when loll on it to you beckons bed The I don’t like design furniture. Furniture should look inviting. look should inviting. Furniture furniture. design I don’t like High-end design culture was represented in just in just was represented culture design High-end Attitudes towards professional design among the among the design professional Attitudes towards LEARNING BY DWELLING BY LEARNING user study highlights the importance of personalisation, and user study highlights suburban mother saw avant-garde design products as ugly ugly as products design avant-garde saw mother suburban subordinate position of the “small scale, interior” perspective of the “small scale, interior” perspective subordinate position life experience can instigate changes to some of their housing changes to some of their housing can instigate experience life other groups were mixed. Design or architecture as terms did as terms did or architecture mixed. Design were other groups from some exceptions. However, the study opens up other the study opens up other exceptions. However, some from created modifications. If design in the commercial housing housing in the commercial modifications. If design created and product simultaneous standardisation concepts serves through value of sign as well as creation differentiation can diminish and once importantonce and diminish can the if obsolete become need experiential quality of dwelling. experiential dimensions of design in everyday living, revealed for instance instance for living, revealed in everyday dimensions of design design was mostly discussed in a functional meaning and in functional meaning and in discussed in a was mostly design of dwellings. This young conjunction of the interior space dwelling product that they were focusing on in their work. The their work. The on in focusing they were that product dwelling details of the functional stressed draughtsman construction were not part of the everyday sphere of the users apart apart of the users not part sphere of the everyday were and meaning of a desired attribute of the dwelling product attribute of the dwelling product and meaning of a desired a few of the homes and mostly as singular design objects. objects. design singular as and mostly the homes of few a and uncomfortable: and execution of renovations. The interviews of design of design The interviews of renovations. execution and the scale of buildings and the city. This to me reflects the the and the city. This to me reflects the scale of buildings themselves as residents and about dwellings as artefacts.dwellings about and Real- as residents themselves the role of design in enhancing the tangible functional and and functional tangible the enhancing in design of role the the ugliness of suburban concrete element houses, housing element houses, housing concrete the ugliness of suburban in housing design. in the actual dwelling space but is looking at housing in in space but is looking at housing in the actual dwelling preferences. As illustrated by the following example, the value value the example, following the by illustrated As preferences. by the users with disabilities when talking about their self- when talking about their by the users with disabilities the 4.3), (Chapter lifestyles to connotations and branding not come up in the majority of interviews no more than the than the no more majority of interviews not come up in the about comments a few Apart from housing designers. of role professionals indicate sensitiveness to those aspects of the of the aspects to those sensitiveness indicate professionals haptic and on was focusing designer the interior her flat, while When people live together with their dwellings they learn about dwellings they learn about together with their When people live visual experiences created by materials and objects in space. in space. materials and objects by created visual experiences Architecture or product design in the avant-garde meaning meaning in the avant-garde design or product Architecture The architect participant forth put a specialist that he is not The architect user experience is unsatisfactory. Here, the conventional yard design in their terraced house did not meet the needs of a couple with disabilities:

The first time in my life when I had an own yard I found out that it wasn’t really my thing. You could of course have had it made over in Japanese style with forest litter and stone slabs and things. I had always dreamt of a garden, so it was a disappointment. The way the yard was designed made it impossible for me and my husband [who was already using a wheelchair] to take care of it. The yard was too big and surrounded by planks like a stall. (U1)

An interesting case and object lesson on the importance of user control is provided by a wealthy entrepreneur couple who had let their architect son design themselves a perfect dream house with exceptionally high technological standard (see also Chapter 5.4.1):

Technology-wise, [moving to Eiranranta] will be a big step downwards. Our previous home was very high-tech. It was designed by our son who is into these things. The house was so modern that all electricity, heating and such were computer-controlled. But neither of us loves computers so we always called in a man to check the graphs for us. [...] That became the reason for moving. The house was so complicated with all these computers and gadgets. I felt that I needed to control something by myself. We spend all summers in the countryside so the garden was tended by a gardener. There was a constant worry about the house and whether all the computer graphs are as they should. You feel good to give up something that you feel you can’t manage. [...] The new home will be easier. It’s quite manageable. My husband says that we will only have plastic flowers. (U41)

The dwellings in Eiranranta had highest technical standard among urban housing production in Finland at the time, most notably district heating and cooling through ventilation (air conditioning has been very rare in Finnish housing). For a user accustomed to even more advanced technology, they nevertheless could mean “a big step downwards”. The example not only reflects the technological advancement of high-end detached housing production in comparison to urban blocks of flats but tells of variation in how users approach dwelling features based on their housing history. To a person coming from more standard Finnish 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 282 283 my my ) U40 ( ) U44 was a word frequently was a word frequently ). Learning from other dwellings in dwellings in other from ). Learning ) U42 flat this kind of special individuality will be lost. It remains remains be lost.It will individuality of special kind flat this nice to see the passing of time and some traces traces some and of time passing the see to nice It’s worn. low. Old houses have big lovely rooms, the atmosphere is is atmosphere the rooms, lovely big Old have houses low. like an old flat anymore. ( oldan flat anymore. like opinion it’s good to have some wasted space in a home. a home. in space wasted some good have to it’s opinion ( of life. People individual. quite become have they that so ourselves to be totally in order but may be a bit crooked and well well and crooked but be may a bit order in be totally to furnishing. by just do how much can you be seen to technology. [...] Old dwellings can be really tricky, you never never you tricky, be really can Old [...] dwellings technology. In functional. that not necessarily is everything and nice atmosphere. The only new house in which I have lived was was lived have I which house in new only The atmosphere. ceilings the and confined were rooms the pleasant, not very comfortable because of the advancement of materials and and of materials advancement of the because comfortable Until now, we have lived in old flats that we have renovated renovated have we old flats that in lived have we now, Until have always liked our homes. I’m afraid that in a totally new new totally a in that afraid our homes. I’m liked always have know what comes across if you tear down a wall. I would not a wall.not I would down tear you if across know comes what OLD OR NEW? OR OLD I have always preferred living in old houses because of their of their old because houses in living preferred always I have know that in new housing that’s not possible, but I like this this but like I not possible, that’s housing new I know in that don’t need old houses. Things in spirit Longstocking Pippi I think that new housing in general is more healthy and and healthy more is general in housing new that I think Having previously lived in old houses, I’m sorry to say but but say sorry to old houses,I’m in lived previously Having ). A participant who had two secondary homes abroad participant). A U38 abroad homes two secondary who had used by participants word when describing old dwellings. The component of the dwelling product. of the dwelling component flats, whereas for others newness had been a decisive factor in factor in a decisive others newness had been for flats, whereas future Eiranranta residents were contemplating their housing their housing contemplating were residents Eiranranta future choices, evidently because the Eiranranta flats were only only were flats Eiranranta the because evidently choices, dwelling can be read from the interviews. Comparison Comparison the interviews. from read dwelling can be was considered good by the majority of respondents but their their but respondents of majority the by good considered was with air conditioning had learned to appreciate the possibility the possibility to appreciate had learned with air conditioning was not connected to new housing production. aesthetic quality less so. Atmosphere these cases had affected the user’s perception of a particular the user’s perception had affected these cases the housing purchase. The technical quality of new dwellings quality of new dwellings The technical the housing purchase. to cool down room temperature and now expected that also of of expected that also and now temperature room to cool down her home in Finland (U37 her home representatives of new housing production among the material. material. the among production housing new of representatives between new and old dwellings especially came up when the up when the came old dwellings especially between new and housing, the technology in Eiranranta flats was great luxury luxury great was flats technology the housing, in Eiranranta Contrasting attitudes towards the preferred age of one’s of one’s age the preferred attitudes towards Contrasting Some of the participants expressed a strong preference for old old for preference a strong Some of the participants expressed ( As a generalisation, for affluent professionals living in inner-city Helsinki an old flat represents aesthetic quality and personality that is missing from new production. Passing of time to them adds experiential value to a dwelling that money can’t buy. An old flat in poor condition is also seen as opportunity to design and refurbish one’s dwelling to perfection. By contrast, many suburban renters simply equate an old flat with “in need of repair”. Defects caused by wear and tear to their dwelling mean a constant and sometimes very tangible discomfort that one has to bear with, struggle to get repaired by the landlord or use one’s own meagre income to fix (U10). Aside from these opposites, there was in all groups variation in preferences regarding new versus old dwellings. It seems that the value of new housing despite its high technical standard is not as self-evident to people as housing professionals may think.

5.4.3 SYSTEMIC PATHWAYS

To enrich the picture of users’ long-term housing strategies, I will conclude this section of the study by casting light on some key constraining factors and important experiences during housing career that were influencing the participants’ housing decisions and perceptions of the dwelling product. Here a reference should be made to Clapham’s (2005) notion of housing pathways. His central argument is that housing “careers” from the perspective of individual residents should be understood less as straightforward consumption patterns determined by demographic and economic factors, but rather as individual pathways among opportunities in the market where housing increasingly serves the attempted fulfilment of personal, identity and lifestyle related goals. Clapham emphasises the impact of previous experiences to housing decisions and to the way housing is perceived. I have not systematically analysed the housing histories of the users. The interviews, however, provide insights about their navigation patterns across the housing system and concurrent changes to meaning and value of housing.

FORCED MOVES AND NEW BEGINNINGS There are examples of both voluntary and forced housing choices in the material. Some users presented their housing career as series of rational decisions justified by family size, economic resources and location. In many cases, however, choices had resulted from complex chains of events partially beyond the 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 284 285 ) U20 ( ) and diminished funds. A man in the the in man A funds. diminished and ) flat? U10 ), and most were left with divided possessions left with divided possessions ), and most were from the beginning again and spend some time in an an in time some spend and again beginning the from for at least two years until I can sell it without having having without it sell can I until two years at least for with. We slept on mattresses on the floor. It’s funny how how funny It’s floor. on the on mattresses slept We with. little you need for getting by. Afterwards it’s become a a become it’s Afterwards by. getting for need you little will survive with the support of my 30 years of working of support working the 30 of my years with survive will of my divorce process, which has put me in a bit of a ofa a bit put has me in which process, divorce of my to pay taxes from the sales profit. It will be tough but I but be tough I will It profit. sales the from pay taxes to found. I’ve flat that dream this empty difficult financial situation. In fact I’m wondering whether whether wondering I’m fact In situation. financial difficult experience. Let’s just hope that I won’t have to give up up I won’t hope that give to just have Let’s experience. mattresses bought from [a shopping centre]. My ex- My centre]. shopping [a bought from mattresses went we and pans and kettles some us had given husband shopping for cleaning equipment, that’s how we got started started got how that’s we equipment, cleaning for shopping joke between me and my daughter. Why couldn’t we start couldn’t start we Why daughter. me my and between joke I remember the first night when we had nothing, just just had nothing, we when night first the I remember I decidedly took a risk buying this flat in the middle middle the flat in this buying a risk took I decidedly I’ll flat. the I’ll keep to be able trymanage to to have Removals regardless of their motivation also also motivation of their regardless Removals satisfactory conditions. As an example of the complex factors complex factors an example of the conditions. As satisfactory going on sick pension and economic depression had forced had forced and economic depression going on sick pension ). Illness, unemployment and divorce had affected affected had divorce and unemployment Illness, flat (U24). of starting living again: dwelling (U36 control of individuals. Turns in life had enabled some persons persons some had enabled in life Turns individuals. of control elite group communicated how divorce had caused uncertainty communicated how divorce elite group was the most common cause for a forced move among the users. among the users. move a forced cause for was the most common which she had had to move away when her mother passed away. away. passed mother her when away move to had had she which an exciting opportunity to construct one’s environment anew. anew. an exciting opportunity to construct one’s environment bittersweet memory about its cause is echoed in this woman’s to make many compromises. Some had let go of their dream had let go of their dream Some many compromises. to make to enhance their living standard and driven others to less to less others driven and standard living their to enhance to his housing career: influencing housing choices, the death of her husband had had husband her of death the choices, housing influencing home, from back to her childhood a woman’s move instigated mark new beginnings in life. Change of dwelling was perceived perceived was dwelling of Change life. in beginnings new mark as group by many participants Eiranranta in the especially had made her to seek into an elevator building. Yet later, later, Yet building. seek into an elevator had made her to to a right-of-occupancy an owner-occupied from her to move or separation Divorce all the user groups. housing choices in (“just a frying pan”, frying a (“just In this situation, they had needed to find a new flat quickly and and had needed to find a new flat quickly In this situation, they Later during her housing career an illness affecting mobility mobility affecting an illness her housing career Later during The reinvigorating effect of housing change despite sadness sadness despite change housing of effect reinvigorating The Avoidance of practical nuisance can initiate a move as well. Upcoming (plumbing) renovation had pushed several users away from a previous dwelling (U30, U38, U44). Yet others were afraid of the impact of eventual plumbing renovation to their economy and everyday living. Certainty of no repair needs in the near future had attracted some to a new house. The material shows how both external trends (economic fluctuation), social factors (wish to get away from an unpleasant neighbourhood, U33), life events (birth of child, separation, illness), and issues instigated by the physical dwelling product (renovation needs) propel housing pathways.

LOCK-INS AND TRADE-OFFS Intention to change dwelling was a point at which many participants’ wishes and preferences had collided with the housing system (cf. Lapintie 2010a, Shove 1999). Mismatch between their own needs and resources and viable alternatives in the local market either restrained people from fulfilling their needs or forced them to move away from a preferred area:

I dream of buying my own flat, but with my income it’s impossible here [in the Helsinki region]. It would be nice to furnish it, paint it and make it look like mine, but with my salary I just have to stay where I am. (U13)

It was a flat by the sea. We used to sit on the glazed balcony after sauna looking at the lapping of waves. So you can say it was comfortable living. But the prices of family dwellings in that area are so insane that we had no chance to continue living in there, especially when one of us was going on maternity leave. (U29)

The users’ choices in the housing market were characterised by lock-ins (self-imposed or other constraints narrowing down the range of alternatives) and trade-offs (giving up or downgrading on some attribute of dwelling in order to gain on another attribute estimated to be more valuable). I have discussed how situations like precarious work and shared parenting restrict people’s choices and possibility to invest in housing (see Figure 43). Location of work, school and daycare are obvious examples of factors that guide location choices. Several parents mentioned that they would prefer to stay in the same area until the children finish their school. A single mother (U31) had carefully optimised the size of her dwelling and commuting distance and settled down with the intention that this flat would sustain her family through 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 286 287 ). Most of ). Most of ), after which ), after which U21 ) valued the cost- the valued ) ). ). To some, proximity some, proximity ). To U22 , U40 ). Another urban resident Another urban resident ). , U20 , ). Others had temporarily U25). Others had temporarily U16 , some cases, moving to a suburb had enabled enabled had suburb a to moving cases, some Negotiation between cost, size and location and location Negotiation between cost, size Most common trade-off in the material is is in the material Most common trade-off “THIS IS JUST TEMPORARY” JUST IS “THIS ). Several relatives of an immigrant family had gradually had gradually family immigrant of an relatives ). Several , turbulence (U18 ) or post-divorce U29 , U14 U5 urban living outweighed the value of excess space. Trade-offs of excess space. Trade-offs the value urban living outweighed several of whom now were moving into a smaller flat for for moving into a smaller flat now were of whom several size in favour of central location. For them, the value of of value the For them, location. of central in favour size lower rent. In rent. lower size ratio of their dwellings. Two of them even turned the lack turned the lack of their dwellings. Two of them even size ratio familiar area where they had been living for long and to which to which long and for been living they had where area familiar compromised their long-term housing goals in order to go go their long-term housing goals in order to compromised of forced choices dictated by economic constraints, sudden sudden constraints, economic by dictated choices forced of economic reasons. discussed to a great length how her wishes for spaciousness spaciousness how her wishes for length discussed to a great or the same space plus a car (U27 car plus a same space the or old housing estates (U13 estates housing old by maintaining that suburb to an advantage of services in their dwelling. More remote area had also been chosen because of been chosen because of had also area remote dwelling. More comes up in the majority of the interviews. An inner-city An inner-city interviews. comes up in the majority of the wanted. Some had drifted into their current dwelling as result dwelling as result wanted. Some had drifted into their current were evident even among the affluent Eiranranta customers, customers, Eiranranta affluent the among even evident were and a separate room for each function were mutually exclusive exclusive mutually each function were for room and a separate a suburb where she could live closer to nature and afford more more and afford closer to nature she could live a suburb where access to a newer or better equipped flat. Especially renters in in renters Especially flat. equipped or better a newer to access area would just bring disorderliness to the a shopping centre the rent. and increase to relatives was a key attraction. A young woman had moved moved woman had A young attraction. key was a to relatives flats, partly same block of times inside the her because three they had grown attached (e.g. U37 attached grown they had through a transitional life phase such as the infancy of children as the infancy of children phase such life a transitional through the urban dwellers had intentionally compromised dwelling dwelling compromised the urban dwellers had intentionally the child’s schooling. Many participants schooling. the child’s in a to stay wanted turns in life, or work (U13, turns in life, participants’ experience of dwelling. Totally 13 users – 7 13 users – 7 of dwelling. Totally participants’ experience owners but zero residents, and 6 righ-of-occupancy renters housing career, not quite having achieved what they would have what they would have achieved not quite having career, housing regarding what she could afford in the center (U23 what she could afford regarding resident, for instance, could contemplate whether to move into into whether to move instance, could contemplate for resident, between location and amount of space. Many participantsbetween location had larger a afford to able be to centre the further from moved away mother who was helping in childcare was living next door door next living was childcare in helping was who mother had the experience of being in an intermediate phase in their of being in an intermediate phase in their had the experience moved into the same neighbourhood (U11 same neighbourhood into the moved ( ( A prevailing feeling of temporariness characterised many many characterised of temporariness feeling A prevailing – stated that their present dwelling is “just temporary”. They They dwelling is “just temporary”. – stated that their present needs and resources could be reassessed. The following quote encapsulates the experience of a young family in the greater Helsinki rental housing market:

