-1AITI BY USAID COI\'TRACT 2ountry Environmental Marko Ehrlich USAID - Ehrlich No. ?rofi!e Fred Conway 521-01224-00-4090-00 Nicsias Adrien 4 Field Study Francis LeBeau Cooperative Agreement Lawrence Lewis USAID - IIED NO. Herman Lauwerysen DAN-5517-A-00-2066-00 Ira Lowenthal Yaro Mayda Paul Paryski Glenn Smucker James Talbot Evelyn Wilcox Preface

This Country Environmental Prolile (CEP) of Paul Paryski Wildlands and Wildlife, is one of a series of environmental profiles funded by ISPAN, Port-au-Prince the U.S. Agency for International Development Evelyn Wilcox Marine and Ccastal (USAID), Bureau for Latin America and the Carib- Rewurces, Washington, D.C. bean (LAC), Office of Development Resources (DR), and the USAID Mission to Haiti. The scope of work for this in-country field study was developed jointly ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS by James Talbot, USAID Regional Environmental This CEP was made possible by the contributions Management Specialist (REMSICAR) and Robert of numerous people in addition to ihe core field team. Wilson, Assistant Agricultural Development Officer, Throughout the editing process many individuals re- USAID Mission to Haiti. viewed and contributed significant components to im- prove this study. James Talbot (Geology, Marinel Marko Ehrlich was contracted as the team leader Coastal), Glenn Smucker (Chapter VII), and Ira Lo- and specialists were contracted through the Internatio- wenthal (Chapter VII) deserve special acknowledge- nal Institute for Environment and Development ment because their input was essential in strengthe- (IIED) to prepare sector reports during January 1985. ning specific sections of this report. Within the USAID Marko Ehrlich prepared the first draft of this synthesis Mission to Haiti, Ira Lowenthal, Richard Byess, Abdul and analysis of status of environment and natural re- Wahab and Barry Burnett provided constructive cri- sources in Haiti. James Talbot and Evelyn Wilcox pre- tisme to the Executive Summary. pared the final draft. Special thanks is extended to the numerious Haitian CEP TEAM government officials who have contributed informa- tion and valual-;e data and materials for the prepara- Marko Ehrlich Team Leader, Natural tion of this report, especially M.R. Pierre-Louis, M. Resources, B.P. 557, E. Magny ,M. Severin, M.G. Lafontant of the Ministry Port-au-Prince of Agriculture. M.G. Georges of the Ministry of Mi- Frederick Conway Coordinator for IIED, nes1Energy Resources, M. Pamphile of the Ministry Washington, D.C. of Health, and M. St. Albin and Mme. Pompilus of Nicolas Adrien Engineer, the Ministry of Plan. Representatives of the many in- Maplewood, New Jersey t~tnationalorganisations such as FAO, UNICEF, Francis LeBeau Agriculture, PAHO, UNESCO, BID, FAC and PADF also contri- Crystal springs, Mississippi buted information and data and their contributions Lawrence Lewis Geology and Hydrology, are hereby acknowledged. Clark University, Worcester Massachusetts Finally, this study could not have been made possi- Herman Lauwerysen Socio-cultural Resources, ble without the effort of a cadre of typists during the Bruxelles, Belgium various drafts, including Carole Metayer, Michelle Yaro Mayda Institutions and Legislation, ClCophat, and Sophia St. RCmy. Franz Kalil and Larry University of , Fahey prepared the maps and figures contained in the San Juan, Puerto Rico report. This Profile Is Dedicated To The Haitian People

Nou nan yon ti bouk pa trb lwen Pbtoprens. Bouk TRANSLATION FROM THE CREOLE: sa-a rele Fonrouj. Li gen yon probltm ki gro anpil: We are in a smal! iown not too far from Port-au-Prin- pa gen dlo. Pa gen dlo menm menm. Plant ap mouri, ce. This town is caller! 8ond-Rouge. It has a very big bbt ap mouri. Yon jou se moun ki ka mouri tou. Depi problem: The:c7s no water, none at all. Plants and lontan lontan lapli pa tonbe. Tout bagay stk, tout are dying: some day, people will die too. It bagay tris. hasn't rained for a long time. Everything is dry, eve- Pet& se paske yo te koupe tout piebwa yo, men sa rything is sad. ou vle? Yo te bezwen bwa-a pou ft chabon, pou ft Maybe it's because they cut all the trees; but what kay, lantiray, mbb. Epi yo te bezwen tt-a tou pou do you want? They needed the wood to make charcoal, plante mayi, pou plante pwa, pou yo jwenn manje. Si to build homes and fences, to make furniture. And yo pa travay t&-a,yo pap manje. then, they needed the land to plant corn and beans, "M2t Larouzk", Jacques Roumain (1907 - 1944) so they can have food. If they don't work the land, they won't eat. "Mastersof the Dew", Jacques Roumain (1907- 1944). K TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ...... 111 Table sf Contents ...... V List of figures ...... VIII List of tables ...... IX List of acronyms and abbreviations ...... XI I . EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 1 I1 . INTRODUCTION ...... 13 1 A . Geology and Physiography ...... 13 B . Climate ...... 16 C . Economy 1 Economic Development ...... 17 I11 . LAND. WATER. AND FOREST RESOURCES A . Introduction ...... 19 B . The land resource ...... 19 C . The water resource ...... 20 Surface water ...... 20 Ground water ...... 21 Availability of water for agriculture ...... 22 Irrigation ...... 23 Watersheds ...... 24 Watershed management ...... 26 D . The forest resource ...... 27 Lifezones ...... 28 Trends ...... 28 Prospects ...... 30 E . Conclusions and recommendations ...... 31 1. Initiate land conservation strategies ...... 31 2 . Focus on Cayes Basin region ...... 32 3 . Incorporate local participation in land-use projects ...... 32 IV . AGRICULTURE A . Introduction ...... 35 B . Agricultural uses of the land ...... 35 C . Climate ...... 39 D . The structure of the agricultural sector ...... 41 . E . Agricultural perspective on land tenure ...... 44 F. Production ...... 45 Technology and productivity ...... 49 Research ...... 51 Use of agriculture inputs ...... 53 G . Conclusions and recommendations ...... 55 V .COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES A . Introduction ...... 57 B . Coastal resources ...... 57 Seagrass beds ...... 57 Coral reefs ...... 57 I Mangroves ...... 60 Coastal waters ...... 60 C . Summary description of coastal areas ...... 61 Fort-Libertt to M61e Saint-Nicolas ...... 61 M61e Saint-Nicolas to Gonai'ves ...... 61 Gonaives to Baie de Saint-Marc ...... 62 Baie de Saint-Marc to Ile A Cabri ...... 62 Ile A Cabri to Leogane ...... 62 Leogane to Jdrtmie ...... 62 Baradares to Les Cayemites ...... 63 JCrkmie to Cap Tiburon ...... 63 Cap Tiburon to Port-Salut ...... 63 Port-Salut to Baie d'Aquin ...... 63 Baie d'Aquin to Anse-A-Pitre ...... 63 La Gonave ...... 63 D . Uses of coastal areas ...... 64 Marine and coastal fisheries ...... 64 I Demersal species ...... 64 Shellfish species ...... 64 Pelagic species ...... 65 Ornamental reef fish ...... 65 Characteristics of fishing industry ...... 65 Mariculture ...... -68 Conch cultivation ...... 68 Shrimp farming ...... 69 Brine shrimp harvesting ...... 69 Oyster culture ...... 69 Seaweed culture ...... 69 King crab cultr~re...... 69 Fresh water fisheries ...... 69 Aquaculture ...... 70 Exotic species introduction ...... 71 Seaports and coastal trade ...... 71 E . Endangered species and critical habitat ...... 72 F. Conclusions and recommendations ...... 73 'I . WILDLANDS CONSERVATION e- A . Introduction ...... -77 B . Flora of Haiti ...... 78 C . Fauna of Haiti ...... ;. $79 ...... 79 Mammals ...... 81 Reptiles ...... 81 D . Threats to wildlife ...... -82 E . Wildlife trade ...... 84 F . National parks ...... 84 La Visite National Park ...... 84 Pic Macaya National Park ...... 85 National historic park La Citadelle ...... 85 G . GOH protection of wildlife ...... 85 H . Conclusions and recommendations ...... 86 VII . THE PEASANTRY AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT A . Introduction ...... 89 B . From slave to peasant ...... 89 C . Characteristics of the peasant farming system ...... 90 Heterogeneity of the peasantry ...... 90 Complex land tenure pattern ...... 91 Giversity of farming strategies ...... 91 Peasant access to land. labor and capital ...... 91 1 MarketICash Orientation ...... 92 I Increasing importance of annual crops ...... 93 Avoidance of risk ...... 93 Charcoal production and fuelwood consumption ...... 93 7 Peasants. trees and agroforestry ...... 83 D . Relevant literature ...... 96 VIII . WATER RESOURCES/SANITATION/ANDENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH A . Introduction ...... 97 B . Urban and Rural population trends ...... 98 C . Water resources ...... 100 Water supply ...... 100 Water quality ...... 100 Existing water supply system ...... 101 Water supply trends and prospects ...... 103 D . Sanitation ...... 105 Human waste and the division of public hygiene ...... 105 E . Solid waste disposal ...... 106 F . Stormwater drainage ...... 107 G . Pollution ...... 108 H . Conclusion and recommendation ...... 109

IX . REFERENCES ...... 110

X . APPENDICES A . Crop suitability zoning ...... 115 B . Environmental legislation for Haiti ...... 117 C . Partial list of maps. aerial photographs. and Landsat imagery for Haiti ...... 120

VII LIST OF FIGURES

1-1 Geopolitical map ...... 2 11-1 General physiographic regions...... 14 11-2 Generalized geologic map from OAS. 1972...... 15 111-1 General rainfall pattern based on four selected localities...... 22 111-2 Water availability as a function of vegetative cover and river discharge ...... 24 111-3 Aerial photograph taken in 1978 showing terrigenous sediment input to the marine environment from Riviere Roseau near J6rCmie ...... 25 111-4 River flow regimc in relation to hfiltration and through-flow ...... 26 111-5 Remaining forest of Haiti: pine and broadleaf formations aggregated ...... 29 111-6 Deforestation trends in major watersheds ...... 30 111-7 Buildingcontourdry-walls tocontrol erosion and retain moisture on hillsides ...... 33 Map of agriculturally <

VI-1 Line drawing of Solenodon paradoxus (nez long). an endangered mammal in Haiti ...... 78 VI-2 Line drawing of Plagiodontia aedium (zagouti). an endangered mammal in Haiti ...... 82 VI-3 A rare photograph of the black-capped petrel. an endangered in Haiti that nests on cliff faces in the two national parks ...... 81

VII-1 Peasants going to town ...... 92 VII-2 Peasants gathering firewood in the northwest ...... 94 VII-3 Peasant families areself-reliant units ...... 95 VIII-1 Population trends ...... gg VIII-2Water supply plan ...... 99 V11I-3 Refuse disposal and sanitation are problematic in poor urban neighborhoods...... 101

VIII LIST OF TABLES

Principal catchment areas of Haiti ...... 20 Hydroelectric potential of Haiti ...... 21 Groundwater potentials for 22 selected areas ...... 22 Monthly moisture availability index for selected stations...... 23 Irrigation needs based on MA1 index ...... 23 River discharges...... 27 Forest cover by major watersheds ...... 28 Estimated number-year dense and open forest is totally removed for each river basin ...... 31 IV-1 Distribution of land by use potential ...... 36 IV-2 Agricultural land use in Haiti ...... 37 IV-3 Distribution of good agricultural lands ...... 37 IV-4 Criteria used to determine good agricultural lands ...... 39 IV-5 Occupation of land by use categories...... 40 IV-6 Occupatiorr of land in relation to topography ...... 41 IV-7 Number of plots per farm and size of plots ...... 42 IV-8 Summary statistics on agriculturd holdings . 1971 ...... 43 IV-9 Haiti: Total area. cultivated area and population density. 1982 ...... 43 IV-10 Land tenure in 1950...... 4 IV-I1 Landtenurein1970 ...... 4 IV-12 Production. area and yields of principal crops by regions in 1979...... 48 IV-13 The value of production of certain agricultural commodities for 1979...... 49 IV-14 Distribution of Agricultural tools by farm size ...... 50 IV-15 Constraints to agricultural development in Haiti: a tentative ranking ...... 51 IV-16 Actual crop yields with traditional practices and expected crop yields with irrigation ...... 51 and appropriate technology (Dubreuil) ...... 52 IV-17 Adoption of improved technology by farmers...... 53

List of major mangrove swamps in Haiti ...... 59 Extracts of the November 27. 1978 fishing law of Haiti ...... 60 Estimate of total fish consumption in Haiti ...... 64 Estimate of fisheries productivity...... 64 Haiti's trade in marine fisheries ...... 64 Export in kilograms. in % of shell fish ...... 65 Haiti Fisheries exports to the United States ...... 66 Anse d'Hainault: Results of fishing by 7 boats ...... 67 Fish prices in June 1983...... 68 Native fish fauna of Etang Saumitre...... 70 V-11 Distribution of fish; constructionofponds; stocking of ponds; lakes and rivers ...... 70 V-12 Exotic fish ...... 71

VI-1 List of plant species in danger of disappearance and in need of protection ...... 79 VI-2 Endemic land birds found in Haiti ...... 80 VI-3 List of animals in danger of disappearance and in need of protection ...... 83 VIII-1 Population estimates and projections...... 98 VIII-2 Some reported cases of water-related diseases in 1980...... 100 VIII-3 Summary of existing and proposed water supply systems...... 102 List of Acronyms and ~breviations*

AOP Agroforestry Outreach Project (USAID). ASSA Agricultural Services, S. A. BCA Bureau de CrCdit Agricole BID Banque InteramCricainc de DCvelopperncnt CAMEP Centrale Autonome Mdtropolitainc d'Eau Potable. CARE Cooperative for American Rclicf Everywhere. CEP Country Environmental Profile (Haiti). CEPAL Comision Economica para America Latina. cm Centimeters cmlhr Centimeters per hour. CIDA Canadian Agency for Inernational Development CONADE Conseil National de I'Eau. CONADEP Conseil National de DCveloppement et de Planification. CONAELE Conseil National de I'Environnement et de la Lutte contre I'Erosion. CRDA Center for Research and Agricultural Documentation CIMMYT Ccntro International de Mejoramiento de Maizc y de Trigo. DATPE Direction d'AmCnagement du Territoire ct Protection de I'Environnement (Ministry of Plan). DEP DCpartement dlEducation Publique (Ministry of Education) DHP Direction de I'Hygihe Publiquc. DRI Dkveloppement Rural Intbgrd DRN Direction des Ressources Naturelles (MARNDR) DSPP DCpartement de la Santk Publique et de la Population EDH ElectricitC d'Haiti EI A Environmental Impact Assessment ENAOL Entreprise Nationale des Oldagineux. ' FAC Fonds d' Aide et de CoopCration (France) FAMV FacultC d'Agronomie et de MCdecine VktCrinaire. FA0 Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. FSR Farming Systems Research FY Fiscal Year PIB Produit IntCrieur Brut GDP Gross Domestic Product GJW G.J. White (Engineering Firm) GOH Government of Haiti ha Hectares (2.47 acres) HACHO Haitian American Community Help Organization HAMPCO Haitian American Meat and Produce Company. HASCO Haitian American Sugar Company HAVITAS Swiss International Cooperation Agency IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Bank IDB Interamerican Development Bank IICA lnstituto Interamericano de Cooperation para la Agrioultura IHS Institut Haitien destatistiques Btd'Informatique. IMF International Monetary Fund. INAHCA Institut National Haitien de la Culture et des Arts. INAREM Institut National des Ressources Energdtiques et des Mines ISPAN Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National. IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Nautural Resources KFW Agency for International Cooperation (Federal Republic of Germany) km Kilometers km2 Square kilometers

XI

2.

;:.9,1 LC$., 8 - I LGL Lalonde, Ciirouard, Letendre & Associates (Montr6al) 119ec Liters per second MARNDR Ministere de I'Agriculture, des Ressources Naturelles, et du Ddveloppement Rural. mas1 Meters above sea level mc Cubic mete: ; mctsec Cubic meters per second mm Millimeters mlmin Meters per minute MEN Ministbre de I'Education Nationale. MMRE Ministbre des Mines et des Ressources EnergCtiques MSL Marine Systems Laboratory (Smithsonian) MSPP Ministbre de la SantC Publique et de la Population (formerly DSPP) MT Metric ton NCO Non-Governmental Organization NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service (U.S.A.) NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (U.S.A.) NRC National Research Council (U.S.A.) 0AS Organization of American States ODBFA Organisme de DCveloppement du Bassin versant du Fleuve de I'Artibonite ODH OpCration Double Harvest ODNO Organisme de DCveloppement de la Plaine de Gonaives ODNO Organisme de DCveloppement du Nord-Ouest. ODVA Organisme de DCveloppement de la Vallte de I'Artibonite ONL Office National du Logement OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries PADF Pan American Development Foundation PAHO Pan American Health Organization PAP Port-au-Prime PDAI Projet de DCveloppement Agricole IntCgrC (USAID) PEN Section de Protection de I'Environnement (part of DRN) PLAN Ministere du Plan POCHEP Postes Communitaires d'Hygii?ne et d'Eau Potable PROTOS Project Technische Ontribtilelings Somerverling Development (Belgium) PVO Private Voluntary Organization SEP Service de Protection de I'Environnement (MARNDR) SERA Service d'Etude et de Recherche Agronomique (MARNDR) SHADA SocidtC Haitiano-AmCricaine de DBveloppement Agricole SMCRS Service MCtropditain de Collecte des RCsidus Solides SNEM Service National des EndCmies Majeures SNEP Service National d'Eau Potable SPV Service de Protection VCgCtale (MARNDR) TPTC Ministthe des Travaux Publics, Transport, et Communications UEH UniversitC d'Etat d'Haiti UMO University of Maine-Orono UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children's Educational Fund US AID United States Agency for International Development USDA United States Department of Agricultu;-e USOM United States Overseas Mission (former U.S. Development Assistance Organization VPI Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University WFP World Food Program WHO World Health Organization WWF World Wildlife Fund YH Year * Since the change in government in kbruary 1986. scvcral rcorganizi~tionsof GOH agencies have tiikcn placc. It is not possiblc to mcntion all of thcsc chilngcs bcc;luss milny arc in progrcss at tlic moment. Oncc the provisional govcrnrnent is rcplaccd by an clcctcd onc, iI more comprcheosive listing of GOH reorganization can be accornplishcd.

XI1 Executive Summary

INTRODUCTION Republic (DR). Its closest neighbors are and Jamaica, the Uilited States and the DR. (Figure 1-1). Few countries in the world face a more serious threat Haiti's position in the tropics and its mountainous to their own survival from environmental catastrophe terrain have created extreme weather conditions and than Haiti. Ovcrpopulatcd, its resources are overex- temperature regimes which vary greatly with altitude. ploited and trends towards further environmental de- Rainfall patterns range from less than 300 mm in the terioration are apparcnt everywhere. The chance for northwest to more than 3,000 mm in the mountains reversing these trends, thereby preventing human suf- of the southwest. Tropical storms, hurricanes, fering, destabilization of the country, and the further droughts and floods are not infrequent. loss of development potential is diminishing daily. Much needs to be done, and quickly. One of the larger of the nations, Haiti has 27,000 km2 of land area including four large offs- The field study for the country environmental profile hore islands: La Gonave (680 km2), La Tortue (180 of Haiti (HCEP), financed by USAIDIHaiti was car- km2); Ile ti Vache (52 km2) and Grand Cayemite (45 ried out during the first three weeks of 1985 by a team km2): as well as numerous smaller islands and cays. of six specialists. The purpose of the Haiti Profile is to present in one document information, data and ana- Haiti is a mountainous country with very few plains. lyses on the country's natural resource base, and Two ranges, the Massif de la Hotte and the Massif de highlight environmental problems and trends. Inclu- la Selle, including Pic la Selle, the country's highest ded in the report are syntheses of the relative state of peak at 2,684 meters above sea level, run in a west to the country's natural resource base., the institutional east direction along the southern part of Haiti. The a:ld legal aspects of environmental issues, and the so- Massif Central gives rise to the Central Plateau with cio-cultural background of the country as it affects the smaller mountains ("mornes") extending towards the present state of its physical environment. Not all as- north, south of Cap Haitien and west, along the nor- pects relating to the state of the environment, such as thwestern peninsula. Approximately 63% of all lands public health, demography and energy were covered have slopes greater than 20%, and only 29% have in detail due to time restrictions. A comprehensive slopes of less than 10%. institutional and legal sector analysis was also not pos- sible. These may be covered in future additions to this GEOLOGY document. It has been suggested that the island of GEOGRAPHY, CLIMATE was created by the uplifting of three major land masses and their subsequent collision over geologic time. The country of Haiti is located in the mountainous These land masses were formed from oceanic crust, western third of the island of Hispaniola, bordered on uplifted and influenced by sea level changes. Most the north by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south marine terraces were exposed during the Pleistocene by the and to the east by the Dominican era. There have been no major sea level changes in