This is a temporary solution for us. We moved in here because it was the only alternative at the time. A family flat was not available elsewhere in such a hurry. When our financial situation improves we will definitely move out from here. (U29)

Yet other interviewees had remained in what had originally been intended as short-term residence. A middle- aged woman who had moved often and now lived in an inner-city rental flat despite a hint of resignation cherished plans for change:

This is a decent place [‘ihan kelpo kämppä’] but it’s really by no means a very long-term dwelling. Even if I’ve lived here longer than anywhere else since moving away from home. But that’s because I’ve become old and lazy [laughs]. (U23)

The interviews clearly indicate that feeling of temporariness diminishes a resident’s commitment to her dwelling and willingness to invest money and effort into its personalisation, thus weakening the relationship between user and the dwelling product. This was particularly pointed out by renters in precarious life situations (U13, U18, U25). By contrast, a mental decision to settle down into a dwelling regardless of likely duration of residence motivated users to personalise and improve their dwelling (U4, U15, U16, U22). It should be noted, however, that recognition of the temporary nature of one’s housing choices does not necessarily affect the experienced quality of living. Change of dwellings is an expected development that characterises most housing pathways. As discussed before, home ownership was a desired goal for both the renters and the residents of right-of- occupancy dwellings even if they would acknowledge that the goal is unrealistic. Only one person (U22) considered renting the perfect tenure form. Others saw it as more or less forced solution or compromise necessitated by their income level and/ or present life situation. However, many renters despite non- ideal tenure form were rather contented with their dwelling. Affordability and easy availability in comparison to owner- occupied housing, avoidance of a big housing loan, possibility to swift removal when life situation changes, and freedom from house maintenance and upkeep responsibilities were mentioned 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 288 289 ). One of U26). One of ). A single mother ). A single mother U24, ), procrastinators U21), procrastinators U32 , U22, U13, ) U12, U23 ), fatalistic would-be home-owners would-be home-owners U33), fatalistic out of life, travel a lot and such. That’s why I’ve ended up up ended I’ve why such.and a lot That’s out travel of life, renting. And I have enjoyed life, I really consider myself a a myself consider really I life, And enjoyed I have renting. home. At the same time, I have wanted to get everything everything get to wanted I have home. time, same At the happy person. ( person. happy My background is such that I’ve never had any capital from from capital had any never I’ve that such is background My Right-of-occupancy housing in the light of my of my housing in the light Right-of-occupancy U31, U29, ). The tenure form seems to attract families who do not not do who families attract to seems form tenure The ). U5, ), pragmatic endurers (U6, endurers U17), pragmatic U33 U24 home ownership ( springboard for satisfied. As opposed to renters, many of whom had lowered lowered had whom of many renters, to opposed As satisfied. same time is characterised by a strong pull towards owner- by a strong same time is characterised financially more accessible than owning. As an example of accessible than owning. As an example of more financially other groups. Right-of-occupancy housing was also criticised housing was also criticised Right-of-occupancy other groups. present her choosing for reasons the explained son teenage a of quite afford a large enough owner-occupied dwelling or decide decide or dwelling owner-occupied enough large a afford quite occupied housing. For people dissatisfied with renting, right- renting, with housing. For people dissatisfied occupied that is considered an alternative of-occupancy housing offers occupation even if they eventually wanted to do so (U23, if they eventually occupation even (U10, of-occupancy housing categories of private renters identified by British housing housing by British identified renters of private categories would have wanted a larger dwelling and they in average were were dwelling and they in average wanted a larger would have with the aim of providing their children a better environment a better environment children their with the aim of providing who for various reasons had postponed commitment to owner- postponed commitment had reasons various who for at this point not to commit to home ownership, even if that if that ownership, even at this point not to commit to home a channel for the push away from rental housing but at the housing but at the rental the push away from a channel for as redeeming features of rental housing. In reference to the to the reference In housing. of rental features as redeeming as bureaucratic and expensive tenure form, merely suitable as suitable as merely form, tenure expensive and as bureaucratic are among the participants impatient would-be home-owners home-owners would-be among the participants impatient are their expectations along the attainable, right-of-occupancy their expectations along the attainable, right-of-occupancy this group certain unreleased pressure caused by unfulfilled caused by unfulfilled pressure certain unreleased this group the procrastinators nevertheless looked back on her housing back on her housing nevertheless looked the procrastinators the reasons for choosing the housing form, one family had had one family choosing the housing form, for the reasons is what they eventually desire. There seemed to be within seemed to be within There desire. is what they eventually intentionally escaped from a rental block of flats with social block of flats with social a rental escaped from intentionally right-of-occupancy flat in a semi-detached house: right-of-occupancy residents had higher housing expectations. Several of them of them housing expectations. Several had higher residents of their dwelling than the critical towards the design more needs and wishes, even if some residents also were relatively relatively also were if some residents needs and wishes, even more secure and of better material quality, while being better material quality, while being and of secure more area in a quieter dwelling to a right-of-occupancy problems pathway with some contempt: pathway with some researcher David Knight (see Clapham 2005, 149–150), there 149–150), there Clapham 2005, (see Knight David researcher material seems an in-between housing form that provides that provides form material seems an in-between housing ), and contented nesters happy with renting or right- nesters happy with renting U32), and contented ( ( ( I had decided that I will not spend the rest of my life renting. Because my son had so many hobbies and other things here, I didn’t want to leave the area. At first I examined the option of buying, but didn’t have the courage to take out such a big loan on my own. So I thought, well, this is a transitional period for me. When my son moves away I will buy a flat. I will not live in here for ever. (U32)

Three renters and two right-of-occupancy residents described their dwelling as “just a place to live in, not a home” (“tämä on vain asunto, ei koti”), suggesting low emotional commitment (U8, U13, U18, U25, U33). Some had plans of moving elsewhere, for example away from the expensive and crowded Helsinki region like the family below, as soon as work and family situation permit. In this case the purchase of a secondary home had changed the family’s relationship to their primary dwelling in town:

The importance of this dwelling has diminished after we got the summer house, which is a very dear place to us. We spend almost all weekends and holidays there. It has really increased our quality of living. There’s the garden and our own little forest and the lake. So this place here doesn’t need to be anything more than a temporary... I would say that this is not a home, this is just a place to live in. [...] After I will have finished my career, our home will definitely not be in here but in the countryside, possibly at the summer house or near my wife’s relatives abroad. (U33)

Interestingly, the users’ everyday experience of dwelling and the living environment most often was predominantly positive despite this kind of plans. Unfulfilment of “big” long-term housing goals did not necessarily mean dissatisfaction in the “small” everyday scale of dwelling. The users were able to focus on the good sides in their given environment and to a large degree overlook its defects. I would hypothesise that reassuring oneself of the temporariness of one’s choice of dwelling as psychological strategy helps people in coping with the unescapable mismatches in their living environment. The users’ recurrent references to temporariness perhaps tell about avoidance and denial in the face of the housing market but also of hope and anticipation of a better future.

DREAMS AND ADJUSTED DREAMS A one-family house in the outskirts of a city has been considered the housing ideal of a majority of Finns. 18 out of my 44 interviewees specified a detached house as their dream dwelling. 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 290 291

) U12 ) proclaimed themselves as as themselves U40) proclaimed ( U23, timber ceiling beams upstairs, the original surfaces and and surfaces original the upstairs, beams ceiling timber detached house as such I miss some details like the old old the like details some I miss such house as detached a bit less space is fine for me. More than living in a a in living than me.More for fine is space less a bit separation] even if I’m not a detached house person. houseperson. not a detached I’m if even separation] spaciousness. I do miss the detached house [where I lived before before lived I house [where detached the miss I do 22 of the participants had vaguely urban housing housing urban 22 of the participants had vaguely As I’m not really into taking care of a house and a garden, of a garden, a houseand care taking into not really As I’m The participants assessed their own housing participantsThe housing own their assessed one participant now living in a rental flat, a large old house house old a large flat, participantone rental now living in a location and living in a block of flats. Members of the elite Members of the elite location and living in a block of flats. group, several of whom had previously lived in large one-family one-family in large lived of whom had previously several group, family house, possibly with an own garden, in a peaceful yet yet in a peaceful garden, own with an possibly house, family or resigned with their present dwelling. with their present or resigned of a flat in comparison to a detached house. This is partly partly is This house. detached a to comparison in flat a of nesters empty of them were many that explained by the fact countryside or abroad, were also markedly urban by preference. preference. by urban markedly also were abroad, or countryside conveniently reachable suburban area near to nature and water. and water. near to nature suburban area reachable conveniently dreams. Typically this meant living in a relatively small multi- in a relatively this meant living Typically dreams. of one’s own environment, a large dwelling with more flexibility flexibility more dwelling with a large environment, of one’s own density residential house. A low in a detached qualities desired dreams very realistically. They were well aware that the that the well aware They were realistically. very dreams with adult children recently moved away from home, who now who now home, away from moved recently with adult children them of comfortthe seeking Several living. inner-city of were also spent a lot of time in their vacation house and highly house and highly also spent a lot of time in their vacation attested by previous research. Four participants identified Four participantsidentified research. by previous attested a high-rise suburb. However, previous experiences of living living of experiences previous suburb. However, a high-rise area was also seen by some people as better for children than than children better for some people as was also seen by area territory and possibility to do things with hands. Privacy, control control Privacy, things with hands. possibility to do territory and as mentioned were tinkering for space extra and flat, a than three three type. Only housing house as their desired terraced in detached houses had also altered the views of some users. of some users. views the had also altered in detached houses and upkeep a burdensome renovation in the past had become profound urbanites who absolutely prefer a central urban urban a central prefer urbanites who absolutely profound participants (U19, not bring up any specific housing dreams. They were contented contented were They dreams. housing specific any up bring not houses and owned or had access to vacation houses in the houses in the to vacation houses and owned or had access house, but one with less space and easier maintenance: less space and easier house, but one with high experiential value. She was still dreaming of an old wooden She was still dreaming value. experiential high big garden. A detached house to them represented their own own their represented them to house detached A garden. big project, the giving up of which had been a relief despite of its despite of its giving up of which had been a relief the project, valued the quality of living near nature. Four participants did the quality of living near nature. valued They emphasised the carelessness and easiness of maintenance and easiness of maintenance They emphasised the carelessness This as well is close to the prevalent Finnish housing ideal Finnish housing ideal This as well is close to the prevalent To They typically dreamt of an old, spacious wooden villa with a a villa with wooden spacious of an old, dreamt typically They perfect dream dwelling most probably would be financially or otherwise unattainable for them for ever. For instance, all but one of the disabled interviewees dreamed of living in a detached house, while at the same time stressing that such housing form due to inaccessibility and maintenance work would not be realistically suitable for them. Reflection of personal dreams with real-world constraints had led to what can be called adjusted dreams.25 The users had intentionally 25. lowered their expectations while at the same time retaining I have presented this finding already in the most valuable attributes of their dream dwelling in some the reports of the EA altered form. One disabled person (U3) had substituted her and AHAA projects original dream design, a two-level house on a slope based on (see Appendix 1). childhood experience of a relatives’ home, with more accessible dream design comprising only one floor in a terraced house and just a little garden. The attributes of her dream design had also guided the choice of her present dwelling even if they were necessarily realised as different design solutions in a block of flats than in a detached house (balcony as a substitute for her own garden, for instance). Similarly, a terraced house was seen by several participants as a satisfactory compromise between a flat and a detached house. Following quote from a young mother is typical example of an adjusted housing dream:

The nearby area of Viertola is lovely. I would like to live in a terraced house in there with 4–5 rooms and kitchen, a utility room and our own garden. I could decorate it as I wish and there would be a sauna, a covered terrace, own little room for the [visiting] granny and a separate games room with flipper and pool table. I’m crazy about retro style objects. But these are just dreams. Just a regular row house flat with sauna, garden and four rooms and a kitchen would be great. There wouldn’t need to be luxurious kitchen cabinetry or parquet floors or anything extra. An own room for everyone would be enough. (U14)

Accepting personal limitations and the realities of the housing market does not mean letting go of dreams. Dream dwelling as manifested in the narratives of the users is not an absolute goal, the unrealisation of which as one complete design solution would be a cause of great regret or anxiety, but rather an evolving collection of desirable design features that the users gradually aspire to get nearer to by their various choices on different levels of the dwelling product. Even if dreams are connected to or described through certain dwelling types or house types, parts of them can be realised in other types as well and as many different design solutions. Rather than in specific housing types as such, the focus when trying to understand 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 292 293

) ) illustrates. It is It is ) illustrates. U10 ideas. I would like it to be something different. I used to to I used different. besomething to it like I would ideas. discuss the dreams with my ex-wife. She said that they are are they that said She ex-wife. my with dreams the discuss room, balcony upstairs, sauna and garage. I have so many many so have I garage. and sauna upstairs, balcony room, ( expensive. but bloody great My dream house has a big garden, two floors, high living living two floors, high garden, a big househas dream My Housing dreams not only support people in support only not in people dreams Housing some important to my mind have Housing dreams CONTINGENCY, TRANSIENCE TRANSIENCE CONTINGENCY, AND CONTENTED UNFULFILMENT CONTENTED AND urban housing according to their experience lacks. their experience according to urban housing should aim at providing her features of her dream dwelling dwelling dream of her her features should aim at providing least some) users develop and articulate design ideas that can ideas that can and articulateleast some) users develop design fulfils some of her most significant needs. Ideally, designers designers Ideally, needs. significant most her of some fulfils over time and are affected by other experiences in life (cf. (cf. life in by other experiences affected and are time over dream dwelling personalised to the last detail can lose its can lose its dwelling personalised to the last detail dream during her housing career, or may decide not to pursue it. it. pursue to not decide may or career, housing her during careers should be recognised. Even if a person would prefer if a person would prefer Even should be recognised. careers explicating their housing preferences in relation to the offering the offering to relation in preferences explicating their housing bring into the housing dreams that matter, or viability for change. and a possibility for a sense of future everyday eventually be implemented in their future dwellings. be implemented in their future eventually many users, a detached a detached many users, To certain and designs. forms housing also possible to see dreaming as designerly activity whereby (at (at activity whereby as designerly also possible to see dreaming an ideal home can provide great satisfaction. Indeed, is it not satisfaction. Indeed, is it not great an ideal home can provide available opportunities can be evaluated. evaluated. can be opportunities available dream that attain to able be not may she house, detached a the existence of dreams themselves rather than their fulfilment than their fulfilment rather themselves the existence of dreams the most perfect housing consumption going. Even that keeps the user value (promise of meaningful difference) embodied in in embodied difference) of meaningful (promise value the user in a more attainable form. Secondly, it seems that dreaming dreaming that seems it Secondly, form. attainable a more in part dwelling. Amidst the petty and grave of is an inherent implications for housing design and research. Firstly, the gap the gap Firstly, and research. housing design implications for meanings given to it and the way it is experienced fluctuate fluctuate to it and the way it is experienced meanings given mismatches of lived-in housing, imagining and planning for imagining and planning for housing, mismatches of lived-in but also help them in bearing with the inadequacies of their their of inadequacies the with bearing in them help also but realisation, their of Regardless conditions. dwelling present house represented ownership, control and individuality that that individuality and control ownership, represented house people’s housing dreams in the context of design should be in in be should design of context the in dreams housing people’s between stated housing preferences and the reality of housing housing of reality the and preferences housing stated between value to a user, as the smartvalue house case (U41 Clapham 2005). The value of certain Clapham 2005). The value attributes in a dwelling It seems characteristic to the dwelling product in use that the in use that the to the dwelling product It seems characteristic she probably wants to live in a dwelling that satisfactorily in a dwelling that satisfactorily wants to live she probably Yet, provide reflective material against which experiences and and experiences which against material reflective They provide may diminish or grow along life changes. Sudden turns such as children moving away from home, divorce or illness can transform the user’s perception of a dwelling and change the way it is used. An obvious example is the vacation of rooms in the first case. As noted, life changes also often instigate a move to another dwelling. What once felt like a dream home may become an emotional as well as practical burden. One interviewee described the aftermath of her divorce:

We bought the [previous] flat with the intention that it will be our home for the rest of our lives. I have to say it was my dream dwelling. But then came the divorce and it began to feel too big for just me and the children. Due to the change in life the significance of that dwelling diminished. It didn’t feel like the dream anymore, even if the flat is still lovely. (U42)

“Messy, complex life” (Till 2005) brings contingency into the relationship between user and the dwelling product. Some user needs are more long-lasting while others may change faster depending on work or family situation. As needs that led to anchoring to a dwelling change, the relationship to it has to be reassessed. A housing solution meant as permanent can become unfit or require some adaptation to suit the new situation. The value of dwelling attributes to user hence is not fixed but evolves in time. 26. A dwelling design that matches the user’s present needs may Reference to the well- become obsolete in the future. known Finnish fairy tale Koivu ja tähti (The Birch Based on the user interviews, it seems that and the Star) written complete match in dwelling, if that is ever achieved, is often by Zacharias Topelius momentary and transient. Recognition of this, however, should in 1870. In the story, not diminish the importance of striving for fulfilment of the distant memory of a birch tree and a star as people’s housing needs in the present moment. What remains signs of their birthplace along volatile housing pathways is the idea of the home. guides two children back The woman who had relocated many times and always built home from captivity in a far land. The birch and her dwelling anew poetically referred to the mental core idea the star thus symbolise of home that she had carried along in changing environments: a lost, ideal home.

In Lapland, people ask ‘where are you away from?’ [‘mistä oot poissa?’] when they want to know where you were born. We have moved so many times that I always think our home, the place we are away from, being ‘the birch and the star’. 26 (U41)

Based on the interviews, change and unfulfilment of dreams are characteristic to the experience of dwelling. Housing as constant in life provides stability and continuity, 5 USER PERSPECTIVE: THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING 294 295 ) U32 ) U12 thinking ‘well, doesn’t it look nice in my place’. ( place’. my in ‘well,look doesn’t nice it thinking a wintry afternoon, the sun was shining, and we were there there were we and shining, was sun afternoon, the a wintry perfecta domestic was It together. something colouring built. Sometimes I just sit in the armchair and look around look and around armchair the in sit I just Sometimes built. moment. ( moment. I like my home. It’s cosy and it’s... and cosy home. my It’s I have home a I like that I was at home with my child and had cleaned the flat, it was was flat, the it had and cleaned child my at home with I was After all, there might not be a great worry. The worry. The not be a great might After all, there The lived experience of dwelling albeit taking of dwelling albeit taking experience The lived satisfied with their dwelling. Academics, designers and housing and housing with their dwelling. Academics, designers satisfied situation, resources, capabilities, interests, etc.). Letting go go Letting etc.). interests, capabilities, resources, situation, living and residents take control, they come to serve the the they come to serve control, take living and residents geographic factors that hinder fulfilment of housing wishes. factors that hinder fulfilment of housing wishes. geographic fulfilment of our basic needs and desires in individual individual in desires and needs basic our of fulfilment flickering moments of joy and satisfaction over own dwelling own dwelling moments of joy and satisfaction over flickering features to residents (King 2005). The feeling of being at home of being at home (King 2005). The feeling to residents features fit their lifestyles and needs. Despite recognition of the of the and needs. Despite recognition fit their lifestyles furnishings gives users considerable leverage in personalising in personalising leverage users considerable furnishings gives contentment with the everyday. qualitative homogeneity of mass-produced urban housing, the the housing, urban mass-produced of homogeneity qualitative easily modifiable layer of domestic objects and layer of domestic objects and modifiable dwelling. The easily of dwellings and beginning new dwelling relationships is is relationships dwelling new beginning and dwellings of and desires. new housing dreams ever and evoke environment ways that are not entirely predictable. The consistency The consistency predictable. not entirely that are ways and design of the dwelling product significantly impacts impacts significantly the dwelling product of and design are met. Amidst all imperfection of life, the interviews reveal reveal the interviews of life, met. Amidst all imperfection are available in the market influence people’s expectations expectations people’s influence market the in available demand. and create architectural diversity on offer but structural economic and and economic but structural on offer diversity architectural that transmit a real experience of “mineness” and profound of “mineness” and profound experience a real that transmit their immediate environment and adapting the dwelling to to dwelling the adapting and environment immediate their the housing system are brought into the realm of everyday of everyday into the realm brought are the housing system is sustained regardless of the detailed design of the dwelling of the dwelling detailed design of the is sustained regardless of space and continuity as control such if basic requirements but does not completely determine the user experience of of the user experience determine but does not completely majority of people in Finland according to surveys are rather rather are to surveys majority of people in Finland according the meaning of dwelling tend to overemphasise professionals problem to users may not so much be the lack of aesthetic and to users may not so much be the lack of aesthetic and problem reach of professional design acts. As dwellings delivered by by acts. As dwellings delivered design of professional reach place brings material variation and change to living. Turns in in to living. Turns and change material variation place brings built the of experience our to layers new add pathways housing but housing pathways are driven by change (in life stage, family family stage, life change (in by driven are pathways but housing part of most people’s housing career. Moving to another to another Moving part housing career. of most people’s place within designed material confines is partially out of is partially material confines out of place within designed On the other hand, it seems evident that novel designs made made designs that novel On the other hand, it seems evident It is a powerful theme running through the users’ stories how we tend to adapt to, get used to, and learn to like our dwellings as we gradually by use, active and creative strategies of our own, and accumulation of valuable everyday experiences build a personal relationship with them. In this way, everyday living with all its comforting mundaneness and repetitiveness, enriched by meaningful social encounters and illuminated by intimate memories and dreams, softens the hard edges of built reality.

6 CONCLU SION A DESIGN PERSPECT IVE TO DWELL ING 6 CONCLU SION A DESIGN PERSPECT IVE TO DWELL ING THE MAIN RESULTS of the dissertation and its theoretical and practical implications will be summarised in this chapter. The empirical findings are discussed in light of the main research question, converging into an explanation of dwelling as product in the context of an expanded understanding of design. The chapter begins with recapitulation of the main outcomes of the study, following the course of its argumentation (Chapter 6.1). The study’s theoretical contribution is also discussed here. Reflections of the results to design practice are then opened up with the help of tentative conceptual design examples (Chapter 6.2). After that, implications of the research regarding the Finnish housing system will be brought up (Chapter 6.3). The work ends with assessment of its reliability and validity (Chapter 6.4), and a list of topics for further research (Chapter 6.5). 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 300 301

to to

6.1 A MEETING POINT OF OF POINT MEETING A Dwelling as product Dwelling THE LATE-MODERN DWELLING: DWELLING: LATE-MODERN THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION At the same time, the housing industry along with along with At the same time, the housing industry The new production philosophy suggests seeing suggests seeing philosophy new production The lifecycle to the residents’ changing needs and behaviour, changing needs and behaviour, to the residents’ lifecycle User-centred diversification of the offering of industrially of industrially of the offering diversification User-centred openness and flexibility, as well as employment of user- employment as well as flexibility, and openness finished product. In emerging component-based design and and component-based design In emerging finished product. design and manufacturing can be distributed to a wide network manufacturing can be distributed to a wide network and design an into develop can future the in dwelling The actors. of co-configuration. Transition towards ecologically sustainable sustainable towards ecologically Transition co-configuration. collaborative production networks, and co-creation of value of value networks, and co-creation production collaborative emphasis on housing as means of personal fulfilment. People fulfilment. People emphasis on housing as means of personal moving towards a of manufacturing is slowly other branches where and the housing desires of people. Demographic changes, changes, of people. Demographic desires and the housing where adaptive configuration with responsiveness during its entire during its entire with responsiveness configuration adaptive at however, housing production, The mainstream role. active a nested modular hierarchy with compatible interfaces where with compatible interfaces where a nested modular hierarchy are searching ways for shaping the industrial dwelling along shaping the industrial dwelling along for ways searching are technological complexity of buildings. technological complexity of buildings. than rather evolving offering the dwelling as a continuously through the interaction of producers and consumers. In housing, and consumers. In housing, of producers the interaction through modularity, structural would mean increasing this ideally their own valuable ends. In late-modern consumer society, society, consumer late-modern In ends. valuable own their information, flexible specialisation, personalisation of products, personalisation of products, flexible specialisation, information, individualisation of the society, our lifestyles and housing housing and lifestyles our society, the of individualisation provided by collaborative value networks where users have an an have users where networks value by collaborative provided these visions. far from remains present manufacturing process all parts of the dwelling would form all parts of the dwelling would form manufacturing process responsive production methods such as mass customisation and methods such as mass customisation and production responsive the towards the smartbuilding and the drive home increase new production paradigm that is characterised by reliance on on by reliance that is characterised paradigm new production housing is becoming an increasingly aestheticised goods. housing is becoming an increasingly migration and urbanisation steer the demand of housing on a on a steer the demand of housing and urbanisation migration induced a has Economic growth level. national and regional Due housing. of quality the considering standards of rise be a mismatch between what kind of housing is available and and what kind of housing is available be a mismatch between produced urban housing has become a subject of academic, of academic, housing has become a subject urban produced seems to There in Finland. and public interest professional preferences may be increasingly diverse. There is a growing growing a is There diverse. increasingly be may preferences In late modernity, the role of design in value creation is emphasised. Flexible production and aestheticised consumption rely on design in differentiation of products. Design as integrative and generative practice is applied to increasingly complicated societal problems. There is a growing awareness of the social and environmental responsibility of design. Industrial design, architecture and urban planning are experiencing a turn towards more user-centred and collaborative approaches. The focus of design activity is shifting from form generation towards designing for user experience, and from top-down processes to collective sense- making in local contexts. Consequently, the object of design is expanding from physical products to complex human systems, where design is harnessed as a catalyst of transformations. This is inducing a repositioning of design in the society and diversification of the professional field. Apart from traditional product design, designers work as facilitators of local co- design processes (“immediate design”, Keinonen 2009) and are involved in strategic and conceptual design activities (“remote design”). The qualitative homogeneity of industrial housing production in urban areas has been identified as a systemic challenge that requires the collaboration of many actors. On the other hand, the geographic rootedness, long lifecycle, slowness of change and historical path dependence of housing make it resistant to radical change. The fundamental role of housing in fulfilling basic needs, relative uniformity of local culture, and expensiveness of housing set limits for its variability. It seems that many people find the dominant dwelling designs replicated in the market quite satisfactory and seek for conformity with familiar dwelling ideals rather than individuality through dwelling. The overall progression of housing can be described as a slow evolutionary adaptation of a few well-proven precedents. This contradicts the innovation- orientedness of design practice. Modernisation has meant commodification of dwelling: becoming of it as a mass produced object of consumption in the market. Dwelling has experienced a largely “silent industrialisation” (Brand 1994) whereby ever new elements of it have been distinguished as marketable commodities. Housing concepts and brands targeted at specific consumer segments systematically differentiate the offering in relation to consumers. Theorists of late-modern consumer culture (Giddens, Schulze, Baudrillard) state that commodification entails packaging and distribution of aspects of lifestyles according to market criteria. Differences between people 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 302 303

of conformity and ADAPTIVE ARTEFACT ADAPTIVE of production: how to balance balance to how production: of THE SYSTEMIC DWELLING: SYSTEMIC THE and seriality and A HIERARCHICALLY ORGANISED ORGANISED HIERARCHICALLY A of designs in relation to users. Balancing to users. Balancing in relation of designs The situation gives rise to tensions that impact impact that tensions to rise gives situation The The dwelling product in this context becomes a this context becomes a in The dwelling product singularity generality singular artefacts so that qualitatively diverse local solutions local solutions diverse singular artefacts so that qualitatively specificity the concerns tension Another standardisation. simplified aesthetic classifications recognisable to consumers. to consumers. recognisable classifications aesthetic simplified for analysing the “productness” of dwelling that combines of dwelling that combines the “productness” analysing for for balancing between the contradictory drives towards towards drives between the contradictory balancing for objects within the confines of industrial production, which which of industrial production, the confines objects within and of choice Plurality illusion of individuality. an creates of features that can be differentiated. of features elements in dwelling where variation and user-specificity is and user-specificity is variation elements in dwelling where A question in the market. to other designs in relation designs can be provided without loosing the advantage gained from gained from without loosing the advantage can be provided dwelling design. Designers need to solve the contradiction contradiction the need to solve Designers dwelling design. design) to provoke ever new marketable connotations while while connotations marketable new ever provoke to design) are picked up and systematised by the production system. system. the production by systematised up and picked are these requires identification of the individually valuable valuable identification of the individually these requires the logic of industrial mass production and buildings as and buildings as production mass the logic of industrial their design aim at reconciliation of the two requirements. of the two aim at reconciliation their design here serves serves here Modularisation remains. their functional essence lines and isolation production of objects along the alignment the system. Products in the “experience market” are coded along coded along are market” in the “experience Products the system. theories of hierarchic structure of the built environment environment built the of structure hierarchic of theories increasing diversification/personalisation necessitated by by necessitated diversification/personalisation increasing housing concepts with individualisation of the demand. The increasing standardisation/replication in the supply side and and side supply the in standardisation/replication increasing here is whether to stick to incremental refinement or seek for or seek for refinement is whether to stick to incremental here designs. transformative radically beneficial and the elements that can remain more generic. generic. more can remain beneficial and the elements that between between meeting point for the intentions of producers and consumers. and consumers. of producers intentions the meeting point for empirical My value. user and value producer of negotiation the housing industry is a need in there material shows that resulting continuous unfulfilment of needs are indispensable to to indispensable are needs of unfulfilment continuous resulting versus versus (Habraken, Brand) with definitions of product in marketing marketing in product of definitions with Brand) (Habraken, In the dissertation, I have developed a theoretical framework framework a theoretical developed In the dissertation,have I third tension spans between novelty between spans tension A third The tangible designable elements of dwelling play a part elements The tangible designable in The aesthetic properties of objects can be manipulated (by manipulated (by of objects can be The aesthetic properties consumer society relies on marginal differentiation of of differentiation marginal on relies society consumer The and industrial design and with evolutionary theories on design (Simon, Steadman, Marshall, Ziman). My overall approach to dwelling is systemic. The research renders visible dwelling as complex adaptive artefact that is grounded in precedent, embedded in physical reality, and moulded by its environment and the actors within it as it is being replicated over time. Dwelling as product consists of heterogeneous elements with various degree of materiality that nest within the hierarchic levels of built form and are in control of different actors. Each element follows its own trajectory of development and has its own life cycle. The elements are connected to each other not only spatially but through individual acts of inhabitation. Elements on surface levels of form such as objects and furnishings are more rapid and flexible and can be controlled by users themselves, whereas elements on deeper levels like the building and the urban structure are slow and fixed, their change necessitating consensus among many actors. I have classified my empirical data along the levels of objects, apartment, building and area. The composite dwelling product as a whole is designable, which means that the parts of it can be intentionally manipulated and qualitatively differentiated. The commodification of dwelling has drawn it closer to other industrial products. Adoption of the model of product from marketing has enabled me to open up this facet of dwelling. My study shows that dwelling resembles other consumer products in that it is constructed as a set of material attributes to deliver an intangible benefit or set of benefits to the user. The study gives an overview of evolutionary approaches in architecture and design and reflects them to the case of industrial urban dwelling, contributing to academic discussion on the topic. The evolutionary analogy suggests perceiving individual dwellings as outcome of selection pressures operating within a variable population of dwellings integrated through time by descent (cf. Fleck 2000). Design activity according to the analogy is intentional search for (mutual, human-defined) value within a landscape of possible designs where both the underlying abstract “code” of artefacts and their specific “constructions” can be manipulated. The evolutionary approach also acknowledges an active role for users in transforming dwelling. In the evolutionary view, dwelling designs arise out of conjunction of tacitly transmitted design ingredients determined by culture and the prevalent housing paradigm, imposed by the housing regime collectively by means like regulation and conventional designs, and willed design acts aimed at meeting specific local demands. A lot of what 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 304 305

difference difference difference, difference, differences between between differences A DESIGNERLY INTERLUDE: DESIGNERLY A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN AND THE THE AND DESIGN CONCEPTUAL NOTION OF CONCEPT IN DESIGN IN CONCEPT OF NOTION Conceptual design is an early phase in the design phase in the design is an early design Conceptual My exploration on the usage of concept in on the usage of concept in My exploration I identify five types of qualitative difference in in difference of qualitative types I identify five generational There’s different. culturally urban housing production by opening up the role of conceptual of conceptual up the role by opening urban housing production localness of housing design and delivery. Strategic and delivery. design localness of housing concept is defined as a general plan of a new product including including product a new of plan a general as defined is concept in housing. design dwellings that are consequence of the one-of-a-kindness and and consequence of the one-of-a-kindness dwellings that are use through Difference of dwelling products. differentiation economy and everyday living. economy and everyday creative aspirations of individual designers and innovation innovation and of individual designers aspirations creative on the countless variations leading to efforts of companies, world are are world we think as unique in dwellings is transmitted through through transmitted is in dwellings unique as we think the designer, an anticipatory description of a new product that that an anticipatory description of a new product the designer, or service the basic elements of a product that specifies the practical problem area of user-centred diversification of of diversification of user-centred area problem the practical the notion of concept and its role in design, complementing complementing in design, the notion of concept and its role (e.g. Keinonen design in product literature the concept design the dwelling product (see Chapter 3.4.3). Dwellings across the the across Dwellings 3.4.3). Chapter (see the dwelling product theme of dwelling within the boundaries set by technology, set by technology, the boundaries dwelling within theme of in design is an abstract is an abstract in design A concept implementation design. is used for strategic differentiation in the market, a template a template in the market, differentiation strategic is used for its basic features that distinguish it from other products. that distinguish it from its basic features illustrated by the housing concepts, is outcome of intentional concepts, is outcome of intentional by the housing illustrated in housing created by transformation of its distinguishable of its distinguishable by transformation in housing created inherited features of dwelling meet local contexts, regulation, contexts, regulation, meet local of dwelling features inherited inconspicuous, routinely copying by actors in the housing housing the in actors by copying routinely inconspicuous, making possible its standardised duplication, an ambiguous making possible its standardised duplication, an ambiguous process that operates on a higher level of abstraction than than of abstraction level on a higher that operates process In the industry, problem. a design solution to preliminary housing. On the other hand, the study adds upon the previous adds upon the previous housing. On the other hand, the study Finland. It contributes to on housing concepts in research results from individual interactions of dwellings and their their of dwellings and individual interactions from results in time. residents regime, including designers and users. In housing production, In housing production, and users. including designers regime, various design fields reveals the many facets of the notion. the many facets of the notion. reveals fields design various Concept can be understood as a creative design idea guiding idea guiding design Concept can be understood as a creative & Takala 2006) with empirical findings from the field of of field the from findings empirical with 2006) Takala & The dissertation increases the theoretical understanding on on understanding theoretical the dissertationThe increases “meta-style”. There are individual are There “meta-style”. object of collaborative activity, or an algorithmic set of rules that regulates the generation of designs. Concept thus has various degrees of rigidity ranging from abstract idea to comprehensive specification. Concept in design is a distinctive articulation of ideas and knowledge that is devised for a purpose and relies on abstraction. It has an instrumental role in the design and product development process. A concept simultaneously addresses a whole and its constituent parts, bringing them into a relationship. It presumes a subject outside of itself that it precedes, refers to or is imposed on. It does not completely determine its subject or outcome but works on reduction and simplification. A concept can be manipulated independent of its specific outcomes and transferred to new uses. It has the capacity to generate multiple different outcomes and mediate between actors. To sum up, a concept in design and product development is a tool for compressing essential design information so that it can be shifted across systemic borders and to multiple locations. In this way it serves the logic of flexible and collaborative mass production. Increasing technical complexity of products and growing demand for product variety highlight the importance of the underlying concepts. Consequently, concept design as a practice is establishing itself onto new application areas, including housing.