the last 10,IM)O years. In Haiti cxposcd rock formations Both groundwater and usable surface water depend arc of igneous, metamorphic end scdirnentary origin. upon the capacity of watershed areas to store water The latter formations are the n *)stabundant (80%) ana then to gradually release it into the river system and are represented by limestone deposits from the and recharge the water table. The significant develop- middle and upper Eoccnc era, Where limestone for- ment potential of irrigated plains in Haiti calls for mations occur, soils are relatively more fertilc than immediate action to be taken in an effort to protect those derived from rock of igneous origin which, like and to restore the vegetative cover, and, thus, the the soils found in the northcrn part of the country, watcr retention capacity of the country's major water- are heavily weathercd. Alluvial soils deposited by ri- shed areas. vers arc thc most fertile and are found on thc major a coastal plains of Haiti and in pockets along mountain LAND USE valleys. In Haiti, not only is the most arable land already The geologic history of Hispaniola, characterized being utilized, but the total area under some form of by rcpeated changes in sea level, has given rise to agricultural production (more than 1,300,000 ha) is six significant local. cndemism (speciation unique to the times greater then the estimated area of ccgood agricul- area) of plant and species. Although species tural landu. extinctions from habitat destruction have been nume- About one third of all lands are either extremely rous, a great number of endemic plants and a few eroded, abandoned for farming, or saline and practi- endemic animals still remain. "cally sterile, due to inappropriate land use practices including farming, grazing and tree cutting. The coun- HYDROLOGY try's marginal lands are mostly found on mountain slopes. Every year cultivation of annual food crops Dissected by numerous mountain ridges and flowing forces other crops and grazing lands higher up the across two relatively narrow peninsulas, Haiti's rivers mountain and every year the steepness of the cultiva- are mostly short and swift flowing. The notable excep- ted plots increases. The end result of indiscriminate tion is the Artibonite River which originates along the tree cutting and intensification of cultivation is tremen- border with the and flows for dous soil erosion. Each year the equivalent of 6,000 approximately 290 km. It is not surprising, thcrefore, ha of valuable arable land are lost to erosion. Over to find along this river the country's major hydroeiec- the past forty years, estimates of remaining "good" tric power generating facility (Peligre) and, on its del- arable land in Haiti show a consistent decline of as ta, the country's major rice producing area. much as 3% per year. Surface water is used for domestic purposes by the Only 11.3% of the total land area of the country great majority of the people in Haiti. It also flows consists of good soils with possibilities for irrigation, directly into a great number of small and large irriga- mechanized cultivation and high yield potential. Much tion systems. In fact, four large irrigated plains cons- of the 31.7% of the land having good soil, but no titute the country's most important agricultural areas: potential irrigation is found on steep slopes subject to the Plaine du Nord, Fort-LibertC area, in the North, severe erosion. These lands are best suited for perma- the lower Artibonite and Estere valleys in the center, nent tree crops such as coffee and managed pasture- the Cul de Sac plain in the south and the Les Cayes land. The extensive reduction of forest cover and wi- plain in the southwest. despread cultivation of lands unsuited for annual crop production, without even minimal attention to soil Yet, the evidence is mounting that the quantity of conservation practices, has led to the catastrophic state surface waters available for irrigation is decreasing of erosion throughout the country and to the subse- each year due to the relationship between vegetation quent serious damage to the agricultural potential of cover and river discharge. Baseflows, which represent the lowlands, both in terms of irrigation and infrastruc- the water available for irrigation when storage is limi- ture. tcd, are diminishing significantly due to continuous deforestration and loss of V..ater retention capacity in It is evident that a high percentage of all cultivated the rivers' upper watershe s. lands are being farmed beyond their carrying capacity, resulting in an escalating and potentially irreversible 5% sccond most irr,,ortant source of water is land degradation process. If the strategy of maintai- groun, water which alrc Jy contributcs significantly to ning existing land resources, let alone improving them, the irrig,.:,,~ s,,'-.n ;- the Cul de Sac region. Since is a high priority, clearly a very significant portion of limestone substrate underlies nearly 80% of the na- Haiti's cultivated lands needs to be removed from cur- tion, groundwater reserves could become thc principal rent land use and returned to forest. In practical terms source of fresh water in the country in the future. This however, only the upper watershed areas of the agri- important source of water has not been mapped nor culturally and economically most important plains is being utiliscd to complcnicnt surface watcr and in- could become the object of such a drastic resource crease agriculture production through irrigation. restoration strategy. AGRICULTURE plot family farms) occupy less than 1.3 ha, consisting of an average of three plots, and account for only The production of agricultural commodities directly 32.5% of all cultivated land. The remaining land is provides a livelih\oodto 72% of the Haitian population. cultivated in larger plots including a few large holdings The export of agricultural commodities accounted for (k.HASCO) of more than 10,000 ha, Thus, although 48.7% of total exports in 1983, though the contribution Haiti's distribution of agricultural lands appears less of agriculture to GDP in 1981 was only 31%. During unequal than in most countries of Latin America, it's the period 1970-1980, the annual growth rate of the scattered distribution prevents the deveioprnent of ef- sector averaged 1.1%. Since 1980, growth has been . ficient production systems. negative, falling by about I%, 4.7% and 0.6% for 1980, 1981 and 1982 respectively. Production technology i!; very primitive, lacking es- sential inputs such as organic and/or chemical fertiliza- Although food crops cover approximately 80% of tion, soil conservation practices, crop rotation and tree the cultivated area, their value of production is only cover, which might serve to increase production capac- about one-half that of export crops, excluding sugar. ity. Government taxes and pricing policies and oligop- The great majority of all food crops are grown by small sonistic market structures, as well as limited credit farmers on hillside plots. The annual production cycle, availability, weak institutional support and lack of ru- coupled with the lack of any soil conservation practice, ral infrastructure contribute to the continued decline exposes most of these lands to severe erosion, decrea- in agricultural productivity (0.6'/0 in 1982). ses yields and forces the peasants to clear a new plot, burn the vegetation and start a new cycle. Demogra- It is evident that in order to address and, ultimately, phic pressure upon a limited supply of arable land and solve the multiple and complex problems affecting the horticultural practices which haven't changed signifi- agricultural sector in Haiti, a number of organizational cantly since the nineteenth century, explain the decrea- and institutional reforms need to be implemented. sing trend in per capita food production (-2% year) Tree crops such as coffee, cocoa and fruit trees that and the accelerating rate of land degradation in the protect slopes from erosion, increase water retention, mountains. and whose products give the country a clear compara- tive advantage must be promoted with production and Only root crops and other starchy foods have follo- export incentives. wed slightly rising trends; at a slower rate however, than population growth. Rice production has also Yields of traditional food crops could be improved shown improvements in total yields; yet maize and to reduce, but not eliminate, reliance upon food impor- sorghum production, accounting for 37% of all crop- ts. Hillside farming and grazing needs to be reduced ped area, has been decreasing since 1970. At the same by at least 30% to allow for natural recovery of water time, per capita daily calorie supply has been reduced retention capacity, increased base flows and, thereby, in the past twenty years and food imports have increa- more reliable irrigation of the plains. Large scale soil sed steadily over the past decade. Wheat imports, conservation/reforestation projects based on commu- alone, account for one fourth of the negative trade nity participation in the uplands should accompany balance with the USA. any effort and cash crops can be produced with greater efficiency and improvcd yields, if fertilizers and appro- Haiti's agricultural sector suffers from physical, so- priate technology are applied. cio-political, institutional, and economic constraints. The arable land area is very small, limited by topogra- To restore the agricultural sector to a point at which phy and high erosion risk. Rainfall is scattered and it can contribute substantially to the nation's self-re- periodically unpredictable. Natural disasters, floods, liance in food production and significantly add to fo- droughts, tropical storms wipe out essential income reign earnings, it must receive priority attention by from permanent crops. both the public and private sectors. A coordinated agricultural sector investment policy complemented Only about half' of thc land situated on plains in by adequate credit and tax incentives could produce Haiti is presently being utilized. Approximately tangible results over a relatively short time and in the 400,000 ha of mostly flat lands are not cultivated due process, become the back-bone of the country's econo- to severe erosion, salinization, urbanization or lack of mic growth in the near future. appropriate technology and investment. Just half the FOREST RESOURCES land that could be potentially irrigated is presently under irrigation. At the same time, increasing amounts The forests of Haiti have long ago lost their econo- of this precious land are being lost to agriculture, due mic significance as renewable resources, and are quic- to salinity caused by inadequate irrigation practices kly losing their ecological function as well. However, and technology. while the economic loss could conceivably be offset, the loss of the forest ecosystem has enormous, and Land holdings are small and fragmented. Seventy- potentially irreversible, repercussions which affect the one percent of all production units (generally multiple- livelihood of millions of people. At the beginning of the XVI Century, Haiti was THE PEASANTRY AND THE LAND mostly covered by lush forests with ecological variation defined in terms of different forest types. Since then, Following a successful slave uprising against the . forested land area has been reduced drastically, and French in 1804, Haiti emerged as a nation where 80% today covers only 6.7% of the total land area of the of its citizenry was and remains today rural freeholding nation (approximately 185,000 ha). Almost 38% of and directy dependent upon agriculture for its liveli- the total forested area is represented by pine forma- houd. History shows, that during those painful years tions, which in a number of cases has been severely of enslavement, the descendants of today's Haiti, for- degradcd by unmanaged exploitation, repeated forest ced to work in their ccoff-timen to defray the costs of fires and overgrazing. The single largest parcel of fo- their own upkeep, successfully developed techniques rest land (26,400 ha) remaining is the pine forest in of intensive food cultivation, operated a country-wide the southeastern portion of the country. While the internal market system and passed rights to certain highest percent of tree cover is found in this area (Fond parcels of land to their children. Rights to the land Verrettes), all its rivers drain into the Dominican Re- and control over one's own labor, far from the centers public. of government, became symbols of freedom which still exist today. Of the thirty major watersheds within country, Currently the Haitian peasantry is facing serious twelve were completely deforested by 1978. Thirty-six challenges to its way of life. Although the productivity percent of the remaining forest (66,000 ha) falls within of peasant agriculture has long been the mainstay of the udense forest>)category (more than 80% canopy the nation's economy, a corresponding investment in cover) and sixty-four percent in the uopen forests cat- the agricultural sector has yet to be made and, in fact, egory of less than 8O0/0 canopy cover. The high amount is declining. The combined pressures of population of open forest and its very fragmented distribution growth, shrinking farm sizes, soil erosion, and soil suggest that clearing and burning at the fringes of these exhaustion, have Icd to the present situation where parcels continues. In fact, if we assume a decrease in the majority of small farmers cannot count on even forest cover of only half of what has been estimated one profitable season to help them save or reinvest. from aerial photography of two sample areas in Haiti, Planning ahead, today's peasant is hoping to ensure a 6.7% annual reduction will remove half of the remai- the future of his children, by necessity, outside of the ning forest cover by 1995, and completely deforest all agricultural sector through education or emigration but five major watersheds in the nation. If the present from the degraded hillsides. trend continues, only the pine forest and its correspon- ding watershed will remain forested by the year 2008. Today, the peasant farming system is a complex pattern of land ownership, investment, and crop stra- Reforestation programs past and present, even tegies, which vary with the economic status of each when successful, have proven inadequate to reverse farmer. While the majority of the peasantry are lan- the trend in deforestation rates. In fact, successful downers, the majority of them are also land poor. small-scale projects implemented by non-governmen- Some wealthy peasants can afford to invest in peren- tal organizations (NGOs) have only replaced less than nial and export crops and livestock. Most are too poor 20% of the tree biomass cut every year for lumber, to forego even a portion of their annual crop produc- charcoal and clearing for small-scale agriculture. Yet tion or income to utilize soil conservation measures these projects, by appealing to individual self-interest or begin to establish perennial multi-year crops. and by relying upon a decentralized and efficient tree production and distribution system, have tested and Peasant tenure is of ccmixedw character where farm- proven a successful implementation strategy by plan- ers generally work several plots simultaneously, under ting nearly 14 million trees in four years with about different arrangements e.g. renting, sharecropping, 50% survival. Key elements of this strategy can be owning, or leasing their own land to others. The secu- extrapolated to make future tree planting efforts suc- rity of tenure significantly affects their attitude towards cessful in Haiti. the land. Overexploitation and poor management of the resource result in land farmed by sharecroppers It his highly unlikely that forest resources in Haiti and others with no permanent stake in the outcome. will ever again be a significant economic resource. Yet Although a national cadastral survey is desirable in if one considers that more than 70% of all energy principle, under present social and political arrange- consumed in the country comes from either firewood ments it is unlikely to lead to a more equitable distri- or charcoal; that sustained agricultural production of bution of lands and to tenure security. the plains and continuous hydroelectric output depend upon an adequate forest cover in the upper water- Diverse farm strategies resulting from the great vari- sheds, it is evident that remaining forests in Haiti must ation in climate and the highly dispersed pattern of be protected, restored and adequately managed in or- multi-plot farm units complicate any national effort to der to perform their ecologically critical role. improve farn~ingpractices. Capital shortages are the most significant constraint on farm production and making; and the pollution of coastal waters from hu- often foster destructive land use practices. Natural man and industrial wastes near the metropolitan area disasters, occ~~ringall too frequently, force the peasant of Port-au-Prince. farmer to select annual crops rather than more ecolo- gically desirable perennials such as coffee. Breeding and nesting sites of rare and endangered species in the coastal zone are almost totally unknown. Land scarcity has caused the widespread destruction Laws exist which protect these species, yet pressure of Haiti's forests even though these mountainous and upon rare sea turtles for , meat and shells, as well fragile lands are unsuitable for sustained agriculture. as the hunting of shorebirds, continue unabated. At Although the peasants' need for new agricultural lands least thirteen,threatened or endangered species have and their preference for fruit trees have prevailed in been identified as utilizing the mangrove wetlands and the past, new projects such as USAID'S Agroforestry lagoons of Haiti; among them the West Indian Mana- Outreach Project demonstrate that peasants will plant tee (Trichecus manatus) and the American Crocodile non-fruit bearing trees on a large scale if there is public (Crocodylus acutus). participation and an understanding of the goals of such a project. Site specific species and habitat studies, as part of a coastal resources plan, could result in better mana- COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES gement of coastal areas for the protection of rare and endangered species, as well as the enhancement of In contrast to the declining resource value of its fisheries. lands and forests, the country's coastal and marine habitats appear to be in a relatively pristine state. The Marine reserves and parks, once designated within magnitude and ecological significance of its resources; the framework of such a plan could be eftectively used mangrove wetlands, seagrass meadows, coral reefs and for both public education and research, and as fish protected bays and estuaries are considerable. The reserves to replenish depleted fish stocks. Legal prece- mangrove forests alone cover more than 180 kmz. Well dents in Haiti exist now for protecting and managing developed coral reefs fringe large stretches of coastline coastal resources. Haitian laws, especially those regu- and offshore barrier, and atoll-like reefs and "walls" lating the taking of fish and shellfish are rarely enfor- = directly offshore and largely unexplored, are prized ced, however. by recreational users and fishermen. Underwater land- scapes are considered among the most spectacular in Candidate marine areas worthy of protection inclu- the world. de: the Arcadins and the Barraderes-Cayemites areas in the Golfe de la Gonave; the Ile il Vache, on the south coast; and baies de Labadie and Cadrasse on Fisheries export in 1982 earned 3.5 million US$, the north coast, west of Ft. LibertC. yet a similar amount is spent importing salted and dried fish each year. It has been estimated, however, WILD FLORA AND FAUNA that the fishery yield potential could greatly increase with the introduction of a.ppmpriate technology and The insular nature of Hispaniola and the island's adequate infrastructure. The fishing industry is predo- ecological diversity have resulted in a particulary rich minantly artisanal in both scale and technology. Mari- and varied flora. More than five thousand different culture projects involving conch, shrimp and King crab plants are known to exist at the present the. About have recently been proposed on a small-scale basis by two thirds of these are woody plants, trees and shrubs. Private Voluntary Organizations (PVOs). Aquacul- They have adapted to a wide range of different envi- ture projects involving tilapia and carp are widely scat- ronments from dry desert conditions to the permanen- tered around the countryside, but not fully assessed tly moist conditions of the mountainous rainforest. for their ecologic and economic impact. There are about 600 fern species and over 160 different kinds of orchids. Thirty-six percent of all plants are The major constraints to improved fisheries produc- endemic to the island and it is probable that many tion in Haiti are: the lack of fish in areas where artisa- plant species are still undiscovered. nal fisherman have access to more productive areas, the lack of skills and proper training and a general Haiti is characterized by nine life zones as defined lack of efficient fish preservation, distribution and by OAS (1972). They include arid zone biomes such marketing infrastructure and organization. as cacti formations and xerophitic forest typical of the Subtropical Thorn Woodland and the Subtropical Dry In general, coastal and marine resources of Haiti Forest life zones. The most commonly represented remain relatively unknown and underexploited. Nota- zone is the Subtropical Moist Forest characterized by ble exceptions are: widespread nearshore overfishing; mahogany and tropical oak forests. Few representative a large export trade in coral, sea turtles, aquarium samples of this life zone remain, however, due to its fish, shells; some clearing of mangroves for charcoal extensive use for subsistence farming. Typical of the lower elevation mountains and ridges is the Subtropi- Basic information on populations, distributions and ' cal Wet Forest best suited for the cultivation of coffee, food habits of threatened and endangered wildlife in cocoa and fruit trees. Found at hi~herelevations and Haiti is generally very scarce. As population pressure primarily atop the Massif de la Gotte (Pic Macaya) further encroaches on the last remains of wildlife ha- are two characteristic high-humidity zones, the Subtro- bitat in Haiti, the protection of wild fauna and flora pical Rain Forest and the Subtropical Lower Montane within adequately managed reserves becomes increa- Moist Forest. Remains of these zones can still be found singly urgent. Recent development in this direction, within the Macaya National Park in the southwestern such as the establishment of two national parks, are portion of the country. The pine forest of Haiti are encouraging signs that the preservation of the coun- included in the Subtropical Lower Montane Moist Fo- try's natural heritage is being seriously considered. rest and in the Subt,ropicalLower Montane Wet Forest characteristic of the mountains in the south (Massif POLLUTION de la Selle) and portions of the Plateau Central. Final- ly, the Subtropical Montane Wet Forest is a life zonc Thc two most pressing pollution related issues which covers only a limited area at the highest altitu- in Haiti are the increasing population's need for des of the Massif de la Selle located on the southern (1) a safe water supply; (2) sanitary methods of dispo- peninsula. sing of human wastes. The Centrale Autonome Metro- politaine d'Eau Potable (CAMEP) now supplies only Vertebrate fauna are well-known compared to in- 60% of the Port-au-Prince area. Beyond the metropo- vertebrates. A recent survey of two mountainous areas litan area only 10% of the population have access to by a team from the University of has found a safe water supply. Water-related diseases are preva- that 23 of 46 species of molluscs collected were new lent particulary in the countryside. Children are espe- to science. cially affected. In 1979, diarrhea alone caused the death of 9% of the babies under one year of age (UNI- The island's wildlife is represented by few mammals, CEF 1984). but a diverse population (220 spccies) of birds. A num- ber of these birds are endemic to the island, such as The vast majority of Haitians do not have access to the Laselle Thrush (Turdus swalesi), the Ground War- sanitary means of human waste disposal. UNICEF bler (Microligea palustris) and the Hispaniola Parrrot reported in 1984, that 40% of the population were (Amazona ventralis). Along the Haitian coast in mar- using latrines or septic tanks, mostly in urban areas. shes and mangrove wetlands, the American Flamingo Operation and maintenance of these disposal methods (Phoenicopterus ruber), as well as the Frigate birds are often deficient. Contamination of surface and (Frigatidae) and other shorebirds abound. Most nota- groundwater from human waste and other solid and ble, however, is the presence of the American Croco- liquid wastes is increasing without sufficient means or dile (Crocodvlus acutus) primarily in Etang Saumatre a plan to control it. The air in Port-au-Prince contains and of two endemic and endangered rodents: the hutia dust and emissions from poorly inspected vehicles. (Plagiodontia aedium) and the solenodonte (Soleno- Smoke from burning garbage and industrial plants add don paradoxus) in the remaining remote forests of the to the air pollution problem. southwest. A number of forces, not at all unique to Haiti, con- Haiti's population is projected to increase from an tribute to mount incredible pressures upon the island's estimated 5,200,000 in 1985 to 6,500,000 in 2006, the rare and sometimes unique wildland resources and, long range planning horizon selected by the Ministry thus, upon the nation's natural heritage. The most of Plan. During that period, the rural to urban areas serious threat is represented by rampant habitat des- are predicted to experience a population shift which truction within all life zones of Haiti, some of which will swell the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince, alo- have already lost their plant and animal representa- ne, to 2,200,000 persons. tives. The second most important factor is the intro- duction, over the years, of many exotic species which A planning process has begun which holds the prom- have replaced native a~:doften endemic species in their ise of future improvements. The Port-au-Prince drzi- ecological niches. The third threat to wildlands in the nage program will help alleviate pollution problems country is of a structural and institutional nature. Pro- emanating from stormwater. Reforestation of the up- tective legislation, although enacted, is rarely enfor- per watershed is continuing to reduce sediment loads ced, and the priority given to environmental protection to the city's sewers. Water resources, though not pre- has generally been very low. This lack of concern is cisely known are believed adequate to meet domestic often linked to the lack of adequate information on needs. Groundwater is abundant underlying the many the interdependencies between the natural and human limestone formations and easily accessible in some components of the biosphere. Finally, commercial ex- areas, particularly the coastal plains. Existing water ploitation of wild plant: and animal species, whose full supply systems irre the results of investment largely by impact has not yet been addressed, also contributes bilateral and milltilateral banks and other international to the loss of the country's natural heritage. organizations. Progress has been made and efforts continue to expand water supply services, but. the po- Approach land conservation on a regional water- pulation is growing faster than water supply develop- shed management basis considering both cnviron- ment. The management of stoimwater and solid waste mental and socio-economic issues. disposal is expected to improve considerably in Port- au-Prince and other urban centers as a result of current Conceptualize projects for ionger periods than or planned efforts, but other population problems, thc normal two to five year framework. including air pollution from automobiles and industry in Port-au-Prince will become worse if no action is Manage the upper watersheds such as the Macaya taken. and La Visite National Parks and the Upper Artibonite Watershed. INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMISNTAL ISSUES Encourage large-scale conservation and reforest- ation projects to prevent further soil erosion, Despite early and comprehensive legislation desi- particularly in the watersheds directly above gned to protect and manage the country's natural re- significant agricultural and economically important sources, Haiti's environment, lands, forests, drinking lands. water, wildlands, and wildlife, are irr serious trouble. Environmental laws, although well drawn, have not Incorporate local participation in land use been applied and enforced. There are many repetitive projects. laws and administrative orders which confuse and com- plicate their administration. Consider the removal of certain hillslope cultivat- ed li~ndsfrom production, return of these lands Numerous agencies, private voluntary organiza- to forest and also a relocation of inhabitants tions, non-governmental organizations, and interna- where other living arrangements can be found. tional donors are involved with the environment and natural resources in Haiti. Problems caused by lack Promote tree crops such as coffee, cocoa and of coordination are due as much to the diverse respon- fruit trees that protect slopes from erosion and sibilities assigned to each public agency as to the ab- give the country an economic advantage. sence of a coherent natural resoliVcepolicy. Employ vegetative cover in a strip pattern Virtually every natural resource sector has more alternating with cultivated crops to reduce soil than one primary government agency, hence there is erosion. considerable duplication of efforts and programs, as well as a kind of derritorial>>jealo.usy. Even worse, FORESTRY !;one institutions with similar programs have little substantive interchange of information. Elimate tax on imported wood products to encourage tree conservation. International donors are becoming increasingly in- volved in environmental conservation and manage- Establish price controls on lumber. ment programs. In order to achieve the best results most efficiently, all efforts in the environmental arena Implement a fruit tree and fuelwood reforest- should be placed within a coherent and unified frame- ation program in the mountains as well as the work, with priorities established, objectives and stra- lowlands. tegies defined, and programs coordinated and evalua- ted accordingly. Preparation of a National Conserva- Expand existing seedling production and out- tion Strategy by DATPE may be a focal point for this reach capabilities, to cover a wider range of land unification of programs and policies. types across Haiti.

STRATEGIES FOR PROTECTION AND Coordinate the efforts of donor agencies to en- CONSERVATION OF THE RENEWABLE able the financing of a large-scale reforestration RESOURCES OF HAITI effort on private as well asstate lands.

Deterioration of the countryside as evidenced by Support the expansion of teaching and training sharply declining food production, internal migration facilities in forest resource management, with into Port-au-Prince, the high unemployment of rural special emphasis on the development of ap- emigrants, the continuing attempts at illegal interna- propriate technological packages for reforestation tional migration have all been thoroughly documen- and soil erosion control. ted. To have any stabilizing effect at all, land conser- vation strategies are urgently needed now. Amend legislation to protect forest resources by exempting trees planted for harvest from current away or taxes increased. prohibitions and taxations and by prohibiting planting in zones set asidc for soil erosion Develop a program to help rural communities protection. conserve their natural resources.

Subsidize kerosene, perhaps by taxing gasoline THE PEASANTRY AND THE LAND and support higher taxes and licence fees for commercial charcoal production. The Haitian peasantry is facing serious challenges to its way of life. Although the productivity of peasant WATER CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT agriculture has long been the mainstay of the nation's economy, there has yet to be a reciprocal investment Improve the water retention capacity of the in the agricultural sector. country's major watershed areas by reducing hillside farming and grazing. Consider the unique and basic characteristics of the Haitian peasant farming system in projects Consider groundwater as a valuable resource to by external sources as well as the government. provide fresh water for irrigation and map its extent. Continue and initiate projects which invite the Evaluate the groundwater resource in the low- peasantry to fully participate in land conservation lands. Development should not begin until proper strategies. environmental safeguards are in place to avoid salinization. COASTAL MARINE RESOURCES, AGRICULTURE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT The he~tstrategy for maintaining agricultural pro- Coastal and marine resources of Haiti remain relati- duction on the short to medium term, is by the more vely unknown and underexploited. Notable exceptions efficient use af presently irrigated lowlands and by are widespread overfishing of nearshore reef areas and developing additional irrigation potential. Without im- a large trade in aquarium fish, sea turtles and shells. mediate action tu manage the upper.watersheds, howe- A coastal resources plan could result in better mana- ver, soil erosion and deching soil fertility continues gement of coastal habitat for the enhancement of fis- to minimize the benefits of irrigation projects and heries, tourism and rare and endangered species. lowiand agricultural efforts. Study the costs involved in developing irrigat- COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ion capital, system maintenance and operation, on-farm distribution and drainage, structure Prepare a coastal resources plan for Haiti which maintenance and operation and land pre- would include: paration. Special attention should be paid to - inventories of breeding, nesting areas of threat- sprinkler irrigation from wells. ened and endangered species; invextory and designation of critical coastal areas, e.g. habitat Increase agricultural production by improving for commercially important fish and shellfish farming practices to help to offset losses to small species, areas of unusual scenic value for pre- farms by removing their lands from cultivation. sent or future tourism and proposed sites for mariculture; Encourage better land-use practices by making - the conceptual, scientific, administrative and title registration papers less expensive, easier and legal framework for decisions affecting coastal faster to obtain. Title teams could be established marine resources; and financing these initiatives within the context - the assessment of mariculture and fisheries of a national cadastral survey should greatly development schemes and recommendations henefit a long-term environmental restoration as to their suitability for Haiti. process. Evaluate and designate marine reserves and Concentrate on high valued crops to the extent parks as part of a coastal resources plan. These that these can be consumed, processed andlor parks and reserves would provide: marketed. Reconsider using a significant portion - areas for the replenishment of depleted breed- of irrigated area, now in sugar cane currently ing stocks of valuable but vulnerable fish and being produced at a loss in terms of world sugar shellfish species that quickly disappear from prices, for other crops. heavily fished areas; - interpretive education for the public and Initiate guarantees to farmers that once land private recreational users of the coastal, marine improvements ilrc made, lands will not be taken areas; - small cooperative fisheries programs to benefit of aquaculture, particularly in estuarine and the nearby fishingvillages; coastal waters. - management plans for the longer range protect- ion of the renewable resources; WILDLANDS CONSERVATION - research programs to identify more precisely the ecological systems which determine continued There are incredible pressures on Haiti's rare and productivity and value for recreation. often unique wildland resources and thus the nation's natural heritage. The most serious threats are rampant Implement the recent (Nov. 17, 1983) amendment habitat destruction, the introduction of exotic species to Section 119 of the U.S. Foreign Assistance and the lack of law enforcement. Act authorizing Federal executive agencies to provide assistance to countries in need of protect- Establish objectives for the protection and manage- ing and maintaining critical habitat. management of natural areas by adopting the IUCN World Conservation Strategy objectives. FISIIERIES MANAGEMENT - maintain essential ecological process and life- Improve fisheries with a strong commitment support systems on which human survival and from the government of Haiti to increase funding, development depend; staffing and extension training programs. - preserve genetic diversity on which depends the the functioning of many of the above processes Prepare fish stock assessments of potentially and live-support systems; productive areas such as Anse d'Hainaultafld - ensure the sustainable utilization of species M61e St-Nicolas. and ecosystems; notably fish and other wildlife, forest and grazing lands, which support rural Locate and organize communities and groups communities as well as major industries. as production and marketing cooperatives in order to provide assistance and coordinate fish Establish a National Park Service with the techni- catch and distribution. cal support of the Ministhre d' Agriculture des Res- sources Naturelles et du DCveloppement Rural Extend credit to such groups for the purchase of (MARNDR) and direct access to the Presidency. needed equipment. Stimulate small-scale industries related to fishing Establish a Natural History Museum and Bota- (e.g. gear manufacturing and maintenance, boat nical Gardens to become centers for research and construction, fish saltingand dryingoperations). education about Haiti's endemic flora and fauna.

o Strengthen and expand marketing capabilities Develop a long range plan for a program of to ensure reasonable profits. scientific research on Haiti's flora and fauna with participation of qualified scientific institutions Extend fish distribution networks to rural abroad. populations to increase protein consumption. Institute a program for public education Provide training and appropriate eyuipmcnt for concerning environmental protection and resource fishing the nearshore areas in order to avoid conservation. depletion of these resources. Identify and protect, within a system of National Parks and other protected natural areas, significant Encourage the private sector to stimulate the remains of different forest types (from mangrove expansion of artisanal fishing operations through to rainforest) and other major biomcs, in an effort investment and more effective distribution. to preserve Haiti's diverse natural heritage. Investigate mariculture proposals carefully as Strictly enforce those existing laws which prohibit part of a coastal marine resource strategy to relieve fishing pressure on natural fish stocks, the taking of certain endangered and threatened especially those from nearshore coral reefs. species.

0 Assess the impacts and control the wildlife 0 Investigate the feasibility of installing artificial reefs in nearshore areas where fish stocks are tradc ill Haiti. declining. Stop the trade in wild orchids and tree ferns. Enforce existing fishing regulations which regulate the taking of fish and shellfish. 0 Stop the trade taking placc in Haiti, either .. illegal or legal, which is rapidly depleting populations of endangered and threatened I Assess the ecological and economic impacts species such as sea turtles, certain coral, aquarium INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL CHANGES fish species, birds and reptiles. Almost every natural resource sector has more than POLLUTION ABATEMENT one primary government agency, hencc there is consi- The two most pressing pollution related issues in derable duplication of effort. International donors, Haiti are an ever expanding population's need for (1) non-governmental organizations (NGO's) and private a safe water supply and (2) a sanitary waste disposal voluntary organizations (PVO's) are becoming increa- system. With a population projected to increase from singly involved with environmental programs. These 5,200,000 in 1985 to 6,500,000 in 2006, existing efforts public and private institutions, with similar goals and to supply potable water and manage stormwater drai- objectives, have very little substantive interchange of nage and human and solid waste disposal are grossly information and coordination and are not guided by inadequate. a coherent set of priorities for natural resource mana- gement. Expand significantly the water supply network Consolidate government agency authority over to meet increasing demand, reduce losses and chances for contamination and upgrade and specific natural resource sectors, within a frame- motivate personnel at the intermediate and lower work of a focused natural resource policy, to levels through training and incentives. avoid duplication and policy contradictions.

Establish a realistic code for drinking water Improve communication and promote a more sources and treatment guidelines which consider integrated approach to natural resource manage- rural and urban socioeconomic conditions and ment, by establishing and Inter-Ministerial financial means. Environmental Committee with direct access to the Presidency. Consolidate the solid and liquid waste disposal facilities at Truitier, including the construction Develop priorities for future cconomic develop- of a primary sewage treatment facility. Move the ment based on environmental as well as eco- existing and underutilized composting plant to nomic goals. this site. @ Perform environniental impact assessments Improve water quality controls as well as vehicle (EIA's) for all significant development projects emission inspection. Consider changes in transit funded by the GOH and external sources. pattern to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution. 0 Consider an environmental management compo- nent (e.g. conservation and restoration) in the Expand solid waste collection and human waste development of projects for rural development. disposal systems throughout the metropolitan area, Continue drainage improvement and the Reorganize MARNDR along functional lines. recovery of the Morne Hopital watershed, near Port-au-Prince. , Introduction

The purpose of a country environmental profile most of the Dominican Republic. Following the impact (CEP) is to aggregate in one definitive document infor- the Plain of Cul-de-sac and the three large saline lakes, mation, data and analyses on the country's resourcc Bois Caiman, Etang Saumatre and Lac Enriquillo were base, focusing on the significant environmental issues uplifted. Throughout southern Haiti the uplift of the and trends and to identify possible solutions to cnvi- Eocene limestone seabed created towering and rugged ronmental problems. Specifically, the Haiti CEP ob- mountains cut occasionally by plains and steep valleys. jectives were to identify major ilrciis of concern for The mountains of the north were formed by local vol- management of Haiti's nitturid rcsourccs; to survey canic activity. existing institutions, politics. i~ndi~ctivitics; to assess the effects of any identificd problcms on thc environ- Other authors claim that three land masses collided ment, society and thc cconomy: and to provide conclu- to form the present island of Hispaniola. Much re- sions and recommendations for actions to ameliorate search needs to be done to verify the geologic history. problematic situi~tions. Most geologists agree that these land masses were for- med from oceanic crust, uplifted and influenced by Haiti is loci~tedon the island of Hispaniola, which sea level changes. Marine terraces for the most part is between Cuba and Puerto Rico in the West Indes, were exposed during the Pleistocene era. There have occupying the western third of the second largest island been no major sea levels changes in the last 50,000 in the Caribbean (18-20N,7 1"45'-74"-3O'W). Haiti is years. Exposed in Haiti are rock formationsof igneous, still isolatcd by language and culture from most of its metamorphic and sedimentary origin. The latter for- Spanish and English speaking neighbors. mations are the most abundant (80%) and are repre- sented by limestone deposits from the middle and up- Although materially the poorest nation is the wes- per Eocene era. Where limestone formations occur, tern hemisphere, Haiti is perhaps the most distinctive soils are relatively more fertile than those derived from and intriguing. Born of the only successful slave revo- rock of igneous origin which, like the soils found in lution in modern history, Haiti is the New World's the northern part of the country, are heavily weathe- second oldest Republic and has been dubbed "the most red. Alluvial soils deposited by rivers are the most African of Afro-American countries." The Haitians fertile and are to be found on the major coastal plains are above all, a warm and gregarious people. The of Haiti and in pockets along mountain valleys. outsider, willing to speak to them on their own terms, The geologic history of Hispaniola, characterized in their own language of Creole or French, is richly by repeated changes in sea level, has given rise to rewarded with the opportunity to learn and appreciate significant local endemism (speciation unique to the the Haitian culture. area) of plant and animal species. Althoughextinctions due to habitat destruction have been numerous, a great A*- GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY number of endemic plants and a few endemic animals According to a recent study of the geological deve- still remain. lopment and tectonics of the Caribbean islands (Mau- The major mountain ranges of Haiti are: rasse, 1983), Hispaniola was formed by the collision 1) Massif du Nord, the northwestern prolongation of one small and one larger land mass during the late of the Cordillera Central of the Dominican Miocene and early Pleistocene periods. The theory Republic, composed primarily of metamorphic states that the smaller land mass broke off from Central volcanic rocks, metamorphic detrital rocks and America, drifted east and eventually collided with a quartz diorite sometimes covered by Limestone larger land mass now comprising northern Haiti and (max. altitude 1,200m). HAITI REGIONS PHYSIOGRAPHIQUES

\ PREPARED BY WlLCOX ASSOCIATE Fig. 11-2: Generalized geologic map of Haiti from OAS, 1972 Montagncs dc Tcrre-Neuve - extending north- The high pcrccntiigc oiscdimcntary rock!i, about west from Gonaives, composed primarily of 80 percent, iirc mostly middle iind upper L5occne limestone iind volcanic rock (rnax, altitude 700m) limestones; Montagnes du Nord-Ouest - along the north- Rocks of igneous origin, about 20 percent are western pe~~insuli~,is composed of a thick cap of found where the overlying striita of sedimentary limestone above a mass of igneous rocks (max. rocks have been worn away; altitude 850m); As a gcncritl rule areas of igneous rocks, or soils Mon tagnes Noircs, the rugged range between the derived from them, coincide with areas of high central Plain and the Artibonite Valley, composed rainfall where erosion has been rapid, as in the primarily of limestone (rnax. altitude 1,400 m); mountains of the north; Montagnes du Trou d'Eau, north of the Plaine du Mountain soils cicrived from limestones iire more Cul de Sac, primarily composed of limestone and fertile then those derived from old igneous rocks; some exposed basaltic rock (rnax. altitude 1,520 m); Alluvial plains and pockets of alluvium in moun- Chainc des Matheux, extending from St Marc tains arc most productive since they receive ycar- to the Plaine du Cul de Sac, composed of limes- ly inputs of new materials, such as silts and tone (rnax. altitude 1,575 m); gravels from natural erosion; Massif de la Selle, the highest i~ndlargcst moun- Repeated changes in sea level in the Caribbean tain range in Haiti, extending west from the over gcologic time have provided a sufficient Dominican border about 100 km, dominates the number of land bridges for the dispersal of plant southern peninsula. The rsnge is about 30 km and animal species found on the island today; wide and composed mainly of limestone with The subsequent permanent rise in the sea level some younger detrital rocks. It is vcry rugged has given rise to much local endemism of plant with a maximum altitude of 2684 m at Pic la Selle; species, yet the basic common relationships Massif de In Hotte covers the southwestern part among plant species exist throughout this biogeo- of the southern peninsula. It is rugged, steep and graphic province. almost inaccessible. Composed of Eocene limcs- tone and basaltic volcanic rocks. it features Pic B.- CLIMATE Macaya, towering at 2347 meters above sea level (masl). The highly varied topography with elevations ran- ging from sea level to over 2680 m results in a large Pic la Selle, in the southeast, has the highest cleva- variability of rainfall and temperatures. These vari- tion in Haiti. The highest peaks in the north are much ations over relatively short distances resulting in nume- lower, with Mornc Brigand near Le Borgnc reaching rous micro-climates make characterization of rainfall 1147 mad. In the south central region Mornc Baptist patterns by areas of significant size and mapping for in the Chaine des Matheux and Morne Nan Puits in agricultural purposes problematic. thc Montagnes Trou d'Eau attain elevations of 1575 and 1520 m. ' Haiti lies in the Low Subtropical Region (18-20 de- Exposcd in Haiti are ignous, metamorphic, and se- grees North latitude), not truly tropical but rather that dimentary rocks. Both plutonic and volcanic rocks are portion of the Tropical and Warm Temperate Regions found, ranging in composition from ultramafics to leu- ivhich is free of frost at low eievations above sea level cratic tonalities. The metamorphic rocks originate pri- and in which the temperature range is significantly marily from volcanic flows, tuffs, and limestones. The wider than in the deep tropics. metamorphism appears to be primarily regional, with contact metamorphic effects found only locally around An extensive chain of meteorological stations was some intrusions. Sedimentary rocks are mainly of later set up in the 1920s and more have been added since Cretaceous and younger ages. that time with the result that many places have at least 40 years of precipitation data. Many other areas, ho- Some important facts about the geology of Haiti can wever, do not resulting in the need to extrapolate be summarized as follows: frequently for planning purposes. The wettest areas The origin of the land miiss of Haiti is occitnic for which records are available include: Bel Air (4180 crust; mm); Soctces Chaude (3410 mm); Choiseul (3418 mm); and Baptiste (3322 mm). Unfortunately, the pe- Volcanic activity practically ccascd in Hispitniolii riod of record for these sites is less than six years, in the late Eocene; hence they may have been unduly influenced by ano- Some Upper Tertiary volcanic deposits havc malous precipitation events such as tropical cyclones. been reported in Haiti, and several outpourings Holdridge's Life Zone Map of Haiti prepared for and of late Cenozoic limburgite, hornblend-augite, modified by the OAS in the 1960's indicstes the wettest andcsitic porphyry, and nephelinc basalt occured region to lie in the Southwest in the Pic Macaya region, in the southern part of the island. the ages of which could receive as much as 5000-6000 mm of rain- which are approximately the Plcistocenc; fall, but for which no precipitation records exist. Most precipitation is brought by the Northeast the Cul-de-sac plain, at about the same altitude, Trade Winds and io a lesser extent by winds from the the driest area with annual rainfall of about 500 east. Site specific rainfall patterns are influenced mos- to 750 mm is found; tly by orographic (related to topography) factors. For - Eastern part of the mainland between the tw., example, high land masses such as mountains intercept peninsulas: The Central Plateau receives aboui this precipitation so that the highest rainfall areas are IOlCto 1524 mm of rainfall; in the mountains of the north coast (new Cap Haitian) - Southern peninsula: Well-watered, with 1524 and in the southwest peninsula. In the latter case, the mm of rain or more in all parts, except the south- Gulf of Gonave scrvcs as an additional source of mois- ern slope of the western end and a small area ncar ture which feeds the hydrologic cycle. Anse-A-Pitrc in the Southeast, The Central Plateau, an area of relatively high rain- fall, exhibiits an anomalous pattern derived from turbu- C.- ECONOMY I ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT lcncc of air masses flowing in laterally to fill the va- cuum in the wake of the high mountain areas. This Haiti has potential to compete more successfully in pattern probably applies to other areas of Haiti such the world economy, contrary to common belief outside as in the western end of the southwest peninsula. the country. Its physical and human resources are not negligible. The country is well within the range of the Convectional rainfall, e.g. thundertorms, and hurri- vast North American market. It has built a basic infras- canes, also may bring heavy local rain from any direc- tructure where 15 years ago there was hardly a paved tion, dependi~~gon the relation of a given place to the road. Almost 50 percent more children are attending path of the storm. school than 20 years ago. Although one fourth of Haiti consists of areas with Yet the pace of economic growth is slow compared annual precipitation of less than 1200 mm (Moral, to its potential. Haiti's economy has shifted significan- 1961), most of the country receives at least 1000 mm tly in recent decades away from traditional agriculture of precipitation annually, and a subtantial portion re- and towards urban dependency and its growing indus- ceives at least 1500 mm. The higher elevations of the trial sector. Sectors other than agriculture have grown southern peninsula, northern plains and central pla- but not sufficier~tlyto absorb all those leaving rural teau receive over 2000 mm with some areas in the Haiti. As a result, some 25,000 Haitians (0.5 percent southern peninsula receiving over 3000 mm. Most of of the population) leave their native land each year the northern peninsula, the coastal plains reaching to seek employment in North America and the Domi- from the western tip of the northern peninsula to the nican Republic. Cul-de-sac region, the lower elevations of La Gonave Island, and small areas in the extreme northeast and Exports, imports and investments have risen marke- eastern ends of the Cul-de-sac receive less than 1000 dly in the last 15 years but consumption has not increa- mm of precipitation, with some areas receiving less sed in real terms. There is now a greater reliance on than 500 mm. A rough characterization of the rainfall imported goods, especially food and public goods and of seven principal areas, differentiated on the basis of services. rainfall, follows: (Library of Congress, 1979). Present economic conditions are so critical that there - Northern plain and mountains: More than are few peasants with surplus cash or agricultural com- 1270 mm, with as much as 2540 mm on the higher modities. Government policies, such as subjecting cof- mountains; fee, their primary cash crop, to an export tax which - Northwest: Semi-arid conditions prevail through- represents half the producer pr.ice, have made the si- out the region, especially around Mole St-Nicolas tuation far worse. (508 rnm) on the extreme western end of the northern peninsula; Port-de-Paix has about 1524 Economic problems in industry are more recent. mm in the mountainous areas; Manufacturing output grew throughout the 70's, at a - Western coast from Mole St-Nicolas to the Cul- very rapid 10 percent per year but has since declined dc-Sac Plain at Port-au-Prince: Very dry with 500 sharply, partially due to the global recession of FY to 1000 mm of rain; a semi-arid area extending 81-83 but more fundamentally, because of the conse- back from the coast over the plain to the quence of protectionist polices. While there was some mountains covered with xerophytic vegetation improvement in FY 84, which protected import subs- such as mesquite, thorny shrubs, and cacti; titution industries, Haitian industry is still considered - The island of La Gonave off the coast has similar stagnant. Only a fast growing export assembly subsec- cover and a rainfall of about 508 to 762 mm; tor contrjbuted to growth in N 84. - Artibonite Valley: Lower portion of the valley is a semi-arid area, but rainfall increases rapidly Public investment, and, thus, economic growth have up the valley until it reaches a mean annual level suffered both from less public savings and from the of about 3000 mm; however, about 40 km away in government's recent acquisition of five uneconomic hut major industrial cntcrpriscs. The tax base has clude social sectors, and, morc recently, sevcrid major grown slowly and unevenly, largely because of increa- public industrial enterprises. To correct the stagnation sing exemptions. Many tax rates are too high, encou- and disequilibrium of recent years, it has been sugges- raging evasion. Meanwhile public expenditures have tctl that the short term priority for public policy be steadily expanded, outstripping current revenues and financial and cconomic stabilization, using a variety making the financing of the public investment program of methods; among thcm, tighter control of public difficult, as evidenced by the government's frequent expenditures, new tax objectives and the development inability to meet its counterpart funding obligations of long-term financial institutions and instruments for projects financed by external aid agencies. (World Bank, 1085). b