THE COMMODIFIED DWELLING: A BUNDLE OF ATTRIBUTES DUPLICATED IN THE MARKET

My first empirical case investigates the commodification of dwelling as evidenced by duplicable urban housing concepts in Finland. I have detected parallels between dwelling and other industrial products and examined how the concepts act as mediation between industrial mass production and users. My case concepts are Aktiivikoti, a concept for seniors emphasising accessibility, BoKlok, a streamlined housing solution sold at Ikea, PlusKoti that features aesthetic and functional variability through open building, Neo-loft, a new interpretation of the loft dwelling allowing for self-design of the interior, and Loppukiri, a communal senior housing concept initiated by the residents themselves. My research for the first time posits housing concepts in the history of urban housing in Finland. I have also detected differences in their origins, focus and relationship to the user. My study sheds light on the material composition 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 306 307 First so named housing concepts in Finland in Finland First so named housing concepts Housing concepts as a phenomenon are connected connected are Housing concepts as a phenomenon Housing concepts seen in the evolution of of in the evolution concepts seen Housing The early period of urban housing until the the until urban housing of period early The separate business areas in companies during the 2000s has led led has 2000s the during companies in areas business separate seen as individual consumers with subjective demands and demands and subjective seen as individual consumers with strata and craft-intensive on-site building. The formation on-site building. The formation and craft-intensive strata studies (Juntto 1990, Saarikangas 2002, Hankonen 1994), 1994), 2002, Hankonen 1990, Saarikangas (Juntto studies characterised housing production in Finland already for a few a few for in Finland already housing production characterised led to have in late-modern society changes decades. Lifestyle enough markets to allow product differentiation. In addition, In addition, differentiation. to allow product enough markets duplicable concepts. A key factor has been the concentration factor has been the concentration duplicable concepts. A key in many countries operating companies of housing industry. Big came to the market in early 1990s. The first concepts were 1990s. The first concepts were in early came to the market of the functionally differentiated modern standard dwelling modern standard dwelling differentiated of the functionally transition the marked users classless anonymous, for designed of needs. The on people the idea of continuous unfulfilment dominant dwelling designs and building technology. and designs dominant dwelling elements of the dwelling product come to serve the strategies of of the strategies come to serve of the dwelling product elements of the concepts and their relationship to the housing projects projects housing to the relationship and their concepts of the enabling flexible manufacturing. a commodification process instigated by modernity whereby whereby modernity by instigated process commodification a on previous object of consumption. Relying a differentiable and diversity of dwelling. At the same time, new technology and diversity is the division of residential development and construction into into and construction development the division of residential as special development product to distinguishing of residential to the general tendency towards more individualism that has that has individualism tendency towards more to the general to a period of standardisation and industrialisation. As noted industrialisation. As noted to a period of standardisation and the individual dwelling has gradually been distinguished as been distinguished as has gradually the individual dwelling differences by characterised that are periods overlapping three that are derived from them. It shows how tangible designable designable how tangible It shows them. from derived are that the dwelling of today. in many aspects of housing such as perception of the user, user, the of perception as such housing of in many aspects industrial housing production are an expected development in in an expected development are housing production industrial by Hankonen, the housing system during this period imposed period imposed during this the housing system by Hankonen, professional activity that deals with value creation beyond beyond creation deals with value activity that professional new financing models of housing targeted at consumers. at consumers. new financing models of housing targeted large duplicable concepts and have developing from profit preferences, and discourses in the field emphasise the quality quality emphasise the field and discourses in the preferences, partial questioning of the standard dwelling. Users are now now partialare Users dwelling. standard of the questioning norms and standards from this era largely continue to define continue to define largely era this norms and standards from breakthrough of modernism by the 1950s was characterised characterised of modernism by the 1950s was breakthrough social different of dwelling types for development by parallel aspects These aspects of commodification. and act as vehicle producers research. previous eluded largely have Several developments have since favoured the introduction of of the introduction favoured since have developments Several I have divided the history of urban housing in Finland into urban housing in Finland into divided the history of I have one-off housing projects and the strategic and conceptual aspects of design. This has also meant centralisation of design decisions. An important finding of my study is that dwelling as product seems to follow a similar trajectory of qualitative change than other industrial products during their long-term career in the market (cf. Eger & Drukker 2010). The phases of performance, optimisation, itemisation, segmentation, individualisation and awareness are evident in the Finnish dwelling stock. More research would be needed to elaborate the parallel further. Investigation of the case concepts shows that housing concepts in the market are constructed as sets of attributes aiming to provide an essentially immaterial problem-solving benefit to the user. This makes them similar to how products are seen in marketing studies. The core benefits promised by the case concepts relate to accessibility (Aktiivikoti), affordability (BoKlok), aesthetic and functional personalisation (PlusKoti), self-design (Neo-loft), and communality (Loppukiri). Strategies for making possible the promise are, respectively, added accessory features to dwelling, simplification, variability through basic mass customisation, incompleteness, and a new operational model. The actual product elements in concepts that participate in delivering their promise are distributed on levels of built form. In addition to physical elements the concepts include differentiating elements outside of built form such as assistive equipment (Aktiivikoti), financing model (BoKlok), customisation service (PlusKoti), and service model (Loppukiri). This indicates the expansion of dwelling as an object of design. The concepts have variable material depth. Some concentrate on surface of the dwelling while others address the building or area. The concepts operate across the built hierarchy by singling out and proposing to users elements that are anticipated to be valuable to them. They may lock some parts of the dwelling product (BoKlok), increase the variation of parts (PlusKoti), or unlock parts to allow modification by user (Neo-loft). Importantly, my analysis shows that housing concepts in the market differ with respect to their origins (developer-, designer- or user-initiated), inspiration (special housing, consumer products, technological innovation, avant-garde architecture, social innovation), extent of user engagement (from passive in Aktiivikoti and BoKlok to dominant in Loppukiri), the degree to which they determine the design of a singular housing project (from near indifference in Aktiivikoti to complete specification of architectural form 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 308 309 Secondly, the concepts seek to balance user balance user the concepts seek to Secondly, Firstly, the housing concepts attempt to overcome concepts attempt to overcome the housing Firstly, A housing concept as manifested in my cases in my cases as manifested A housing concept Thirdly, housing concepts act as devices of devices of as act concepts housing Thirdly, The housing concepts mediate between the between the The housing concepts mediate The concepts at large represent two main two main represent at large The concepts housing concept provides a standard template from which which from template standard a provides concept housing systematisation of product variation. of product systematisation so that multiple housing projects can be realised according according can be realised so that multiple housing projects concept through. of housing concepts from specific building designs makes them them makes specific building designs of housing concepts from differentiating element that is outside of built form. Housing Housing form. built of outside is that element differentiating and market the in production of positioning serve concepts concepts (Loppukiri) aim at solving social needs through one- aim at solving social needs through concepts (Loppukiri) users. They seem specific built for projects off unique housing exploits fully at present Neither approach design. collaborative on mere branding or technological innovation such as mass mass such as technological innovation or branding on mere User-driven duplicability. extensive seeking for customisation, collaborative product development. They facilitate the the facilitate They development. product collaborative a new demonstrating in housing, innovations of diffusion clearly communicated benefit to the user and is duplicable duplicable and is user the to benefit communicated clearly address users by lifestyle connotations and possibilities for for possibilities and connotations lifestyle by users address them to be viable invisible to the user but necessary for are are only partially determined by the concept. The independence only are approaches. Commercial concepts (Aktiivikoti) typically rely rely typically concepts (Aktiivikoti) Commercial approaches. to the producer. These “hidden” prerequisites have not been not been have These “hidden” prerequisites to the producer. the geographic place become components of the end product. the geographic the chasm between seriality and singularity in production. singularity in production. the chasm between seriality and to it. It corresponds to a recognised market demand or gap demand or gap market to a recognised to it. It corresponds to extend deeper into the built form and involve more more involve and form built the into deeper extend to in architects although design, of potential transformative the industrial mass production relying on standardisation and on standardisation and relying industrial mass production housing. individuality of housing. in the offering. A housing concept typically contains some contains some typically A housing concept in the offering. in BoKlok), and the main point at which user value is created is created user value at which point the main and in BoKlok), is a specification of a novel housing solution that offers a a housing solution that offers of a novel is a specification many cases have had a crucial facilitator role in getting a new in getting a new had a crucial facilitator role many cases have recognised by earlier research. by earlier recognised personalisation. On the other hand, they exhibit elements that personalisation. On the other hand, they exhibit elements that multiple locally adapted housing projects can be derived that that can be derived adapted housing projects multiple locally and During the localisation of a concept, architecture resilient. product features that are feasible to produce. They directly directly They produce. to feasible are that features product realms of production and use, serving the reconciliation of of and use, serving the reconciliation of production realms and diversity demand for and the increasing replication, value and producer value by translating user needs into user needs into by translating value and producer value (from production phase in BoKlok to customisation phase in in phase customisation BoKlok to in phase production (from PlusKoti and use phase in Loppukiri). and use phase in PlusKoti A mode of housing design. The concepts show how meaningful difference in housing can be intentionally designed, shaped into a duplicable format and disseminated in the market, rather than counting on coincidental success of randomly different housing projects. Housing concepts have led to establishment of concept design as an activity in the housing industry. Two of the three developers in the study had a designated residential product development team dealing with customer insight, market analysis, concept development, product specification, interior fit-out assortment design and management, customer service development, etc. The work of the teams was supported by technical product development units. In the teams, new designer roles have emerged that indicate the expansion of dwelling design towards both “remote” and “immediate” direction. My research suggests three phases of emergence of dwelling as product. Housing development as a centrally controlled phase deals with “remote” conceptualisation and specification of the dwelling product typically on the basis of general market knowledge. In individual housing projects led by project teams, the speculative product is given concrete form by conventional architectural and systems design. Some knowledge about actual customers can be available in this phase. During use of housing, control shifts to residents. Design here can play a role in “immediate” modification of existing environments in collaboration with users, requiring in-depth contextual knowledge. The study indicates a growing interest among developers towards both the early conceptual stage of value creation and to the use phase of housing. This implies a need for traditional housing design to increasingly negotiate with the two other design realms. In-depth user knowledge is largely disconnected from the residential development process. Typical knowledge that developers draw on are generic customer segmentation models, customer response realised as sales, and customer feedback on product features and the quality of service. These, however, rarely impact the actual design of products. For instance, segmentation is mostly just utilised in marketing. In the otherwise so rational value creation process of market-oriented housing, no systematic methods are available for ensuring the realisation of user value. The developers are partially at loss about which product attributes mean what to whom, how to effectively impose knowledge about users to the development process, and how to measure the user value of end products. The relationship between products and their 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 310 311 Users in market-driven urban housing production production urban housing Users in market-driven My interviews also attest that there is a tendency is a tendency also attest that there My interviews Location and the material quality of the of the Location and the material quality My interviewees unanimously admitted the admitted the unanimously My interviewees seeking to widen their product range but with increasingly but with increasingly range seeking to widen their product Effort is put to identification standard parts and processes. standardisation of products on the level of product structure structure of product on the level standardisation of products stating that the current offering has evolved to cover the scope the scope to cover evolved has offering stating that the current seen as profitable. The industry has not managed to utilise co- The industry has not managed seen as profitable. little space for meaningful differentiation beyond the existing. existing. the beyond differentiation meaningful for space little for including users to housing production. including users for of those components of the dwelling product that can remain that can remain of those components of the dwelling product of design. Personalised customer service, creation of lifestyle of lifestyle customer service, creation Personalised of design. that singles out and marketing branding, by connotations by adjusting intangible within a homogenous offering difference can be product of the which perception elements through driven by avoidance of risks, and rather satisfied with with satisfied of risks, and rather by avoidance driven of products. differentiation design, let alone methods like lead user innovation. Profound Profound innovation. lead user let alone methods like design, is well and that there user needs relatively of most significant design decisions happen through “informed guessing” based on on based guessing” “informed through happen decisions design end product were identified by the developers as main main as developers the by identified were product end Importantly, they business. the in factors competitiveness qualitative homogeneity of housing production in Finland. in Finland. of housing production homogeneity qualitative which again suggests the expansion of dwelling as an object an object of dwelling as again suggests the expansion which to users. unproblematic relatively such can also be which as altered without needing to physically variate it. variate without needing to physically altered and and their diversification process, and production also emphasised designable elements outside of the physical the physical elements outside of also emphasised designable are merely given agency as customers making choices among choices among customers making agency as given merely are anticipated users is weak, random and uncontrolled. At best, best, At and uncontrolled. random is weak, users anticipated the same and those that should be diversified. At the same At the same the same and those that should be diversified. to concern the premium end of the offering in larger cities. cities. in larger end of the offering to concern the premium to different target groups are ways to create perceptions of of perceptions to create ways are groups target to different in the Finnish housing industry towards simultaneous simultaneous towards industry housing Finnish the in in the field. The industry lacks methods as well as incentives methods as well as incentives The industry lacks in the field. product such as customer service as means of differentiation, as means of differentiation, such as customer service product personalisation with respect to the customers. Developers are are to the customers. Developers personalisation with respect mainstream designs. The demand for individuality was deemed was deemed individuality The demand for designs. mainstream mass customisation or co-configuration have not been realised not been realised have or co-configuration mass customisation professional experience. This leads to safely average solutions solutions average safely leads to This experience. professional dwelling product. of the on surface levels options pre-designed regular product features and presents them as desirable as desirable them and presents features product regular Finland was seen as too small a market to allow substantial to allow substantial Finland was seen as too small a market However, they stressed the reciprocality of supply and demand, and demand, of supply the reciprocality they stressed However, More user-driven production would require new skills and is not new skills and is not would require production user-driven More The developers saw the majority of customers as conservative, saw the majority of customers as conservative, The developers time, the localness and one-off nature of building and the professionals’ inherent preference for change work against standardisation and centrally imposed concepts. Reconciliation between the push towards standardisation/duplication and the uniqueness of buildings as artefacts poses a challenge to architectural design. Housing architecture currently is largely disconnected from residential product development. A lot of the realisation of the design objectives identified by developers is random. The developers criticised architects for concentrating on user-insignificant details of building exterior at the cost of interior space. The quality of regular dwelling design was deemed mediocre. Based on the developer interviews I could discern several bottlenecks that hinder diffusion of new concepts, diversification of the offering and realisation of user- centredness in different phases of industrial housing production. These complement the systemic barriers of diversification in housing identified by previous research (Krokfors 2010) from the viewpoint of residential developers. Some of the key challenges that product innovators in the housing industry according to my study need to overcome are:

• The regulation bottleneck: What is allowed by the system?

• The user agency bottleneck: How are users represented in the process?

• The innovation bottleneck: How to breed transformative product ideas and initiate change?

• The value network bottleneck: How to find good partners and manage collaborative product development efforts?

• The realisation bottleneck: How to get a pilot project built and ensure that it meets the initial objectives?

• The adoption bottleneck: Will users find and value the outcome?