Haiti relies heavily on external donors to financc In agriculture, the consensus seems to point to a development activities. The United States providcs concentration on farm enterprises in irrigated and rain- more assistancc than any other donor; over $45 million fed zones of high production potential achieved in development assistancc, food and disaster relief and through changes in price, trade and fiscal policy; the Economic Support Funds in FY 84. Over 300 non-go- continued reform of the Ministry of Agriculture and vernmental organizations (NGOs) annually contribute its invcstnicnt program and the establishment of a an estimated $65 million in resources and services to strong crcdit institution. In industry, elimination of Haiti's development (FAO, 1985) representing a po- the anti-export bias principally through a reduction of werful influence on the economy and the environment. protcction and actual export promotion, a restructu- Unfortunately, individual projects are not the end ring of public industrial enterprises and a more realistic product of a clcarly defined set of priorities based on look at industry's infrastructure and training needs. integrated economic and environmental goals. Moreo- With all these ci~anges,however, Haiti will still have ver, their composition has changed from an initial con- to look to substantial external financial assistance for centration on providing economic infrastructure to in- its economic recovery. - Land, Water And Forest Resources

A.- INTRODUCTION seasonal availability) protection against fire, iivestock type and numbers, land ownership, and service infras- Conceptually, the problem of environment and dc- tructure, are significant in determining an area's ero- velopment is how to mai~tainand increase resource sionalldepositional patterns. exploitation without foreclosing futurc resource use options. This makes it essential to achieve compatibi- The texture of the soil is important. Finer soils car1 lity between immediate, short-term needs for popula- be set into motion and transported at lower velocities tion support and long-term needs for a viable resource than coarse ones. While coarser soils are more resistant base and flexible resource use systems. The fact that to erosion and have higher infiltration rates, finer soils physical system boundaries and the boundaries of hu- usually have higher agricultural potential. Finer soils man systems that exploit the resources seldom coinci- generally have a higher porosity (soil moisture storage) de, complicates effective resource management. Thus, increasing their plant potential during drier periods, there is u critical need to protect renewable resources and producing a higher seed germination rate in most through long-range ccological planning, including so- cases. Where areas are drier, bare soil surfaces exist cio-economic considcrations. and the texture is sand size or finer, wind potentially becomes an erosional agent as well. Developmeilt of an ecological approach to resource management must integrate physical, social, political Erosion rates for specific areas are determined by and economic systems. To maintain the vegetation, the interaction and magnitude of these variables. Re- soil, and water resources, it is crucial that human use moval of groundcover by stock overgazing, fires and of the environment does not sress the resource base farming, substantially reduces its effectiveness. In Hai- to such an extent that degradation is either irreversible ti, as rural population pressures increase, and dama- or so large as to require excessive economic inputs ging agriculture practices continue, the ecological sys- that exceed the potential returns (for many places in tem of the soil, water and forest will continue to decli- Haiti, this condition has already been reached). ne. Clearly, vegetation cover and soil properties are crucial management issuos for most areas where hydro- Vegetation, soil and water interact in defining the logy, forestry, and agriculture are primary concerns. natural resource base. This, in turn, determines the carrying capacity of the land for agriculture, including Erosion livestock use, and forestry. While Eckholm (1976) clearly overestimates the B.- THE LAND RESOURCE proportion of exposed bedrock in Haiti (50 percent), the very existence of widespread rocky outcrops in a The landlsoil resource base in terms of erosionallde- tropical setting indicates the severity of the Haitian positional dynamics is determined by precipitation erosion problem. Tropical areas, under natural condi- (type, amount, intensity and seasonal patterns); wind tions, normally have a thick veneer of weathered ma- (velocity, duration and direction); soil erodibility terial. Almost always, bedrock exposures reflect acce- (structure and texture); topography (slope and length, Iterated man-induced soil erosion in humid tropical especially in arid and semi-arid areas, and spatial loca- areas. Generally, 90 percent of tota! nutrient supply tion within the hillslope system); groundcover (vegeta- is found in the upper 10 cm of tropical soils (Ewel, tion density and type); and conservation practices 1.977). Almost everywhere in Haiti, this rich topsoil is (mulching, pasture rotation, ctc ...). Other factors, gone. Additionally with the coarser subsoils commonly such as the location of the water supply (type and found in upland areas, the decreased moisture-storage capacity of thcsc soils producc pscudo-droughts that irrigation canals); iind the irnpact on coastal habitats stress vc~etatilongrowth whencvcr rain docs not occur (c.g. mangrove, corid, seitgras bcds, fish spawning and frequently. Thus, with the cvcr declining Haitiati soil nursery grounds). rcsourcc, morc and morc watcr and nutrient supplies Corisidering the generally degraded nature of most arc rcquircd to milinlain the status-quo. Unfortunate- Haitian soils with shallow root zones, targcl figures ly, almost no itctual soil erosion dittit cxist on a national for erosion control of 2 MTIhi11yr are (Young, scalc. Perceptions and qualitative studics comprise thc realistic 1980) to mitigate thc enormous impacts of erosion on literature. agriculturitl productivity. To prevcnt ncgittivc impacts Haiti's ovcrwhclming environmental problem is soil of soil loss on engincering works, even lower sediment crosion. Dcspitc rcscarch, legislation, crosion control delivery valucs than those affecting agricultural pro- idreforestation projects, indicators cle;~rlypoint to ductivity arc generally rcquircd. Coastal resources an i~cccler'ationin thc processes contributing to land such as mangroves, coral rccf and seagrass bcds, found degradation from soil crosion. Food production is de- in areas where significantly increased turbidity is ad- clining, rivcr regimes are becoming morc extreme (Lo- versely affecting the rcsource, will benefit from the wcnstein, 1984), bedrock cxposures on hillslopes are erosion control initiated for conservation of agricultu- growing in itrcal cxtcnt (Coffcy, ct al. 1984), and rural ral soils and protection of engineering works. to urban migration pressures arc incrcitsing (DATPE, C.- THE WATER RESOURCE 1984). None of thcsc trends is surprising, since the rural population density per hectare (ha) of arable Surface Water land is clo!;c to 700 (USAID, No. I, 1984). On steep The brokcn and stecp landscape which characterizes slopes (15-100 percent), as much as possible annual most of Haiti's surfaces give rise to numcrous streams crop agriculture is practiced. For example, on the and rivcrs. Duriug periods of rai!:fall the flow of most southern peninsula population densities over 125 pcr streams is torrential and of short duration. Few rivers km2 (Coffey, ct al., 1984) cxist on stecp slopes of the havc permanent flow. Thc principal catchment areas uplitnd arcas. Even in thc most rcniotc mountain arcas and rivcr systems arc shown in Table 111- 1 There havc whcre no permanent scttlcments exist, land clearing bccn only limitcd tncasurcments of watcr flows, and occurs (Cohcn, 1984). thosc gcncrally date prior to 1940. Thc flow data cited This illtcration in the land use, from forest to shifting usually rcfcr to werage flows. From thc standpoint of cultivation to abandonment, sets into motion an array agricultural use, average flows havc only limited rele- of dynamic socio-economic and physical events that vance to wittcr potential bccause of thc high irrcgula- cuacerbatc the trcrid toward a declining land, water, rity of flow. This is illustrated by flow data for 31 rivers iorcst rcsourcc base. This affects not only the uplands, in 26 catchmcnt basins, iis provided by I-Iarza (1979). but itlso niany ol' thc high potential lowlands. With The average annual flow for thc 31 rivcrs is givcn as the pi~ssingof each ycilr, the stratcgics that could sal- 274.031 mclscc, 90 percent of which is provided by vage the Haitian countryside arc becoming less viable. four rivcrs. The ten year, one month low flow, is given its 48.770 mclscc, ol' which 73 percent is providcd by Three direct results of soil loss nccd to be considered the silmc four rivcrs. In the absence of impounding within thc Haitian context: the idverse effects of soil structures (the di~mis the only significant one, since crosion on agricultural productivity; the impact of the physiography ol' most river basins docs not lcnd trimported sediments via rills, gullies, streams, and itsclf to impoundment), much of the watcr goes out rivcrs on major engincering works (c.g, rcscrvoirs, to sea. Table 111-1 PRINCIPAL CATCHMENT AREAS OF HAITI Average Length Catchment The main river Runoff mcls Km Area 1 Km2 - - Artibonitc 34.0 280 6,862 Rivicre dc la Grandc-Ansc 27.0 90 556 Rivierc dc I'Esthrc 19.0 834 Lcs Trois I?iviLSrcs 12.0 102 897 Rivibre dc Cavaillon 9.0 43 380 Grandc Rivi2rc du Nord 7.0 70 312 Rivihre du Limb6 6.4 70 312 RiviQreMomancc 6.4 53 330 Grandc Ravine du Sud 3.9 34 330 Grande Rivikrc du Cul-de-sac 3.3 ? 290 Rivikrc I'Acul ? 36 17 Source: Data from Library of Congress, Draft Environniental Report on IIaiti, 1979. Table 111-2 HYDROELECTRIC POTENTIAL OF HAITI Region River Site Location Avail. Power

Grde Rivihre du Nord GN-47,7 18.5 kmM 85" W. Vallieres Limb6 L-34.6 ll.OKm/S 15"W. Limb6 Nord Caracol Caracol 24 KmlS 24Cap-Hai tien Pte Riviere Pte. Rivibre 8 KmIW Trou du Nord

TR-28 13.5 KinI59" E Port-de-Paix TR-76 10.5 Kml N 88" E Gros-Morne Artibonite A-108.1 2.5 KmlN 60" E Verrettes A-139.9 2 KmlN 12" E Lachapelle Trans 5 KmlN 45W Mirebalais versale A-166.0 A-176.7 3 Km/N 24 E Mirebalais Guayanouc GU-3.5 10.5 KMIS 76" E Thomonde ' GU-25.7 9'. 8 KmlN 85" Thomassique La Theme La-1.6 Mirebalais Fer-8-Cheval FC-35.8 9kmIS 15" E Lascahobas Saut d'Eau 12 KmIS 83" W. Mirebalais DCluge 13 KmIS 5" E St. Marc Gobe Gobe 13 KmIS 69St. Marc Samana Samana 8.5 KmM 15" E Hinche Roche Plate Roche Plate 14 KmIS 390 E Lascahobas

Grisc G-31.0 16 KmIS 70E P.au.P G-41.7 19 kmlS 60 E P.au.P. Momancc Momance 20 km1S 72W P.au.P. Pichon Pichon 6 KmlN 45" E Belle Anse Ouest Gosselinc Gosseline 11 KmlN 32E Jacmel P. Riv. Jacmcl Bassin Bleu 6 km/W Jacmel

Cavaillon C-42.3 5 kmRV 47" E Camp-Perrin G.R. dc Nippcs GNIP-29.5 13 KmIS 360 W Anse-8-Veau S. du Baril 10 KmsIS 45" E Anse-8-Veau Grandc Ansc GA-4.1 4 KmlS 5 W. JCrCmie GA-35.4 20 KmIS 53W. J6rdmie Sud BD-8.6 24 kmIS 49 W. J6rCmie BG-15.4 26 km1S 59W. JCrkmie Voldrogue 18 kmIS 4" W JCrCmie

- - -

Source: lnventory of Hydrologic Rcsourccs (Synthesis of Hydro-electricPotcntialof Haiti-CIDA, April 1977.

Water potential for agricultural purposes depends Groundwater on the proximity of suitable land, Estimates of this potential is variously reported, with perhaps 180,000 The foregoing refers only to surface water and does ha as the upper limit. Actual irrigated lands cover less not take into account groundwater resources. There than 70,000 ha in Haiti. is little information on the potential ,availability of groundwater. Harza (1979) estimated the potential The water resources of Haiti have also been inven- groundwater resources in 22 areas selected to be used toried and characterized in accordance with hydroelec- for possible irrigation. Table 111-3 summarizes these tric potential (See Table 111-2). data. Tuhle 111..3 GROUNDWATER POTENTIALS FOR-- 22 SELECTED AREAS Rcgion Numbcr of Project Nunibcr of Project Potential Water Arcas Acquifers No. of Acquifers Flow for which flow t/sec was estimated

North & North Western Region 7 13 7 500-685 Artibonite Reglion 2 2 - - Southeast Coast Region 3 5 2 399-1 114 South Coast Rcgion 5 3 2 530+ Central Plains Rcgion 5 6 1 15-45 Total 22 29 12 1444- 1844

Sourcr* Harza 1979 Final Reports: Water Rcsourccs Study for Haiti. Area springs ;Ire lumped and counted as one potential acquifer.

Groundwater is used for irrigation in significant amounts in only two regions. currently water is pum- ped for irrigation in the Cul-de-sac area, with some 50 wells for irrigation of about 3500 ha by HASCO. An ndditional19 wells are used by several cooperatives for irrigation within the region, producing a wide vari- ety of crops. The wells were initially expected to pro- vide water to irrigate approximately 200 ha each. In practice, however, only about 100 ha are irrigated from each well (Hauge, 1984). Groundwater for irrigation has also been developed in the Plaine des Gonaives. Pumped wells supply about 75 percent of the water for irrigation of 3000 ha, the remaining 25 percent is supplied by pumping water from seasonal flows of nearby streams.

Groundwater capital is widely used for domestic purposes in the larger towns, including the city of Port- au-Prince. Some of the principal areas in which groundwater is domestically used include the Cul-de- Sac, Leogane, Carrefour, St-Marc, Cabaret, Grande- Rivic're Du Nord (Gridc Rivikrc du Norcl), Liniona- de, ~uanarninthe'and Aquin (Library of Congress, 1079).

Availability of Rainfall for Agriculture

Figure 111-1 illustrates the general pattern of rainfall throughout Haiti. Most locations have a dry period during the winter months, while the high rainfrdlvalues Fig. 111-1: General rainfall patterns based on four selected loallties. in October and November partially reflect the impact of hurricanes on the mean monthly values. In most The MA1 is a useful agro-climatological index for years, rainfall is less than the values given on this planning purposes because it indexes relative rainfall figure for these two months. Whcn hurricancs strike, adequacy. It is defined as PDIETP, where PD is the the rainfall values are far greater than the 300 mm 75 percent probability of monthly precipitation, and values. Table 111-4 presents mean monthly moisture ETP is the monthly evapo-transpiration potential. An availability index values (MAI) for some selected sta- MA1 value of less than 0.50 signals that dry fertilizers tions. should not be used, as not enough moisture exists to Table 111-4 MONTHLY MOISTURE AVAILABILITY INDEX FOR SELECTED STATIONS

Station Jan Feb Mar June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual Camp Perrin 0.30 0.28 0.39 0.86 Cerca la Source 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 Cap-Hait 0.45 0.33 0.12 1.44 Ennery 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.13 Furcy 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.45 Desdun. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Saut Mat 0.94 1.12 0.85 1.37 Soubois 0.44 0.52 0.58 0.86

Source: MA1 values from: Coffey, Lewis, Hauge (1984) / Hargreaves and Samani (1983) allow the fertilizer to become solublc and then be yields are exceedingly low. Annual crops ideally absorbed for plant growth. Since it detects moisture should not be grown when the MA1 values are in this deficiencies, the MA1 values are useful for first ap- range; not only because of low yields, but also with proximation determination of irrigations needs. Only the poor ground cover, high erosion would likely oc- when MA1 values are at least 0.75 will the better soils cur. Finally, when MA1 values are less than 0.33, not have high enough moisture storage to prevent moisture only is irrigation needed, but fields generally require stress. As soils dcgtade through erosion, a higher MA1 large quantites of water when riverflows are low. valuc is likely needed. Finally, a high MA1 value (> 120). generally indicates a need for drainage to prevent According to the information provided in Table water lugging on flat or gentle slopes. 111-5, the existing irrigation schemes that require the greatest quantitcs of water per arca of irrigated land, lrrigation arc found in the Cul-de-sac, lower Artibonite and Tablc 111-5 lists the number of months that irrigation northwest, whilc thc irrigated areas with the lowest water demands are on the north and south coasts. is needed, by geographical location, according to MA1 values. For values between 0.50 and 0.74, supplemcn- Unfortunately, from an environmental management tal irrigation would increase agricultural yields by re- perspective, the prognosis is not favorable for irriga- tion expansion, anywhere, even in those arcas of rela- moving moisture strcss during the growing season. Be- tively low water demand, unless major environmental cause thc moisture deficit in thcsc regions is not large, interventions are immediately initiated in the uplands a small amount of irrigation should greatly incrcusc yields. In areas where slight moisture needs (0.50-0.75) of the various watersheds. arc only during brief dry periods falling within the humid season, supplemental irrigation has proven very To maximize surfacc waters for irrigation, impound- effective elsewhere and would bc useful in Haiti. MA1 ment of water is required; yet, reservoirs can rarely valucs bctwccn 0.33 and 0.49 indicate greater water be justified economically, solely for irrigation. Multi- demands. Without irrigation under thcsc conditions, purpose use, including combinations of flood control,

Table 111-5 IRRIGATION NEEDS BASED ON MA1 INDEX

Location No. of Months having MA1 Values Months of Example of 0.50-0.74 0.33-0.49 <0.33 Irrigation Irrigation Project -____.1--1__----11-__---I--.----.--.------*------.------.----.------.---.------.-----.-----.------So. Coast of the So. Peninsula 3 2 3 8 Moreau-Funfrede South East 3 2 6 11 Orangers Cul de Sac 2 3 7 12 Varreux Lower Artibonite 1 2 9 12 Artibonite dist. I-IV Upper Artibonite 1 2 6 9 Nan Paul North Coast 1 4 2 7 Limb6 North West 0 3 9 12 Jean-Rabel rccrcation and cncrgy production, more oftcn than (LcBaron ct ul. 1984). Potential groundwuter use, ho- not, must bc included to rnakc irrigation fcasil)lc, using wcvcr, is king threntcncd by thc continuing dcgrada- impoundment stri~tcgics.Even then, costs can only be tion of thc uplands, With i\n cvcr lowcr percentage of justified if the reservoir's costs can bc pro-rated over rainfall infiltrating into the groundwater, recharge of il long period of time (c.g. 100 years). In the context groundwatcr must bc dccrcasing. of Haiti's existing cnvironmcnt, reservoir construction is a rccklcss striitcgy. First, duc to thc lack of tree Unlike other rcnewable resources, the groundwatcr covcr and poor land monagcmcnt in the uppcr portions resource still cxists within the lowlands due to rapid of almost ;dl I-luitian rivcr hasins, scdimcntation would be rapid in any reservoir. For exampfc, Lakc Pcligrc runoff causcd by deforestation and stccp slopes. Groundwater utilization, particularly in these arcas, has lost over 30 percent of its stwage capacity in less needs to be evduatcd. Devclopnwnt of this potential than 25 years (LGL, Vol. 2, 1981). Second, good agri- resource, howcvcr, should not begin until proper en- cultural lands along the vellcy bottoms in the uplands would be removed from production, rcducing food- vironmental safcyuards arc implcmcntcd. If pumping rates cxcced inflow into the groundwater, thc saliniza- growirrg capacity for thousancls of small Famcrs. tion of fresh water will occur. To be ablc to maximizc pumping, interventions throughout the pertinent wa- tcrshcds need to be undertaken. The linkages affecting the environmental status of water, soil and forests both in-situ and spatially, need to bc considcrcd at thc onset of any proposcd activity that intends to utilize groundwater resources. Watersheds Haiti's watersheds (river basins) include all the lands ubovc tl~crivcr-discharges to scil. A11 flows of energy and matter move solely in a downstrcam direction. The flow conditions are determined by the elevation and slopc of the basin and the climate (precipitation), as well as the resistance of the soil and its infiltration characteristics (vcgctativc covcr). Crop selection, Hypolhallcal Hydrograph In rrrponsa lo raln event under nsluralcondllton farming practices and trcc cutting also significantly affect thcs magnitude and stability of thc river basin system, or watershed. From an ccological perspcctivc, thc uplands and lowlands within u watershed arc com- pletely inter-related, just as the physical characteristics and the socio-economic systems throughout each wa- tershed impact onc another.

The effectsof soil crosion on rivcr flow arc cxpcricn- ced both on-site and downstream. Accelerated soil erosion upstream degrades both upland and down- stream areas, such as reservoirs and engineering works (c.g. irrigation canals and sewage systems), resulting 1 2 in ever higher costs for maintenance and reconstruc- b tion (Figure 111-3). In addition, with lower infiltration Hypalhallcrl Hydrogr#ph In rmrponar to ldrnllcd rrlnavanl undrr clrrrrdground ratcs resulting from existing soil loss, the flow regime covar and total river discharge are often permanently alte- Fig. 111-2: Waternvallability as a function of vegetative cover and red. Changes in the flow, both rate and volume, and river discharge in sediment load, complicate the management conside- rations of forestry, agriculture, and downstrcam im- Evidence exists that the quantity of surface waters pacts of all activities affecting the watcrshcd. On-site available for irrigatiorl is decreasing each year due to and downstream impacts of all activities affecting the the relationship bctwecn vegetativc covcr end river watersheds should be considered in both economic discharge (Figure 111-2). Bascflows, which rcprcscnt and environmental planning. the water available for irrigation when storagc is limi- ted, arc diminishing (Lowenstein, 1984). Thus, it The amount of water (discharge) flowing through would appear that groundwater utilization needs now the river basin system, and the seasonal variations, to be considcrcd, although a rcccnt evaluation dismis- arc important factors in watershed management. ses this strategy a priori, without any data analysis When precipitation strikes the ground, the route that Fig. 111-3: Aerial photo~raph(Scale 1 :40,0Wflown in 1978 showing ter'rigenous sediment input to the marineenvironmentltom Rivi&reRoaeoux, near Jkrhie (Courtesy: Service Chlksie et Cartographie) the wutcr takes (Figurc 111-4) in reaching the rivcr Whcn a river basin's groundcover is altcrcd from channel influences the river's flow rcgimc. Overland broadleaf forcst to an annual row crop such as maize, or surface wutcr flows travel at the highest velocity a larger proportion of the rainfall bccomcs overland (m/min) and reaches the channel first. Surface wutcr, flow; while thc groundwatcr, and, accordingly, the howcvcr, stops flowing shortly after the rain ends. baseflow, decreases. With less watcr reaching Conversely, the rain that irriiltratcs through the soil groundwatcr lcvels and greater volumcs of water cnte- and becomes groundwatcr, moves more slowly (cmlhr) ring the river, watcr lcvels in the channcl rise faster and may take wccks or months before entering the and the river systcm has larger peak discharges but rivcr channel. Overland flow contributes mainly to thc lower recharge and bascflows. River flows also drop stormflow of a river (Figurc 111-2). Groundwater flow faster since surface watcr flows only continuc for a is the major contributor to the baseflow of the stream. short period after the rain ceases. In Haiti, with its It is thc baseflow that permits rivers to continue to soils and altered vegetation cover, thc hydrograph il- flow during the dry scilson in Haiti. Throughflow's lustrated for clcared lands in Figurc 111-2 is the typical contribution to rivcr discharge is closer to that of the cusc. It is prcdictcd that as conditions for crosion in- groundwatcr flow; howcvcr, in a humid tropical rivcr crease, rivcr regimes will become evcr more pc;~kcd basin, a very largc proportion of the throughflow duc to an evcr grcater proportion of the rainfall beco- would be ci~pturcdby cvapo-transpiration. 'I'o :I large ming overland flow. degree, this watcr source rcprcscnts rainfall that never cntcrs the rivcr system, but provides a very important In Haiti this trend towards more extrcmc flow rcgi- sourcc of moisturc for deep-rooted plants. mcs is further strcnghtcncd by the steep slope charnc- teristics of most of the river basins. Generally spea- sibility studies that have been prepared for irrigation, king, those parameters that affect the hydrologic bal- hydroelectric and other water-related projects, unfor- ance between overland flow and infiltration into the tunately, have had to extrapolate from this no longer groundwater are more sensitive on steeper slopes than relevant data base. For example, the Etude de Faisa- on flat lands. Thus, the destruction of the forests on bilitC-Projet GU-1-Riv. Guayamouc (HQI-LGL- fragile uplands has severely altered river hydrographs LMBDS, 1982) which examines the proposed dam si- in the lowlands, the very areas in Haiti where a stable tes to protect the Peligre lake from sedimentation, at; stream regime is needed most to maximize the utility well as to generate electrical power, is based on the of the water resource. 1925-1931 discharge data. The attempt to update this inndequate data base through correlation with precipi- tation has had to introduce error into the assessment, since the vegetation and soil attributes of the cat- chment basin clearly have changed between 1931 and 1982. Watershed Management One of the basic tenets of watershed management dictates that the soil surface be maintained in a condi- tion that maximizes the infiltration of rainfall. Trees are crucial components in this strategy. By intercepting precipitation, a dense forest canopy reduces rainfall intensity; dead leaf matter riot only protects soils from B = Infiltrated water that becomes ground water flow the direct impact of raindrops, but also increases the infiltration of the ground surface; the root structures , C = throughflow - a ahallow (subsurkace) flow that moves of trees increase the resistance of the soil to erosion; within vegetal debris or the upper portlons ot the sol1 and, the vegetation matter on the forest floor increases Fig. 111-4: River flow regime In relation to lnnltration friction which reduces the erosional potential of sur- and through flow. face water runoff. Overland flow of water results whenever precipitation is greater than the sum of infil- A paucity of river discharge data exists throughout tration and interception. Removal of vegetative cover the country. No systematic data collection is in opera- from an area increases the erosional potential of an tion. Almost all discharge values quoted for Haitian area by lowering infiltration and interception rates rivers are based on measurements dating from the which increase overland flow, the major cause of ero- 1930-1940 period. A few recent discharge values are sion in Haiti. To minimize erosional potential and available, based on short-term observations connected create a stable hydrologic regime in an area, vegetation with specific projects. Since dramatic environmental is a crucial variable. On steep lands, permanent vege- changes to vegetation cover and soils have occurred tative cover is absolutely essential to retain vital soils during the last forty years, thc oftcn quoted values are and contribute to a stable hydrologic regime. out of date. Mean discharge values in almost all cases are probably larger since cvapo-transpiration losses The problems of bringing ecological land use plan- must be less, with the seriously degraded vegetation ning to tropical river basins before erosion destroys cover decreasing the moisture storage potential of the too large a proportion of their soil and water resources, soils found on most slopc lands (Coffey ,et al., 1984). remain one of the major environmental challenges in the developing world (Pereira, 1973). Nowhere is this Thcsc two changcs, alone, imply that a larger per- objective more critical than in Haiti. Improving land centage of rainfall enters the river system today than use in this country's watersheds must be one of the in years past. Unfortunately, this larger total dischar- critical, if not the most crucial, environmental concern ge, reflected in higher mean flows, is a water resource of the nation. All available data and surrogates, albeit largely lost to the su~.roundingseas due to the trend very limited, indicate that despite widespread recogni- of more extreme flow regimes. With each passing year, tion of land degradation and destruction, land use the rivers and streams throughout Haiti flow more and practices and trends continue to lower the short-term more like torrents than stable permanent rivers. As a potential productivity of Haiti's forest land and water result, the river's use as il water supply for ever increa- resources, and threaten the long-term viability of the sing population is continuously decreasing. When wa- nation's natural resource base and its economy. This ter is needed during the dry seasons, less is available. is not a rural or an urban problem, it is a national problem. A whole array of urban and rural needs, Table 111-6 presents the published discharge data including water, food, building materials, energy and for all of Haiti. This lack of current data represents a economic development are threatened by existing pat- critical shortcoming for sensible project design of hy- terns of land use. More foreboding, recent evidence droelectric and irrigation schemes. The numerous fea- (Cohen, 1984; Lowenstein, 1984) points to an accele- Table 111.6 RIVER DISCHARGES River Site of Cleared Lands Year MeanMs. Max.Dis. M1n.W. dsec mdsec dsec

Trois Ri~ibres* Paulin Lacorne 1965-67 Pont Gros Morne 23-40;62-67 Plaisance 25-40;62-67 Rivihe Limb6 * Roche A I'Inde 22-40 Gde Riviere du Nord * Pont Parois 22-40 Riv. Massacre * Ouanaminthe 22-40 Riv. Boyaha * St-Raphael 22-40 Riv. Guayamouc * Hinche 26-31 - Riv. Artibonite * Mirebalais 22-40 Riv. Artibonite * Pont Sonde 22-40 Riv. Estere * Pont Est&re 65-67 Riv. Fer-A-Cheval* Pont P6tion 23-31 Riv. Blanche* La Gorge 22-40 " Riv. Grise * Amt. Bassin G6n. 19-40 Riv. Pedernaies * Anse-A-Pitre 29-30 Riv. Marigot * Peredot 28-30 Riv. de Jacmel * Jacmel 26-31 Riv. Momance * Amont Barrage 20-40 Riv. CBtes de Fer * C8tes de Fer 28-30 Riv. Cavaillon * Cavaillon 22-41 Riv. Islet * Charpentier 23-31 Riv. Torbec * Torbec 23-31 Riv. Ravine du Sud * Camp Perrin 23-35 Riv. Gde. Anse* Passe Ranja 25-31 Riv. Voldrogue * Passe Laraque 28-30 Riv. Limb6 # Pont Christophe 22-30 Riv. Gallois # Grison Garde 22-31 Riv. Est&re# Pont Benoit 22-31 Riv. Bois # Verrettes 24-31; 33,3540 Riv. La Theme # Passe Fine 23-3 1 Riv. Montrouis # Pont Toussaint 24-30 Riv. Torcelle # Messaye 22-41 Riv. Courjol # Bassin Proby 22-39 Riv. Matheux # Arcahaie 22-36 Riv. Islet # Cayes 23-31 Riv. Acul Carr. Valere 83 est. Sources of data * OAS, Haiti-Mission d'Assistance Technique Integree, 1972 # HARZA, Water Ressources Study for Haiti, 1979 SHELADIA Ass., Integrated Agricultural Development Project-Dubreuil, 1983.

ration in the processes of environmental destruction. very limited areas, such as on the bare slopes in the Given the long history of abusive environmental acti- uplands of 1'Acul river basin (Coffey, et al., 1984), is vities, for all practical purposes, the undermining of there proof of ecosystem decline and collapse. Given the country's renewable resources has become an inte- the apparent poor status of Haiti's forest land and gral part of the nation's fabric. In practice, almost water resources, immediate action must be taken every conventional conservation strategy in the agri- without the waiting for a complete data base. cultural, hydrologic and forestry realms is ignored throughout the country. Ecosystems everywhere must D.- THE FOREST RESOURCE be experiencing decreasing capacities for sustained production; yet this statement is impossible to prove With temperature being relatively uniforw at the national level, as too little data exists. Only in throughout the year, it is the amount and seasond patterns of rainfall that largely determine vegetative sents the zone of low altitude mountains, such as the patterns under natural conditions in the tropics. With Kenscoff area near Port-au-Prince, in altitudes ranging annual precipitation almost everywhere greater than from 800 to 2000 masl. It is generally well suited for 1000 mm broadleaf or pine forests should exist the cultivation of potatoes and other vegetables, if the throughout 75 percent of Haiti (NRC, 1982). Only in slopes are farmed using soil conservation practices.. the drier areas along the southern coast, the northwest, the northeast, the lower Artibonitc, and the Cul-de- Subtropical Lower Montane Wet Forest; charac- Sac Plain, should dry forest be found (OAS, 1972 - terized by higher rainfall than in the previous zone Chapter 5). This was the vegetative pattern of Haiti and includes most of the pine forest remaining in Haiti. prior to the European colonization. Its use should involve the protection and sustained utilization of the pine forest (Pinus occidentalis). Life Zones Subtropical Lower Montane Rain Forest and Sub- According to the Holdridge Life Zone Classification tropical Montane Wet Forest; cover a limited area in System, there are nine different life zones in Haiti. It Haiti, primarily on the slopes of the higher mountain is interesting to note that Holdridge devised his class- ranges in the south (La Selle). These zones are charic- ification system while working in Haiti in the 1940's. terjzed by pine forest and evergreen broadleaf forest. Subtropical Thorn Woodland; represented by Trends semi-desert conditions of only 550 mm of rainfall a year, and a xerophytic forest dominated by Cercidium Today, there is little resemblance to this potential praexcox, Prosopis juliflora (bayahonde) and cacti natural landscape as described by these Life Zones. from the genera Opuntia and Cereus. This life zone Commercial harvesting of trees, and clearing of forest is typical of the cacti formations of the northwestern for agriculture, has destroyed the natural forests. By peninsula. 1954, it was estimated that only 8 to 9 percent of the land surface remained in forest (Burns 1954). In spite Subtropical Dry Forest; characterized by Phyllos- tylon brasiliensis, Prosopis juliflora and Guaiacum of- of numerous reforestation projects, Haiti continues to lose its last remaining forests either to land clearing ficinalis. Found at altitudes below 400 mad, this second for food production or tree cutting for lumber and largest life zone is highly productive where soils are fuelwood. deep and irrigation is available (Cul-de-sac). On shal- low soils and without water, it has typically supported sisal plantations. TABLE 111-7 Subtropical Moist Forest; constitute the most ex- FOREST COVER BY MAJOR WATERSHEDS tensive life zone in Haiti. Characteristic plants have (Derived from DATPE 1:250,000 maps) included the mahogany tree (Swietenia mshogani), - -- the tropical oak tree (Catalpa longissimn and the royal River Total Tree Basin O/O palm (). It prevails on the Central Basin Area (Km') Area(Krna) Tree Cover Plateau and on the alluvial plains in the north, center and south. This zone supports the majority of subsis- 4 P.de-PaixIP. Margot tence farming and the cultivation of mangoes and avo- 5 LirnbC cados. 6 Zone Cap-Haitien 7 Grande R. du Nord Subtropical Wet Forest; the zone covering most 10 Esthrc low-altitude mountain ridges and small mountains 1 la Upper Artibonitc (mornes). Its coverage is restricted to the nothern and llbLower Artibonite southern coasts of Haiti and portions of the Central 13 Cul de Sac Plateau. It supports coffee, cocoa and rubber planta- 14 Fond Verrettes tions, primarily on calcareous (limestone) soils. 15 Leogane 16 Sud-Est Subtropical Rain Forest; found typically at the 17 Jacmel lower altitudes of the Massif dc la Hotte in the southern 20 Cavaillon peninsula. This zone is not productive for farming, 2 1 Lcs Cayes since it contains a shallow soil base, yet its recent 22Tiburon 1 P. Salut exploitation for slash-and-burn agriculture indicates 23 irois l JCrCrnie the extent of the population pressure on the remaining 24 G. Anse forest resources of the country. Because of heavy rain- 25 Voldrogue/Roseaux fall, it produces poor harvests and is very susceptible 26 Corail I to erosion. Its value as wildlife habitat and erosion Anse B Veau control far exceeds its value for cultivation of food crops. Total 1,846.7 6.7 Subtropical Lower Montane Moist Forest; repre- Fig. 111-5: Rotli~ini~~gforcsts of Ili~iti:I'itlr and Ilroc~tllci~ffor~netions i~ggrc~i~tccl, A very conservative estimate, based on the diffe- rence between wood product9 being'consumed and the numbers of trecs being planted and naturally rege- nerating, indicates that for (:.very new tree, three are being cut or burned. Sorne estimates place the current ratio of trees cut and burned to planting and regene- ration to be as great as seven to one. Trees are being cleared without regard for hydrologic and soils infor- mation, and not replaced where they are being cut, thus undercutting the attempted mitigation of defores- tation impacts on the ecology. Figure 111-5 and Table 111-7 quantify the 1978 areal coverage of broadleaf and pine forest throughout Hai- ti; these are parcels of forest by major watersheds falling within the dense and open forest categories and including all lands having at least 60 percent tree cove- rage. These data indicate that in 1978, only 6.7 percent of the country remained forested. The single largest forest parcel (264 km2)remaining is the pine forest in forest, open forest, and closed forest, ranged between the southeastern portion of the nation, while the 1.0 and 3.4 percent. Even more alarming, the actual highest percentage of tree cover is found in the Fond decrease in closed forest area during this six year-pe- Verrettes (37 percent) watershed, an area where all riod was 12.6 percent per year. The only environmen- rivers drain into the Dominican Republic. tally beneficial vegetative cover in these humid moun- tainous lands apparently is rapidly disappearing. Of the thirty major watersheds within country, twelve were completely deforested by 1978. According Prospects to DATPE (Table 111-7), 9.2 percent of the country is forested; however, this includes savanna with trees To estimate the future status of forest cover in Haiti, as well as sparsely covered forest lands that, from an the 1978 vegetation cover (Table 111-7) was assumed erosional or hydrologic perspective, do not function by the CEP team to undergo a constant decrease of as tree covered landscapes. 0.67 percent. Figure 111-6 represents those trends and prospects. This value is conservative, since it is less Of the 6.7 percent of existing forest, approximately than one-half of Cohen's measured rates. The de- 36 percent (659 km2) falls within the dense category mands for lands and trees should remain at least what (80 to 100 percent canopy cover) and 64 percent is in they were between 1978 and 1984 unless spectacular L the open category (60 to 79.9 percent canopy cover). changes occur in population, agriculture and industry. From this, it can be inferred that the areas of open forest experiencing tree clearing are likely areas of If anything, the results presented in Table 111-8 un- agricultural and grazing activity expansion. The highly derestimate the severity of the problem. As is clearly fragmented pattern of forest cover illustrated in Figure evident from Table 111-8, all areas of open and closed 111-5 indicates that the edges of these parcels are un- forest cover will likely be gone within fifty years unless dergoing active tree cutting and/or burning. The majo- extreme and immediate action is initiated and establi- rity of these remaining forest parcels are concentrated shed. By 1990, eight, or one-half, of the river basins along watershed divides, covering steep and poten- having forest cover in 1978, will likely be completely tially highly erodible lands. As these lands are cleared, denuded of forest lands. One of these basins, the upper hydrologic and sediment balances within the affected Artibonite, drains directly into Lake Peligre, which river systems will be further altered. already has lost over 30 percent of its storage capacity due to sedimentation (LGL, 1981). The proposed multi-million dollar dam construction on the Guaya- In the northwest (Anse Rouge to Jean Rabel) and mouc makes little sense unless the tree cutting is the western portion of the southern peninsula (Camp- stopped in this area, and the lands above the proposed Perrin to Roscaux and Pic Macaya National Park), reservoir are immediately protected. Cohen (1984) documents the pattern of current land clearing. Lowenstein (1984) substantiates the negative By the year 2008, unless current rates of tree cutting results of the deforestation in the Pic Macaya area on are stopped and reforestation in appropriate areas is the irrigation potential in the Grancle Ravine du Sud accelerated only one river basin will have any forest of the Cayes Plain. cover remaining. There is no evidence, documented or otherwise, that the deforestation trend will be redu- From 1978 to 1984, Cohen (1984) determined that ced, yet alone stopped. Clearly, new far-reaching ini- deforestation in three study areas, namely degraded tiatives need to be developed and implemented imme- diately before the last vestiges of Hiiiti's forest is fore- as reforestation projects (Conway, 1983; Miller and ver lost. Ehrlich, 1984). Tree planting locutions iire selected by the farmers and in almost all cases trees awe not planted - in areas where the trees either maximize their role in TABLE 111-8 the control of soil erosion or water cot~servution.In ESTIMATED NUMBER-YEAR DENSE AND OPEN fact, the purpose of the AOP is to eventually harvest FOREST IS TOTALLY REMOVED the trees. The ODBFA tree planting in the Upper BY RIVER BASIN Artibonite, to lower sedimentation yicld into Lake Peligre, has also not been entirely planned as a refo- Basin- Year restation project. The continuation of the deforestation of Haiti's few 4 Port de Paix 1P. Margot 1995 remaining forest tracts, in response to both the need 5 Limb6 1986 to expand farming into new areas to offset the decline 7 Grande Rivibre du Nord 1981 (Gone)* of soil productivity in established areas, as well as to 10 Estbre 1982 (Gone) derive income from the sale of the wood, is fundamen- IlaUpper Artibonite 1987 tally altering the nation's hydrologic regimes. River llb Lower Artibonite 2002 discharges everywhere are becoming less stable, per- 13 Cul de Sac 1982 (Gone) manent streamflows are changing the intermittent 14 Fond Verrettes 2042 flows, while groundwater is decreasing, The magni- 15 Ltogane 1981 (Gone) tude of Haiti's environmental situation is evident in 17 Jacmel 1981 (Gone) every region of the country. With the resource base 20 Cnvaillon 1996 declining everywhere, even if optimal land use strate- Les Cbyes 2008 21 gies are immediately adopted, there is little hope that 22Tiburon / P. Salut 1992 the potential'productivity of the physical systems can 23 Iroisl Jkr6mie 1995 ever return to former levels. 24 Grande Anse 2007 1980 (Gone) 26 Corail / Anse ri Veau E.- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS # estimates based on an average decrease of O.670/0/ 1 .- INITIATE LAND CONSERVATION year of 1978 tree cover. STRATEGIES * gone only implies there are no stands of dense or Today's grave environmental situation, as evidenced open forest according to the DATPE, 1983 criteria by the deterioration of the countryside, including shar- that can be detected at a scale of 1:250,000. ply declining food production, internal migration into Port-au-Prince, the high unemployment of rural emi- grants, and the continuing attempts at illegal interna- Current and past mitigation projects have been ina- tional migration, has been thoroughly documented in dequate to meet the challenge of reforestation. The a series of studies (e.g. Donner, 1975; Larose, unda- integrated watershed projects, such as those underta- ted; PNUD, 1981). To have any stabilizing effect at ken in I'Acul (USDAIUSAID, 1983) and Limb6 all, and conservation strategies are urgently needed (PNUDIFAO, 1984) failed, for a host of reasons. now. The traditional conservative sectoral approach Significantly, two factors were identified: the lack of with a multitude of preliminary pilot programs that involvement of local people and the lack of perceived might seem prudent at first glance, is irresponsible in benefits of the projects by the local population. Once the Haitian context. Time is of the essence. Immediate external funding stopped, the land improvment prac- large scale changes and investments are needed now; tices ceased. Planted saplings either died, were any alternative is defeatist. Hillslopes are being des- browsed by livestock, or cut by the inhabitants. Engi- troyed throughout Haiti, not just degraded. The nat- neering works quickly went into disrepair and, once ural resource base of the country is moving from the not maintained, increased land degradation. Two tree renewable resource category into a non-renewable planting projects, the SHEEPA (SociCt6 Haitienne classification. d'Etude et dlExtcution des Projets Agricoles) and the , AOP (Agroforestry Outreach Project), appear to be Fortunately, previous reports and studies provide successful in mobilizing the small farmer to plant trees for useful insights from which to develop immediate large profit. The SHEEPA project is raising and selling mos- scale land-use programs (e.g. Coffe et al, 1984; tly fruit trees in the eastern portion of the Upper Ar- Conway, 1983; Murray, 1979; ODBFA, 1983). There- tibonite Valley. AOP through its three components, fore, it is possible to move directly toward implemen- ODH (Operation Double Harvest), PADF (Pan tation of land strategies, based upon these findings. American Development Foundation) and CARE, are Emphbsis should be placed on projects involving sys- distributing seedlings to be later used for fuelwood, tems where the greatest immediate and long-term be- charcoal, poles and eventually lumber. These projects, nefits are likely to occur. Development projects however, are conceptualized as income producing, not concerned with environmental amelioration have to iriclrltlc plly~ici~l,so~ii~l, cco~ionlic, i~ntl iiistitutionitl plcnicnti~lirrigiltion wodtl incrcilsc the riqy of crop ccmlwnc~its; otherwise. pros~xxtsfor ~IICC~SS;ire yicltls, cspcciidly if fcrtilizcrs arc cl'l'cctivcly usctl. ncgligihlc.

'l'lic ~n;ignitutlcol' I:r~~ilcleg~xcl;~lio~r I.wth in cstclit i11)tI scvclity IlCg;llc ;Illy ;ItIcI111M I0SOIVI: lll~p1.0IIIc111 011 il 11iiliOllil~SC;I~C, ;I1 li'il~lill 111~l'Ol'c'5~~~l~I~~ ~'U~lll~, A rcgio11;il ;~pproiicliis niorc likely to prove succcs::l'ul 111 solvi~igI l;~iti'sc~~~viro~~~~ie~it;il ill~icss(C'oSfcy, ct ill. I 0H-I).

'1'0 select projects withill this regional co~itcst,;I sct of critcri;~must he tlcvclopctl to tlctc~rnii~icpriorities ill sclccli~igrcgion;~l ~~rojccts I'or slri~tcgyiniplcnicnt;~- tion. 111 the interest of i~ii~iicdii~tc~iei~d. sclcctioli cri- tcriii slioulcl ilicluclc 11iosc projects wll~ichprcscrvc the ~wtcntinllymost prorluctivc lands. 'She ilrciis, within I liiiti, sclcctctl I'or ininicili;~tcland co~lscrv;itionpro- jects IliiIy not necessarily be thc most procluctivc lunrls toil;~y,hicc political considcrirtions (such as owncr- ship) with resulting investment priicticcs. may t7c dis- torting 1)rocluction st;rtistics. 'I'hc lands dclincatccl by the CEP (see Figure IV-I) rcprcsent one possihlc set of high priority urc;is bi~sccl on low crosion risk. :~rablcland critfcria. Othcr criteria sho~~lilhe dc~clopcdto select i\rc;ls which Iiavc inipor- 3.- INCORI'ORA'I'ION OF LOCAL PAR'I'ICIPATION tnnt cnvironmcntol and socio-economic implications IN LAND-USE PROJECTS. in ;idilition to or othcr thim l'ooel prodilction. For cxam- pic, criteria which identify mountitinous iircils produc- If thc inhabit;ults ilrc to accept the licccl to alter existing i~gricultiiriilpriicticcs, benefits must directly ing lurgc qun~ititicsof sctliment that thrci~tcnexisting and immcdiatcly accrue to the small farmcr whcncvcr hydroelectric plants and other infri~structurc and innovations arc attempted. Local participation of the lowlands agricultural production should be ir~clutlcd. pcoplc living on the li~ndmust be an integral part of No matter which lands arc idcntificd as crucial to any environmental project. Guarantees should be in prcscrvc, it is critical, ill the first stage of project for- pli~cc,prior to improvements, to protect the farmers mulation, to identify all the critical systcni links that from losing cithcr their land, or having tax laws applied ilffcct and interact ori these lands. For example, to negate the bcnefitsonce the land utility increi~ses. lowlands have arid likely will rcniain the highest prio- rity Cor both intc:rnational donors and the GOI-I. Yet B~C~ILISCof the ecological interaction of the physical irrigation projects to increase food production in the processes and the fragmented nature of land holdings lowlittd arcils have ri~rely11lct expectations in the pi~st throughout the countryside, local participation must bcc;rusc an integrated wiitcrshcd approach wiis not be coordinated within functional ilroi.is such ;is hillslopc part of the planning process. iind catchment units. A rccent community soil conser- vation project. Ti Bwa (Petit-Bois) is illustriitive of a 2.- FOCUS ON CAYFiS BASIN REGION successful environmental maintenance effort at the lo- The Caycs Basin region appears to be il high. if not cal level (Tnlbot, 1984; Lowcnthal. 1984). Minimal the highest, priority area for immediate program initia- development occurred, but at least land degradation tives bnscd on the criteria suggcstcd. Previous rcports was arrested. In many ways. the building of waterway (Coffcy ct al. 1984; Dclatour et al. 1984) indicate that channels along the hillslopes in this arcit illustrated this area, both physically unrl sociologically, has poten- t hc conimirni ty coopcrntion/liiIlslopc unit approach tial for success. Compiiri~tivcdatn for all of Haiti indi- i~dvocatcd by Murray (1979) (Figure 111-7). The cate that thc greatest co~icentriition of agricultural contour canills arc now cwhing runol't'. which reduces lands with low crosion risk is found here. The ilrcil erosion. Thcir primary bcnfit, howcver, incrci~scs becomes even more valtii~blchcc;iusc 99 percent of gro11nclw:itcr rcchargc, which permits crops (c.g. sor- these "good" lands form ;I single continuous tract. ghum to survivc. Bccausc of the thinsoil throughout Furthermore, climatic conditions mukc possihlc rain- the arca, crop production likely will only be able to fed agriculture throughout the critirc rcgion, and sup- meet the nccds of the existing population demands I'V( :~c.tit,itica~~cb~tl 10 Iw co~~c'ptu;~li/cdIlqo~d tllc IIO~III;I~II;II~SOW *go;~Is 01' IIIC\~ ~I.~;IIIIY;I~I~I~\.'lllcir opes- ~.;ltionsIIIII\~ Iw 1;1ilor~~lto the ~~ccilsO~';III ~IIV~I.~I~IIIL*II- ti11 I'r;~~i~cwork;IIICI wi111i11;III i~itcg~~;~tcile~r~~~iro~~~~icr~t;~l :l~l~Il~o;lcll. I'oln~l;~rio~~IJI.L*~~III.~S OII I I;~iti'\ I'r;~gilc*I;111iIs IIILIS~ dccrc;~~~.'1'11~s. pro~ect\ i~~tc~~dcil to il~~l~~x)vc tl~cell- viro~~~~ic~~t111~~1;11ho ~II~III~~~*OI~~IJ~II~II~S C'OII~~~II~~ wit11 111r;11 ;III~~I~II:III ~.IC~~~~OIIIIICII~;111iI I';~niily~I;III- ning. II' CIIIIIIO~IIICIII o;ylortu~~itichdo 1101 CSIJ;IIICI 10 :111sorh t11c cxccsaivc II~I:III~I;I~~;II.I;III pop~li~tio~~, out- 111igr;ltion I'rorn tllc liillslolw ;~rc;~s\vill occwr only al'tcr. the uplar~ilc~~viron~ncr~ts arc ilclrtroyctl. 1 Agriculture

A.- INTRODUCTION the Cul de Sac, separates the southern mountains from the Central Plateau. Once the richest French colony in the new world, Haiti is now the poorest country in the western hemis- Only 29 percent of all lands have slopes of less the phere and one of the poorest in the world. With inde- 10 percent. Conversely, 63 percent of all lands are too pendence came a breakdown of the plantation system steep (more than 20 percent slope) to be cultivated and the irrigation works on which it depended to a sustainably. When the land is deprived of the vegeta- large extent. In the civil wars which followed, two tive cover by slash-and-burn farming activities, it can processes developed, became institutionalized and are only yield a meager crop for one season. After losing characteristic of the Haitian scme: The parcelization the topsoil to erosion, it becomes unproductive. The of land, as the freed slaves occupied land in scattered situation has already occurred on most lands in Haiti. and small parcels, further subdivided by increased po- pulation pressure, led to the present state of high de- The FA0 estimates in 1982 that the equivalent of gree of morcelization with much insecurity of tenure. 6,000 ha of farmland is lost to erosion each year. Given The other characteristic which became implanted in the limited amount of arable land remaining in Haiti Haitian society and which persists to this day, is a lack it is evident that this loss of soil is rapidly diminishing of identification of the individual with any greater pur- the viability of many areas of the country to support pose than selflfamily survival and/or agrandissement. its human population. Out of this evolved a society in which every layer of the society exploits those which are below. B.- AGRICULTURAL USES OF THE LAND Those two characteristics of the Haitian society are The FA0 Production Yearbook (1983) divides Hai- the underlying causes of rural poverty and of the de- ti's total land area of 2,770,000 ha into use suitability terioration of the resource base which threatens to classes: (a) arable land (897,000 ha, of which 550,000 make the very survival of the society problematical. ha are suitable for annual crops, and 347,000 ha are Numerous assessments of the agricultural sector have been made in which the characteristics of the sector are suitable for permanent crops); (b) permanent pasture (504,000 ha); (c) forest lands (119,000 ha); and (d) amply described and analyzed. The discussion to fol- other lands (1,250,000 ha). Actual land use distribu- low will focus on elements which are most directly tion (Table IV-6) shows that 2 out of every 3 ha. of related. to the evolution of environmental changes: the cultivated lands are found on mountains, presumably resource base, the structure of the sector, production on more or less steep slopes. 'Thus, twice as much land tsihndogy and productivity, the almost insurmounta- is cultivated on mounlain slopes than is considered ble task of bringing about a reversal of resources de- suitable by the FA0(1983) for permanent crops. Mo- gradation and certain options which may be conside- reover, considering that only a small portion of the red. cultivated lands on the mountains is actually used un- Haiti is a mountainous country with two parallel der a permanent vegetative cover (permanent crops ridges forming the southern and northern peninsulas. such as coffee, cocoa, fruit trees), the soil loss from An elevated area, the Central Plateau, extends mountain lands cultivated with annual crops is enor- southward from the northern ridge. A low lying plain, mous. IDotentiulUse (2) 1,uncl Area (kml)md '%, 1)istribution (I)

I,n~ntllSoilClr~ss North l'ri~nsv. West South 'I'otul (h)d soils with possihilitics for irriga- tion, suiti~blcfor mcchilniz;rtion, high ~m)iluctivitypotential, topogr;~phy constraining

Good soils, not irrigahlc, sonic rcs- triction in type of crop, small localized ~ncchunizationantl irrigation possible tr:~ditionalagriculture with soil coriscrvntion mcasurcs, topogrirphy ;I constraint, most appropriate for tree crops, pasture i~ndforcst.

Mediocre soils, swampy suited for ricc subjcct to aclcquntc water dcvclop- ment and managerncnt, clrainugc and irrigation

Soils suited especially for forest, localized tree crop egriculturc and p;lsturcs possible. 'I'opogri~phycons- trainingsubjcct to scvcrc erosion. a) includes classcs I and 11 of the USDA systcni 17) inclurlcs clnsscs Ill, IV and V1 of the USDA systcm c) includes class V of the USDA systcni d) inclutlcs clnsscs VI1 and VllI of thc USDA systcm I) 'Shc country is divided into four regions for resources inventory & planning by DATPE (see figure) 2) atlol7tcd by DA'I'I'E from USDA soil capability classification 3) for each rcgionlcountry the totill urea 4) for each rcgionlcountry the percentage of the arca corresponding to the rcspcctive land soil class 5) contribution of each region to area of the rcspcctive clilssc~expressed in pcrccntage.

'I'hc Ministry of I'li111 in its approi~chto regional DA'l'PE in its class I1 of much of thc land which FA0 planning. has divided the I-laitian land area into land classcs as suitablc for permanent ppasttrrc rather than usc cli~sscsbascil upon a nioclification of the USDA its arable land. li~nilcapability classification systcm (DA'SI'E, 1984). Potential uscs of lullil in the four rcgions rlcwly l'hc CEP tco111, using more conservative criteria clcsignatctl, hasctl on that system of classification and (cog.arable land with low erosion risk). concluded clcrivccl from rcccntly producccl miips from 1978 aerial that the arca s~~itiiblcfor crop production with few photography (DATI'E,, 1982), arc given in'l'ahlc IV-I. restrictions is in order of approximately 205,000 ha, or 7.4%. The tcam also concluded that the arca unilcr Only 1 1.3 pcrccnt o!' thc total lanil ilrca or 313,010 forcst cover is greatly overstated by thc DATPE figu- 1ir1 is plnccd in the combined classcs 1 and 11, which res. represent few constraints for agricultural usc. Much of thc 31.7 pcrccnt of the Iimd placed in the comhincd According to u recent GOH document (DATIJE, IJSDA classcs Ill. IV ;~ndVI, consists of stccp slopes l984), forty-twc; pcrccnt of I-laiti's total Ii~ndsurfacc subject to scvcrc erosion and suit:~l~lc*only for perm- is actively being farmed ('hhle IV-2). Utilizing dntii ncnt crops or pitst~rcs.The I1 A'I'I'E figures show it ilcrivccl fro111 1978 air photographs, u soil potcntii~l considcrably largcr ;lrcil in classes I, I1 atld I11 (coni- nlilp and an crosionul map were clcvclopctl (DATPE, binccl USIIA classcs ! through VI) than is cl:~ssificd 1082). By combining the informiition prcscntcd on as arable by the FAO. This is due to thc inclusion by these two milps, the CEP tcam dcrivcd on a real dis- Table IV-2 tribution of agriculturally "good" lands (low erosional AGRICULTURAL LAND USE IN HAITI * risk under the existing Haitian agricultural system of classes I, 11, Ill, and soils not degraded significantly Cultivated lands 870,00()ha 31.4 pcrcent by erosion Al, A2) within Haiti (Figure IV-1). Having Shiftingcultivatcd lands a low risk of environmental degradation, these "good" within pastures 3OO,o(H) 10.8 lands have the best potential for sustaining long-term Grazing lands 530,OM) 19.2 agriculture, provided that sufficient water is available. Forest lands 250,OM) 9.0 Non-cultivi~tcdlands 820 ,O(H) 29.6 A few busic patterns are evident from this map. I3rst, for a country where nearly cighty percent of Total 2,770,00() 100.0 perccnt the population lives in rural areas and whose livelihood is largely based on agricultural activities, there arc fcw * DATPE ( 1984) "good" lands (7.4% : Table IV-3) that are environmen-

-- Table IV-3 DISTRIBUTION OF GOOD AGRICULTURAL LANDS (Independent of climate) and crop suitability zone

Baeln (1) Area of Good Basin % Good Crop Suit. Land (Km') (2) Area (Km') Land Zone (4)

1. Versant Sud 2. Versant Nord 3. Trois Rivii?res,Port-de-Paix 4. P. Margot 5. B. de Limb6 6. Z de CapHaitien 7. B. de la Gdc. Riv. du Nord 8. Zone Nord-Est 9. B. de Quinte 10. B. de I'Estkre 1la Upper Artibonite (3) llbLower Artibonite 12. Z St-Marc 13. Z. Cul de Sac 14. Fond Verrettes 15. P. de Leogane 16. Z. Sud-Est 17. B. de la Gde R. dc Jacmel 18. Bainet 1 CBtes de Fer 19. Aquin / St-Louis du Sud 20. Cavaillon 21. Les Cayes 22. Tiburon/ Port Salut 23. Lcs Irois / JCrCmie 24. Grande Arise 25. Voldrogue / Roseaux 26. Corail / Anse 27. Gde. Riv. de Nippes 28. MiragGane / Petit & Grand Gofive 29. Tortue 30. Z. de la Gonave 31. Ile B Vache < than Total 1) Delimitation of basins according to DATPE, 1982. 2) Area falling within Land Potential Classes I, 11, 111 and Land Erosion Risk Al, A2; DATPE, 1982. 3) Upper Artibonite - all lands draining above Lake Peligre Dam 4) Based on Rainfed Agriculture in Haiti (Hargreaves et al. 1983). t..J ~ oc ~ -~

"0'"== ...~ :JQ ::!..'" 5-'" C., :0 ~ :.i 1 S' Q,= tIl: I ;; ~ 0'., til >I "CI =S' S"= ;.

z

:E o o

PREPARED BY WILCOX ASSOCIATES tally stable under current land use practices. Second, Tiible IV-6 shows regional land use in relation to the majority of these "good" lands itre not contiguous, topography. The widespread cultivation of land unsui- but in sm;rll discrete units. 'l'hird, even without consi- ted for annual crop production, without even minimal dering precipitation factors in the delimitation of attention to soil conservation practices, as well as the "good" lands, the northwest has it very restricted pcr- extc~~siveclearing of forest covcr for new lands, has centage of "good" Iilncls for agriculture. On the other led to the catastrophic accelerated state of erosion hand, the southwest pe~~insuli~,e~peciitlly the Cayes throughout the country. Basin, as well as the zone of the Cul-de-Sac havc the greatest percentage of 'pod" land density . Fourth, almost all large parcels of "good" lands arc concentra- 'The range of temperatures in the areas which are - ted along the coast or found along valley bottoms thi~t suitable for agriculture does not pose an important are likely to be susceptible to flooding. Fifth, if river constraint on agricultural production. Yet the combi- basin divides are ignored, four large parcels of conti- nation of elevation and rainfall can determine the kinds guous "good" lands dwarf all other parcels. These are of crop produced. For example, beans are principally from north to south: the I;I& in proximity to Cap-Hai- grown at the high elevations during the rainy season tien, the lower reaches of the Estere and Artibonite because of severe damage from disease and pests when River Basins between Dessalines and St-Marc; the planted in the lowlands, while beans are successfully Cul-de-sac lands focused on Croix-des-Bouquets; arid planted in the lowlands during the dry season where the Cayes river basins. Sixth and finally, when combi- irrigation is available. ning both the "good" land factor with the crop suita- bility zones (Tables IV-3 and IV-4), the Cayes rivcr Although, based on evapotranspiration data, areas Basin appears to have the best potential per unit arca with rainfall of 1500 mm or more should be able to of land within a rivcr basin system for rain-fed and sustain reasonable crop growth without irrigation (a irrigated agriculture. Appendix A provides a detailed subst;tntial portion of Haiti receives at least 1500 discussion of crop suitability zones. mmlyear), the considerable variation between and within seasons makes annual crop production without Table IV-5 providcs data on current (based on 1978 irrigation hazardous in all but a few favored areas. aerial photographs) land use by type of crop, pasture Moreover, "agricultural droughts" frequently occur or forest cover. It is clear from these figures that the under conditions of generally adequate amounts and land currently supporting crops is much larger in arca distribution of rainfall because of the low absorption than what the FA0 has classified as agricultural land. and retention capacities of the soils (NOAA, 1979). This appears to be due to the high degree of food Agricultural droughts are especially severe where soil cultivation interspersed within the areas classed as sui- erosion has reduced the land's water retention capacity table for tree crops and permanent pasture and forest. over cxtcnsive areas, such as the northwest around

Table IV-4 CRITERIA USED TO DETERMINE GOOD AGRICULTURAL LANDS

Land Classification of Soils (USDA) LandISoil Class I. Excellent - Soils well drained, slope 0-2% high productivity 11. Very Good - Soils well draincd, slope 2-5% good productivity 111. Good - Slopes 5p8% need erosion control, average productivity Erosion Characteristic of Soils (DADPg, 1982) Al Slight erosion and low erosion potential when vegetation covcr exists, primarily alluvial soils A2 Average erosion, need soil conservation, should primarily be kept in tree or perenial vegetation.

Crop Suitability Zones (Hargrcavcs and Samani, 1983) Zone 1. Arid, cultivated crops need irrigation in all months 2. Semi-arid, crops requiring60days or less (e.g, millets and mung beans), low potentially yields for rainfed and irrigation very useful 3. Sum-humid bi-modal rainy season, avcragc growing season three to four months, good yields possible under good water moisture storage 4. Humid, average growingseason five to six months, rainfall usually dcpendablc, some double cropping possible. 5. Humid, Average growing season seven to nine months, some months havc excessive rainfall requiring good drainage for most general crops. 6. Perhumid, average growing season tcn to twelve months, situated primarily in mountainous areas, important source areas for river flows. Tabk IV-5 OCCUPATION OF LAND BY USE CATEGORIES (1)

Type d Laad Urn North Tramversak Wcst Swth Hdti

Specialized crops 371.1 Rice 42.8 Agricultural Sugarcane 126.1 Annual Irrigated 48.4 Banana - lhnnain Sisal 163.2 Vctiver - Coconut - Tree crops dominant 413.0 (Food crops in (c)267.5 association) 145.5 Tree crops sparce 846.7 associated food 553.1 crops dense (c)293.6

Food crops dense tree cover open 474.7 Food crops moderately dense in pasture and natural vegetation 438.1 Food crops dispersed pasture and natural vegetation 196.8 Extensive pasture herbaceous species dominant 305.1 Savana with trees 183.7 Trees localized 44.8 Silvo Trees dense Trees sparse Trees verv svarse Broad leif iorest pastoral Dense Sparse Very Sparse Pine forest Domain Dense Sparse Very Sparse Mangrove

(1) From maps showing occupation of land established from 1978 aerial photographs. (DATPEISEP); NI = Not Indicated (c) Coffee probably in association TABLE IV-6: OCCUPATION OF LAND IN RELATION TO TOPOGRAPHY

R- Valleys and Low bus MounOolns PIattau Plains Mountains North Region Area: 3,831.2 Km2 (Area (Km') 1,087.1 1,454.7 1,195.3 33.1 Specialized Crops 34.13% - - - Agricultural Domain 84.52% 53.28% 31.91% 91.24% Agro-pastorai Domain 6.03% 25.62% 41.73% 8.76% Silvo-pastoral domain 9.44% 21.10% 26.36% - -. - Transversal Region Area: 10,735.4 km' Area (km2) 2,076.4 4,705.1 2,828.1 515.6 Specialized Crops 27.56% 0.30% 47.60% Agricultural Domain 76.91% 41.58% 30.82% 47.60% Agro-pastoral domain 13.00% 40.15% 42.38% 23.54% Silvo-pastoral domain 4.54% 17.52% 9.54% 34.98% Region West Area Area: 6,959.1 km2 Area (Km2) 805.4 2,768.4 2,365.8 711.6 Specialized crops 35.86 1.08% - - Agricultural domain 79.15% 28.50% 46.59% 43.34 Agro-pastoral domain 13.00% 40.15% 42.38% 23.54% Silvo-pastoral domain 7.85% 31.35% 11.0% 33.12% -----*------.------Region South Area: 5,776.1 km2 Area (Km2) 967.40 3,111.0 1,324.2 255.4 Specialized crops 33.37% 2.29% - - Agricultural Domain 85.09% 45 -94% 20.91% 47.49% Agro-pastoral domain 2.53% 23.05% 30.32 16.13% ...... Silvo-pastoraldomain 12.37% 31.01% 48.77% 36.38% Source: from interpretation of aerial photography of 1978 (DATPEISEP).