• The diffusion bottleneck: How to make it again, and better? 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 312 313

, APPROPRIATED BY USERS BY APPROPRIATED THE EXPERIENCED DWELLING: DWELLING: EXPERIENCED THE In industrial housing production, the relationship relationship the In industrial housing production, A LIVED-IN MATERIAL COMPOSITION COMPOSITION MATERIAL LIVED-IN A The notion of user can be seen as the production production the as seen be can user of notion The The realisation of user needs in housing can be of user needs in housing can be The realisation industrialisation of building, the professionalisation professionalisation the building, of industrialisation users and their needs by designers and other professionals, and other professionals, users and their needs by designers system produces the user. Also, the understanding of user the user. Also, the understanding of user produces system system’s means to dominate people by assigning them a them a by assigning means to dominate people system’s constructed into the dwelling product. These include culture, culture, include These product. dwelling the into constructed depicted as a cyclical process consisting of interpretation of of consisting of interpretation depicted as a cyclical process on two topics: how users define dwelling as product, and what and what users define dwelling as product, on two topics: how of design, and the emergence of a housing market have have housing market of a and the emergence of design, diminishing the identified gap between knowledge on user on user gap between knowledge identified diminishing the was in understanding the reciprocal relationship between between relationship the reciprocal was in understanding and dominant designs. There is engrained in each of them in each of them is engrained There and dominant designs. and utilisation of user knowledge, and agency of users in the and utilisation of user knowledge, and agency of users in the an understanding of user that becomes mediated to the end mediated to the end an understanding of user that becomes appropriation of the finished products by users. In the process, process, the In users. by products finished the of appropriation artefacts and enables the investigation of the two together. artefacts and enables the investigation as defined by residents representing five different groups and and groups different five representing by residents as defined The main interest experiences. in their everyday as reflected translation of the needs into product attributes, and and attributes, of the needs into product translation technologies, as well as historically evolved dwelling types dwelling types evolved well as historically as technologies, to fit their lives. is fragmented among many professions within the system. within the system. among many professions is fragmented in most cases denied control of products beyond superficial superficial beyond of products control in most cases denied individual users and dwellings as artefacts, with the aim of artefacts, as of dwellings aim and the users with individual process critically influence the realisation of user needs in of user needs in the realisation influence critically process housing production. modification. The relationship of users to dwelling design is is of users to dwelling design modification. The relationship the which by structures the through mediated but direct not product and is detectable in its designed features. its designed and is detectable in product Users are and user is locked. between the dwelling product powerful structures are at play by which the user is becoming at play by which the user is becoming are powerful structures available housing ideology and policy, norms and regulation, housing. However, the term user also has positive implications. implications. positive has also the term user However, housing. needs and the designable attributes of dwelling. I was focusing of dwelling. I was focusing attributes needs and the designable product dwelling the making for employ they strategies of kind predescribed role and divesting them of strategic power. power. them of strategic and divesting role predescribed of user the of abstraction and anonymisation necessitated It renders visible the active human agent interacting with with human agent interacting visible the active It renders My second empirical case examines the dwelling product inuse product the dwelling empirical case examines My second housing professionals’ conception of user, the nature conception of user, the nature The housing professionals’ The I have in Chapter 5.1.2 listed some implicit stereotypical perceptions of the user that seem to prevail in the field. The housing professionals also in my data referred to users as passive and conservative, which may hold some truth but also provides convenient justification for continuing the business as usual. The regime by keeping the users at a distance from housing design and delivery protects its status quo. Other researchers have noted the denial of user in avant- garde architectural culture. Advocates of user-centred design on the other hand seem to share an implicit trust to users’ fundamental goodness and inventiveness and often undermine the value of professional expertise in design. The actual construction of dwelling in the lives of residents happens when they experience and interact with specific, tangible dwellings in use. In the user study, I approached dwelling as an oeuvre, an always unfinished artefact in process that is actively used, given meanings and transformed by people and in this way continues to evolve during its entire lifecycle. Inspired by the writings of Michel de Certeau, Jonathan Hill and Elizabeth Shove, I recognised residents as active and creative individuals who make use of various strategies of their own for appropriating the dwelling product along their individual valuable ends and thus participate in value creation during use. When talking about their housing history, their present dwelling and their housing dreams, the users elicited collections of positive and negative dwelling attributes distributed across the levels of built form. Unsurprisingly, the material revealed two concentrations of attributes: the location of the dwelling and quality of the immediate environment, and the spatial and functional qualities of the dwelling proper. The users’ evaluation of their living environment was predominantly positive, whereas the quantitative, functional and qualitative properties of their dwelling received mixed reviews. In accordance with previous research, good transport connections, closeness to nature, peacefulness and safety were valued by the users in the area level. Housing architecture in an aesthetic meaning did not surface in the material. There were certain shared characteristics in each user group. The persons with disabilities often had less privacy in living. They had also negotiated many enhancements to their dwelling, having lead user characteristics. The immigrants in general were satisfied with their dwelling but experienced some social alienation. People with an untypical job due to irregular daily rhythm and income fluctuation differed from the average resident. Job uncertainty prevented them from settling down and investing into dwelling. The housing choices of single 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 314 315 My research points out three instances where instances where points out three My research Valuable user experiences and needs constitute and needs constitute experiences user Valuable The users typically connected a component of a component of connected The users typically unpredictable. The meaning and importance of dwelling importance The meaning and of dwelling unpredictable. users come to question the standard dwelling. One is when dwelling. One is when users come to question the standard study was a component that divided user value, being either a being either a study was a component that divided user value, scope where designable elements across the built hierarchy are are built hierarchy the elements across designable scope where such as technology and space. Another instance is when users features apart from most basic functions is relational. It is It is is relational. most basic functions apart from features features. The dwelling product as described by the users can users can as described by the The dwelling product features. directing criticism at the present functionally segregated segregated functionally present the at criticism directing room” “one extra users’ wish for dwelling type, was several open to multiple uses. disability constitute types of “non-standard use” that pose new disability constitute types of “non-standard use” that pose new part as dwelling of negotiation element an their of contest dwelling design to user. dwelling design element can contribute to the fulfilment of several experiences experiences of several element can contribute to the fulfilment or elements various by met be can need given a while needs, or on the specific dwelling combinations of elements depending emphasising for example sensibility, aesthetics or social status. social or aesthetics sensibility, example for emphasising the built penetrating requirements design chains of interlinked dwelling (“parking hall”) with value (“comfort”). The study (“comfort”). study The value with hall”) (“parking dwelling with the mainstream dwelling. I describe in Chapter 5.3.3 dwelling. I describe in Chapter 5.3.3 with the mainstream agents need to conjoin to create user value in dwelling. A single single A dwelling. in value user create to conjoin to need agents in how users interpret is variation there and the user. Moreover, assigned value depending on their congruence with the needs needs the with congruence their on depending value assigned Individual persons according of the resident. and preferences and the investment value of dwelling. value and the investment therefore difficult to predetermine the value of a specific of a specific the value predetermine difficult to therefore they have special needs or are in a life situation that clashes situation that clashes in a life special needs or are they have the elements of dwelling based on their personality, attitude their personality, attitude the elements of dwelling based on This means that the experiences. towards housing and previous to my study value the attributes of dwelling slightly differently, differently, attributes of dwelling slightly the to my study value their housing needs. They emphasised comfortable needs. They emphasised their housing urban living thus reveals connections between user value and dwelling and dwelling between user value connections thus reveals how precarious shift work, shared parenting and physical and physical parenting work, shared shift precarious how necessity or an unwanted expensive feature. A third example, A third example, feature. necessity or an unwanted expensive requirements for designable elements of the dwelling product, product, of the dwelling elements designable for requirements the in The sauna offering. the and preferences own between relationship between a user and a dwelling remains partially partially dwelling remains between a user and a relationship hierarchy. Multiple designed elements in control of different of different elements in control Multiple designed hierarchy. be defined as a set of attributes with varying consistency and and consistency of attributes with varying be defined as a set residents were less satisfied with their dwelling and typically dwelling and typically with their less satisfied were residents future The affluent housing expectations. unfulfilled had more parents had many times been forced and their dwellings dwellings their and forced been times had many parents right-of-occupancy The of residents. number changing had Eiranranta residents had had the resources to fulfill most of of most fulfill to resources the had had residents Eiranranta It is difficult to tell what in the results indicates differences in the users’ lifestyles and housing preferences, what is explainable by their socio-economic position, family situation and life phase, and what is consequence of the material properties of their dwelling. It is evident that dwellings as artefacts have influenced the experiences of users. However, my study shows that regardless of eventual differentiation of lifestyles, there is diversity in user needs concerning designable elements of the dwelling product, and that residents actively weigh the value of the elements as they navigate in the housing market. I was able to detect a wealth of strategies that the users had employed for adapting the dwelling product to their purposes. They target various levels of built environment, forming a scale from materially “weak” to “strong”. Some users’ relationship to dwelling was passive, characterised by making do with defects. On the level of objects, interior decoration as (only available) means of personalisation was emphasised especially among young female renters. Quite many participants had also upgraded the technical equipment of their dwelling by themselves. Customisation service at purchase, publicly subsidised modifications to dwellings of persons with disabilities, and renovations realised by landlord in conjunction of removal are examples of strategies impacting the built form that are enabled by corporations or authorities. Many users had undertaken renovation projects on their own, in some cases extending deep into the building. A few had constructed their own house in close collaboration with professional designers. The users had also adopted economic strategies in the market and social strategies for controlling privacy and social relations. As a generalisation, the inhabitants of large rental housing estates quietly endured the social disturbances met by them, whereas the way of living in terraced and semi- detached houses was characterised by more communality that had led the residents to forming allies among neighbours. People living in high-end inner-city owner-occupied flats, despite stressing equality in housing, through choice of area, physical means and technology had employed subtle strategies of exclusion. My dissertation suggests seeing the dwelling product as a platform for strategies of users, producers and other actors to conjoin, interact and build upon each other in time. My data shows that the relationship of users’ strategies to dwelling can be additive or subtractive. They can employ an expansive strategy e.g. by purchasing a secondary dwelling or seek for optimisation within their given dwelling. Users 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 316 317 users . The users Everyday life brings contingency into the the into brings contingency life Everyday Housing choices had often resulted from chains of chains of from Housing choices had often resulted A feeling of temporariness characterised many many characterised of temporariness feeling A Aesthetic reflexivity in the sense of conscious sense of conscious in the reflexivity Aesthetic unfulfilment of long-term housing goals. Many users were well well Many users were unfulfilment of long-term housing goals. with real-world of dreams them. Reflection unattainable for users’ experience of dwelling and weakened their commitment commitment their weakened and dwelling of experience users’ unpleasant area), life events (birth illness), events life of child, separation, unpleasant area), lock-ins (self-imposed or other constraints narrowing down the narrowing lock-ins (self-imposed or other constraints functional meaning and in conjunction of the interior space. space. and in conjunction of the interior functional meaning adjusted dreams had led to what I call adjusted constraints on some attribute of dwelling in order to gain on another another on gain to order in dwelling of attribute some on events beyond the control of individuals. Both external trends of individuals. Both external trends the control beyond events observing the built environment and how others live, housing housing live, others how and environment built the observing driven Choices are aesthetic references. dwelling and provide can control deeper levels of form than renters. However, my my However, renters. than of form levels deeper can control user value. its increases of tenure regardless dwelling not evident in the by consumption is of lifestyle construction discussed in a was mostly instance, for data. Housing design, combine long-term strategies with short-term Some tactics. strategies long-term combine everyday a sense of future and help people in explicating their help people in explicating their and a sense of future everyday and media influence people’s experiences and strategies of of and strategies people’s experiences and media influence and improve their dwelling. However, an idea of temporariness an idea of temporariness their dwelling. However, and improve attribute estimated to be more valuable). attribute estimated to be more and issues instigated by the physical dwelling (renovation needs) dwelling (renovation by the physical and issues instigated aware that their dream dwelling most probably would remain remain would dwelling most probably that their dream aware the market and features of their past and present dwellings dwellings present of their past and and features the market dwellings, previous from and learning the attainable. Memories to it. Decision to settle down motivated people to personalise people to personalise to it. Decision to settle down motivated in other countries and exemplary designs in the market market the in designs exemplary and countries other in impact people’s experience of dwelling and expectations of of expectations and dwelling of experience people’s impact by simultaneous needs for social conformity and individuality. social conformity by simultaneous needs for had lowered their expectations while retaining the most the most their expectations while retaining had lowered may also help people in coping with mismatches in dwelling. mismatches in dwelling. may also help people in coping with range of alternatives) and trade-offs (giving up or downgrading (giving up or downgrading and trade-offs of alternatives) range propel housing pathways. Users’ choices were characterised by by characterised Users’ choices were housing pathways. propel have more resources and adaptation skills. Owners evidently evidently Owners skills. adaptation and resources more have one’s personalise to possibility that indicate clearly results relationship between the user and the dwelling product. product. dwelling the and user the between relationship housing preferences. valuable attributes of their dream dwelling in an altered form. form. dwelling in an altered attributes of their dream valuable (economic fluctuation), social factors (wish to get away from an an (wish to get away from (economic fluctuation), social factors However, the study demonstrates how existing designs in in how existing designs the study demonstrates However, Housing dreams regardless of their realisation bring into the bring into the of their realisation regardless Housing dreams needs change, the design of the dwelling can become unfit. of the dwelling can become unfit. As needs change, the design The value of specific dwelling attributes to user evolves in in of specific dwelling attributes to user evolves The value Their everyday experience most often was positive despite despite was positive most often experience everyday Their time. A match between a dwelling and a user according to my material is often momentary. Change and unfulfilment of dreams are characteristic to the experience of dwelling. Turns in housing pathways enrich the experience of dwelling and evoke new dreams and desires. Dwellings in use come to serve the fulfilment of our needs in countless individual ways, some of which are out of reach of professional design acts. This makes complete user-specificity in industrially produced dwellings unattainable and even unnecessary. The main contribution of my dissertation to housing studies is that it increases understanding on the reciprocal relationship between users and dwellings as material artefacts, bridging the gap between user knowledge and design knowledge in housing. The study calls for inclusion of the material dwelling artefact to research on residents’ needs and propagates the importance of a “small scale, from within” perspective in Finnish housing studies dominated by quantitative and regional focus. My research posits the individual resident into focus and acknowledges her as active agent who has a stake in appropriating the products delivered by the industrial housing system, and many of whose preferences, needs and attitudes regarding dwelling change along life.

6.2 Designing the dwelling product

THE CONCEPTUALISED DWELLING: AN OBJECT OF DESIGN BEYOND BUILT FORM

To return to the main research question: How to understand dwelling as a product and object of design? My theoretical exploration and the results of the empirical cases indicate that dwelling as product extends beyond housing architecture, constituting a heterogeneous composite of designable elements with varying degree of materiality distributed across the levels of built form and also outside of it. Dwelling as product despite its singularity and locatedness bears some resemblance to other industrial products. It is possible to conceive dwelling as a set of attributes that combine to provide value to the user. What distinguishes dwelling from other industrial products is its embeddedness into the hierarchy of built environment. 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 318 319 Design operating within the systemic dwelling dwelling within the systemic operating Design on product In line with the findings of research Elements on the surface levels of built form of built form surface levels Elements on the As evidenced by my cases, there is some variation variation is some there by my cases, As evidenced As conclusion of the facets of productness revealed revealed of productness of the facets As conclusion together product of the dwelling All elements The elements of the dwelling product are object object are The elements of the dwelling product There are some essential elements in the dwelling elements in the dwelling some essential are There single element, a level of form, or combine elements across the the or combine elements across of form, single element, a level the most dwelling and building remain The physical system. examples of social community, and ownership of dwelling are emerging design areas with potentially transformative role in in role transformative potentially with areas design emerging housing of field the in also that indicates study my design, elements of the dwelling product are assigned meaning and and meaning assigned are elements of the dwelling product design, thus remaining rather uniform and undifferentiable. and undifferentiable. uniform rather thus remaining design, qualitative variation can take place. The limits of variability The limits of variability place. can take variation qualitative the by determined are elements customary its and dwelling of define a space of possible designs within which meaningful which meaningful within designs space of possible define a with their strategies. Basic functions notwithstanding, the Basic functions notwithstanding, the with their strategies. attributes emerged from my material. from attributes emerged are rapidly modifiable and in control of individual residents. of individual residents. and in control modifiable rapidly are and production methods, regulation, users and the market. users methods, regulation, and production technology, services before and during use, aspects of the and during use, aspects of the technology, services before two directions of expansion of the object of design can be be can design of object the of expansion of directions two they seek to adapt the dwelling product to their valuable ends. ends. to their valuable they seek to adapt the dwelling product trajectories. However, the act of inhabitation connects the the act of inhabitation connects the However, trajectories. which by agents other and users producers, of strategies to design. by differentiated that can be qualitatively its manipulation becomes. complicated the slower and more important designable elements of dwelling. However, home home elements of dwelling. However, important designable in what elements individual agents emphasise and target emphasise and target in what elements individual agents product has many possibilities to add value. It can target a a It can target to add value. has many possibilities product production and everyday living. and everyday production professional agents and have followed their own evolutionary their own evolutionary followed agents and have professional elements together into a seamless whole. heterogeneous housing regime collectively, including available technologies technologies available including collectively, regime housing universally needs of dwelling that are to the basic related product by the research, I propose a conceptual model of dwelling as as dwelling of model a conceptual I propose research, by the 11). see also Figure 46, (Figure of design in the context product value individually. Different constellations of valuable dwelling dwelling constellations of valuable Different individually. value valued by residents and taken for granted in regular dwelling dwelling regular in granted for taken and residents by valued value creation and differentiation of the offering. and differentiation creation value Its elements mediate between the realms of industrial mass of industrial mass realms Its elements mediate between the Elements on different levels are in control of different of different control in are levels different Elements on The dwelling product is shaped through interactions of agents. of agents. interactions through is shaped The dwelling product There are other inessential elements with more subjective value value subjective inessential elements with more other are There an element extends, The deeper into the material hierarchy recognised: remote design dealing with strategic and conceptual FIGURE 46. issues, and immediate design necessitating understanding of Dwelling as product. and collaboration with users in specific local contexts.

DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR THE SYSTEMIC DWELLING PRODUCT

Producers and users of housing have their strategies for aligning the dwelling product along their goals. What strategies are available to designers and how could these contribute to the diversification of housing production and the search of mutual value? What kind of new design opportunities does my explanation of dwelling as product open up? To demonstrate the implications of the findings of the study to design of dwelling, I shall next contemplate a couple of potential approaches for rendering the systemic dwelling product as an object of design. The examples and strategies discussed here are not to be seen as final results of the study but rather as tentative suggestions of what the understanding of dwelling as a systemic product could mean to actual design practice. Some parts of the dwelling product concerning user value are solved relatively well by regular housing design. Other parts are beyond meaningful differentiation or can easily be adapted by the residents themselves. There are, however, areas in dwelling aside traditional architectural design where alternative design approaches could be beneficial. Several of the approaches presented below have been proposed by design theorists before, but continue to be poorly utilised in industrial housing production. The ideas of Thomas Mitchell (1993) about user-responsive design methods in architecture including collaborative design, contextual design amplifying specific physical conditions and intangible design that takes human intentions and systems as its object are still valid, as are Anna Klingmann’s (2007) suggestions of thinking on architecture more in terms of the authentic experience and identification made possible by it. Following nine design strategies that could facilitate the generation of more diverse and user-centred urban housing can be proposed on the basis of my research. The strategies are divided into ones with focus in remote, product, and immediate design. Efforts of employing some of the strategies are visible e.g. in the Finnish housing concepts. 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 320 321

SLOW, FIXED ELEMENTS Central control

AREA Inessential elements

Essential BUILDING elements

SET OF BENEFITS APARTMENT USERS PRODUCTION Standardisation, duplication Standardisation, Diversification, personalisation Diversification,

OBJECTS

SERVICES TECHNOLOGY BUILT FORM COMMUNITY OWNERSHIP

RAPID, FLEXIBLE ELEMENTS User Control REMOTE DESIGN: DESIGNING FOR DIVERSIFICATION WITHIN THE HOUSING SYSTEM 1. Strategic differentiation of dwelling products in the market to fill gaps in the offering and meet underserved user needs. Housing concepts with their differentiated promises at present aim at this. Strategic dwelling design requires sensitivity to emerging demand, capability to innovate and a time perspective beyond the next housing project. Figure 47 shows examples of value-based differentiation strategies for compact dwellings. Additional ways for inducing variation into dwelling – partly overlapping with the ideas presented here – are listed in Table 5. They are inspired by the generic modes of technological innovation/variation (Fleck 2000).

2. Resolving the tension between standardisation and uniqueness in dwelling. Identification of what elements of the dwelling product from the perspective of users can be standardised (or simplified) and where more design variation or personalisation is needed. This would support diversification of the offering without loosing the advantage gained from industrial production. Again, duplicable concepts with some variable parts can be means for this. Example of a simple strategy for balancing duplication and diversity in the area level is seen in Figure 48.

3. Systems to enable in-depth mass customisation or co- configuration. Allowing users to configure (some elements of) their own dwelling within a framework set by professionals would diminish the contingency between industrial dwelling products and their users. Such systems could also enable individual allocation of the resources of living. This requires developing open, modular building systems that pave way for “open source building” and “housing on demand”.

PRODUCT DESIGN: DESIGNING FOR THE EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE OF DWELLING 4. Systematic morphological and typological diversification of housing architecture by creative adaptation of avant- garde trends but also through utilisation of more structured methods from product design (such as the morphological matrix, see Zwicky 1969). In light of my data, more emphasis should be put to enriching the range of available dwelling types especially concerning small flats. Architects here could also draw inspiration from historical architectural lineages of descent. 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 322 323

lost along industrialisation. Design here would focus would focus here Design lost along industrialisation. . A strategy that targets the overall functionality and functionality and the overall that targets . A strategy users to residential product development. product users to residential user-centred renovation projects in collaboration with residents with residents in collaboration projects renovation user-centred usability of dwelling with the intention of integrating home home integrating of intention the with dwelling of usability urban and affordable designs? Accordingly, some features from from features some Accordingly, designs? affordable and urban to detached houses. could be transferred urban housing design dwelling systematic ways for learning from users and integrating (lead) (lead) users and integrating learning from for ways systematic sustainability, accessibility, technical and aesthetic quality, and tasks include facilitation of suitability to special needs. Design socially created product ideas into high quality designs that that quality designs ideas into high product created socially for non-activist users. A further goal should be to develop furtherA users. non-activist for develop to be should goal off housing projects developed together with residents or or together with residents developed off housing projects design or time-based design could be utilised. or time-based design design as well as to develop exceed the users’ immediate expectations, respond to system housing the enable that methods co-design on the surface levels of dwelling, approaching it as an interface interface an as it approaching dwelling, of levels surface the on control over one’s own property and excess space into more more into space excess and property own one’s over control and housing companies, and development of tools, products of tools, products and development and housing companies, supportingand services for strategies users’ own adaptive and tactile properties. to access novel housing solutions should be provided also also be provided housing solutions should to access novel towards more sustainable behaviour. Approaches like service service like Approaches sustainable behaviour. towards more could mean unique one- This efficiently. to user demand more technology, energy systems, services and built form into into form built and technology,services systems, energy that was opened up by the user study. For instance, how to instance, how to user study. For opened up by the that was such as in detached houses features the valued translate between human body and the material as well as natural worlds. worlds. and the material as well as natural between human body visual pleasurable of introduction by e.g. dwelling produced everyday that support the residents’ environments responsive users direct to capability inbuilt an have can and behaviour present an interesting design problem in housing production production in housing problem design an interesting present value-adding way. The designers’ task would be to translate translate to be would task designers’ The way. value-adding Everyday practices and situations of dwelling as object of of object as of dwelling situations and practices Everyday improving its its improving stock dwelling existing to interventions Design Attainable re-interpretations of desired dwelling forms dwelling of desired re-interpretations Attainable Reconstructing the aesthetic and sensory experience of of experience and sensory aesthetic the Reconstructing in a mutually in a mutually production housing urban to users Connecting Designers could enhance the experiential quality of mass quality of mass experiential could enhance the Designers DESIGNING WITH USERS AND AND USERS WITH DESIGNING USE IN DWELLINGS FOR IMMEDIATE DESIGN: IMMEDIATE ways Easy ways at small niche markets. “thematic housing” targeted

8. 6. 9. 5. 7. in existing dwellings. This strategy suggests producers and designers following along the use phase of dwelling, swiftly responding to changing needs by modifying the dwelling product. In line with Stewart Brand’s (1994) idea of “scenario- buffered building”, dwellings could already in the design phase be programmed to be more adaptive to change.

My study indicates that design for user TABLE 5. experience necessitates design across the hierarchic levels of Modes of technological innovation/variation built environment. Designers of the systemic dwelling product (Fleck 2000) as applied need to deal with identification of valuable combinations of to dwelling, leading elements of dwelling and their integration throughout the to possible design strategies of the systemic scales of urban neighbourhoods, buildings, dwellings and dwelling product. domestic objects. This calls for collaboration between the stratified design professions and designerly skills that go beyond the established design tasks in housing. FIGURE 47. What the dissertation at large points out is the Value-based differentiation strategies for compact role of conceptual design in user-centred diversification of dwellings. 24 Living, housing. Aside from buildings and dwellings, the underlying University of Art and “abstract designs” of dwelling (such as housing concepts) can Design Helsinki and VVO rental housing be intentionally modified with potentially transformative effect corporation, author with to wider populations of dwellings. Tero Heikkinen, 2008.

DOWNSIZING COST FLEXIBILISATION Compactisation or hydridisation Enabling individual and temporal of services, equipment and fixed flexibility in the allocation of furniture. residential costs, e.g. lower rent ECONOMIC when less work. OUTSOURCING VALUE Centralisation of some functions IMPROVING EFFICIENCY of the dwelling to house level or Diminishing the life-cycle and their distribution to external VALUE running costs of the dwelling service providers. FUNCTIONAL by increased energy efficiency and other means. USER CONFIGURABILITY Enabling individual scaling SIMPLIFICATION and weighing of the functions PRESENT Material reduction and and components of dwelling SMALL streamlining of the space and within a given framework, DWELLINGS equipment of the dwelling.§ e.g. by co-configuration. EXPERIENTIAL VALUE

AESTHETIC EMANCIPATION COMPENSATION DIVERSIFICATION OF THE USER Improving the user experience by Systematic extension of the array Allowing extensive, hands-on re-introducing (in new form) of choice in designs, styles, user participation and self- features lost from small dwellings materials. expression during design along mass production, e.g. and use. windows to two directions. 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 324 325 OF DWELLING OF EXAMPLES IN THE CASE CASE THE IN EXAMPLES Transfer of successful housing models, of successful housing models, Transfer as well as types and dominant designs one aesthetics or technology from design to another. (national) housing regime Transfer of design analogies, concepts concepts analogies, of design Transfer to other fields and business models from housing (e.g. “housing as service”). “Natural” incremental diversification of the of the diversification incremental “Natural” via singular, local, individually dwelling stock 3.4.3). Can (see Chapter housing projects designed of creative by enhancing the role be facilitated in housing production. design architectural of the construction, materials Stripping down to of the dwelling product and equipment (as in BoKlok) and/ enable affordability by resident or completion of the dwelling Neo-loft). (as in according to own preferences and services in of the systems Integration waste such as energy, built environment the levels management and transport across to create of city, buildings and dwellings that living environments sustainable, responsive to living. transformations induce valuable or experiential Adding new lifestyle-based, dwelling to the mainstream functional features by Amplification of user experience product. and sensory richness the aesthetic increasing of dwellings (“hedonistic” architecture, at Hill 2003). “Thematic living” targeted or niche markets. specific lifestyles Standardisation of the interfaces between of dwelling. components and sub-systems of open, modular building systems Development to enable in-depth mass customisation and of individual dwellings, co-configuration leading to “open source eventually building” and “housing on demand”. Fine-tuning or updating of specific elements of the e.g. sustainable to add user value, dwelling product problem. kitchen as design space-saving housing concepts or other of novel Emergence as outcome of innovations or process product cross-disciplinary successful housing projects, concept design partnerships, structured etc. development, technical product activities, physical of value-adding Development enhancements and services of dwelling that make use of and plug into the existing built environment. into the realm of producers Extension of the role of realm of users into the of use and the role improvement (Chapter 4.4). Continued production product of the existing dwelling stock, collaborative with (lead) users and user communities, development in housing. social innovations learning from Resolution of the bottlenecks in housing user agency, to regulation, related production adoption, network, realisation, value innovation, (Chapter 4.4.7). and diffusion of novelty

DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION (FLECK 2000, 264) 2000, (FLECK Transfer of functional systems of functional systems Transfer into new application contexts Transfer of subcomponents from of subcomponents from Transfer to another one functional system The stripping down of entities down of entities The stripping functional essentials to bare The synthesis of previously into functional systems separate single systems inclusive new more onto of new features Accretion a basic functional entity of common The emergence interfaces or functional round boundaries technological entities of components Improvements within the bounds set by larger (leading to functional systems technological trajectories) of new artefactual The emergence working practices, elements from or software procedures Combinations (often nested) of new and old components new tasks to perform during diffusion Innovation – continued development during actual use, through of “learning” forms various in functional Improvements of via the resolution systems bottlenecks in development Changes via the the Changes via process reproductive IMPLEMENTATION CROSS-FERTILISATION SIMPLIFICATION INTEGRATION ELABORATION STANDARDISATION INCREMENTATION CRYSTALLISATION CONFIGURATION INNOFUSION RESOLUTION MUTATION FIGURE 48. A simple strategy for balancing replication and diversity in the area level. “Standardised diversity” created by replicating the same house designs along two canals in a variable order. Amsterdam, Eastern Docklands, Java Island. Urban development plan by Sjoerd Soeters 1995, buildings designed by various architects. Photographed by the author in 2008. 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 326 327 . The study proposes . The study proposes

transformative societal power power societal transformative 6.3 , pointing out also some of the fallacies of of , pointing out also some of the fallacies could help in resolving some of the systemic of the systemic some could help in resolving , showing that actual material dwellings influence material dwellings influence actual showing that , The housing system revisited system The housing user-centred design in housing, such as overt trust in users’ in housing, such as overt trust in users’ design user-centred users is not universal but individually defined and susceptible defined and susceptible but individually users is not universal of expert design and dwellings and as product beyond housing architecture housing beyond product as capabilities and innovativeness on one hand, and reluctance reluctance and hand, one on innovativeness and capabilities dwelling. The meaning and value of specific dwelling features to to specific dwelling features of dwelling. The meaning and value expansion of dwelling of dwelling expansion the attest cases empirical My design. of of some of the new aspects of productness of dwelling. aspects of productness of some of the new housing design adding “creative leaps” and design-driven innovations by by innovations leaps” and design-driven adding “creative themselves greater leverage in determining the individually in determining the individually leverage greater themselves other the on power superficial than more with them endow to the user experiences, housing preferences and expectations of and expectations of housing preferences the user experiences, ends. This should be to their valuable the dwelling product the possibility of a total fit between to change. This erodes that transfer of learnings from user-centred product design design product user-centred of learnings from that transfer important features of their dwelling even in urban housing in urban housing of their dwelling even important features people. Many users also actively and creatively seek to adapt seek to adapt and creatively people. Many users also actively professional designers in diversification of housing. in diversification designers professional people and dwellings. This notwithstanding, giving the users giving the users people and dwellings. This notwithstanding, would enhance its user value. production hand. The study emphasises the importance of user-value- better acknowledged in housing research, design and production. design better acknowledged in housing research, partial reconceptualisation of dwelling as a product and object and object as a product of dwelling partial reconceptualisation understanding would increase of housing to the field research the facilitate and housing in diversification for barriers of users and producers. of the demands reconciliation reciprocal relationship between people people between relationship the reciprocal The study highlights I argue that social and technological change necessitates necessitates that social and technological change I argue The dissertation stresses the dissertationThe stresses in value of user the relationality demonstrates My research conceptual and strategic approach to to approach strategic and conceptual I suggest that a more

• • • • • for change. for implications to the housing system that could provide seeds seeds that could provide housing system implications to the housing production obviously cannot be solved by a single a single by cannot be solved obviously production housing practical some offers my study However, of research. piece The systemic design problem of user-centred industrial urban urban industrial of user-centred problem design The systemic Rather than conceiving the development towards more user-centred and diverse urban housing as straightforward need satisfaction where people are asked how they would like to live and provided with exactly that or given full authority as designers, my study calls for critical questioning of some of the basic assumptions behind the prevalent way of designing and producing dwellings. This could provide seeds for housing solutions that, to use Anna Klingmann’s (2007, 324) words, exceed the expectations of users by “initiating meaningful transformations that reach beyond established boundaries to create a breakthrough in value”. The challenge for professionals working within the tight constraints of industrial housing production is to be able to fully harness the creative, transformative power of design to come up with viable, sustainable designs. Increased individuality of housing does not mean accumulation of ever new gadgets and experiential features to dwellings. A truly user-centred approach would seek to identify those elements of the dwelling product that are most meaningful or valuable to residents or where their needs most diverge, and take them as objects of design with the intention that elements considered less valuable by individual users could be downtuned or replaced with more valuable ones. This would imply a balancing or subtractive rather than additive approach to the development of dwelling. Also, a polyvalent, generic dwelling is not necessarily less satisfactory to a user than a highly personalised dwelling. A turn towards the users requires changes in the competencies and organisation of design activity in the housing industry. To be able to deliver user-centred products, producers need to build a user-centred design infrastructure, enhance the performance of user-centred design in residential product development and individual housing projects, and integrate user-centredness into business strategy (cf. Jokela 2001). The role of design as well as the role of users in residential product development should be strengthened. The expansion of dwelling as an object of design creates demand for inclusion of new specialised actors into the housing regime with expertise in user-centred and collaborative design on one hand, and conceptual and strategic design on the other hand. Designers working with the systemic dwelling product need mediative and integrative skills. Even if they were not in the focus of my study, public actors like policy makers, regulators and cities have an important role in transforming dwelling. They set the overall guidelines for the design of the dwelling product and have considerable power to direct production by means of 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 328 329