Bombardopolis, MOle St-Nicolas and Jean-Rabel. 1920-1937, 1938-1958 and 1958-1978, shows no signif- icant differences or trends (NOAA, 1979). Neverthe- Iri these areas the soils are naturally thin and have less, a perception of increasing occurence of droughts poor water absorption and retention characteristics. affectirig agriculture may be really due, not to natural Once denuded of forest or grass cover, the absorption phenomena, but because of the decreasing absorption and retention capacities diminish, making crop pro- capability of eroded lands. duction hazardous even under generally adequate rain- fall amounts and distribution. Even with the deeper D.- THE STRUCTURE soils on the steep slopes, absorption and retention of OF THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR water I by denuded soils is frequently inadequate. The result of widespread clearing of vegetation is a vicious The amount of arable land in Haiti has been vari- cycle of low rates of absorption, rapid runoff, erosion, ously estimated. The figures cited usually range be- still lower absorption capabi'lity, more rapid runoff tween 890,000 and 1,100,000 ha, with most estimates and more erosion. in the lower range. Although the view is frequently heard that rainfall Although it is generally understood that the agricul- 'is decreasing and droughts have increased in recent tural sector is composed primarily of a large number years in Haiti, this is not supported by the available of small farmers, there are nonetheless some sizeable data (NOAA, 1979). The occurrence of several series holdings. A total of 178,080 ha is attributed to ten of drought years during the period of the late 50's to such holdings (CEPALJFAO 1983). If one single hol- the late 701s, which was generalized throughout the ding of 150,000 ha is subtracted (SHADA, Sociktk Caribbean region, appear to be a cyclical phenomena. Haitienne Am6ricaine de D6veloppement Agricole, A comparison of variablity data for three periods, was granted 150,000 ha of forest lands in the early 1940's). the remaining 28,080 ha which are mostly ara- category. There are also numerous holdings of 50 to ble, constitute about three percent of the land area 100 ha which are cultivated as single units; however, classed as arable by most authorities. This land is lo- the total area thus occupied is very small as a percen- cated in the pluins and occupied principally by sugar tage of the whole. cane and sisal. Figure IV-2 provides a diagramatic picture of the Extensive areas are attributed to the government distribution of cultivated holdings by size (CEPAU rcfcrrcd to as "Statc lands". Littlc is dcfinitively FAO, 1983). The aggregate of 669,395 carreaux known about the magnitude and location of these hol- (863,519 ha; one carreau is equal to 1.29 ha) is repre- dings. They are not exploited by government, but sented by 616,710 production units. The degree of rather rcntcd or otherwise occupied by the local popu- parcelization is clearly evident; seventy-one percent lation. Much of the state lands fall in the non-arable of all production units (generally family plots) occu- pying one carreau or less account for 32.5 percent of the total cultivated area. The distribution by size of units, illustrated in Figure IV-2, refers to production units (family units). Since, in most cases, a production unit consists of more than one parcel of land which may be owned, rented, share- cropped or jointly farmed by several individuals with undivided interest, the degree of parcelization is greater than appears. Among holdings of 3 ha or less, 557,515 holdings averaging 0.96 ha, involving a total area of 534,142 ha., was distributed among 936,390 individual parcels. Table IV-7 shows thc number of plots per farm and the size of each plot (IHS, 1973). - This feature of Haitian peasant agriculture is appa- rently of long standing. Data for 1950 and 1971 show essentially no change in average unit area, although the number of units and the total area involved more than doubled during this period. The Haitian farmer -- has evidently through the years chosen or was forced .I...... by limited resources, to limit the size of his production , .. unit even when land was more generally available. Thus, in 1980, only 28 percent of all farms consisted of a single, continuous plot, while 47 percent consisted of non-contiguous plots at some distance from the pea-

.,... , .. . sant hut. An interpretation of Table IV-8 (Anglade, 1974) shows that 59 percent of all holdings were smaller than one ha, consisted of 47 percent of all parcels of culti- vated land, but occupied only 21 percent of all land ~lg.1v.2: size dlstributlon orcultivated holdlngs cultivated. These smalls parcels supported approxima- (CEPAWFAO 19%J) (1) 1 carreau = 1.29 ha. tely 54 percent of the peasant population.

Table 1V-7 NUMBER OF PLOTS PER FARM AND SIZE OF PLOTS (1971)

Dept. No. of Farms No. of Plots PlotdFarm Avg. Plot (ha.)

Nord Nord-Ouest Artibonite Ouest Sud Entire country

Source: IHS Port-au-Prince. Table IV-8 SUMMARY STATISTICS ON AGRICULTURAL HOLDING (1971)

No.dHddlngl No. ofPamla TOWLand Populalbn AVC- # ol ~vcrwPuce1 Average rY of prr HdcUnll (m parabper Sb(N.) paroarpcr bddlal Hddlnl

lha. & bclow 361,985 530,480 184,843 1,498,020 1.46 0.34 4.15 1 to2ha 141.930 275,510 21 1,940 666,180 1.94 0.76 4.69 ...... 2to3ha 53,600 130,400 137,359 279,990 2.43 1.05 5.22 ...... Cumulative % 91% 84% 62% 88% 3 to4ha. 27,370 74,390 %,762 143,800 2.71 1.30 5.25 4 to5ha. 6,440 39,3Nl 36,790 48,000 3,47 1.32 5.68 ...... Above 5ha. 23,385 78,110 193,822 143,030 3.34 2.48 6.11 Total 616,710 1,118,230 863,516 2,779,020,1.81 0.77 4.50 Source: George Anglade, Espace Haitien, 1974.

Table IV-9 HAITI: TOTAL AREA, CULTIVATED AREA AND POPULATION DENSITY, 1982

Surface Area Total Population Density 1000/Km1 (1000's) Persons/Kma Total Cultivated Population Total Cultivated

West Southeast North Northeast Artibonite Center South Grande Anse Northwest Unknown*

Total 27.000 8.191 5,053.791 182 617 ______-----*-.------.A------.------Note: One square kilometer equals 100 hectares Note: The population is quoted between 5 and 6 millions *: To balance Haiti total surface area Source: Institut Haitien de Statistiques et d'hformatique, Analyse de quelques indicateurs ddmographiques tire des Recensernents de 1950, 1971 et 1982; April 1982, Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

If holdings up to 3 ha are considered, then the sta- country of 677 inviduals per square kilometer (100 ha) tistics are even more striking. These lands constitute of cultivated land. Regionally, the north, transversale, 91 percent of all holdings, support 88 percent of the west and south regions contain 584; 448; 876; and 544 peasant population and occupy 62 percent of all culti- individuals per square km of cultivated land respecti- vated lands. vely. The high population density for the west region reflects the concentration of population in Port-au- A comparison of total area, cultivated area, popula- Prince. With this very high density of population and tion densities, expressed in terms of total area and remarkably high degree of parcelization, the need for area cultivated for 1982, is shown in 'Table IV-9 the application of improved tcchnology, use of water DATPE reports an overall population density for the resources for irrigation, resources conservation ad improvcment, an well as improvement of living stan- The 1950 census showed that as many as eighty per- dards for the rural population, become immediate. cent of all farmers were land owners, with essentially no differences among regions. Table IV-10 shows the E.- AGRICULTURAL PERSPECTIVE distribution of land ownership by tenure categories ONLANDTENURE and by region ris of 1950. The tenure pattern derived The tenure status of Haitian lands is complicated from a socio-wonomic survey in 1970 in which two by the existence of several types of land tenure, the percent pf households were covered, (Tablc IV-11) uncertainty of tenure and status of much of the land, shows distribution of land by mode of tenure and par- the uncertainty as to the amount and geographical cel size (CEPAWFAO, 1983). location of state-owned lands, and the tenancy status Data from a number of studies, restricted to specific of farmers occupying this land. Moreover, while the areas and reported by Zuvekas (1977), showed that majority of farmers own land, a large percemtage reot, farmers owning at least part of their land ranged from lease or sharecrop land while leasing out some owned 56 to 100 percent of the farmers in the sites studied. land to others. In many cases, farmers did not own all the land culti-

Table IV-10 LAND TENURE IN 1950 Tenure Category Northwest North Artlbonite West South Total to homesi te ~lus other land: i'otal Owners Renting from State Renting from private owners Managers Sharecroppers Tenure status unknown 2. Farm only land adjacent to homesite: Total Owners Renting from State Renting from private owners Managers Sharecroppers Tenure Status unknown 3. Farming only land away from homesite 4, Farm Households - Total

--- Source: Haiti, IHS (1955) reported by Zuvekas 1977.

Tuble IV-11 LAND TENURE IN 1970

Tenure Category Number of Parcels '10 of Parcels Owners 803.650 Renting from State 56,473 Renting from private owners 155,557 Sharecroppers 2 13,528 Other for of tenure 165,168 Total 1,484,385

Source: Haiti, IHS, (1975) rcportcd by Zuvckas (1977). vatcd, nor did they illways cultiv;rtc all the land they owned. 'I'll$: production of agricultural commoditics provi- The status of land t~tlcsis very unclcw. Where i~t- des ir livelihood for seventy-two percent of the Haitian tempts have been made to precisely determine owncr- population (Ills, 1984). The cxport of egricultural ship, it has been found thirt between 30 and 68 pcrccnt commodities i~ccou~~tcdfor 48.7 pcrccnt of total cx- of farmcrs in the ilrcirs studied claimed to have titlcs. ports in 1083, and in I981 thc contribution oC agricul- I-Iowevcr, even when titlcs existed, the validity of ture to GDP was thirty-one pcrccnt. During the period many was frequently qucstionablc. Sixty-seven pcr- 1070- 1980, the antiual growth of the scctor averaged cent of titles examined in the ODPG project arcil were 1. I pcrccnt. Since I'J80, growth has been ncgirtivc, found to be not recorded with the loci~lDirection Cid- I'i~llingIy I'X,. 4.7% and 0.0% for 1080, 1981 i~nd lll!rilk dcs ImpOt~{il~~c~~lllcllt illld tilX OffiW$),SLlggcS- 1982, respectively. ting that these could be challcngcd. Figure IV-3 traces certain trcnds in the agricultural Farmers iire reluctant to divulge information on land scctor with respect to contribution to GDP and cxport holdings and tenure status. The confidcncc of farmcrs ci~rning,while Figures IV-4, IV-5, IV,-6, and IV-7 in the equity of the systcnl has been seriously croded provide trends in total production of food, production by frequent cases of cxploitation by the economically of major commodities and yield of principal crops. and politically powerful elements of the Haitian soci- Figure IV-8 provides similar data for livestock. ety, the exorbitant cost of litigation to obtain andlor dcl'cnd titlcs. irnd thc unscrupulous excrcisc of ii~tho- Table IV-12 providcs data on distribution of produc- rity by local judges in edministcring land titling proccs- tion of principal agricultural commoditics by region SCS. for the year 1979, while 'rablt: IV-13 provides data on the values of production of the principal commodites. The absence of cadastral survcy is a furthcr compli- Several general observations can be made from these cation. A recent (Dcc. 1984) Decrcc establishes a Ca- figures and the tabular data presented. dastri~lInstitute in charge of carrying out a cadastral survcy under the supervision of the Ministry of Intc- The total arca under crops in 1079 cxcecded, by rior. The unclear legal status of land ownership results over 25 percent, the arca generally considered to be in title insecurity, which adversely impacts on inves- arable, and about five times the area classed as "good tment in land iniprovcmcnt, usc of inputs, and the lands" by the CEP team. This is partially due to the application of conservation practices. production of two crops per year in many cases. This

Porconl \ Cole0 Exporlrrao parcrnl ol lolal

Dala Imm Banqua da la R@publlqued'tianl mdIMF

- Flgure IV-3: Trend in Contrlbutlon to GDP and Export Value by Agriculture ('10). / Total A~rlcullurrlProducllon / \

Agrlculturrl Producllon par caput

From USDA Slrllallcrl Bullalln 880(1881) World Indlcrr ol Agricultural and Food Producllon

Fig. IV-4: Agricultural production: total versus per capi(cl

R 1889.7 1 1971 1872 1973 1874 1975 1970 1977 1878 1878 lee0 1 I I I I I I I I

From USDA Slallatlcrl Bullrlln 6887 (1881)

Flg. IV-5: Trends in total production of food Dtla from MARNDR rrparlrd by USAID ProJrclPaper

Food lor Devrlopmenl (lBSq)

Scale for: I

\__Melte --. -- 3M)O Sorghum

Fig. IV-7:Trend in yield of principal crops. Table IV-12 PRODUCTION, AREA AND YIELDS OF PRINCIPAL CROPS BY REGIONS IN 1979 (1)

- Production MT Area Htcbrts Avg yield, Kgh. CW N T W S Haiti N T W S Haiti N T W S Haiti Maizc 23903 61377 35930 62121 183331 36334 74438 530)H 69959 233749 658 825 768 RlUl 784 Millet/ Sorghum 3330 55975 40453 23524 123282 10325 66687 41902 38051 156696 331 839 %5 618 787 Ricc 13055 94015 4721 10325 122116 7059 36340 3158 7419 53996 1850 2587 1494 1392 2262 Bcans(dry) 11576 13047 16885 11190 52695 16128 21554 28460 23536 89678 718 605 593 475 588 Pigeon Peas 3473 10070 6417 5651 25541 7240 24829 18744 18567 69380 480 406 342 304 368 Beans 402 4992 2856 2243 1403 W6 1407.9 9839 6420 391'74 450 355 290 349 360 Peanut 9762 6872 12277 6629 36629 12860 8872 17560 7770 47062 753 776 6Y9 853 754 Sesame 1362 1528 491 744 4125 4609 5549 1342 2387 13887 296 275 366 312 297 Manioc 63927 76037 51041 62351 253356 14Y09 19374 12732 15846 62861 4288 3925 4008 5197 6i%1 Yams 17486 27466 21277 43928 110157 6777 6174 11909 33639 2583 3129 3446 3689 3275 SwmPdalo 49866 78993 65436 70491 264788 12209 18179 15715 16427 62530 4085 4345 4164 4291 4'114 Plaintain 79020 100Y39 52649 68666 301274 10364 14.802 M25 13493 47484 7624 6819 5966 5089 6345 CocoYam 3959 15472 6015 13683 39129 1869 8728 "431 7176 21204 2342 1773 1753 1907 1845 -Banana 52335 44307 48613 64975 210230 %42 7362 6738 12876 33618 6056 6018 7215 5008 6253 Total Food 337057 571090 350061 446521 1740746

------Coffee (4) 71 17 5876 10032 12844 35900 33678 181% 40047 45617 137618 1262 1929 14% 1682 1558% Cocoa(3) 2052 20118 1814 5502 11456 632 645 188 3105 4570 3252 -95 1771 2507 Cotton 491 2472 1039 5589 1342 5046 4419 2819 13646 366 490 133 369 410 Rural Pop. 1971 (1000) 582 10M 1027 913 3529 Food Prod. (2)perapita 579 579 341 389 493 (1) From DATPE Ministry of Plan: Regions et Stratdgie de Ddveloppernent Rdgional (1984) (2) Bascd on rural population (3) Cocoa production has remained on average around 3000 Mt per year, but 1679 was an cxceptionaly good paoduction year. (4) Coffee figures are from OPRODEX

N = North region T = Transversd re~ion W = West rcgion S = South region intensity of land use, nevertheless, with such primitive Crop and food production has been static since 1970, agricultural practices and less than optimal soil condi- while both have followed a decreasing trend on a per tions is exceedingly high. capital basis. Grain crops occupy 37 percent of all the cultivated Production of the widely grown grain crops, maize area; pulses and oil crops 22 percent; root and other and sorghum, accounting for 37 percent of all cropped starchy foods 22 percent; sugar cane 5 percent and area, has followed a decreasing trend since 1970. The export crops (mostly tree crops) 15 peicent. trend in rice production is upward and follows closely the population growth line. Although food crops cover about 80 percent of the cultivated area, the value of production is only about The production trend for pulses and beans has been one half that of export crops, excluding sugar. flat, while root and other starch foods have followed slightly rising trends; at a slower rate, however, than Comparable figures on livestock production arc not population growth. Per capital daily calorie supply has available. Howcvcr, one cstimatc (Ithaca Intcrnrrtio- diminished 4.5 percent in past twenty years (FAO, nal, 1983) placcs the total value of livestock production 1983). at 24 percent of thc vi~lueof the i~griculturetotal, and 8 percent of GDP. Coffee production has remained cssentially the same Livestock number (Figure IV-X) show an increasing since 1974, with slightly decrcasing yields pcr hectare. Cocoa production (3000 MT) hasn't significantly chan- trend bctwccn 1965 and 1971. During the period 1979 ged in the last tc11 yeiirs. to 1982 the trcnd is flat cxccpl for swinc, whose popu- lation was eradicated temporarily, and for poultry, Although important differences among regions exist which show an increasing trcnd. with rcspcct to production of diffcrcnt crops, on bal- Table IV-13 THE VALUE OF PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN AGRICULTURAI, COMMODITIIES FOR 1979 (1)

Value of Production (1000 Gourdes) Percenlage of Total N T W 8 Hdt1 N T W S

Maim 17,688 Millet 2,464 Rice 28,721 Lu3 Bcana 23,152 Peanut 17,798 Manioc 12,785 Plvintain 59,265 SUM 161.873

Coffee 38955 % ma 24,624 Cotton 982 mmcmp TW2) 64561 Ba 111 Coconut 222.6 Mangoes 1,239.0 orang, 1,012.1 ImZ Chodbq~ 488.2

Fruit Per Capita 5 1 ToW (Food + Export + Frult) =

(1) From DATPE (1984) (2) Comparable data not available for other exports (si!~al,sugar cane); coffee values from OPRODEX. (3) Based on ~ralpopulation from table IV-12 (4) Comparable data not available for other fruits. ance, and on a per capita basis, there is relatively little tion system; inadequate maintenance and control of disparity among the regions except for a considerably primary water distribution systems; lack of basic water low per capita production of foods in the western re- requirements inforniation; poor drainage; and the vir- gion. In terms of non-food crops, it is the transversale tual lack of yield increasing inputs (improved seeds, region which is at a disadvantage. fertilizers, pest control); all required toobtain the most effective returns from irrigation. Technology and Productivity The production of perennial crops suffers from over- The Haitian farmer employs the most rudimentary age and low density of perennial crops; overshading technology. The nicthod of cultivation employed has and excessive density in coffee plsntings; inadequate undergone few changes since the nineteenth century. attention to weedings; and lack of fertilizer inputs, Tools are generally limited to the hoe and the "mache- improved varieties and pest control. Lack of water te". Table IV-14 provides data on number and type and soil conservation characterizes much of the tree of tools (CEPALIFAO, 1983). Varieties of crop plants crop agriculture. The result is very low crop yield, used are largely traditional, which the population has among the lowest in the world. In a comparison of maintained with virtually no improvement through the yields of five important crops in 10 developing and 6 years. Neither manure, compost or commercial ferti- developed countries, yields reported in Haiti were the lizers are used to any extent. Minimal fallow of suffi- lowest in all but 3 of 65 comparisons (DATPE, 1984). cient duration for natural restoration of soil fertility Heavy losses from a wide variety of pests on mature and effective crop rotation itre practiced. Pest control crops in the field. as well as in storage, further reduced is limited to a few pests and crops. the effective productivity and availability of crops for Crop production under irrigation suffers from: poor consumption. land leveling; poor niaintcnancc of the water distribu- Production practices with livestock are even less de- / / Poultry

PIUS

Oorts

Shnep

ClIII.

Drlr from FA0 Producllon Yearbook (1983)

Fig. IV-8: Trenda In llveutock production.

Table 1V- 14 DISTRIBUTION OF AGRICULTURE TOOLS BY FARM SIZE Number of Tools by Type

Farm dzc # of arms tractors Plow Hoes Machetes Sickles Picks DiR/Uars Spadw Rakes Shovels Sprayer Qther TOW

Global 1500 - 7 1493 1314 960 0,Ol - 0,49 600 - - 525 443 285 O,50 - 8,99 420 - 7 465 375 293 I,()() - 1,99 345 - - 375 353 270 2,M- 4,99 120 - - 113 128 97 3,OO - 9,90 -. - - - - - 10,OO - 19,90 15 - - 15 15 15

- veloped. Most animals are left to forage for available lasses) is practiced to a very limited degree. Most of feed as free roaming individuals, herded on open ran- the feed bi-products are exported. Productivity is low, ges or staked out. A few ranches have fenced pastures with livestock only reaching a live weight of up to 300 and some attention is given to management of pastures kg after 5 to 6 years, and cows producing about one- and grazing. The livestock population exceeds the car- half quart of milk per day (Ithaca International, 1983). rying capacity of the existing grazing areas. Overgra- After cattle, which to the small farmer is the princi- zing is evident everywhere. pal repository of capital after land, swine was the most important animal production enterprise until pigs were Harvesting, storage and feeding or foragdhay is not eliminated to control the spread of African swine fever practiced by the small farmer. Feeding of animals with (Ithaca International, 1983). Pigs are now being rein- bi- products (rice and wheat bran, oil seed cakes, mo- troduced. 'I'hc low level of productivity in the i~griculturi~lscc- 'I'AI1LIS IV IS tor i111d the liniitccl applicirtion of improvccl prircticcs CONSrI'HAlN1'S 'I'O ACHICUI,TUKAI~ ciln be treccd to it wide rirngc of intcrrclirtcd constriri- DEVELOPMENT IN HAITI: ning fi~ctors:clifficult topogri~phy;virriirbility of rain- A THN'I'A'I'IVE RANKING k fell; inirdcqualc security in Iirnd tcnurc; virtual irbscncv of cirpiti~lformirtio11 i111tl ilcccss to ci~l);::!! through clc- (lit, ticncc vcry low lcvcls of invcst~ticntby the farmer; 'I'y pe or Ikgre or littiitctl public i~ivcstmc~ilin tllc rural arcits; limited Constralnb Ilnportancc.(a) i~vi~ilirbilityof improved crop var;ctics irnd production priuticcs; poor rcscirrcli irnrl cxtctislon scrviccs; and Farm-Lmcl Co11str;rints cxtrirortlini~ryctrllur,rl l'irctors, such iis ;I lo~lgIiislory Accss to I1roductivc Hcsourccs of cxploiti~tionof the rurirl populatioti by tllc urban Land and land tenure clitc i~nrlpolitical powcr struclurc, ;rritl by clc~ncnls Capital of the rurirl population itself Ici~tli~lgto irpirthy irntl Labor Supply Tcchnology clistlust of i~nyclcmcnt cxtcrriirl to tlic f;miily i~ntlits Natural Constraints a conscqucncc resulting in it lack ofcoopcr;rtion ilmollg Natural Disastcrs thc rural populirtiorr. An1 cxhi~uslivclisti~ig of corls- Climate, soils, topography, watcr trirints is given in 'I'irblc 1V-15. rcssourccs Insccts, discuses, rodcnts Soil Erosion and Rclatcd Man-Madc Constraints As tlic agricultural resource base continucs to dele- Support Systcm Constraints riorate and as the populatiori continues to increase, Supply-DcmandConstraints the mirintcnancc of production at current lcvcls will Supply Constraints Demand Constraints not be feasible without the application of new produc- Concessional food grain imports tion practices which increase yiclds. Marketing Constraints The existing research base on which to recommend Dispcrsed production Luck of uniform weights and pri~cticcsfor increasing production is still vcry limitcd. mcasurcs/grades and standards A research unit hcadquartcd at MARNDR with ac- Lack of storage facilities cess tc seven state farms rcpresenting the more impor- Handling and transport costs tant ecological zones of the country, has cxistcd for Lack of inventory financing over forty years. Considerable nssistancc wiis provided Lack of market information to this unit by USOM during the period 1958-1962. Institutional Constraints Between 1962 and 1972, however, the unit was essen- Administrative/managcrial/ tially dormant. Virtually no effective research was technical capacities being done recently. Beginning in the early 1970's, Cooperatives and other farmer limitcd assistance for agricultural research was provi- organizations Production Credit ded by Virginia Polytechnic Institute (VPI). This activ- Input suppliers ity concentrated on maize variety testing and selection Research and, to a lesser extent, testing of bean varicties. The Extension work was conccntrated on the Levy Farm in Les Cayes. Other services National-Level (Policy) Constraints A less extensive study of a range of cultural practices Tax Policy was also undertaken. The principal results from this Monetary Policy work were the identification of five better yielding PI ice Policy maize varieties, of which one was recommended be- Credit Policy cause of wider adaptatility to the population. The re- Land Tenure and Land port concluded, however, that the conditions of pro- Redistribution Policies duction practices, including quality of seed, fertiliza- Policies Affecting Rural Levels of tion, plant density, pest control, and adequate noi is- Living and Income Distribution tue, were more important determinants of yields than Employment Policy General Government Support for the crop variety (VPI, 1979). Agricultvral Development Implementation Constraints In 1981, the Agricultural Research Service (Service Bilateral and International Agency d'Etude et Recherche Agronomique (SERA) was Procedures - reorganized. A center for research and agricultural GOH Procedures documentation (CRDA) was created within the Fac- ulty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine (FAMV). (a) 1 = Major 2 = Moderate 3 = Minor The creation of the center, lacking the responsibility * Regarded by the DARNDR as significant cons- for research in thc FAMV, was predicated on the avail- traints. Table IV-16 ACTUAL enw YIICLDS WITH TRAI)ITIONAI~PRACTICES AND EXPECTED CHOP YIEI,DS WITH IRRIGATION AND APPROPRIATE LEVEIS OF TECHNOLOGY AT THE DUIIREUIL PROJECT AREA

------Actual, tradlllunul Aduul,nlyKuprlPk! IJotcntlml,nppruprlnte Crop Cycle pructlces and no technulogy und technology and Crup I~YN lrrlgatlun Irrlfimtiun Irrlpllun

Corn 120- 150 800 4000 bO(I0 Beans 80 670 1500 2000 Sorghum 100 750 3OW 50()0 Rice 90- 140 12OU 40(H) 6000 Pigeonpeas 235 600 2000 2500 Cowpeas 60-90 - 2000 3000 Soybeans 80- 100 - 1500 3000 Sweet potatoes 135-150 2250 5300 6000 Cassava 300 4000 6000 loo00 Tobacco 90- 120 - 1200 1700 Sugarcane 365 30000 7oOOO 120000 Irish potatoes 75 - - 12000 ------"------*------1. Actual yields of corn, beans, sorghum, rice, sweetpotatoes and sugar cane taken from UN-FAO,1975, Enquete et Ddmonstration Agricole dans la Pdninsule Sud, Haiti (28). For other crops, taken from Tcxas ABMIHaiti 1981 and 1982 Annual Reports (25, 26) and from Hargreaves and Samani (12). 2. Yields of corn, beans, sorghum, rice, sweetpotatoes and sugarcane taken frvm references 12, 25, 26 and 28. 3. Potential or near maximum yields, are adapted or taken from references 12,25,26and 28. They are bases on the use of irrigation and the adoption of improved technologies.

ability of a staff of some twenty-eight qualified person- The work of the A & M team, working concur- nel in FAMV and financial support from CIDA. rently, confirmed the superiority of the two CIMMYT maize varieties and identified supcrior varieties of sor- Other assistance for research was also provided by ghum, pigeon pea, common bean, tomato and okra. USAID in 1981 through a Tcxas A blr M tcam, and Packages of technology were defined for each of these. by CIMMYT with Canada's financial support. The nature of and results from thcsc programs, detailed in Economic analyses were made of some 29 cropping annual reports and papers prepared by the two groups systems under traditional and improved technology. are provided in Table IV-16. The improved technology resulted in up to 15-fold The CIMMYT work illustrated the approach of that incrcascs in net rcturns, with most systems returning institution to Farming Systems Research (FRS), i.e. over bfold increases. However, systems involving sor- several steps through which key factors involved in ghum and maize alone or intercroppecl with cow peas the production equation nrc isolated and their impact or pigeon peas, rarely resulted in significant (less than evaluated as a basis for defining research priorities. 2-fold) increases in returns. Generally, intercropping The information developed, in illustrating the ap- systems yielded greater net returns than monocropping proach, identified nitrogen fertilization as the most systems. Intercropping is commonly practiced by the important determinant of yields. The next in impor- Haitian farmer. tance was crop variety. Two varieties, La Maquina 7827 and 7928, outperformed the traditional varieties While the economic analysis of the several systems when nitrogen was applied. Without nitrogen, the dif- suggests that substantial improvement in productivity ferences were much smaller and varied with location and economic returns could be obtained by appro- priate cropping systems and production practices, they and other practices. should be used with caution. In all systems studied, The Texas A & M studics focused on selection and the improved practices package included irrigation, testing of varieties of maize, sorghum, beans i~ndpi- while the traditional package did not. In over 50 per- geon pea for yield and adaptability, introduction of cent of the cases, fertilizer was included in the impro- cultural practices on productivity, and comparison of ved package. Consequently, the impact of other prac- a number of cropping systems involving intercropping, tices were confounded with response to irrigation and multiple and rotational cropping systems. fertilizer, the two factors with the greatest possible impi~ct,l'hc immctliatc itpplici~hilityol' tlic results itrc, would 1101 ody provitlc prolcction, hut could he used thus, litnitccl ollnost clitircly to irrcits with irrig;ttioti. its irnilnirl fccd. Moreover, as irrigirtctl ficlcls arc used tnostly for ricc and sugar cirnc, the possildc inlpirct ol' tllcsc rcscirrcli 'I'hc difl'icullics ol'ohti~i~litigwidc applic;rtion ol'suc:h irctivitics on a large numbcr of f;~rn~crsproclucing I'ootl a systcnl ci1llnot be untlcrcstirni~tctl.It would mean crops undcr ririnfctl contlitio~iswill bc ~ninilnal. clow cooperation ol' mirny farmers, prol~i~blyentire itntllor, frcyucntly, scvcral communities. It woulcl also rctlucc the lantl in crop protluction resulting in it sc- rious constrilint ot~popdirtions which arc drci~clyon tlic wry ctlgc of survival. Yet, thew is no iiltcrni~tivc l)ul to rcducc the irrca untlcr cultivation, if soil loss is to 11c hi~ltcdi~ntl dtimirtcly reversed. I'ercent of Iiurmers limploying Use of Agricultural Inputs 'l'ruditionul Improved Technology I'ructices I'ri~ctices Good cluitlity sccds of i~nprovcdvirrictics, fertilizers idpesticides iirc the principal agricultural inputs, Maize varieties 55.3 44.H othcr than irrigation, which contribute to i~icrcasing Millct/Sorgl~\~nivarieties 57.1 42.7 crop production. The use of these inputs in Haiti rc- Bean varictich 83.3 10.7 niai~isat minimal levels. Fertilizers 26.8 (non-uscd) 73.2 Sccds. Sccds of vcgctable crops arc imported Pesticides 35.7 (non-used) 04.3 tlirough the private sector. Thcrc is essentially no seed production opcrations per sc for the traditional, widely grown crops. Seeds arc produccd by individual farmers The improvcd vurictics sclcctccl could possibly have andlor traded among farmers. There have been few some impact, however, if i~dcquatcseed production introductions of new varieties of food cropscithcr from programs and effcctivc tlistrihu~ionsystems are implc- outside of from local research. A notable exception is mented. Some interest in secd production is found rice, in which case an introduced vuricty has become among agricultural input suppliers in the private scc- widely accepted. Limited amounts of this seed variety tor. arc produced and distributed by ODVA, which also Many estimates have been reported on the potential attempts to maintain purity and quality by reimporta- increase in productivity which could be obtained from tion. Other secd rcquircments are met by farmcrs. An the application of better technology. In most cases, effort was made to establish a seed production, proccs- appropriate irrigation and fertilization arc required. sing and quality control unit in MARNDR in 1077. Only very limited information is available on farmer The operations ceased to exist in 1981. acceptance of improvcd tcchnology. One study (IICAI Few, if any, supcrior varieties of widcly produccd BCA, 1979) surveyed the use of improvcd technology crops have been available, and for those which are by farmers in several of the ccllots de Ddveloppement,, available demand is met by the traditional diffusion (ccdeveloppment islands,, approach which was laun- by pcasants itnd "Mitcluni Sitriis". 'I'hc testing ched in the early 701s, but was abandoned after somc and demonstrating of the superiority of new varieties five years of operation). Although the samples in each by recent research efforts will probitbly create such a aIlot>>was small, the aggregate provides somc idea of demand. the rate of adoption of scvcral practices (Table IV-17). Unfortunately, the survey did not provide information Traditional diffusion processes will probably be able on the impact of the improvcd technology on produc- to continue to assure production and distribution. Tht: tivity. principal task in the future will be to provide sufficien~ seed for initial wide-spread diffusion and for subse- It is clear from the above that there is littlc informa- quent distribution of sufficient amounts from well tion on the impact of tcchnology on productivity undcr mi~i~ltaincdstock to assurc seed purity and quality. rainfed production practices, and without the use of Probably more important than production itself, is the fertilizer in Haiti. It is also clear that there is virtually need to improve storage, in order to maintain the no research addressing the problems of improving quality and germinative powers from one season to practices, whether for increasing productivity or for the next. reducing erosion and water loss. There arc serious doubts that terracing, or similar physical measures to Fertilizers. Haiti uses far less fertilizer than any reduce water loss and erosion, are applicable to most other country in the Caribbean region, using about of the land subject to erosion in Haiti. Perhaps a more one fifth as much as the Dominican Republic. One appropriate approach would be to employ vegetative reason for this has been the generally cxploitativc prac- cover (Icgume species, mixtures of grasses and Iegu- tices employed by ferlilizer importers and suppliers. mes, shrubs and trees in a strip pattern altenating with These practiccs include not only excessive price, but cultivated crops). A proper choice of vegetative cover also Iilck of attention to quality, including frequent resort to adultcr;rtion. Siricc the cstirhlislilncnt in I9XI of the country is potentially irrigable, less than ten of it hulk mixing plimt rrcilr Port-iru-Prince I3y i~ joint pcrccnt has irctuitlly bccn devclopcd for irrigation venture of lociil and foreign cirpital, prices hitvc tlccrcu- (70,000 ha) (FAO, 198.3).I'lic irrigated and potentially sccl and quirlity control improvctl (ASSA, pcrsonitl irrigated land irrcas contain the best land (soils irnd communicirtion, 11)XS). 'I'liis firm tlistrihutctl, through physici~lfci~turcs) in the country. Grcetcr and more vendors in the principle consumption areas, 570 M'I' effective exploitation of the irrigation potentials is li- in 1982, of itn cstimittcd total corisunlptioli of about mited by the slow rate of tlcvclopmcnt of watcr and XOOO MT. Nitrogenous fertilizers, principally urcir, iic- land rcsources, the poor state of maintenance of the count for iibo11t SO pcrccnt of consumption, with i1 irrigations systems, continuing clctcrioration of irriga- wick variety of complex fcrtilizcrs muking up the rc- ted lands and structures because of erosion, flooding mi~iningSO pcrccnt. idsilting, and insufficient use of water for produc- tion. For example, in the Artibonite Valley, which has About sixty pcrccnt of all fertilizer is used for rice; the largest irrigation sytem, about 58 pcrcent of the vcgctirblc prorluction accounts for a litrgc shitr~of the potential has bcen developed, yet only about 30 per- rcmirindcr. Little is uscd on maize, sorghum or sugar cent of the potential, or fifty pcrcent of the developed cilnc. area, is actually currently in production usingirrigation Pesticides. A wide variety of pesticides iirc utilized. (LC Baron et al., 1984). Five or six importers distribute most of the volume The ineffective development and use of the water consumed. In 198344, it was estimated that between and land potential for irrigated crop production stems 300,000 iind 400,000 kg, valued i~tslightly over largely from the limited effectiveness of public services $1,000,000, were used for irgricultural purposes. Ap- responsible for public administration and management proximately 300.000 kg of Fcriitrothion were imported of water rcsources. in 1983, to control mosquitoes and prevent malaria. Most of the pcsticidcs are uscd on tobacco, vegeta- The following institutional problems summarize the bles and cotton. Zinc Phosphide and, to a lesser extent, many obstacles to developing irrigation systems of Wafarin, are widely used for rat control in rice fields vi~luefor Haiti: I. in a campaign organized by the Plant Protection Ser- vice (SPV) of MARNDR. The shifting of responsibilities for water develop- ment and management, over time, betwcen the Private importers estimate that pesticide use has Department of Public Works and that of Agri- been increasing at a rate of about ten percent during culture, including a period of shared responsib- the last three to four years. Utilization is limited by ility by the twodepartments; economic constraints and general lack of knowledge about pest control application by farmers. The inadequacy of staffing and financial support of the Irrigation Service of the MARNDR (the The GOH ratified the International Convention of entity now, and since 1958, charged with the Rome, in December of 1981, for plant protection. A total responsibility of water development and legislative proposal has been drafted which sets forth management), the division of authority between regulations for the application of the Rome Code with the Irrigation Service and autonomous entities some modifications. .This proposal is being studied by -such as the ODVA and ODPG; several ministries. a The independence of financing of projects Although a number of the chemicals being used are through special allocations of national budgets to highly toxic and some have long residual effects, the autonomous entities; small amounts being used do not present an environ- mental problem. However, they present potential dan- gers to users unless certain precautions are taken. The The major role played by donor agencies in financing water and irrigation development acti- SNEM prescribes a set of precautions for applicators of the insecticide Fenitrothion, and for the residents vities by the autonomous agencies, as well as projects which are under direct control of thc of the homes being treated; and an organized system Irrigation Service; of supervision and monitoring has been established. There is, howcver, no similar system for informing the public and protecting the users of pesticides used in The limited participation of the farmers in agriculture. decisions about water and irrigation develop- ment, or in planning and design of the systems; Irrigates Agriculture. Since the colonial period, ir- rigation has played iln important role in Haitian agri- The lack of cooperation and frequent conflicts culture. It is reported (Harza, 1979) that irrigation Among the Irrigation Service, district agriculture covered 140,000 ha. during the colonial period. Al- personnel, local authorities and the local though as much as twenty percent of the arable area population; 'I'l~cirrl~itri~ry cxcrcisc of i~uthorityi11i0 I'u~icliolis pry in udvi~nccfor the pump operator irnd the fuel irt the locirl level resulting in serious inequities; cost (tn;rinlcni~accof wells irnd punips irrc pilid its nee- tlctl from the coopcrativcs' equity ci~pitiil).'l'hcsc opc- 'I'hc wide discrcpirncics in tlic levying ittid col- rating costs vilry from 18 to 24 gourdes per hour. At lection of the irrigirtion fees, often rcsdting in the higher range, the cost of irrigirtion for protlucing collection of less tllitn SO percent of taxcs rluc, one crop of bci~nswits cstimatctl to be $2H5.00 per this due, in pirrt, to incffcctivcnc~~of mi\intc~ii~~i~ hcctirrc (I laugc, l9H4). opcrirtions Icirding to farmer reluctance to pily the taxcs. 'I'hc pumping costs in the OIII'Ci project arc clifficult Altliougli the Icgal Ixrsis for the riglits irntl rcsponsi- lo cstiniirtc bccirusc of the complcx system of chirrging lilitics of tlic stirtc, the Iirnd owner irntl the firrmcr 2 1111 collecting pity~iic~its.'I'hitt the costs ;ire high, 110- havc been tlcfincd in numcrous Icgal cases, tlic law wever, is suggcstctl by tlic substantiid arrears in pay- sccms to be poorly understood irnd ;rppliccl. Water rr,cnts for electricity (I lirugc, I9H4), in spite of iI fifty u,scrs associations havc lwn gcncrirlly morc effective pc,rccnt subsidy by ElcctricitC d'Miriti. Some of the in assuring proper mirintcnirncc of systems ant1 distri- irpni~rcnthigh costs ore clue to misniirnagcmcnt, ciISy crcdit, rrntl ur\)itrery collcction \)I'cllirrgcs. bution of water, I~utthcsc organizations sul'fcr from miiny of the same problems of the systems wliich irrc <;.-CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS totally managed by the Irrigation Service. 'I'hc lirnited financii~lrcsourccs which the i~ssociirtionscommand From the titnc of independence, utilizing primitive ilrc insufficient to nssurc irclccluirtc control of opcril- protluction technology, the Haitian peasant was hard tions and mirintcnancc within the system. put to produce surpluscs over consumption to improve his ~woductivityor to bring about greater cfficicncy The cffcctivcncss of irrigation in agricultural pro- duction is much reduced by poor production practices, and diversity in his use of the natural rcsourccs. such ils: use of excess water; inudcqua~cdri~inagc; I-listorically, economic development beginning with poor land preparation, cspcci;illy land Icvcling; lack agrm ian societies wils bird on a generation of surplu- of or limited use of othcr improved prircticcs; limited ses f;om agriculture. In the Haitian expcrience, the use of good scccl of improved crop vitrietics, proper sniall surpluscs which were produced and invested fai- fertilizers ini~dctlui~tcweed and pest control, which led t( gcncriite dcvclopment because of: a) the lack arc csscntiirl to Sully cxploi: thc advantage of irrigation. of org,rnization, cooperation and community action by Yields of crops which iirc grcw,: under irrigation iirc the ruial population and b) by the policies oF the go- very low compared to thaw ootiqincd in othcr coun- vcrnmcnt and cxploitivc practices of the urbarl elitc tries. Rice yielded 2-2. 5 M'I'Ihu ci~nipirreclto 4-6 M'I'I rcsultinjr,in the systematic transfer of resource bcncfits hi1 or morc, sugar cimc yields of 40-50 M'l'lh;~ compa- from thc rural sector. Without surpluses for land im- red to upwards of 100 MTIha. provcmcrit and a sense of permanency and ownership, The developemcnt of irrigated agriculture has bcvi~ pervasive undermining of the natural agricultural base largely based on surface water. 'I'hcrc arc, ncvcrthc- has been t\~cconsequence leading to the serious degra- less, two important arciis in which irrigation is busctl tli\ti(jn whitli cxists todiry. on pumped wi~tcr.In Cul dc Sac, 1-IASCO pumps water from fifty wells for irrigation of some 3500 hi1 The rcversqrlof this relentless degradation of rene- of sugar cane; 19 othcr wells in the Cul dc Sac iirc wable resources will be particularly difficult in Haiti exploited by cooperatives for production of n wide because: a) thc rural population still has little disposi- variety of crops. In the plains of Gonuivc, limited tion for organiration and cooperation and appears to surface water is supplemented by well-pumped water havc little confirlcnce in assistance from the govern- from thirty-nine deep wells for irrigating approxitnu- ment; b) thc irlrcady overexploited resource base is tely 3000 ha. barely providing fi,r the survival of the majority of the peasant populirtion; c) tnciins Ibr incrcirsing producti- Although there appears to be some potential for vity or to nii~kcup for low:, from rctircd or divcrtcd tapping additioniil groundwater for irrigation, this has land use arc virtually non-existant, cxccpt irrigation. received little attention. It appears that irrigation from pumped wells is generally thought to be too expensive. There are no reser\'es which can be mobilized in This may simply be a reflection of the fact that pumping most of the rainfed agri>-ulturalareas. As a result, any charges are pay.able by the users as these accrue or loss in production due to retirement of land for conser- even in some cases in advance, while the real cost of vation purposes or any a1:ered use which even on the surface water is frequently masked by only partial pay- shortest time frame, would result in reduction in pro- ment of user's fees and public support of operations duction, will jeopardize the very survival of the affec- and maintenance. Thus the perceived cost of irrigation ted population. from surface water may be substantially understated, while that for pumped wells may be much less so. For The outlook for developing ~tndapplying, on the example, in the Cul-de-Sac, the cooperative farmers short to medium term, productivity increasing practi- ccs, which would hc cconomici~llysound for nlo!;t ol' is tllc protection of upper wi~tcrshcdarcits to avoid the rainfed areas, is rather remote. Replacing annuid thc tlC~;trwtiveeffects on irrigation systems,from floo- crops in areas unstritcd for such crops with tree crops ding ittitl silti~tior~caused by poor li111d pri~cticcsin the is one possible option. 'I'his i~pproi~chis, however, i~plirntls.Protection of watersheds by depopulating the limited by thc relatively few tree crops which ilrc ;dip hillsides could tlinplacc some firrmcrs on criticid lands, tcd to the environment and for which markets would but not tl~circritirc populalion. Intcnsification of pose no prohlcm. It is also douhtful that returns from irrigated crop production will probably i~bsorbfew if the trce crops would in most cases bc supcrior or equal any of thcsc displaced individuals, consequently means to the rnciigcr output of the tri~ditionalannual food for providing sut)sistancr to thcsc small farmers will crops. have to be found.

The ability of the government to intervene is limited Intc~.~sific;~tionof production in irrigated areas, it- by the weakness of the existing institutions and the self, will require il concentrated and dctermincd effort. limited financial resources now being allocated to the The impediments to more cffcctive use of irrigation agricultural sector. Functional operations budgets of arc legion. Somc have bccomc institutionalized in the the Ministry of Agriculture have averaged only about Haitian society and will be difficult to change. Ncver- 5 percent of the national budget during the past several theless, since improvcmcnts in this area are likely to years. At the same time the rural population is paying be morc visible and morc productive than other chan- a disproportionate share of the taxes. In 1975-76 it ges which could be considered, this alternative should was estimated that the rural sector contributed 41.1 be pursued agressivcly. percent of domestic revenues, but only received 17.2 percent for services in the rural sector. The govern- Production options on the irrigated land are also a ment has been reluctant in the past to relax rural sector factor. Concentration on high valued crops. to the taxation as an incentive to greater investment. Also extent that these can be consumed, processed andlor with the policy of the GOH to operate with a balanced marketed, should be considered. In this connection, budget revenues, increasing the operational budget the traditional use of a significant portion of the irriga- for agriculture will likely be difficult. While external ted area for sugar cane, currently being produced at organizations could contribute the development capi- a loss in terms of world sugar prices, should be recon- tal necessary, the capacity to use resources efficiently sidered. is limited by weak institutional structures, a lack of training and education and inadequate operational Initiate an Irrigation Study. A thorough study of all . budgets. costs involved in irrigation: capital, system mainte- nance and operations on-farm distribution and draina- The best strategy for maintaining agricultural pro- ge, structures maintenance and operations, land prep- duction on the short to medium term and to eventually aration (leveling) etc., is warranted. The study should increase production, lies in the more effective use of consider sprinkler irrigation from wells. The cost of irrigated lands and in the development of additional sprinkler equipment could be largely offset by the sa- irrigation potential. This could be achieved with mini- ' vings from reduced need for water distribution systems mal adverse environmental impact. However, a prere- and lands leveling. More efficent water use would also quisitc to more effective production from irrigation, reduce pumpingcosts. Coastal and Marine Resources

A*- INTRODIJCTION B. COASTAL RESOURCES Seagrass Beds Haiti's coastal waters include both the Atlantic Ocean (to the North), and the Caribbean Sea (to the Rich seagrass beds are known to occur along the east and south). The insular shelf, an estimated 5000 north coast, and at Ides Cayes. Potentially rich areas km2,occurs as a narrow platform 0-2.00 m deep, exten- appear to be La Gonave and Les Cayemites area. ding for the most part less than 300 rn offshore, before Seagrass meadows, in particular, represent the great- dropping abruptly to the ocean floor some 300 to 4000 est concentrated source of primary productivity, pro- m below. viding oxygen and nutrients to marine species and a means of stabilizing substrates. Their distribution in The coastal zone supports 180 km2 of mangrove we- Haiti is poorly known. However, it is likely that offs- tlands (IUCN, 1983). and barrier ilnd fringing coral hore areas, including shallow offshore islands such as reefs and meadows. Four large offshore islands: Ile Ile A Vache, where turbidity and sedimentation from de la Tortue, La Gonave, Grande Cayemite and Ile land runoff do not occur, harbor productive seagrass A Vache and numerous smaller islands contribute to beds. the richness of the coastal system. Protected bays and estuaries, white coral sand beaches, limestone cliffs, Coral Reefs and rocky shore line the coast. Long stretches of this An inventory of the many extensive barrier and frin- coastline are inacessible by road and, consequently, ging and associated patch reefs has not been made, have remained in a pristine state. Mangrove, coral and the productivity and species diversity have never reef, and seagrass habitats appear to be well developed been assessed. It is assumed, however, that with the in Haiti and represent a major renewable resource for absence of large scale coastal development and com- fishing and tourism. mercial fishing except in the more polluted areas of PREPARED BY WlLCOX ASS~~IA~%S I'crcenl of' I;orcsl Country 'I1ol;d 'I'y pe

11. West Coast A. Ansc Kougc 13. 1 .'h.sti.rc ('. Artil~onirc n I). I'ort-;ru-Princl'

111. South Peniusula A. Petit-GOavc U. Troui 11 1 C#Mir~rg0~11ic D. E3arirdi.r~ E. St-Jean du Sud F. Caycs arcii 1. Marsay I-'.13 2. Cavaillon 13 7 3. Mombin I3 3. Rivikrc Millionirirc B 5. Sc:rttcrcd coiistd F.B. .I. G.Aquin

IV. Satellite Islands A. llc dc laTortuc B. Ilc dc la Gonuvc C. Grandc Caycmitc D. Ilc-LVachc

Mangrove Forest Types: F-Fringing 1 B-Busin / R-Kivcrinc :': Notc: Between 1956-1957 a9out 7% of mangrove vegetation disappeared. I Source: .I. Thorhiarnason: Status and Ecology of tho American Crocodile in Haiti. II. of Florida (1984). Signil'ici~nlrni~~rgrovc I'orcsls c~ccuror1 lhc tior111co;rsl l)etwcc~~1)ilii: dc l'Ac111 irtd IVort-l,il)crtd, (Ire rcgiotr of IIlc Artil)onitc cslui~ry,the (.iri~nc.lcs('i~ycmilcs ilrcil o11 lhc north coirsl Ol' Ihc ~oulh~c~lp~~lill~l~~il, i111tI I.cs ( ';I yes region iriclutlitrg Ilc i'~Vi~chc ('l'i~l)lc V- I). Inlportirnl 1ni111grovcsystems i~rcillso foutlil on thc Ii~r~cofl'sl~orc islirntl of I,;I

Iliriti's mii!igrovc wctlirntls, also Iirrgcly rtni~flcctccl In general, the wiltcrs of Iliriti ilrc not naturally Ily coastid tlcvc*lopnicnt, irrc importi~l~lreservoirs of productive, due to ii number of f;ictors: plant irntl i111imi1lspecies, irnd contri1)utc to the tlivcr- - 'l'hc Ciiribbcirn is tlccp, XO pcrccnl dccpcr than I800 sity and ccologici~lsignificance ol' the coi~st;\lmarine Ill; environment. 'I'hcy protect ;rdjirccnt estuarine ilnd ncirrshorc niirrinc ecosystems, provide csscntial hihi- - 'l'hc coastirl shelf ilrcii ol' 5000 km', commonly the tat to il wick clivcrsity of wiltllifc, cspcciirlly birds, irnd most acccssiblc and productive fishing ground, is nar- offcr vast 1)rcccling i~ndnursery grounds to reef fish. row and used mostly by bottom-clwcllinl: fish;

'I'AI~IAU~\I-2 ISX'I'HAC'I'S OF Ttfli: NOV. 27, 1978, IiISHINC LAW OF HAI'I'I

Art. 97 It is l'orl~iclclcn: cngiigc in the commcrcc of their shclls. a. '1.0 c;rptirrc, to sell, to export the atriton~(('lrrro- 17. '1'0 export the shells of sea turtles without authoriz- ulis ~~crriq.yr/[r) i~tionof I~ishcryService. 1). '1'0 ci~pturcthe green anel the <'i~ri~yturtle cluring C. '1'0 export thr l'ollowing shells without iruthoriz- the nesting sc;~son I>ctwccn Miry and October. irtion of the Pishcrv Service - Nerilrr polorotrrcr (Dent snignantc) c. To collect turtle cggs of i\ny kind withi11the I~ouncl- - Ihovtr pic-tr (Brig noir) arics of the territorial waters. - ( irssis rlrhc~rosis,C i~ssist?~rr~/rsccrri~rtciss~rit~cs (C'i~squcs) il. '1'0 export lohstcr iincl conch withoirt i~dcquatc clcirning

c. 'So use the chemical products such ;IS "Salpctrc" "Chlorox" irnd others to clciin shcllfish. f. '1.0 ci~pturcmarine mnmmiils such iIS scds iwcl sci~ lions, whales, clolphins, porpoises within the 1'. 'So use the rcfrigcri~toras a storage facility whcn territorial waters without iI spcciul permit from thc frcczcr is required. the Ministry of Agriculture (IIARNIIII) I

Located well within the Gulf of La Gonave and Approximately 7.1 km off the coast of Port-au- sheltered by La Gonave Island to the south, this area Prince lies a reef system, the Grand Banc, wh~chinclu- contains many extensive fringing reefs and offshorc des Pelican Caye. Sand Caye, a second reef area. lies reef formations, including those that surround Les Ar- approximately 4.9 Km offshore. Both areas appear to cadins. be utilized by artisanal fishermen and tourists from Port-au-Prince (e.g. ccYellowbird>,cruises, which leave With the exception of the densely populated area from Port-au-Prince.) of St. Marc, the region can be characte:ized as a low density beach resort areas, easily accessitde to tourists Leogane to JdrCmie from Port-au-Prince. There are seven be~chresort ho- The south coast of the Baie de Port-au-Prince is tels with coastal recreational facilities, as well as pri- well populated nearest Port-au-Prince, with popula- vate beach houses, dotting the coaa!line. tion centers clustered in the river valleys. Farther along the coast near JCrCrnie, the sparsely scttled Grand The area below Baie de St-Marc and above Ile il Caycmite area offers spectacdar scenery, including Cabri is relztively pristine. The Ile b Cabri area, once extensive mangrove forested islands and mangrove la- a significantly productive reef, lagoon and mangrove goon systems, coastal mangrove wetlands, rocky cliffs, system, has been heavily impacted by coastal industry. offshore reefs, and seagrass beds. The baie de St-Marc contains a coral encrusted wall There is reportedly a large fishing popjrlation who A u11iq11eI'c;I~II~c, Ihc SIII~III idct. lto~:l~clois,I<, ~III i~t~)ll-lilii~ILX~I'wit11 ;I ligl~tl~o~~~c,i~pl),o~i~~~;~tcly I .I LIII I'ro111sI101.c i111doI'tcl~ IIC~IICII~C(~ by LIIv!'~~:nd I'isIl~1.- me11i~likc. 'll~c rccll' cxtc~~ls111 i~ circle II,(,VIi) to 000 St.. less tllirn hi1I1' kilo~nctcrI'roni the i~toli.'l'l~c clci~r WilfCrb s11rrol111~~iliglchrokcn clown by user group 11sfollows: 20 to 25 km wide (Icsa then 71x1 km'). fishing I'i~n~ilics Largc barrier trntl fringing rccfs ring tlic island with urbiln mils thc cxccption of the wcstcrnmost sliorclinc. The best rnrid itreas known rccfs itrc loci~tcdilt the castcrn end of tlic island A narrow insular shclf, chi~ri~ctcristi~i~llylow pro- whcrc a large shi~llowsllclf of 60 ft or less stretches cluctivity of tropical co:~sti~lwiltcrs, ilnd the i~hscncc bctwcctl Cionaivcs and the inner rcaclws of Port-ilu- of a dcvclopccl fishing industry, havc thus filr resulted Prince Bay. Two areils, in particular, iirc closc to IJort- in a low annual fish ci~tch.Althougl~ no ilcclrratc i~sscs- au-Prince I3uy anel popular rccrci~tionaliircas: tl~c srncnts of fish stocks exisl in Hi~iti,a 1983 FA0 study small island itntl surrounding reefs of Petit-Gonnvc, on the biologi~i~l,sociul :~ndeconomic aspects of the ilnd Pointc Fantasquc. Iguanas still rcmirin on Petit fisheries of Haiti hiis provided cstimatcs of actual nnd Gonavc. potential yields of major fish resources bi~scdon sam- pling and fishing effort date collected in 1982-1083 The southeiist coast of La Gonavc is lined by tnoun- ('Sable V-4). tains dropping abruptly to the sea, while the southwest fcaturcs coastal plains where mangroves, salt flats and beaches provide excellent habitat for shore birds and TABLE V-4 scil birds. Ncstit~gareas include Brown pelican, flamin- ESTIMATES OF FISHERIES PRODUCTIVITY gos and frigate birds. Anse h Galets, the largest village on Gonave i~ndnearest point to Montrouis on the Fishery Actual Yields Potential Yields main island, is situated at the northeastern end of the Resource (Tons) (Tons) island on a spit of of land almost entircly enclosed by a barrier reef. Behind the town, the land rises steeply Demersal 2,500-3,000 into the mountain ranges which cover almost the entire (insular, shelf island. Small cargo boats sail regularly Setween Anse & slope) ri Galets and Montrouis bringing conch, lobster, turtle, Pelagic fish and other products to the market at Montrouis. Nearshore 1,000- 1,500 Offshore Negligible D.- USES OF COASTAL AREAS Lobsters 500 Mollusks 200 Marine and Coastal Fisheries Other shellfish 400 Despite 15W km of coastline, Haiti produces 5000 tons of fish annually and must import on an average Totals 4,600-5,600 12,000 tons of dried and salted fish (valued at $3.4 million) to meet domestic demand (FAO, 1983) (Ta- Source: FA0 - Report No. 72/83 - IF-HA1 I1 bles V-3, V-d, V-5).

TABLE V-3 Table V-5 ESTIMATE OF TOTAL FISH CONSUMPTION HAITI'S TRADE IN MARINE FISHERIES (1980-81) IN HAITI Range of Consumption (Tlyear) Exports Weight (tons) value (U.S. $000'~) Source Minimum Maximum Lobster tails 23.4 309 Frozen shrimp .2 1.3 Total fish catch-Haiti 3,000 5 ,ooO Frozen conch 125.6 552.6 Imports 10,000 14,000 Other shellfish 462.2 1,321.8 Exports 500 1,000 Aquarium fish 2.2 15.4 Local consumption (restaurants hotels, home use 12,500 18,000 Total 614.6 2,200.1 Average consumption per year* 2.5 Kg 3.6Kg Imports Salted &dried fish 12,000 3,400 * Fishing villages; 30 to 50 kg fishlpcr personlper year Source (Tables 1,2,3): FA0Report no. 72/83 IF-HA1 11 Source: La PCche Artisanale CBti6re en Haiti Ele- ments Pour une StratCgie de DCveloppement, G. Cha- pond, FAO, Port-au-Prince, Jan. 10, 1984. Haiti's fisheries resources fall roughly into three ca- tegories: demersal, shellfish and pelagic species. Reef i~titlbottom-tlwcllitig ((lcti~crsi~l)spccics, itlclu- Nci~l.~hOrcpchgics, or srni~llopen wiltcr schtroling ding rncmbcrs of the srlilppcr (lutji~tlitl)i~ntl grouper fish, such iIs Ilcrring, sardines. i~ncliovic~irnrl jacks (scrri~tiitl)filtnilics ('l'itblc V-4), ilrc tri~tlitiotlnirlythe ;Il)lIciIt to I)c sigt1iCic;wtly more protluclivc tliirt~dctr*:r- most sought ilftcr for flrrvor i~ndvi~luc throughout tlic sill spccics in I.liriti (estimated at 3o(H)-7000tonslyc.,.r). C'arihbcirn. Of the more tliiln 300 spccics of tlcrncrsi~l (.'i~tch tlirti~ indici~tcthi~t current Ilarvcsts of tlicsc fish rccortlctl in Ili~itiwiltcrs, only 150 ilrc rcguli~rly co;~sti~lpcli~gics arc wcll below potential yiclds (l'ahlc found and Iii~rvc~tcd.Stli~ppcrs ;~tiil grotlpcrs of v;~rious v-4). kinds ;~ccountfor 70 pcrcclit (or nci~rlyI'300 tons) of the total fish ci~tclifor this group in I li~iti. Offshore pelagic spccics, or occmic schooling fishes, iticluding tuna, bonito, tnackcrcl, skipjack and Slleilfi~hSpecies. marlin, occur off the sliclf in wi~tcrsdccpcr than IHOtn. Shellfish (lohstcr, shrimp, conch i~nilotlicr tnol- Scasonul migration of tunil i~ndbonito (April-May and - lusks) i~ssociatcdwith coral rccfs and sc;lgrirss beds August-October) bring li~rgcschools of thcsc species (lobstcr and conch) and mangrove wctli~ncls(shrimp) to shelf waters off Lcs Crrycmites and MiragoAnc arc distributed throughout the coastal zone. Nearly 'Thcsc migrations, however, arc often associated with IOOU tnctric tons of lobstcr ancl conch, I laiti's principal strong easterly winds, especially in thc fall when fishing fishcry exports ('Tablc V-6), arc harvested each year. is difficult. Landings are madc generally by small rcsi- Wliilc little infortnation exists on sti~nclingstocks of dent populations along the northern and southern shellfish spccics, rcccnt Nationill Marine Fishcries Scr- coasts of Haiti. Essentially unhi~rvcstcd,Haiti's offs- vice (NMFS) statistics (Tablc V-7) reported declines hore pelagic fishery, with cstitnatcd yiclds of about in catch of both conch and lobster, suggesting that 5000 MTIyear, is an untapped resource with conside- these may bc ovcrfishcd, at Icast in certain urciis. 'Shcir rable potential for dcvelopmcnt. easy access by divers (in the lcss than 15 m of water) makes them especially vulnerable. 'She high prices ob- Ornamental Reef Fish tained for shellfish (c.g. lobstcr, conch, as wcll as snap- Although the hundreds of small ornamental fish spc- per and,,groupcr) have Icd to increased fishing effort cies found on the reefs throughout thc Caribbean arc and localized ovcrcxploitation along the entire ncar- not considered harvestable by commercial fishermen, shore rcef areas. This is particulirrly true in areas with the artisanal fisherman takes them for food and profit. casy access to both fishing grounds and markcts, a!; Overfishing, including the daily taking of sexually im- arc the banks bctwecn Port-au-Prince and Cionavc. mature fish in these ciisily accessible arcas can cven- This area is fished many times a day, with yiclds of tually lead to the permanent disappearance of many only 1-3 kg/boat,'di~y. species from the rcef and a deterioration of the com- Shrimp, in mntrast, appears to be undcrutilized, plex ecologici~lsystem. particularly in the Bay of Port-au-Prince ncar the man- groves of Grande Saline and in thc southern Caycs Widespread fish collecting for cxport to the tropical between Aquin and Ilc :I Vachc, where lack of appro- aquarium industry in the United States and Japan adds priatc harvesting techniques has resulted in low yields to the problem. In 1982, Haitian exports of live fish (Hatziolos, 1984). and shcllfish to the U.S. carned almost $753,000, while in comparison shrimp earned only $100,000 (NMFS, TABLE V-6 1982). Many more fish are taken than sold. Fish mor- EXPORT IN KGS, IN '10 OF SHELL FISH tality is high as a result of careless trapping, collecting October 1983 - September 1984 (dynamiting and poisoning), und subsequent handling of fish. Shellfish KfP O/O Characteristics of the Fishing Industry Shells (Conch & Others) Coastal fishing in Haiti is primarily artisanal, sup- Conch meat ported by unskilled labor and equipped with rudimen- - 1 Lobsters tary and generally inadequate gear. The GOH Aquarium Fish Fisheries Services' efforts have been directed towards Shrimps inland fisheries and aquaculture, although most of the Turtle shells fish consumed and sold comes from the sea. Most Crabs fishermen are only concerned with providing fish for Total immediate consumption. Brokers may take a portion ----*------of the catch and preserve it for resale in large popula- Source: R. Kavanaght, 1954. Le Commerce de Pro- tion centers such as Port-au-Prince. Major species duits de pCche en Haiti. found in the markets are snapper, lobster, conch, Direction de PCchc des Rcssources Naturelles, Service shrimp and parrot fish. Occasionally, seafood stores de PCche et pisciculturc. Report, Dee. 1984. which cater to the Haitian upper classes and tourists will have swordfish and othcr pelagic spccics. 'l'otd ~xlil~lc~~IIICI Mirri~~cslicllscruili~ Articlcs ofahcll Sponges & otllcr r~ori-cdihleproducts Fitill Kc ahcllfisli livc for ~I~~II~I~~IIIII

Year 1980 !iiiltwiitcr fish I'illct fromi 37.5(H) I.ol)ster livc fresh 4,320 I.ohstcr tails 197,440 Other lobsters 33,941 Shrimpshell-on 17,753 Shrimp peeled .lSI,l92 Other shellfish 279.O23

'Total cdible products Coral crude Articles of shells Scuweed cYt other non-cdihlc fishery products Fish & shellfish livc QI~i~quarium

Year 1981 Product Ibs Kg!m) Lobster live fresh 990 .45 Lobster tails 316,077 143.37 Other lobster 74.481 33.78 Shrimpshell-on 44.044 19.96 Shrimp peeled 2,400 1.ON Other shcllfish 39 l ,962 177.79