6.4 of the study Reliability and validity The demand for design diversity and user and user diversity design The demand for from the applied research practice rather than on my own than on my own rather practice research the applied from of dwelling. experiences experiences to the explanation building. Theory-guided Theory-guided to the explanation building. experiences have frameworks analysis rigid my as well as analysis content data collection to analysis and conclusion drawing. I have also also I have and conclusion drawing. data collection to analysis my personal assumptions sought to recognise continuously embrace them as inspiration and challenge for creative design, design, creative and challenge for them as inspiration embrace the other On the other diversification. to allow of certain regulations whom are we making dwellings for? Instead of delivering safely safely Instead of delivering we making dwellings for? whom are would seem to necessitate. One practical approach that could that could approach One practical to necessitate. would seem would serve people better in their everyday life and quest for and quest for life people better in their everyday would serve about the topic and minimise their influence to the analysis. about the topic and minimise their influence to the analysis. at transparent description of the course of the research from from description of the course of the research at transparent average solutions, the housing system collectively should aim should aim collectively solutions, the housing system average and seek to strategically cultivate the production of dwellings of dwellings the production cultivate and seek to strategically taken care to ground them on my expert knowledge gained to ground care taken to recognise meaningful value differences among humans, among humans, differences meaningful value to recognise the built form a novel housing solution extends and the more more extends and the housing solution a novel form the built it public involvement the more it is to users, transformative towards their direction so that the dwelling stock as a whole the dwelling stock as a whole so that towards their direction it difficult to avoid interference of the researcher’s subjective subjective of the researcher’s interference it difficult to avoid in the face of the industrial production system and also to and also to system industrial production in the face of the We can and complexity as a driving force. in all its richness incentives and constraints (e.g. by subsidising user-initiated user-initiated by subsidising (e.g. and constraints incentives personal fulfilment. provided means for ensuring the objectivity of the conclusions. ensuring the objectivity of the conclusions. means for provided reliability, internal and external validity, and utilisation should and utilisation should internal and external validity, reliability, aimed 277–280). I have be assessed (Miles & Huberman 1994, begin by questioning our implicit perceptions of the user: of the user: our implicit perceptions begin by questioning hand, the authorities’ role is to protect the interest of the user of the user the interest is to protect role hand, the authorities’ of individuality. expressions harmful prevent housing projects). My study indicates that the deeper into into deeper that the indicates study My projects). housing relaxation of my study is selective on the basis be contemplated participation in urban dwelling calls for expansion of the participation expansion of the dwelling calls for in urban Whenever more subjective remarks are presented, I have have I presented, are remarks subjective more Whenever value base of housing production and acceptance of user value of user value and acceptance production base of housing value The utter familiarity of dwelling to all of us sometimes makes The utter familiarity of dwelling to all of us sometimes makes To judge the overall quality of the research its objectivity, its objectivity, quality of the research overall judge the To To ensure the reliability of the study, I have collected three separate data sets representing different viewpoints to dwelling as product (the housing concepts in the market, the developer interviews, and the user study concentrating on the experiences of individual persons). I have looked at both the dwelling artefacts and the experiences of people using and producing them. My two empirical windows to dwelling as product are tied together by design theory. The same theory-based analysis frameworks have been used across the data for interpreting both the housing concepts and the user data. Further reliability to the user study is given by the fact that the original study was designed in collaboration with another researcher. The same probes kit with minor modifications was applied in several consecutive projects. Other researchers have previously interpreted parts of the user data in applied projects with outcomes that are not significantly contradictory to my findings. However, the material as a whole had not been properly analysed before. Regarding the company interviews, the small number of informants can be seen as a limitation. Based on previous studies on housing concepts and with the concentration of the housing industry in Finland in mind, I would claim that the sample represents the industry sufficiently well for the findings to be valid. Homogeneity of the field was also stressed by the interviewees. Even with three participants, the analysis was quickly saturated. Insights of the company representatives were rather uniform and seemed to reflect a consensus in the field. The inclusion of more interviewees would probably not have significantly benefited the study. One must keep in mind that this data is biased towards business feasibility and profitability. Because the interviewees were leaders of new product development, the material also emphasises visionary and strategic issues more than is visible in actual housing production. What could have been heard is the voice of housing architects and urban designers. Their absence can be justified by my focus in the aspects of dwelling beyond the scope of architecture. An additional gap of knowledge is between the case housing concepts and their users. I do not know how the residents living in houses built according to the concepts experience their dwelling, whether they perceive the concepts as beneficial, and how the specific attributes of concepts marketed by producers have actually influenced their housing decisions. However, my focus in this part of the study was in understanding the productness of dwelling from the perspective of production. The reception of commercial 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 330 331 Rationalisation, impression management and management and Rationalisation, impression The internal validity of the study can be of the study can be The internal validity The main concern about the user study is that that user study is concern about the The main and Asokodit studies were marketed to the residents to the residents marketed were studies and Asokodit VVO users probably were not reached by the method. Some by the method. Some not reached were users probably socially active persons. More withdrawing or individualistic or individualistic withdrawing persons. More active socially of results. generalisability generalisability of the results and their fittingness with theory. and their fittingness with theory. of the results generalisability polarisation of participants along The polarisation of participants along the interviews. for conceptualisation of dwelling as product, without overlooking without overlooking conceptualisation of dwelling as product, of their privacy. dwelling also is a topic that people enjoy talking about. Many enjoy talking about. Many dwelling also is a topic that people avoid they did not if even The elite group, a reseacher. door for protective more were general in issues, sensitive discussing over-rationalised their housing choices. I have done my best done my best housing choices. I have their over-rationalised opposite ends of the housing market no doubt diminishes the the no doubt diminishes opposite ends of the housing market which illustrates the sensitivity of the subject. But housing and and the sensitivity of the subject. But housing which illustrates a whole does not raise suspicions of significant beautification. beautification. suspicions of significant a whole does not raise attracting busy or less motivated users. Many participants were users. Many participants or less motivated busy were attracting at the probes method and overall design of the user study. study. user the of design overall and method probes the at the study in a way that builds towards a scientifically valid valid the study in a way that builds towards a scientifically to preserve the complexity of real-life choices in the analysis. choices in the analysis. the complexity of real-life to preserve study. future for topic too laborious or downright childish and had not completed it. it. completed had not and childish or downright laborious too it was not designed according to my research questions. questions. to my research according designed it was not in the name of the owners of their flats, which may have flats, which may have in the name of the owners of their as data the users. However, some of responses the influenced meaningful individual differences from the rich empirical the rich empirical from meaningful individual differences of framework material and link them with the theoretical measured by the credibility of its findings as an answer to the its findings as an answer to the of by the credibility measured to related is validity external its whereas question, research became very emotional when reminiscing their housing career, their housing career, emotional when reminiscing became very opened their of their home and happily proud participants were not pushed to answer unpleasant questions. Some participants Some questions. unpleasant answer to pushed not beautification are typical problems in user interviews (Miles & (Miles & in user interviews typical problems beautification are participants in the elite group criticised the probes study as study as the probes criticised participants in the elite group have yielded better results. Criticism can also be directed directed be also can Criticism results. better yielded have time, and not with spare people participants, active favouring mind makes them valid as research material. In retrospect, retrospect, material. In as research them valid mind makes my topic could attuned to specifically more a method however, housing products by users would provide an interesting interesting an provide users would by products housing My objective has been to discern shared patterns as well as patterns as well as has been to discern shared My objective Huberman 1994, Hyysalo 2009). Some participants probably 2009). Some participantsHuberman 1994, Hyysalo probably pointed out, the wide scope of the user interviews to my to my of the user interviews the wide scope As pointed out, The users’ privacy was respected in the interviews and they were and they were in the interviews was respected The users’ privacy The study kit in these cases was mostly useful as framework framework useful as cases was mostly The study kit in these The self-documentation kit required a lot of effort from the the lot of effort a from kit required The self-documentation The the complexity and ambiguity arising from real-life contexts of use. An extensive literature base from the fields of design research, housing studies and architecture has been drawn on to provide an overall picture of the studied phenomenon and to validate the findings. Concerning external validity, I hope to have argumented the contribution of the dissertation at the emerging intersection of design research and housing studies. Finally, it should be reminded that a qualitative case study like the one at hand does not aim at direct generalisability of the findings. It is rather the theoretical outcomes of the study that can be transferred to other settings and developed further through new cases. My insistence on treating dwelling as a mass product can be seen as potential threat to the credibility of the study. To avoid this, I have tried to equally bring up features of dwelling that contradict its productness. My core argument is not that housing and dwelling is only a product just like other mass produced consumer products, but that it also has this (previously somewhat unrecognised) dimension of productness to it. The main methodological and practical limitations of the product approach to dwelling and some of the negative concerns arising from the chosen research framing are:

• Looking at dwelling as a product disembeds it from its geographic environment and leaves its inevitable locality and spatiality out of focus. The product approach cannot capture the holistic sensory experience of a particular space and place.

• My emphasis on individuality and difference in dwelling somewhat overlooks its role as a basic necessity salient in social structure that the society seeks to provide to all. The content of dwelling despite local, quantitative and qualitative variation is relatively homogeneous. In the end, the possibility of its significant diversification beyond regular architectural design may be limited.

• The product approach can be criticised as forcing of the values and logic of the capitalist production system upon our most private realm – the ultimate subjugation of the home to the seductive powers of the consumer society. The conception of dwelling as product can at worst become a superficial means to create illusory experiential value to the resident while actually divesting her of any real, transformative power. The impact of the commodification of dwelling to social segregation in living areas and cities would also require attention. 6 CONCLUSION: A DESIGN PERSPECTIVE TO DWELLING 332 333

6.5 Seeds for furtherSeeds for research of dwellings built according to housing concepts perceive the the of dwellings built according to housing concepts perceive what extent the benefits suggested by concepts concepts. To affect purchase decisions and actualise during use. purchase affect Developmental study on residential product development and and development product study on residential Developmental control. of user the perspective from process creation value User experience of specific housing concepts. How residents of specific housing concepts. How residents User experience Methodologically, the study has been an attempt an attempt the study has been Methodologically, By choosing to examine housing and dwelling as and dwelling housing examine to By choosing

• • speculate the implications of that to design a purely theoretical theoretical a purely of that to design the implications speculate deepen its findings. Some of them are listed below. deepen its findings. Some of them are of design has at places proven to be overwhelmingly broad. broad. to be overwhelmingly proven at places has of design questioning. I hope that the study nevertheless provides neverthelessquestioning. I hope that the study provides of these questions remain to be answered by further research and by furtherresearch to be answered remain of these questions endeavour without relevance to real-life housing design, or to design, housing to real-life relevance without endeavour change to housing and housing design that is relevant to the to the that is relevant change to housing and housing design as academic contribution. My designerly “theory” of dwelling dwelling of “theory” My designerly contribution. as academic further and critical deserves no doubt development as product add value in housing production and people’s everyday life? Some life? everyday people’s and production housing in value add problems. design findings to real-life application of the a product in the context of design research, have I forced it it I forced have research, of design context in the a product to understand dwelling as a systemic product in the context context the in product systemic a as dwelling understand to to transfer approaches from user-centred design research to to research design user-centred from approaches transfer to it worthwhile makes arguably of housing. That as such the field the viable ways in which strategic and conceptual design could design and conceptual in which strategic the viable ways into a framework that does it unjustice, distorts that does into a framework it, or divests to identify Is my goal essential characteristics? it of some research directions, the examination of which potentially could could potentially which of examination the directions, research preliminary markers for future research. My initial task of trying My initial task of trying research. future for markers preliminary knowledge on the impact of ongoing social and technological social and technological knowledge on the impact of ongoing alike. practitioners community and research housing studies, for that matter? What is the practical benefit ofbenefit practical the is What matter? that for studies, housing and what are dwelling as an object of design, reconceptualising parallels between dwelling and other industrial products and and products and other industrial between dwelling parallels view rather than razor-sharp dissection of the dwelling product. dissection of the dwelling product. razor-sharp than rather view Some areas have only been charted superfluously, to provide been charted to provide only superfluously, have Some areas However, the work has opened up many new questions and up many new questions and the work has opened However, The end result perhaps provides a splintered, kaleidoscopic kaleidoscopic a splintered, provides perhaps The end result The dissertation in many respects feels merely an opening. an opening. merely feels The dissertation in many respects • Detailed documentation and analysis of the development process of a real-life user-initiated housing concept with focus on the role of design(ers).

• Concepts on different levels of built form, e.g. in the urban scale.

• Deepening the evolutionary approach to dwelling by historical analysis of the evolution of dwelling designs (floor plans) or its specific components.

• Studying the reciprocal interaction of dwellings and users further. A longitudinal case study on the life cycle of a building and its dwellings as they are modified by successive users in time. Research on the visible trails of users’ strategies in the dwelling stock, using photographs from online real estate portals as data.

• Research collaboration across the levels of built environment, combining insights from multiple academic disciplines dealing with the systemic dwelling product.

• Laying grounds for a “theory of interior architecture” that looks at topics in the intersection of housing design and product design from the “inside out”.

REFERE NCES & APPE NDICES

REFERE NCES & APPE NDICES References

INTERVIEWS

User interviews, Company interview 3 (C3): n=44 (U1–U44), see Appendix 2. Monica Aro, Director, Marketing and Company interview 1 (C1): Communications, Sato Corporation. Susanna Sucksdorff, Product Development Helsinki, 26 August 2011. Manager, Skanska Homes Finland. Helsinki, Discussion with 13 June 2011. Sirkka Minkkinen, representative of Company interview 2 (C2): Aktiiviset Seniorit ry (Active Seniors Antti Pirhonen, Development Manager, NCC Association) and resident of the Loppukiri Housing Finland. Helsinki, 21 June 2011. house. Helsinki, 1 March 2013.

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The applied research projects from which the empirical data of the dissertation originate from are presented below in chronological order, with explanation of the author’s role in them and description of the material that they have provided for the dissertation. During the projects, the author was working at Future Home Institute at the University of Art and Design Helsinki (from 2010 Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture). Tekes is short for the Finnish Funding Agency for Technology and Innovation.

ERILAISTUVA ASUMINEN (EA) [DIVERSIFICATION IN HOUSING], 2006-2008

Public research project funded by the lifestyles and needs of individual users. A study Finnish Ministry of the Environment. The on the domestic user experience of persons with partners were University of Art and Design disabilities was conducted in order to challenge Helsinki (Future Home Institute), University and improve the current state of accessible of Kuopio (Department of Social Policy and design. The study introduced innovative users Social Psychology), Helsinki University of who personalise their accessible products and Technology (Centre for Urban and Regional environments. Studies and Laboratory of Urban Planning and The outcomes are published in: Juntto, Design), University of Helsinki (Department of Anneli (Ed.) 2010. Asumisen unelmat ja arki: Geography) and VTT Technical Research Centre Suomalainen asuminen muutoksessa [Housing of Finland (Building and Construction). The dreams and everyday living: Finnish housing in research was led by professor Anneli Juntto. transformation]. Helsinki, Finland: Gaudeamus. The project focused on the problematics The author has co-written one chapter of the of differentiation of housing preferences and book as well as two conference papers about diversification of the offering of housing in the results of the user study (Jacobson & Pirinen Finland. Research contributions included 2007a, 2007b). statistical analysis of population-level societal Input to the dissertation: User interviews change, foresight on the future of housing U1–U5 (5 interviews) conducted as part of a and living, reflections to urban planning, and probes study (see Appendix 3). The participants research on housing preferences and and choices. were persons with physical disabilities who were The author, together with Susanne Jacobson, living independently at home. was in charge of a subproject looking at the

ASIAKKUUDEN HALLINTA ASUMISESSA (AHAA) [MANAGING CUSTOMERHIP IN HOUSING], 2006-2008

Public research project funded by Tekes and Jacobson. The project was led by professor Jarmo 6 companies: Asokodit (right-of-occupancy Suominen. housing provider), Agenteq Solutions (IT The project aimed at developing user- solutions for customership management), G4S centred service concepts and customership (security services), Kone Elevators, Lassila & management models for (right-of-occupancy) Tikanoja (environmental management services), housing. The researchers conducted an online and YIT Building Services. University of Art survey (n=628) that provided data for lifestyle- and Design Helsinki (Future Home Institute) based segmentation of residents as well as was responsible for the execution of the project. information on their needs and attitudes The author acted as project manager, and as towards services. A qualitative user study principal researcher together with Susanne utilising the probes method was realised with 13 of the respondents in order to deepen APPENDICES 350 351 .