Edible fisheries Coral Crude Marine Shells Crude Articlesof shell Fish & shellfish live for aquiirium

Total 1,296,004 587,86 3.910.756

Year 1982 Lobster tails 279,325 126.70 Other lobsters 44,620 20.24 Shrimp shell-on 18,275 8.29 Shrimp canned 9 ,650 4.38 Other shellfish fresh & frozen 111,19R0 50.43

Edible Fisheries Products Coral crude Marine shellscrudc Articles of shell for aquarium

Total 79H,40() 362.14 3 ,524,226

-- Source: National Mi~rincFishcries Service Resource Statistics Division: US Imports. Ihml II;~itiirris ;Ire us~ri~lly~iot oricntctl lowi~rtlthe I I to 1s I~~II~sill /2rlsc (1'1 li~in;~~ll,for cx;~niplc) fish sci~.Idow fish cirtclr mily rcprcscnt Ii~ckof trirdition, cxposcd to tlic suti oftcn spoil IxAhc the ho;rts c;rn tcch~lology;~nd cxpcrtisc (t';ltllcr tlii~tlshort supplics rcturli to lwrt. of fish), i~ntlIirck of irli intcrcstctl government in fislic- rics irntl coirsl;rl zone ~l~;~~ii~gc~iic~lt.('omprchcnsivc Access to rcfrigcr;~tiotif;~cilitics is rcpcrrtctlly citcd Icgislirlion exists to protect coirstirl ;lnd marine rcsour- ;is the most pressing nccd of fishermen. Ice is a sc;rrcc commodity in rnost rttrirl fisliing vill;~gcsi~nd refrigcra- ccs, hi~lcnforcclncnt 1s I~OII-cxistcnt. 'I'i~l,lc V-2 sum- marizes the most pertinent fish rcguli~tiotis(Monitcur, lioti f;~cilitii~sexist in only ii few ccntr~rlIocirtiolis throughout the country. Smidlcr, tcmpor;lry rcfrigcra- Novclnl)cr 20, 1078). lion units irrc occ;rsiotially supplicd by middlcmcn at I-li~iti's;lrtisanal fishing flcct consists of i~plmxinii~- key distribution points. 'l'his system is gcncrally inadc- lcly 30(N), ;rlrnost cntircly r~or~-~iioIot~izccl~irillxrirts ;rnd quatc irl arcits wlicrc ro;rds irrc poor and ucccss diffi- rowl~oi~ts(3-Om) whose ni;~xirnumfishing radius, un- cult. Units typicully break down because of impropcr tlcr optimum conclitions, is ;lI~)ut5 kln. At Icest 150 maintcnancc or clironic power f;rilurcs. In remote days out of the yc;w, tiowcvcr, Iicavy winds and seils ;Ire;ls of the northwest (e.g. MBlc St-Nicolas) and in kccp I'ishcrtncn in port. 130th ci1lcl1 per unit effort the southwest (Biric $1-lainault; Table V-h), wllcrc (avcr;rgc 5-10 kgltrip) and total annud catch (irbout fishing yields irrc comparatively high, these facilities one ton) ilrc grcirtcr for the larger hcttcr cquippcd ;Ire unavailable. ilnd more sci~worthyb~ts (FAO, 1983). Post-harvcst losses, due to lack of preservation and Estimi~tcsof the number of fishcrmcn in Ilaiti vary succcssful distribution, lead to wasted fishcrics resour- widely, bctwcen 3000 full-time to 8000 part-time (Ka- ces ancl an eventual return to subsistance fishing. Inde- vanirght, 1985). Fishing gcer ranges from one to three pendent cntcprcneurs hirvc tried on two occasions to to multiplc hook and line, to palm-woven fish traps. organize mobile distribution units, loading the catch Free diving for conch and lobster, and spearfishing at sea directly onto mother ships bound for Port-au- occur in clear waters of less than 15 m. Hooka units Prince (L. Sha-on, 1985 personal communication). Al- (compressed air) i1rc uscd, but arc prohibited hctwccn though initially succcssful, these efforts were later February 1 iind July 31 each year. Hook and line, and abandoned. Not only is the issue of preservation pro- fish traps arc among the most commonly uscd gciir blematic from boat to dock, a significant quantity of because of their low cost ($2-$20) and rate of return. fishcrics exports from Haiti to the U.S. are detained Use of nets, ranging in size from scveri~lmctcrs (trc- at U.S. borders each year because of inadequate pack- mails) to 400 m in length (beach seines), bring in subs- aging or preservation. For example, U.S. Customs tantial yields: $100lcatch (trctnails) ancl up to five tons data for FY 1980 indicated that eight detentions of of schooling fish (beach seines) at ccrtain times of frozen conch meat were made because of either de- year. The tremail, thc most effective method for the compo$ition, insects, filth, or leaky containers. Total capture of demersal fish, must be raised within two to dollar value of the loss was not given. thrcc hours to prevent asphyxiation and rapid dctcrio- Lack of extension facilities to market the catch out- ration of the catch. Current usage appears to leave side the area of production places a heavy burden on the net in place for an entire morning or afternoon, local market structure. Despite a large rural popula- spoiling a large portion of the catch. Fish traps are tion eager to fish, the lack of efficient distribution sometimes lcft in placc for thrcc or four days (M. networks, inaccessibility of the villages and the (rela- Fitzgerald, 1985, personnal communication). tively) high price of fish (Table V-9) make it difficult The commercial distribution and marketing of the for these harvests to be utilized beyond coastal popu- lation centers. Fishermen are left with excess catch I fish catch in Haiti is transmitted through a network of rural merchants and geared to markets in Port-au-Prince. and meager profits. A substantial portion of the catch, however, never The major constraints to improved fishery produc- reaches the marketplace due to spoiliige from lack of tion in Haiti are: (1) Lack of fish in areas where arti- preservation. During long hours at sea (an estimated sanal fishermen have access; (2) Inadequate boats and

Table V-8 ANSE D'HAINAULT: RESULTS OF FISHING BY 7 BOATS (Between Sept. 1 and Nov. 18, 1984)

Month No. of Trips Fish Catch (Ibs) Average Fish Catch (Ibs) September 44 3,050 69.3 October 56 4,077.5 72.8 Nov. 1to Nov. 18 30 2,247 30 Total 130 9,374.5 130

Source: M.L. Le Menach Fisheries Expert (FA0 field study, 1984). Table V-9 FISH PRICES IN JUNE 1983

Price of Price Price Product Production Port-nu-Prince Hurnl

- -- White fish fresh I ,H0- 2,OO 2,20-2,50 - Rcd fish frcsh 2,O-2,20 2,50-2,70 - Small fish 0,80- 1,50 1,50- 2,OO - Local dry fish 1,80-2,OO 2,OO-2,50 2,M-2,50 Lobster 5 ,oO - 7 ,OO - Conch fresh (unit) 0,15-O,2O 0,20-0,50 - Fresh water fish 1 ,OO- 1,25 1,50- 2,0() 1,25 - 1,50

Source: Rapport FAOIFIDA Junc 1983 gear denying fishcrmcn ilcccss to many productivc or ~duriculture potentially productive areas; (3) Lack of skills and Although nii~riculturc in Haiti is still in thc early proper training in the most eflicicnt, cost-effective dcvclopmcnt stage, several activities havc been propo- techniqucs for harvesting specics and ensuring sustai- sed. These include: brinc shrimp (Artcmia sp.) farm- ncd utilization of r~newi~bkmi~rinc rcsourccs; and (4) ing in salt ponds of the Artibonite cstuary; shrimp Lack of sufficicnt fish preservation, distribution and farming (Pcnaeus sp.) in thc mangrove wetlands of marketing infrastructurc and organization in many lo- Baie de I'Acul du Nord; conch farming (Strombus & cations. gasJ in the Baie de Ft. LibertC (now in progress) and Thc following solutions to thc above mcntioncd clscwhcrc along the North Coast; and the cultivation constraints havc hecn proposed: of mangrove oystcrs (Ostrea sp.) in the protected cs- - Install artificial reefs and habitat enhancement de- tuaries and bays of Haiti's northern and western coasts. vices in accessible and suitable areas. If placed in A brief survey of seaweed and algae was conducted ecologically appropriate locations, these artificial in selected areas along the coast to identify species of reefs and fish-aggregating devices might prove algae and seaweed rich in agar in 1980-81 (Renoux an excellent means of taking the pressure off ovea- Meunier, 1978). Culture of the spiny lobster (Panulirus fished, depleted natural reef systems. arRus) has been attempted in a small lagoon on the - Improve boat design, fishing gear and harvesting southern coast of the northwestern peninsula (UNDP, techniques. Focusing fishing activities in deeper 1980). Culture of reef fish in floating cages in many waters off the shelf with such improvements, protected bays along the coast has been suggested. could expose fishermen to marketable species Conch Cultivation such as skipjack, mackerel, bonito, marlin and tuna. However, without working with Haitian fish- Conch (Strombus gigas) generally inhabit nearshore ermen and without adequate infrastructure to waters, easily acccssiblc to subsistance fishermen, preserve, distribute and market fish catch, heavy sport divers and commercial fishermen alike. In Haiti, post-harvest losses and wasted fish resources could increased fishing pressure has quickly Icd to a dccline result. An extension service for fishermen, in local conch population and a drop in yields (Hatzio- access to refrigeration, better roads to service los, 1984). Research into the hatchery techniques for and fishing centers, and infrastructure respon- rearing queen conch larvae (which began in 1980) sive to fishermen, are needed before an offshore h3s led to serious consideration of conch mariculture fishery is developed. as a viable program in the Caribbean. Commercial hatchery production of juvenile conch in captivity has - Increase shrimp production through the develop- begun. Seeding reefs with conch to maintain overfis- ment of appropriate harvesting techniques. Good hed stocks or to culture conch to marketable size for shrimping grounds are reported in the Golfe de profit, seems feasible in Haiti. The cultivation of conch La Gonave, off the mangroves of Grande Saline wou!d not only reduce pressure on wild populations, and in the southern Cayes district, between Aquin but increase production of a valuable export commo- and Ile A Vache. From preliminary investigations, dity (both meat and shell) and a popular source of this is an area where appropriate technology might protein among Haitians. be most effectively appiied. Small mid-water trawls, such as those used off the North Carolina Shrimp Farming coast, could be successfully introduced in Haiti Habitat for farming shrimp in Haiti is found in the to increase production without adverse environ- extensive mangrove wetlands of the Grand Saline re- mental impacts. gion and Baie de I'Acul in the north. Questions remain, howcvcr, regarding pesticide lo;tds in the rivcrs driri- ning the Artibonitc v;rllcy, lack of csscntiirl inrr;rstruc- turc (c.g. clcctricity) to support shrimp farming opcr- - Arc:r of Pctitc Rivic)rc dc Nippc!; (froni Chirrlier to tions irnd the high costs of shrimp f;rrming for fcctl Ansc-A-Vcu): I 1ypn:rc;r musciformis; and tcchnical assistnncc. Reports from Ecuador, mo- - hit Anglirise, Zanglilis, Sl-Louis du Sud: tirirci- reover, indicate serious problems emerging from the ussp.) widespread mangrove hirbitirt destruction from huild- ing shrimp ponds. J'ost-lirrv;rl irnd juvenile shrimp irrc - From Jacmcl to Mirrigot: Gracilariir sp. (Figure disappearing ils m;rngrovcs arc clcarcd, making it more v 1) and more difficult to seed the ponds with local shrimp species upon which this technology depends King Crab Culturc Brine Shrimp Harvesllng Rcccnt field laboratory experiments conductcd in A rcccnt study of the dcvclopmcnt potential for the Caribbean (SML) indicatc that growing Mithrax eastern Caribbcan Artcmia sp. (Island Rcsourccs spinosissimus (Caribbean King crab- in rcality a spider Foundation, 1984) h;rs indicated that brine shrimp crirb), on screened floatingcagcs and rafts, is possible. Although such a projcct is not yet opcrational, ;I prc- culture in salt ponds, whcrc it is endemic, is it viablc feasibility study for Haiti would be dcsirablc to assess proposition, pirrticulury it5 a cottage industry. Brine the technical and cconomic viability of beginning a shrimp is uscd as an aquarium feed when proccsscd into pellets. Following investigation of the brinc pilot projcct in Haiti wirtcrs, where crabs are known shrimp farming potential in Haiti, this specics was to occur and fishermen arc familiar with their harvest found in thc salt ponds of the Artibonitc cstuary. and marketing. Although the site was rejcctcd due to soil charactc- Fresh Water Fisheries ristics, it is apparent that the opportunity for brinc shrimp culture does exist. Salt ponds trap scdiments, Haiti has many short rivers with stcep gradients, protect fragile reef environments froni silttitior: and flowing swiftly from mountains to sea. Most tend to act as habitat for numerous migrating and resident have a torrential flow pattern with stormy flows during populations of shorebirds, including ii number of rare the rainy season and dry beds during the dry season. and threatened birds species. Farming brine shrimp in There is one large. river, the Artibonite, whose kater- the salt ponds of Haiti, if properly managed, could shed includes most of the Plateau Central and which maintain the ecological role of salt ponds in coastal empties into the, Golfe de la Gonave. ~he,totalarea areas, provide an altcrnativc source of income to local of fresh water lakes and lagoons is approximately fishermen, and preserve the original Artcmia gene 23,000 ha, of which most iS represented by Etang Sau- pool. matre (16,000 ha) and Lake Peligre, a reservoir of 3200 ha, created in 1956-57 by the construction of a Oyster Culture hydroelectric facility across the Artibonite River. Very A small scale culturc projcct at Ft. Liberti. bay at- little information is available about the productivity tempted a hanging oyster culture, starting with thc of these fresh water sources. A partial list of indigenous imported Crassotrea gigas. When most of these died, lake species is shown in Table V-10. a second oyster (this time a local species, Crassotrea -luca was introduced. The project failed apparently be- Table V-10 cause of wide fluctuations in salinity causcd by runoff NATIVE FISH FAUNA OF ETANC from heavy rains, attacks by boring sponges and lack SAUMATRE of funding to continue the cxpcriments. Unlike some countries in the Caribbean, most people in Haiti consume oysters. The viability of culturing oysters can- Species Family not be assessed, however, seaweed culture, without additional rescarch. Cichlasoma batiensis Cichlidae Cyprinodon bondi Cyprinodontidae Seaweed Culture Gobionellus sp. Gobeiidae Certain areas along the coast have becn identified Dormitator maculutus Elotridae as having seaweed and :3lgae species rich in agar, a Stronylura notata Belonidae commercially desirable product. No further rcsearch Limia tridens Poeciliidae has been conducted and the costs of seaweed culture Limia melanonotata Poeciliidae in Haiti havc not becn asscsscd. Areas identified with Gambusia hispaniolae Poeciliidae this potential are: - From Grand Savane to Anse Rougc (northwest): Source: Thorbjarnason (1984): Status and Ecology of Spyridia filamentosa, Hypnaea musciformis, can- the American Crocodile in Haiti. throphora spicifera, Gracilaria cylindrica; In addition to the Iitr (- nd rivers, thcrc arc numcr- jccts is providctl by cxpntriatc volunteers, foreign uni- . ous fish ponds stocked mt~stlywith 'I'ilupia sp, i~ntl vcrsi~yf;rculty iintl stutlcnts, :~ndii few I leitii~ntcchni- carp. Thcsc ponds ;ire m;rintirined by individual I'arnl- cii~ns. crs, NGO's and the GOI-I Fisheries Scrvicc. Total I'rcsh w;rtcr fish production from thcsc ponds is cstinlir- Fish prcscr~tlycultured in I liniti include: Tihpia ni- tcd at irbout 1200 tot;slycirr (Knvirnught, 1984). loticir, most witlcly used; 'l'ilirpiir m- a less efficient producer nntl now rarely used; Tilapiir irurca, Aquaculture used only on Ida Cionavc Island; and the common car^.. . which r&luircs more tcchnicul skill than Tilirpiir to Fish culturc was introtluccd in thc 1950's hy the culturc. 'I'uhlc V- 12 lists approximate cIi\tcs mlorigins FA0 Technical Assistance Project as iI mcans of im- of exotic fish species introtluccd in tiditi sincc 1952. proving nutrition in rural arcas. Chincsc carp (Tricho- Iicccnt privatc scctor propowls ssuggcst that future grster pwtoralis), common carp (Cyprinus carpio) ;and PVO projects might include thc building of fish porlds Tilapia mossambica were stocked in river:,, Inkcs and on salt flats :!nd growing Tilapia in coastal waters. 'The irrigation canals, whcrc they reproduced rapidly. Nur- potentially scrious irrpircts upon marine ecosystems sery and experimental ponds wcrc constructed irt the of introducing exot'c ipccics has, however, not been Damicn Fish Culture Steiton outside Port-au-Prince, asscsscd . and extension work bcnnn in 1952. An estimated 5000 ponds wcrc constructcdbctwccn 1958 and 1977 (Table All fresh water fishcrics' research is handled by the V- I 1). Lack of trained personnel and cxtcnsiorr agents, Damicn Fish Culture Station and staffed by the Fishe- its well ;IS a liniitcrl budget, ilppnrcntly brotight the ries Scrvicc. The aquaculture program is, howcvcr, program to a standstill by 1965 or 1966 (D. Puclle, severely limited by inadequate funding and staffing. 1983). By 1985, only 400 ponds remained in the cul Extension work with the individual farmer is an csscn- clc Sac region, the area most acccssiblc from the Da- tial prerequisite of successful fish culture, yet the pro- micn Station ((3. LaFontant, 1985, pcrsonnal cotntnu- gram can count on only a handful of trained extension nication). agents with limited transport equipment to distribute fry to outlying areas. Rcccntly, thcrc has bccn ii revived interested in fish culture in rural areas of Haiti. The present impetus Exotic Species Introduction comcs from thc privatc sector (PVO's and from intcr- ! national organizations such as FA0 and thc Peace Since there is virtually no information available on Corps). Technical assistance for thcsc aquaculture pro- the natural productivity of inland and coastal waters

- - Table V-11 DISTRIBUTION OF FISH; CONSTRUCTION OF PONDS; STOCKING OF PONDS, LAKES AND RIVERS 1958 - 1973

Fiscal Distributed Ponds Stocked Year Carp Tilapia Constructed Stocked Rivers Lakes

58-59 59-60 60-6 1 61-62 62-63 63-64 64-65 65-66 66-67 67-68 68-69 69-70 7r3-:! 72-73 Totals

- Source: Technical assistance in Freshwater Fisheries Development in Haiti, 1973. Note: This data has been included because it is the official record from the Dept. of Agriculture. However, the original information used to compile this table is highly questionable. It is the opinion of the mthor that the values given are grossly inflated. (Puelle, 1983). otlicr tllirn vcry localiw,l tlirtir on fish cirtcli, it i!; vcry Oonaivcs Jucmcl difficult to irsscss the itnpi~ctsof hirving intrc~~dt~cccl Pet it-GoAvc R.1,ibcrtt cxotic spccics such irs Tilirpii~sp, i111d cirrp into the Mirugonue Aquin irquirtic cnvirotimcnt of I.liriti. 1;illtlings in tlic Ihnini- Cities such trs Lcs Chyc~,Jucmcl und Jdrdmic, howc- ciin Rcpul~licinrliciltc, however, tllirt few if irny tlirturid vcr, do little if irny interrptional mrlritime commcrcc. irticl I~rirckishwirtcr cnvirorrtncnts rcniirin ut~i~l'l'cctctl Port-uu-I'rincc has thc highcst trudc volume und ton- by cxoticspccics introiluction (I Iirrtshorti ct ill, IOHI). nllgc of any port in Haiti. Ports which ore closed to Acluirculturc in I liriti is Ixing ~~ro~notctlprimirrily intcrnirtionirl shipping includc, umong others, M61c :ISi~n irltcrnirlivc source of protein for the rnrirl popu- St-Nicolas, Port-h-Pimcnt, Ansc d'Huinault, Ansc-h- hition and iI source of cash income. SOIIICi~tlcmpts VC~IU,Grandc Saline, Coruil und Pestcl. hirvc bccn niidc to grow Tilirpii~co~~~mcrcii~lly, but A 1977 cli~ssificationofcoastal trading vessels rough- these efforts hirve hcen Ii~rlgclyunsucccssful. Introtluc- ly divitlcs the commercial flcct into 580 sailboats tion of iw cxotic spccics, such ;IS 'Tilirpiir, ihto coirstirl id2b motorizcd launches. Some bouts urc not inclu- wirtcr, as iI result of potd n)nstruction ~IIOII~lllc coirst, ded hcciruse of tonnage less than onc. should bc ~:;SCSSC~and mnnitored for their impuct on coastal lagc.)ons iilld rccf ccosystcms; cspcciirlly sincc 'I'ilirpiir cxhihits some tolcrirncc to saltwater and could Range (Tonx) No. of vessel.^ Average Tonnage conc~ivi~hlycompete for rc!iourccs with ni~.tivcspccics. Rcccrrt proposals to raise Tilapiir in cstuurinc cnviron- mcnts should bc rcvicwcd carefully. Seaports and Coastal Trade

Sincc the carly sixteenth century, il sysrm ofcoi~stiil trading ports cxistcd throughout I-laiti ~(FigurcV-2). By the carly 1900's. the system hucl los,t much of its dynamic naturc duc to lack of irdcquate facilities and invcstmcnt to improve harbors and docks, iIs well i1s Sincc 1077, the number of tiaitim vcsscls has to thc closing of rcgionid ports to foreign com- diminished due to furthcr dcclinc in local seaport ac- nicrcc in favor of I'ort-au-Prince. At prcscnt, only 12 tivity und rctircmcntlloss of old vcsscls. Recently, the ports i\rc open for trade: GOH has stressed rcgionalization as a strategy to im- Port-au-Princc JCrCnnic prove the quality of life in ruri~land remote arcas. Cap-Haitier. Lcs Chyes Perhaps a rcsurgencc of coastal scaports and increased Port-de-Paix St-Marc vesscl usagc will bc seen in the futurc.

Table V-12 EXOTIC FISH SPECIES INTRODUCED IN HAITI

Species Year Fralm Where Purpose Reference

Tilapia mossambica Jamaica DFCS Lin ( 1052) Cyprinus carpio Alabama DFCS Lin (1952) Trichogaster pectoralis * Singapore DFCS Cyprinus carpio Israel DFCS Pocilia reticulata Dornin. Rep. DFCS Tilapia nilotica Limonade FC Starlcy, p. com Ctenophary- ngodon idellus * * Limpnade Starley, p. corn. Tilapia aurca Illinois LaGonavc Puelle (1983) Gambusia affinis Florida Ft. Librtk Linden, p. corn. Ictalurus sp. DFCS Wilson, p. corn.

* disappeared from DFCS since 1955; DFCS = Damien fish cult. station ** disappeared from Limonadc since 1981; FC = Fish Culture MC = Mosquitoe Larvae Control

Source: Vlaminck (PROTOS), Aquaculture Stat. Fort-Libcrte. Fig. V-2: ~mul~lboatscurry much of lntercuarrtnl frelght nuch ae charcoal. E.- ENDANGERED SPECIES sea and at Ft. LibertC, west of Cap I-Iaitien. Hunting AND CRITICAL HABITAT prcssurc on the manatee is unknown. Many thrcatcncd or cndangcrcd iinimal spccics in- Haiti's remote, deep sand beaches offer excellent habit coastal and marine areas of Haiti. Those which nesting hiibitat for sca turtles. Of four cndangcrcd utilize mangrove habitats include among others: species of turtles, three have been reported in Haitian waters: Chelonia mydas (green turtle), Caretta ca- - American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) -9retta (the loggerhead) and to a lesser extent Eretmo- - Green Sca Turtle (Chelonia mydas) chelvs imbricata (hawskbill turtle). Divers along the - Hawksbill Turtle (Erctmochelys imbricata) northern coast have also reported the leatherback - Loggerhead Turtle (Carrcta caretta) (Dermochely!i coriacea), as an occasional visitor (J.C. - American Fliimingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) Diquemare, 1985 personal communication). - Roseate Spoonbill (Ajaia ajaia) - Reddish Egret (Dichromanassa rubescens) Location of nesting beaches and primary nesting - West Indian Tree Duck (Dcndrocygna arborca) season ilrc unknown. Fishcrmcn take turtlc for food - Masked Duck (Oxyura dominica) iind in the case of the hawskbill and the green turtle, - White-crowned Pigcon (Columbia leucocephala) sell the shell to tourists and to manufacturers of turtlc - Hispaniolan Trogon (Temnotrogon roseiaaster) jewelry. Table V-7 summarizes trade with !he U.S. in - Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) seafood products. including turtlc shells and aquarium - West Indian Manatee (Trichecus manatus) fish. Export of turtle shclls are higher than tliose in 'Tablc V-7, ils Japan buys ell thc shells exported by Of the marine mi~mnliils,the West Indian Mmatcc two firms in Port-au-Prince (quantity unknown). See is faced with extinction. Recent aerial surveys have Wiltllil'c 'Trade section. Chi~ptcrVI). Il)cntcd iI well cstahlishcd population of nlilfii~tecs(be- ' -wn 5 and 8) living in the mangrove ilreils of the American flamingos ilrc found throughout I-laiti, ~rtiboniteestuary (C. Woods, I9X5 pcrsonnl conmu- especially in lhc mud fl;tts ncur Port-au-Prince and the nication). Sightings hilv~also occured at Montrouis Etiing Saumatrc and the salt ponds at the estuary of and the hay of St-Milrc, whcrc I'rcsh watcr cntcrs the the Artibonite river, on La Gonavc and at the Baie I .ocxti~~g;IMI orgi~~~izil~gconi~iit~nilics i~litl groups ;IS fislicry production i~ntlniiirkcti~~g coopcriitivcs in or- tlcr to ~mwitlcassisti111~~~ arid coorc.liniitc ci~tcliiltirl fish ilislril,ulion; cxrcncling credit to such groups for the purchirsc of In I laili. ~iiot~nti~i~ioustcrr;~iti, poor, non-cxistcnt cquilmcnt i111cl to give thcni ;lcccss beyond nciirshors coiis~i~l~O~ICIS i111~l Ii~ck 01' ~oi1sIi11~CVCIO~TII~CII~ liii~~, ilrCilS; lhus fill', protcctcd tll~~OLIII~~Y'S VilSt ~~illtllOf ~Oil~till i~ncl~ni~rilic cnviron~nc~its from signil'ici~ntrlcstructivc - stimulating sniall-scale industries related to fishing dcvclopmcnts. 'l'hc only major impact on the sea's (c.g, gCiN ~nilll~fii~~~rillgil11d nlilintcnancc, boilt COIlS- rcsourccs conics froni the relentless fishing by thou- truction, fish salting and drying operations), to meet dcmand; ~i11ltl~of i~rtisi~nirlfishermen who must fish all year long, without benefit ofatlcqu;~tctraining, appropriate - strengthening and expanding marketing capabilities equipment, technical assistance and marketing infras- to ensure that fishermen receive rcasonablc profits for tructure. Although accurate diiti~ol fish stocks ilrc their efforts; ~~li~~ailablc,ill1 cvidcncc points to the fact that while easily iicccssiblc ncarshorc ilrcils ilrc being fished to - extending fish distribution networks to rural populu- the limit (and often ovcrfished), species farther offs- tions to provide them access to this source of protein; hore iirc untlcrutilizcd. 'I'hc recent expedition by Jac- ques Cousteau of Haitian coastel waters supports this -- providing training and appropriate equipment and empirical observation. for the fishing of ?emersal/benthic (nearshore) fish stocks in order to avoid depletion of these resources; The extensive ecological systems along the vast coastline of Hi~iti,can be regarded us natural capital , - cncouriiging the private sector to stimulate expansion potentially providing ii continuous flow of goods and services to support and cnhancc economic dcvelop- of artisanal fishing operations through investments and ment. Continued overfishing of nearshore areas will more effective distribution systems. eventually seriously affect both species populations These activities should be concentrated in areas of and diversity, as has already occurred in other parts greatest potential (c.g. along the southern coast be- of the Ciiribbcitn. tween JCrkmie and Les Irois and between Aquin and To stop this trend a ncw committment from the Belle-Ansc, and in the northwest, between MOle St. Got1 is needed. The GOH Fisheries Scrvicc is prcsen- Nicolas and Baie de Henne). Activities should also be tly underbudgeted (e.g., $60,000 for FY 83), unders- coordinated to avoid duplication of efforts and to tiiffed and untlcrtreinctl. For cxiimplc, of thc 35 cm- idcntify activities with greatcst cost-effectiveness. ployees of the Scrvicc, only eight arc technical staff and two arc extension iipcnts. Mariculturc or the cultivation of mit~incspecies to increase optimum sustained yields is another possible No reliable statistics ere kept on fish catch. either strategy to rclievs fishing pressure from natural fish lochlly or nationally, nor arc lish stock esscssmcnts stocks, especially nearshore. carried out to determine the country's cxploitablc ma- rine resources. Although Icgislation docs exist (Fish- The limits of natural prorluction, cspcciitlly in iircns IJrojccts to bc c~i~l~ittctlwithin the pli\l\~\ii\ptniwitp,c- 11icn1context would inclutlfl existing proposills for cotlcli cultiv;rtion, sllrirnp I'i~rniing,I~rinc shrimp Ilor- vcsting, oyster culturc, scitwccd culturc irnd King cri~h 2.- Y'roteclion und Mi~~urgcrnenl mariculturc, of Countul Murine W~hitutu 3.- Estubllshment of Marine Heserves and Parks A rcccnt (1083) a~ncntlcnic~itto tlic U.S. I:orcign as Part of the Coastal Herwucces Plan Assistance Act autliorizcs the Prcsidcnt to provitlc I'rotcction irnd Management of Coastal Mi~ritic1 la- i~~~i~tilllccto ~Olllltr'i~~ ill llccd of pt'0t~~litIgalld tllilitl- taining the habitat of thrcatcncd and endangered wildlife bitats and marinc parks, can be cffccaivcly uscd for species. Particular emphasis wigiven to the establishment both public cducution und rcscarch, irnd to rcplcriish wildlifc sanctuaries and rcscrvcs, thc enactment and tlcpletcd breeding stocks of valuahlc but vulnerable enforcement of antipoaching mcasurcs, and support fish and shellfish spccics that quickly Jisirppci~rfrom heavily fished arcas. Once identificd and managed its oF rcscarch progritnls to iclcnlify, study and ci~titlog ritrc itnimal and plant spccics, especially in tropical critical i\rciIs, they scrvc as important hi~bititt~for com- mercially valuable fish, as well iis for rare and cndan- cnviron~ncnts.I laiti is one of the largest Chribbcan gcrctl fish i~ntlinvcrtcl~ratcs. countries, with it suprisingly untouched coastal and ~nirrinccnvironmcnt. Much of its wildlifc, particularly The success of these protected itrci~sdepends hewily in the coastal ilrcils, hits never hccn specifically iden- on their role in ii lirrgcr or cvcn nirtional systcm of tified i~ndstudied. coastal rcsourcc protection, the existence of i1n appro- priutc manugcmcnt framework, and their gcncrirl i~c- With its limited rcsourccs and yet significant coi~sti~l ccptiincc by loci~lresidents. wildlife habitat, 1 laiti is good cirndidutc for i~pplici~tion of thc amcndmcnt mentioned ithove, as part of it 'I'licrc ilrc legal prcccclcnts for protecting coustal coirstal rcsourccs planning effort. US. donors. such resources. In 1942, thc GOH ratified the Convention as USAID, could !;polisor snlall rcscarch efforts with on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the students and Sacultics from qualified acirdcniic institu- Western Hcmispherc. Thc convention calls for intcr- tions, in Haiti and elscwhcre, to invcntory rilrc and niltioni~lcooperation in the protection of flora i~nd threatened spccics such as sea turtles, shorebirds arid fauna throughout the hcmispherc, including the esta- seabirds. A few efforts of this nature have already begun hlislimcnt of protcctcd areas, such as nationul parks with the participation of faculty and students from the and reserves. Subsequently, thc GOH Hunting Law University of Fir-icla with ISPAN. Participation of (1971) was enacted which forbids the hunting of vari- Haitian residents, however, is crucial if long-term pro- ous threatened and endangcrcd coastal birds, as well tection of coastal resources is to be accornplishcd. as other spccics. lntcrprctivc education, rcscarch and management programs, dcvcloped as part of a marine The plan nced not be a highly sophisticated one, as parklrcscrvc systcm in Ilaiti. could, if prepared ill>l>ro- in thc case of coa!;tal zone progrims in the United priately, help to crcatc a better ilwarcncss of the law States. It should. however, provide information and itnd an i~pprccii~tionfor the resource. maps (at useful scales) of critical arcas in need of protection, such as mangrove wetlandlcoral rccflsea- The following areas arc proposcd for either marine grass bed arcas along Haiti's coast and areas suitable parks (niultiplc use arcus) or marine rcscrvcs (rcstric- for marine reserves and parks, and propose sound tcd usagc): intcyratcd sustainable economic dcvclopnlcnt of I-lai- Arcadins ti's coastal resources, primarily for fisheries and tourism. Criteria for selection of critical coastal ilrcits The Arcadins arc a group of sniull islands with i~d- have already been devcloped worldwide and could be jacent reefs approximately scven miles from the ncar- applied to Haiti. These itrcils would include hi~bitut cst point of land (Pt. Pitturit~i)and 36 miles north of for commercially important fish and shellfish species, Port-au-Prince. Thc largest of tne three. Lighthouse rare and endangered species, arcus of unusual scenic I~littid(300 nl by 100 ~n)features it whitc sand hcirch 'I'hc Iilck oftlcvclop~~icntol'tl~is :Ircil tlocs not i1ppc;lr to l)c clue, however, to lin~ilcdp)tcnlii~l, Iwl rother 'IIIcAI'C~I~~IIS i1t.C ~IIsOit ~~~i~tlitio~~i~lfishhg ~~OUIILI to lack of' road i~cccss.'l'hc hinterland of this iirca is for the I'isl~inl: con~munityilt I.ully. 'l'l~ccoriil reel's chi~ri~ctcri~ctlIly ki~rsI topogrilphy of sn~i~llrountlctl iltltl !icilgl.ilSs I>cth. cvidclltly ~Il'ovitlccx~cllclll I'Ihll hills. still covcrctl by forest vcgcti~tion. Unspoiled I~i~biti~lfor ;I vi~rictyof tlcsiri~l)lcspccics. bci~chcs,miltlgrovc hWiItIIl)S, i~ntlthe cxtcllsivc rccf system rcprcscnl untloul>tctllyIhc bcst sirmple of Coils- 'Illis ilrcil, it' 111i111i1jictlwisely, with the coopcri~tion till resources in Ili~iti. Somc chilrcoi~l~ni~king activity of both tllc fishing villi~gcand the rccrcutionid users is cvidcnt on tllc 13arratl~rcspeninsula and on Grantlc from ncilrhy tourist 1)cilch liotcls, could provide ;I rc- Caycmitc. ncwirblc fisheries hi~hiti~t,;I mci\ns of ctlucating the public to better conscrvi~tionpri~cliccs, alld iln altrac- Ile rr Vache tion to tourists which will help boost the Iilgging tourist ccononiy. A marine purk at thc Arcidins sl~oultl,how- 'l'hc Ilc ;i Vi~cllc,just lo Ihc south of Lcs ('ayes, conti~ins;I hcrrutiful miingrove system on its eastcrn ever. bc plillltlctl cilrcfully ils pill? Of illl 0~~r;dl~Oil~tid milnagcmcnt plan which would also set aside other half wliic11 provides hi~hiti~tlor it small colony of mirrinc coastal iircils for special protcctivc manage- crocodilcs i~ndnumerous shorcbirds and waterfowl. ment . Just off the ci~stcrnctltl of the island is one of tlic largest coral rccf systcnls found in Haitian waters. Barraderes - Cuyemites Marine Reserve Bale de Labadie and Buie de Cadrasse One of Hi~iti'smost outstanding coi~stidilrcas, it~clu- dcs a shallow bay (Barrad2rcs) and iln archipelago of Thcsc small hays, uninipactctl by shore line devclop- islands ((.'aycnlitcs). It is located along the stretch of ment, have exccllcnl potentid its marine reserves coast between Petit Trou de Nippes and Corail. The where breeding stocks of con~nlcrcii~llydesirable spc- hay is lined with more thi111 1200 hi1 of tlliingrovc vc- cies could be protcctcd. Wildlands Conservation