U22 – in the new in the new (26 interviews) (26 interviews) are persons who had persons who had are U44 U44 – – U36 (13 interviews) conducted as part conducted (13 interviews) and U36 optimisation project. as their key customers: immigrants, customers: immigrants, as their key U35 Input to the dissertation: User interviews to the dissertation:Input interviews User Input to the dissertation: User interviews Input to the dissertation: User interviews U22 – VVO VVO – the upmarket Eiranranta residential area in Helsinki. in Helsinki. area residential Eiranranta upmarket strategies for compact dwellings) originates from from compact dwellings) originates for strategies are residents of rental dwellings owned by VVO of rental residents are assistant Kirsi Turkia. The participants were Turkia. The participantsassistant Kirsi were published as company-specific reports. published as company-specific people with “untypical work” and single parents. project researchers Kirsi Turkia and Renita and Renita Kirsi Turkia researchers project by residents of right-of-occupancy dwellings in the dwellings in the of right-of-occupancy residents an in identified segments that were based user purchased a flat built by SRV purchased presented in Chapter 6.2 (differentiation in Chapter 6.2 (differentiation presented conducted as part of two probes studies by by studies conducted as part of two probes of the subprojects two separate from originate of a probes study (see Appendix 3) by research 3) by research Appendix study (see of a probes (“Ordinary”, “Active”, phase of the study earlier independently). The results have mainly been been mainly have The results independently). economic elite. The conceptual design example example economic elite. The conceptual design U23 U6 Interviewees Interviewees Niemi (see Appendix 3). The interviews Appendix 3). The interviews (see Niemi Helsinki region. They represent four lifestyle- four They represent Helsinki region. They represent three groups that were identified identified that were groups three They represent They can be described as members of the socio- 24 Living programme. Interviewees U6 Interviewees 24 Living programme. “Home-centred” and “Individualistic” residents). and “Individualistic” “Home-centred”

(rental housing housing (rental (House_n Research (House_n Research , realised by the author by the author , realised 24 LIVING (24L), LIVING 24 2008-2009 , the author as project manager and manager and , the author as project The objectives of the programme were to to were of the programme The objectives VVO was focused on two subprojects looking looking on two subprojects was focused was coordinated by Finpro and included and included was coordinated by Finpro the Netherlands. Results of the project have have Results of the project the Netherlands. the information. This led to ideating new new led to ideating This the information. use scenarios. The project also comprised comprised also project The use scenarios. situations of living, to identify relevant value value situations of living, to identify relevant urban area mixed-use scalable concepts for service concepts for housing and creating creating housing and for concepts service Jarmo Suominen. been published mainly as internal reports. mainly been published and five funded by Tekes programme to everyday and services that respond products networks, and to engage users in innovation in the programme The author’s role processes. at optimisation of small dwellings respectively benchmarking of housing concepts and service and service of housing concepts benchmarking and States, South Korea models in United Helsinki of Art University and Design provider). The programme tasks in the projects. research companies, each with their own projects: Elisa Elisa each with their own projects: companies, company), SRV (trading Kesko estate broker), with MIT collaboration of spaces, offerings mass customised develop SRV (for development company interviews and international international and company interviews Group). The research tasks were led by professor led by professor tasks were The research Group). Industry-led research-intensive development development Industry-led research-intensive (communications services provider), Igglo (real Igglo (real provider), (communications services (for (construction company) and VVO (construction company) of the was responsible Home Institute) (Future Tero Heikkinen as main researcher) and new and new Heikkinen as main researcher) Tero U24 F 58 Salesperson, pensioner Vantaa, Jokiniemi Block 1992 Right-of-Occ./ASO 3 45 1a 14 AHAA Home-centred 30.10.2007 KT

U25 M 28 Project manager Helsinki, Laakso Block 1951 Rental 2 26 1a 6 AHAA Active 25.10.2007 KT

U26 F 53 Construction draughtsman Helsinki, Pikku Huopalahti Block 1997 Right-of-Occ./ASO 3 46 1a 10 AHAA Home-centred 31.10.2007 KT

U27 F 39 Hairdresser Helsinki, Kallio Block 1961 Owner-occ. 3 55 1a 1 AHAA Home-centred 26.10.2007 KT

U28 F 59 Pensioner Kerava, Jaakkola Block 1993 Right-of-Occ./ASO 3 63 2a 4 AHAA Home-centred 25.10.2007 KT

U29 M 33 Stevedore Helsinki, Meri-Rastila Block 1993 Right-of-Occ./ASO 4 75 2a, 1c 3 AHAA Active 29.11.2007 KT

U30 M 57 Lorry driver Vantaa, Kuninkaala Terraced 1997 Right-of-Occ./ASO 4 82 2a, 1ac 11 AHAA Ordinary 16.11.2007 KT

U31 F 32 Office worker Vantaa, Pakkala Block 1999 Right-of-Occ./ASO 3 45 1a, 1c 3 AHAA Ordinary 1.11.2007 KT

U32 F 44 Office manager Helsinki, Tapaninkylä Semi-det. 2004 Right-of-Occ./ASO 5 86.5 1a, 1c 3.5 AHAA Active 28.11.2007 KT

U33 M 50 Sales director Vantaa, Kuninkaala Semi-det. 2000 Right-of-Occ./ASO 6 108 2a, 2c 5 AHAA Individualist 17.12.2007 KT

U34 F 43 Not working Vantaa, Metsola Terraced 1995 Right-of-Occ./ASO 4 78 2a 6 AHAA Active 17.10.2007 KT

U35 M 57 Machine fitter Kirkkonummi, Laajakallio Terraced 2001 Right-of-Occ./ASO 4 74 2a 6 AHAA Active 12.12.2007 KT

U36 F 53 Medical doctor Helsinki, Punavuori Block 2002 Owner-occ. 4 75 1a, 1ac 5 24L/SRV Eiranranta, P 16.10.2007 KT

U37 F 57 Interior designer, journalist Helsinki, Hernesaari Block 1974 Rental 3 55 1a (1a) 2 24L/SRV Eiranranta, P 19.10.2007 KT

U38 M 54 Entrepreneur Espoo, Olari [11] Block Unk. Owner-occ. 5 110.5 2a 10 24L/SRV Eiranranta, P 28.11.2007 RN

U39 M 49 Accountant Helsinki, Kaivopuisto Block 1995 Rental 5 117 2a, 1c 12 24L/SRV Eiranranta, P 21.11.2007 RN

U40 M 46 Architect Helsinki, Munkkisaari Block 1911 Owner-occ. 5 127 2a, 1c 7 24L/SRV Eiranranta, P 15.11.2007 RN

U41 F 61 Employed in family business Helsinki, Eiranranta [12] Block 2008 Owner-occ. 5 230 2a 0 24L/SRV Eiranranta, P 2.10.2007 RN

U42 F 44 Director Helsinki, Eira Block 1914 Owner-occ. 5 165 1a, 1c, 1ac 2 24L/SRV Eiranranta, S 23.10.2007 KT

U43 F 56 M.Sc. (Econ.) Lappeenranta Detached 1997 Owner-occ. 9 400 2a 10 24L/SRV Eiranranta, S 6.11.2007 RN

U44 M 44 Medical doctor Helsinki, Punavuori Block 2000 Owner-occ. 2 38 2a 0.5 24L/ SRV Eiranranta, P 8.11.2007 KT

[1] Building type: block of flats, terraced house, [6] Number of persons in the household, a adult, c child, ac [10] Date of the interview and initials of the interviewers semi-detached, or detached house. adult child. Brackets indicate part-time residency. (AP: Antti Pirinen, SJ: Susanne Jacobson, KT: [2] Year of completion of the dwelling. [7] Duration of residence in the current dwelling in years, m months. Kirsi Turkia, RN: Renita Niemi). [3] Tenure status: owner-occupied, rental, right-of-occupancy, or [8] The project in which the interview was [11] (U38) Last primary residence. The person part-ownership. VVO: owned by VVO rental housing corporation, conducted, see Appendix 1. was staying in his summer house. ASO: owned by Asokodit right-of-occupancy housing provider. [9] Target group or segment that the person represents. [12] (U41) Concerns the flat in Eiranranta. The person [4] Number of rooms in the dwelling including kitchen, Epithets in italics refer to lifestyle segments identified in was living in a temporary residence nearby. excluding bathroom and other service spaces. the AHAA project. Persons marked with P intended to use [5] Living area in square metres. the Eiranranta flat as primary residence, S as secondary. 352 353 APPENDIX 2. List of participants to the user study

ID SEX AGE OCCUPATION TOWN AND AREA HOUSE YEAR TENURE ROOMS M2 HOUSEH. STAY PROJECT SEGMENT INTERVIEW [1] [2] STATUS [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

U1 F 46 Advisor Helsinki, Koskela Block 1972 Owner-occ. 3 64 1a 7 EA Disabled 17.8.2006 AP, SJ

U2 F 44 IT consultant Vantaa, Simonsilta Terraced 1999 Owner-occ. 4 83 1a 7 EA Disabled 22.8.2006 AP, SJ

U3 F 29 Export assistant Espoo, Perkkaa Block 1975 Owner-occ. 4 62.5 2a 4.5 EA Disabled 29.8.2006 AP, SJ

U4 M 35 Systems manager Helsinki, Kumpula Block 2005 Owner-occ. 4 71 2a 0.5 EA Disabled 11.9.2006 AP, SJ

U5 F 46 Researcher Espoo, Mankkaa Terraced 1984 Rental 4 83 2a, 3c 8 EA Disabled 26.9.2006 AP, SJ

U6 F 46 Sewer, unempl. Porvoo, Gammelbacka Block 1971 Rental/VVO 3 60 1a, 1c 2 24L/VVO Immigrant 12.9.2007 KT

U7 F 53 Process worker Espoo, Suvela Block 1975 Rental/VVO 4 76 2a, 2ac, 1c 8 24L/VVO Immigrant 24.9.2007 KT

U8 M 34 Cook, bartender Vantaa, Malminiitty Block 1970 Rental/VVO 4 70 2a, 1c 1 24L/VVO Immigrant 6.9.2007 KT

U9 M 26 Interior architect Helsinki, Kannelmäki Block 1978 Rental/VVO 3 60 2a, 1c 2 m 24L/VVO Immigrant 17.9.2007 KT

U10 M 40 Stock worker Järvenpää, Jamppa Block 1977 Rental/VVO 3 62 1a (2c) 1 24L/VVO Immigrant 11.9.2007 KT

U11 M 28 Stock worker Espoo, Suvela Block 1977 Rental/VVO 3 61 3a, 1c 0.5 24L/VVO Immigrant 1.8.2007 KT

U12 F 31 Self-employed Turku, Majakkaranta Block 1996 Rental/VVO 3 53 1a, 1c 1.5 24L/VVO Untypical job 16.8.2007 KT

U13 F 28 Youth leader Helsinki, Malmi Block 1987 Rental/VVO 3 54 1a 2.5 24L/VVO Untypical job 20.8.2007 KT

U14 F 27 Stock worker Vantaa, Tikkurila Block 1975 Rental/VVO 4 74 2a, 1c 2 24L/VVO Untypical job 9.8.2007 KT

U15 F 55 Nurse, self-employed Jyväskylä, Ainolanranta Block 1998 Part-own./VVO 4 64.5 2a 4 24L/VVO Untypical job 7.9.2007 KT

U16 F 24 MA student Helsinki, Pihlajamäki Block 1963 Rental/VVO 4 70 2a 1.5 24L/VVO Untypical job 5.10.2007 KT

U17 M 41 Electrician, foreman Espoo, Suvela Block 1975 Rental/VVO 5 79 1a, 3c 2.5 24L/VVO Single parent 12.6.2007 KT

U18 M 39 Purchaser Järvenpää, Pajala Block 1975 Rental/VVO 4 76 1a, 3c 3 24L/VVO Single parent 23.5.2007 KT

U19 F 28 Self-employed Järvenpää, Jamppa Block 1977 Rental/VVO 4 74.5 1a, 1c 2 24L/VVO Single parent 30.5.2007 KT

U20 F 37 Radiographer Espoo, Suvela Block 1976 Rental/VVO 4 74 1a, 1c 1.5 24L/VVO Single parent 21.5.2007 KT

U21 F 41 Ward domestic Kirkkonummi, Gesterby Block 1969 Rental/VVO 3 55 1a, 1c 1.5 24L/VVO Single parent 22.5.2007 KT

U22 F 26 Waitress Vantaa, Jokiniemi Block 1979 Rental/VVO 4 77 1a, 2c 2 m 24L/VVO Single parent 10.8.2007 KT

U23 F 46 Interpreter, translator Helsinki, Etu-Töölö Block 1926 Rental 3 56 2a 3.5 AHAA Individualist 19.11.2007 KT APPENDIX 3. Contents of the user study

The probes study was planned by the author and Susanne Jacobson in 2006 and applied during 2006–2007 in three consecutive research projects with minor modifications (see Appendix 1). Five separate user studies were realised. The description below is a condensed translation from the original probes study material in Finnish. Instructions to respondents and other parts of minor significance to the dissertation have been omitted.

PART 1 BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE

Name, contact information, age, occupation, and employment status.

CURRENT DWELLING Number of persons living in the household (one adult, two adults, one adult and n children, two adults and n children), house type (block of flats, small block of flats, semi-detached house, detached house, other), living area of the dwelling in square metres, amount of rooms excluding kitchen (one, two, three, four or more), and duration of residence in the current dwelling in years.

SPECIAL NEEDS Open questions that were altered according to the target group and specific research questions in each study.

EA project, persons with disabilities 24L project (VVO), (interviews U1–U5): people having an “untypical” job Please describe shortly the nature of your (interviews U12–U16): physical disability and how it affects What kind of challenges does job your dwelling and everyday living. Have precarity create to you concerning any modifications been done to your dwelling and everyday living? What kind dwelling because of your special needs of solutions have you found to these (such as removal of doorsteps or lowering challenges? of kitchen worktops)? (if yes, what modifications?) Do you use an assistive 24L project (VVO), single parents device (such as a wheelchair or rollator)? (interviews U17–U22): (If yes, which device?) What kind of challenges does single parenthood create to you and your family AHAA project, residents of right-of-occupancy concerning dwelling and everyday living? dwellings (interviews U23–U35): What kind of solutions have you found to What are the good sides in your current these challenges? dwelling? What would you like to change in your current dwelling? What kind of 24L project (SRV), services would you and your family use if future residents of Eiranranta they would be available at a moderate (interviews U36–U44): price? No open questions were included in the questionnaire. In the interviews, the 24L project (VVO), immigrants persons were asked: How do you see that (interviews U6–U11): living in the 2000s is developing? What is What in your opinion are the good luxury to you? What is the recipe of good and bad sides in Finnish housing and living? dwelling? What kind of ideas do you have for the development of better dwelling?

HOUSING CAREER Where, in what kind of dwellings and with whom have you lived during your adult life? Please describe your housing career until this day from the point onwards when you moved out on your own. You may describe freely in your own words. APPENDICES 354 355 A memory related to my home. home. to my A memory related living. My dream of the week. Highlight up with... I am fed Feeling well. (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Boring! (10) (13) Lot of work... (14) My hobby. (15) First thing in the morning. (16) End of the day. of myself. care (17) This is how I take (18) Most comfortable place at home. device. (19) A good assistive (20) A bad solution in my dwelling. of security. a feeling (21) This creates helps... (22) Technology to use. (23) A service that I like (24) On the move.

PART 4 PART PART 3 PART ASSIGNMENT CLOCK ASSIGNMENT CAMERA PART 2 PART CARD ASSIGNMENT CARD Why did I move into this dwelling? into this dwelling? Why did I move my Does my dwelling meet requirements? home to my How would I present visitors? environment What should my living know about me? Take photographs of youraswell living everyday as the goodTake aspects ofand your downsides living and photograph the thatenvironment. topicsthings come freely Please interpret your to mind and that you yourself important. consider mine. my home looks like (1) This makes at any price. away (2) This I wouldn’t give to get rid of. (3) This I would like (4) This is awkward. (5) This goes well. (6) Something that I need help with (7) Our house. (8) An important person. (9) Together. (10) Private. (11) Best in the area. (12) Worst in the area. The participants were provided a schematic image of a round clock dial covering 24 hours, and stickers 24 hours, and stickers dial covering clock a schematic image of a round provided The participants were (1) (2) (3) (4) The participants were given a disposable camera and a list of 24 topics: and a list of 24 topics: camera a disposable given The participants were Describe the course of one typical day in your life using the clock dial. Place situations and events of one day of one day using the clock dial. Place situations and events life Describe the course of one typical day in your to the related and feelings experiences and negative positive along a timeline in the dial. Describe also the situations. You may use the attached stickers. etc.). thoughtfulness, moods (happiness, anger, tiredness, different of cartoon faces expressing with pictures The participants were asked to answer qualitative questions about their living by writing on postcard-like on postcard-like their living by writing questions about to answer qualitative asked The participants were side: empty space in the other inscriptions and 10 cards with following given were cards. They Previous dwellings were listed in chronological order in a table comprising four columns: years of residency, of residency, years columns: four table comprising order in a chronological listed in were dwellings Previous of the indication type, and and house (in rooms) of the dwelling size and neighbourhood, of locality name shared. was the dwelling with whom person(s)

Aalto-DD 12/2014

BUSINESS + ECONOMY ART + DESIGN + ARCHITECTURE SCIENCE + TECHNOLOGY CROSSOVER DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS

SYSTEMIC PRODUCT PRODUCT SYSTEMIC USERS. AND 978-952-60-5545-9 (pdf) 978-952-60-5545-9 (pdf) 1799-4934 1799-4942 (pdf) 978-952-60-5544-2 978-952-60-5544-2 ISBN ISBN ISSN-L ISSN 1799-4934 ISSN University Aalto Architecture Arts, and of Design School Department Design of books.aalto.fi www.aalto.fi PRODUCT EXTENDS BEYOND HOUSING HOUSING BEYOND EXTENDS PRODUCT HOUSING. DWELLING. FROM THE PERSPECTIVES OF HOUSING HOUSING OF PERSPECTIVES THE FROM DESIGN. AND USERS PRODUCTION, RESEARCH DESIGN BRIDGING WORK THE STUDIES, HOUSING WITH URBAN THE BETWEEN PARALLELS DRAWS INDUSTRIAL OTHER AND DWELLING ROLE THE CONTEMPLATES AND PRODUCTS DESIGN STRATEGIC AND CONCEPTUAL OF DIVERSIFICATION QUALITATIVE THE IN OF THE STUDY COMPRISES TWO TWO COMPRISES STUDY THE FINLAND. FROM CASES EMPIRICAL THE EXPLORES CASE FIRST THE AS DWELLING OF COMMODIFICATION HOUSING DUPLICABLE BY EVIDENCED LOOKS CASE SECOND THE CONCEPTS. EXPERIENCE USER EVERYDAY THE AT OF DWELLING THAT SHOWS STUDY THE A AS BUNDLE A CONSTITUTING ARCHITECTURE, ACROSS ELEMENTS DESIGNABLE OF INCLUDING ENVIRONMENT, BUILT THE COMMUNITY THE SERVICES, TECHNOLOGY, SERVE ELEMENTS THE OWNERSHIP. AND OF STRATEGIES VALUE-SEEKING THE PRODUCERS THIS DISSERTATION INVESTIGATES INVESTIGATES DISSERTATION THIS A AS DWELLING 9HSTFMG*affeec+ THE BOOK PROVIDES NOVEL NOVEL PROVIDES BOOK THE INSIGHTS PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL AND PROFESSIONALS HOUSING FOR ALIKE. RESEARCHERS