The slaves, after yci1r.s oi Iutlcr and bloody struggle, gained their freedom and founded Haiti, an indepen- 'I'hc arrive1 of thc Amcrindians (ahoriginul peoples), dent nation, in 1804. Ulr.fortunately,altho~tgh slavery prhiarily thc Arawaks some 70(H) years ago, did not was abolishcd, the inappropriate exploitation of natu- greatly alter the ccosystcms ol khc island. Although ral resources continued unabated. The freed slaves perhaps as many as one million Amerindians lived on were given small tracts of land in thc mountains, which Hispaniolir itt the time Columbus landed, a vast majo- they cleared to create small farms. Any unclaimed rity lived in the coastal zones and depended on sea- land was cut for lumber. In 1845, 18,600 mc of maho- foods, mostly shcl'lfish for thcir srlbsistance. Agricultu- gany alone were exported (World Bank, 1982a). Other ral activities were confined to the plains. 'The Amerin- hardwoods were cut for fuelwood, charcoal and cons- dians also huntcd certain huti;~r;as a source of food truction, and slash-and-burn agricultural techniques (Woods, 1984). Primi~tesbccanic extinct before the were adopted. Fragmentation of land holdings was arrival of the Amcrintlians. The Amerindians introdu- required by Haitian inheritance laws, causing further ced domestic dogs (Canis firmiliaris) to the island which intensification of larid uie. Poor agricultural techni- presumably huntcd many of the rrative mammals, thus ques caused erosion which, in turn, lessenled water contributing to thcir cxtinction. retention capacity; the subsequent decreased yields forced the growing population of peasants to clear 7 I When Christopher Columbus first set foot on Haiti more and more land in the mountains, and to make in 1492, and claimed it for Spin, he dcscribcd it as more charcoal as a source of complimentary rcvenuc , an tcearthly para disc.,^ ImmeGiatcly, the Spanish began (Cohen, 1984). a pattern of destructive exploitation of human and natural resources, a pattern 'that has marked the his- As mentioned in chapter 111, only 6.7% of Haiti's tory of Haiti. Gold wils mined, and the Amerindian land area remains under forest cover. These areas are population enslaved and virtually wiped out. The found in only the most inaccessible mountains and plains were cleared and cattle and goats introduced. isolated unproductive zones. Hardwoods were cut for lumber. Rats (Rattus rattus and Rattus-- norvegicus) invaded the island, taking over The Following is an assessment of the past, present the biological niches of some native rodents. Cats, and future status of wildlands and wildlife in Haiti, dogs and swine became feral. The Spanish imported and its relationship to sustainable economic and hu- Slaves fron- Africa to rcplacc thc fast Jisuppcaritlg man devclopment. Wildlands, defined as those areas aboriginal people. that have not been significantly affected by human activities, are very rare in Haiti. Some direct causes The Spanish were succeeded by the French who for the disappearance of Haiti's wildlands are: (1) an reaped enormous profit from the large plantations of exponenC~tilyincreasing population density (about 7001 sugar, coffee, indigo and cocoa. The French did not ha of xal

Fig.: VI-1: Line drawing of Solendon paradoxus (nez long), an endanb !red mammal. T"hlc VI-I

LIST ()It' VEGKI'ATION 'l'IIRI<:A'n:Nlm ANn IN Nlmn OF I'RO'.... :CT!ON

Conuncm Frcllich Numc "'n mil y Sclcntlfic NIIIIIC

Al'hl'icoticl' (lull i fc J'al' Mallllllea americana Acajou, noix d'acajoll Anacardial:cac AnacaJ'dillll1 occidentak Acajoll Mcliarca Swiclenia Illahogani Bois campcchc l,egullIinosac IlctTIatoxylullI campcchialllllll Bois Chandelk Rlitacca..: AIllYJ'is halsamifera Boiscapah Rhanlllilceae (:oluhrilla arhoresccns..:t (', Reclinata Bois Pin Pi n ae..: al: Pinlls occidcntalis Blimhlin ( >xalidaecae Averrhoa hilimhi Cachimanl ,a ('hine Anllonaccac Annona chcrill10lia Caimitc Sapotaceac ('hrysophyllull1 cainito CcdJ'e Mcliaccae (:cdr..:la odmata Ciroucllc Anacardiaceae Spol1dias purpurea Chenc Bignoniacca Catalpa longissima Dalcmaric Ciuttifcrac Calophyllum calaha Divi-llivi Lcguminosa CacsHlpinio coria ria Ehenc Bomginaccac Rochcfortia acanthophot'a Froll1agicr BOll1bacaccae Bornbax tussacii Gaiac Zygophyllaccac (iuaiacum officinale Grain ouary Lcguminosca Canavalia obtusifolia I1{m-llan Annol1i..'(":ac Cananga odorata .Jaune d'ocuf Sapotaccac Lucuma domingensis Latanicr chapeau Pal mac Sabal causiarum Mancenillier Anacardiaccac Mctopium toxiferum Macoutouca Pal mac Euterpe globosa Pommc zombi Euphorbiaccac Hippomane mancinella Mangle; Paletuvicr Combrctaceac Conocarpus erectus Mangle blanc Combretaceac Laguncularia racemosa Manglicr rouge Rhizophoracea Rhizophora mangle Manglicr petites feuilles, pativicr Sapindaccac Dodonaea viscosa Mapou Bombacaceae Ceiba pentandra Mapouzombi; baobab Bombacaccae Adansonia digitata Palme coycau Pal mae Coccothrinax argentea Catie Pal mae Pseudophoenix vinifera Palmiste Pahnac Roystonia regia Pommc cythere Anacardiaceac Spondias cytherea Raisin de Mer, raisinicr Polygonaceae Coccoloba uvifera Romarin Euphorbiaceae Croton Iinearis Roucou, Roucouyicr Bixaccae Bi~a orellana Sapotille marron Sapotacc~e Manilkara albescens Tavernon LcgulIlinosae Lysiloma latisiliqua Zicaque, Icaquier Rosaceae Chrysobalanus icaco

Source: MARNDR / Direction dt's Ressources Naturelles- Service de Protection l'Environnement et de la Faune,

C.- FAUNA OF HAITI (Tnrdus ~walesi), the Hispaniolan Trogon (Temnotw­ gon roseigaster), the Hispaniolan Parrot (Amazona Birds ventralis) and Parakeet (Aratinga chloroptera), the As a result of its isolation and thc variety of its Chat Tanager (Calyptophilus frugivorous), the Pal­ eco-zones, Haiti also has a rich and unique fauna, mchat (Dulus dominicus), and the Black-crowned There are more than 220 species of birds in Haiti, of Palm Tanager (P, poliocephalu~' '·""r.ble VI-2), The which 75 are considered resident. A number of them Grey-crowned Palm Tanager :'d remaining are endemic to the island, such as the La Selle Thrush completely unique to Haiti

79 1 iihpllio~ili11d ll~~ili,111 pitrlkdi~r,~IVC ill li*i~sl two I)rc.ctlilrg colol~ics01 llrc ;tl~rloslcxti~lcl I1Ii1ck-ci11)- 1)ed l'~tr~1(~'~~~O~~~Olllil ~lil~l~illil),il lill'~~ scilbird ~IliIl I'ccds ovcr ll~csci~ for wwks ill ;I tinrc (1;igut.c VI -3). lh~ri~~gIhc I~rwlitrg SciISOIt il 1c1ur11sto its lwwws ill hlccy) ilti~cccssil~lcclil'l'~ 11igl1 ill lllc III~II~~~I~IISor I .;I Scllc i1h well ;IS 1I1c Mi~hsil'tli: 1.i1 Ilo~tc(Wit~tl~i~tc, I004 )

-

Scientific Nume Common Nurne

* 'I'urclus SW~I~CS~ l,ii Scllc Thrush 'I'o~~ussubuli~tus Broad-billed 'I'ody * 'l'odus irngustirostris Nirrrow-billed Tody * Arnazo~~i~ventralis Clispaniolan Parrot Arirtinga chloroptcrit flispaniolan Parakcct * Microligea palustris Ground Warblcr * * Xenoligea montirna White-winged Warblcr I>ulus dominicus Palmchat * Cartlucllis dominicensis Hispaniolan Siskin * Nesoctitcs microrncgas Antillcan Piculet Mclancrpcs striirtus Hispaniolan Woodpecker Saurothcra longirostris I.iispi~nioli~nlizirrd cuckoo f.lyctornis refigularis Bay-Breasted cuckoo Tcmnotrogon rosdgaster Hispaniolan Trogon Chlorostilbon swainsonii Hispaniolan Emerald Phacnicophilus palmarun Black-crowned Palm Tanager * Phacnicophil~rspoliocephalus Grey-crowned Palm Tanager * * C~lyptophilusfrugivorus Chat Tanager * Virco nanus Flat-billed Vireo * Buteo ridgcwayii Ridgeway's Hawk ** Siphonorhis brewsteri Least Parakeet Found on Hispaniola but not orr other West Indics islands. These es are however, found in North and South America. Dendroica pinus Pine Warbler Loxia leucoptera White-winged Crossbill Speotyto cunicularia Burrowing Owl Asio flanneus Short-eared Owl Zonotrichia capensis Rufous-collored Sparrow Euphonia musica Blue-hooded Euphonia Pterodrome hasitata Black-capped Petrel Corvus leucognaphelus (1) White-necked Crow * Falco Peregrinus Peregrine Firlcon

Sourcc: Woods, Dodd and Pnryski. Pcrs. Comm.. 1985 (1) Found on Hispaniola and once found on Pucrto Rico (but now missing) * = Threatened - ** = Endangered -- # Resident Land Birds 73 - # Endemic Land Birds 21 - % Endemics = 29% Fig. VI-2: I.ine drawing ut Plagiuduntia uedium (zpguuli),an endangered mammal.

The Narrow-billed (Todus sangustirostris) and the (Figure VI-1). Both these animals are threatened with Broad-billed (Todus subulatus) Todies reside only in extinction. Another mammal, the manatee (Trichecus Hispaniola. The Todics are small, fluffy, insect-eating manatus), large sea cow , still survives off the coasts birds of vibrant green with blazing red throats, and of Haiti, but is now reduced in numbers and only arc among the most beautiful small birds in the world. occasionaly observed (Rathburn, et al.. in press). High in the mountains of La Hotte and La Selle one can hear the mystical flute-like call of the Rufous- Reptiles throated Solitaire (Myadestes genibaris), aptly called (coiseau musicienn in Haiti. In huge communal nests Haiti still has significant numbers of American cro- perched high in palm trees lives the endemic and highly codiles (Crocodylus acutus). They were once widely social Palrnchat (Dulus dominicus). The Village Wea- distributed in Haiti, but now their range has been quite ver (Ploceus cucullatus), a brightly colored yellow and reduced and existing populations severely depleted. black, highly vocal bird, was brought to Haiti, presu- The largest population resides in I'Etang Saumatre, mably by slaves, from Africa. with 450 adults (Thorbjarnason, 1984). Faiunately, the crocodile has a wide distribution, and, even though Haiti is also the winter home for hundreds of species endangered world-wide, can be saved in Haiti if ade- of migratory North American warblers, ducks, shore- quately protected, birds, terns, herons, ibises, bitterns, egrets, hawks and Crl;lcons, including the highly endangered Peregrine Haiti has a large population of endemic herptofauna Falcon (Falco percgrinus). Many of these North Amer- (reptiles and amphibians), including many unusual ican birds, such as the Great Blue Heron and the boas and other snakes. Snakes in Haiti are rapidly American Redstart, now reside permanently in Haiti. disappearing due to illegal e-wrtation to North Ame- rica and Europe, where th .,: is a particularly large 1 Mammals market for highly exotic pets, and because they are usually killed when encountered by peasants. Even tarantulas are exported illegally tc North America as Unfortunately, only two species of Haiti's endemic pets. mammals, which once included primates and a large 400 pound giant sloth. now survive: the Zagouti (Plagiodontia aedium)! a secretive nocturnal rodent D.- THREATS TO WILDLIFE the size of a very large guinea pig (Figure VI-2), nez

longue (Solenodon paracioxus) a nocturnal insectivore The major threat to Haiti's wildlife I> . I ttestruction with a long pink snout and human-like hairless feet of habitat. As mentioned, the vegetative lawd cover FIE. VI-3: A rrlre photogruph of the BIuck-cul~l~'clpetrel. u neur extinrt aeu bird thut nests in the I'ic Mucuyu umd Morne I,II Vivitc ~ ~ Nutionul IJurka (Courtesy of 1'. P~~ryskl,ISIaAN). in Haiti is rapidly itnd progressively Jisi~ppcaring.'l'hc (Woods, pcrsonal cortiniunicittic~n, 1985). I-lowcvcr, if bclicf, held in common by I-Iititians rich and poor, thitt the ilcstruction is not Iiitltcd sol.)n, itnil if it continucs in the remote purls of Heiti mythical lush jungles still at the sitme rate, entire hahiteits will be irrcvocahly grow, is no longer tenable. According to it recent sur- tlitmitgcd within the next ten yeilrs (Cohc11, 1984), vey by Cohcn (1984). in tllc Pic Mitcityit itreit in the scsuiting in the extinction of many vitluitblc species of wcstcrn part of the southern pcninsulit, litnil covcrcil plants and animals, pitrticulnry birds, such as the by virgin forest dccrcascd from one-hundrcd pcrccnt Black-citppcd Petrel, the La Scllc Thrush, the tfispa- in 1056 to four percent in 1984, indicating thc rapidity niolan Parrot and Parakeet, the I-li;pniolan 'I'rongon. with which even the niost inaccessible ;IreiIs (Pic Ma- the Rufous-throated Solitaire, thc Chat Titnitgcr, itnd cayil hits no roitd itccess) arc being dcforcstcd. 'Illis the Ground i~ndWhite-winged Warblers VI-3). process deprives wildlife of food, shelter and watcr, and completely upscts the ecological equilibrium of Also itffcctin[: the stiltus of *wildlifein Hi~itihas been the vitrious biomes. Human economic development the introcluction of non-nativc species such as rats and has also been negatively affected by this process. Lo- mice (Rattus-- rattus and (Mus musculus). Arriving with wcnstein (1984) has estimated that the deforestation the Spanish thcy have succc!;sfuly competed with na- of the Pic Macaya itreil itlonc is now costing over $9 tivc rodents and insectivores, and have taken over million a ycar in declining agricultural and hydroclec- their ecologici~lnichc and driven them into extinction tric production. Some birds, such as the Hispaniolan (e.g. Brotomys vocatus, Nesophantes sp. and perhaps Woodpecker (Melancrpes striatus), the Black- even certain species of Plagiodontia and Isolobodon crowned Palm Tanager, the Grassquits (Tiaris-- olivacca - Woods, 1085). Dogs and particularly feral cats, also & T. bicolor), the Palmchat, the Banaquit (Coereba destroy large numbers of cndcmic mammals and birds. flaveola) and the Kestrel (Falco sparverius), fortuna- The mongoose (Herpcstes a_uropunctatus) was intro- tely seem to have a remarkable ability to adapt to duced in 1908 to eliminate rats, mice and certain boas environments and have may increased in population from sugar cane fields. The mongoosc reduced the 'I'uble VI-3 LIS'I' OF ANIMAIS 'I'~IHI~A'L'ENE1)AN11 IN NICICD OF' I'WOTECTION (Non-cxhwstivc list) Imal Name ISngIIuh N~mc Sclentlflc Name I A,- Mu,mmalu I,irmontin WCS~Intlii~n Mi111;1tec Trichcclius tnawtus Ziigcwti Agouri Plugiodontin ilcdiun Ncz long .-..-- Solenodon paradoxus 11.- Hepllleu West Intlii~nSlircw Nesophuntcs * C;limun, Crocodilc Anicrican Crocodile Crocodvlus acutus 'I'ortue dc nicr Scil Turtle ~crmo&c~scoriacea ..ma.- ---.-- Chrysemys decorata Igui~nc lguani~ Cyclura cornuta cornuta Couleuvres (Boa) Uoe Epicratcs subflavus C.. ma Mulfini, Petit malfini, Emouchct Sharp-shinned Hawk Accipiter striatus -.--.- Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Mulfini, Gros mulfini W.I. Red tail Haw!( Buteo jamaicensis Malfini suvane Rid~.wy'qU~NL Ruporni~ridgwayi Gris-Gris Sparrow hawk Falco sparverius Ramier, Millet, Ccniza. Ramicr ccniza Plain Pigeon Columba inornata Ramicr Red necked pigeon Columba squomosa Jacquot Hispaniolan parrot Amazona venlrr~lis Pcrruchc, Pcrnichc Hispaniolan parakeet Aratinga chloroptera Maitre bois, chuet-boua Hispaniolnn Stygian Owl Asio stygius Ouanga NCgressc I-fispaniolan Emerald hummingbird Chlorostilbon swainsonii Hirondellc noirc, Gros martinct noir Black Swift Cypseloides niger Dame ou Dcmoisellc anglaisc, Pie de montagnc, cirleqon rouge Hispaniolan Trogan Temnotrogon roseigaster Colibri mornc, Chicorette Narrow-billed Tody Todus angustirostris Charpentier camcllc, charpentier bois Antillean Piculet Ncsoctites micromegas Chitte Sara Greater Antillcan Elaenia Elaenia fallax Oiseau de la pluie, jolle-jollc Golden Swallow Kalochelidon euchrysea Outte-outte noir, Merle La Selle Trush Turdus swalesi Musicien, oiscau musicicn Rufous-Throated solitaire Myadestes genibarbis Petit chitte, quatre ycux White winged Warbler Xcnoligea montana Petit chittc Ground Warbler Microligea palustris Louis d'or, Pcrruchc Blue hooded Euphonia Euphonia musica MounedCIC Stripe-headed Tanager Spindalis zena Cornichon Chat-Tanager Calyptophilus frugivorus Petit scrin Antillean siskin Carduelis dominieencis Bcc-croist? White-winged Crossbill Loxia lcucoptera Pctrcl h coiffc noirc Black-capped petrel Pterodroma hasitata Aigrette, Crabier blirnc, Quock bluncc Great Egret Egretta alba Crabier blanc, quock blanc Snowy egret Egretta thula Caillcs Common Bob-white Colinus virginianus Faisan Wood Ibis, Wood Stork Mycteria americana Flamand row Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber Crabier Tricoloured Heron Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis Crabier; Valet de Caiman Little green hero Butorides virescens vircs Crabier, Cracra, Valet dc caiman West Indian grcen heron Butorides virescens maculutus Crabicr, Crabier bleu, Crabier noir, quock, quock blanc Little blue heron Florida caerulea caerulescens Crabier, quock, coq d'eau, Coq de nuit Black crowned night heron Nycticorax nycticorax hoactili Crabier de bois Yellow crowned night heron Nyctanassa violacea violacea Perdrix rouge (male), perdrix he(female) Ruddy Quail Dove Geotrygon montana Perdrix grise Keywcst Uuail Geotrygon chrysia Antillean Wood Duck Aix sponsa

Source: Direction Ressourccs Natu Ides, Service dc IIEnvironnement et dc la Faunc, MARNDR, Ddcembre 1984 L * Possiblement disparu I II 1 i 83 tiuml>cr of nirtivc I>oirs, hut ignored the rats i~ntltiiicc, I?.-NA'I'IONAI, I'AKKS preferring to ci~tcliickclis irntl niilny kiritls of ~~irtivc hirds, 'l'odiry tlic mongoose, rats ilntl riiicc i11.c fount1 I,u Vi~iteNulionul IJurk virtuidly cvcrywlicrc in Ili~iti incltding tlic pci~ksof Arei~: 2200 hit the highest irntl most inircccssil>lc tnountirins, such ;IS Ihti~hli~li~tl April, 1083, by I'rcsitlctitiirl Pic Macayi~(2347m) (Wootls, 10H4). Decree Administri~tlctlby: MAljcctives protection of a major tion program to tncct this crisis. Among the proposals of the park: watershed zone for the hcing made arc: (I) ii complete survey and physical agriculturirl Plainc delimitation of park boundurics, (2) the establishment des Caycs, the of a 15,000 ha buffcr zonc, (3) thc training and deploy- Grande Anse and the ment of a park ranger corps, (4) the construction of Rivikrc du Cirvirilloa a park headquirtcrs, and (5) the strict enforcement of (hydroelectric production) all existing Icgislittion cotwrning protection of natural protection of endemic resources and the cnvirc~nmentof the park. idrarc species of flora and fauna National Historic Park Lu Cltadelle, a scientific rcscirrch Suns-Souci et Rnmiers A rc;r : 2200 hit Pic Macaye National Park, loc:;tcd near the tip of Established: 1061 by Presidential Decree the southern peninsula of Haiti, provides the wirtcr Administcrcd by: Office Nittional du Tourism supply for I-liriti's most productive irgricultural area, in cooperation with ISPAN the Plainc dcs Ci~y~s.Two major eiist-west and cxtrc- Vcgctation: subtropical wet forest mcly steep mountain ridges, Mornc Mucaya (2347 tn) Objcctivcs of protection of the historic and Morne Formond (2250 m), form the center of the of the pirrk: monuments: the Citadellc park. Due to its remoteness and inaccessibility, thc Henry Christophc, the piirk h;rs remained undisturbcd until very recently, Palais de Sans-Souci and and within its boundaries arc still found largc tracts the site of Ranliers. of impenetrable rain i~ndcloud forest. This park tourism /recreation contains a rich and unique fauna and flora with a high protection of endemic species degree of cndcmism. Recently new species of orchids, of flora and fauna including the beautiful (Lepanthopsis michelii, have been discovcrcd in the park. Pines 45m high and 2m Although this park was established primarily to as- in diameter loom over the peaks and trap moisturc sure the protection of Haiti's most important historic from the almost ever present cloud cover, giving the monumcnts (the Citadellc, the Palac.: of Sans-Souci, area over 6m of total precipitation a year. i~ntlthe Site of Ramicrs; built in 1806 by King Henri Christophc. a national hcro in the fight for Haitian The park includcs a significant breeding colony of intlcpcntlcncc), it clocs have a secondahy role a Black-capped Petrels, and provides habitat for numc- as rous other birds including the Mispaniolan 'Trogon, niituriil park. 'The park contains samples of subtropical the Chat Tanager, the Stripe-head Tanager (Spindalis wct forest i111dit ruggcd karst topography serving as a refuge for many upland an.! lowland birds, such as the Icna), the Hispaniolan Parrot and Parakeet, the Ru Narrow I3illccl l'ocly (upla, '1, hummingbirds, the Pc- fous-throated Solitaire, anel the Gray-crownccl Palm rcgrine Falcon, and for largc Jocks of parrots someti- Tanager, which probably resides only iri Flaiti. Endc- mic mammals such as the Plagiodorrtia acdium and nics mixed with parakeets (Woods, 1984). Solenodon paradoxus, as well as numerous species of However, the natural environment of the park has endemic hcrpctofauna and mollusks, arc found in the not yet been adequately protcctcd. The park is being park. developed with the technical and financial aid of UNESCO and the U.S. Peace Corps. This park was established under the auspices of IS- PAN an< .he MARNDR. Funding was provided by G.- GOH PROTECTION OF WILDLIFE USAID with technical assistance from the University of Florida and IUCN. 'The first steps are being taken Presently there are two Haitian government organi- zrrtions whosc rcsponsil)ilitics include tl~cprotection from I~unlirt~tlcslructiot~ of the ct~virot~a~cnt{IS rr tlircct of Iltriti's wiltllir~ltlsirnd wildlife: MAItNl>It irntl IS- result of cxlcnsivc ~ovcrty,ir rr~pitllyir~crcirsing popu- PAN, 'I'llc Ikpirrlt~rcnt!)I' Ni~turirlltcsourccs (IIItN) Iirlion, ir highly i~~tlivitlilrrlisticwrvivi11 ~ncnt~rlity,ir of MAItNIIH is prinlilrily rcspot~sil)lcfor lllc collscr- coirnrcrprotl~~ctivcIirntl tenure rrntl it~l~crititnccsystem, virtion irntl 1~rotcctio11of Ili~ili's 111rtr1rir1 rcsotIrccs. '1'11~ ir Iirck of plrrnt~in~,irlirppropriirtc rrgricirltilri~ltcchni- S~rtI~~Ull!Of Illis tk~Xlr~111~11~hil~~CII illt~r~d r~pilt~- qucs, irntl the lirck of rrn irtlcqirirlc govcrnmcnlirl irtld (fly in tllc Ii~stfew ycilrs, l liriti Ilils ir good nr~tnhcrof privirtc ir~ricrrltirrrrlinfrt~structurcs. laws protccling ni1tttri11rcsourccs irntl I'lorir ;rntl firuni~, hut the Iirws irrc rirrcly cnforcctl. A sccontlrrry tllrcirt to wiltllife itr llirili Iltrs come from the introtluction of such mi~nln~i~ls11s dogs, ci~ts, 'l'lie 1111nti11gllccrcc of I07 I OII~I~IWS1111nting of bird rills, mongoose, ;rt~dclotncstic livestock such as goirts, spccics listed irr Article IH irnd it11 tlonwstic spccics. cid!!~irntl pigs. (Articlc 2) No I~utltingis pcrmiltctl tluring closctl SciI- son or witllout iI liccnsc from the Chief of Stirtc, Major Wilt1 plirnts Iwc I~cciidestroyed by the atlvancc of of Arnlctl Forces or his Officers (Arts. 3, 5, 15, 27). rurirl populations cleirring rcmotc locations, trnd by It is illcgrrl to tirkc nests, eggs or the young of birds slash-iud-burn irgriculturd followcd in it number of or ilnilnals cccpt tlt1isi111~~spccics tlcsignirtctl by the cases by the dcgrirdirtion of thc natural ccosystcms to MARNDK, No niirmmals or othcr classes of animals i~state of ncirr-sterile conditions (dcscrtificution). irrc covered by thc DRN, Article I9 Ilccrcc. ?'he Sc- crctary of MARNIJK cstablishcd hunting scirsons and The vcstigcs of I-hiti's wildlife and wiltllirnds arc at wnditions (Art. 10). Bird irld giimc atlimirls may be ir vcry critical point. Ecologic;rlly, it is tcn minutes tcmporirrily cirpturcd for scientific purposes. (Art. 20). beforc midnight in Haiti, due mirinly to the destruction of thc land covcr and conseyucnt descrtification. In a L~IW No. 0 of the Rurirl Code of 1962, which may few ycars this proccss will be irrcvcrsiblc and therc he ohsolctc, prohihits hunting of birds during ncsting will be no possibility of natural regcrieration of cndc- scilson i~nclof ccrtirin specified non-game birds (Li- mic plants and animals (C. Woods, pcrsonal commu- brary of Congress, 1979). The DRN 'has, in thc last nication, 1985). Thc conscrvalion of Haiti's natural ycor, hccn taking serious measures ot protect Haiti's rcsourccs is neccssirry to preserve the country's viabl- wildlife. Ycw laws governing the exportation of irni- lity as ,I natural and social system and for sustained mals id pliints have bccn cnactcd to end a growing economic development. If the remaining natural cco- and illegal intcrnational trade in Haitian animals, most systems, which constitute the major watcrshed areas of them endemic and in danger of extinction. A World as wcll, arc not protected and allowcd to degenerate, Bank financed projcct for the appropriate exploitation there will be no water to irrigate the agriculturd plains, irnd protcction of certain forests is undcrway. A divi- to be used for human consumption and for hydroelec- sion to manage parks and protected irrcas, for which tric power generation. There will be little arable soil the Ilcpartmcnt is presently responsible, has bccn cs- on which to plant, and carrying capacity of the land tablishcd. In this task, the DRN is cooperative with will be irrcvcrsibly reduced. ISPAN, thc othcr GOI-Iorganization whosc objectives includc thc protcction of Haiti's natural hcritage. It To protect Haiti's remaining wildlands and wildlife, wils ISPAN, that itiitiatcd the movement to create a it is suggested that the following measurcs be underta- system of naturl;! parks and reserves in Haiti, and it ken: wils ISPAN that obtaincd il grant from USAID for the establishment of the first two parks at Morne La 1. Designate areas deserving protective management Visitc i\nd Pic Macuya. Thc -arks' projcct, after some initial difficulties, is proceeding well, especially since These areas would compliment il coastal resources the media and many govcrnmcnt leadcrs hiwe recogni- plan since most of them providc scirhird irnd shore zed the necessity of protecting Haiti's thrcatcned nat- bird habitat, cspccii~llyduring thc winter months. ural heritage itnd resources. L'Ebng SaumAtre is a large brackish lake 30 kms Govcrnmcnt agencies, however, arc hampered by to the cast of Port-au-Prince in the Plainc du Cul de lack of funds i~nda lack of communicrition and coor- Sac; it is connected by an irrigation canal to a much dinAtion between conccrned organizations, and by a smaller lake, Trou Caiman. Both of these lakes were number of vcry difficult political awl socio-economic bclicved to have been formed during the early Quater- problems, such as the displacement of extremely poor nary era, when the seabed was uplifted as a r;iult of peasants ftom areas that must be protcctcd. To be the drifting together of the northern and southcrn land successful, the protected areas project requires the masses of Hispaniola (Woodring, 1926; Maurrisa:: cnforccment of existing laws and no small amount of 1982). Due to the inflow of fresh water from the adja- political will. cent mountains the salinity of both these lakes is slowly H.- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS diminishing (Thorbjarnason, 1984), thus creating a biologically flcxible environment. Although the land In gcncral, the threat to Haiti's wildland? has come around both lakes is inhabitcd, large areas of man- IDolnleMo~~atlqae: i~ stnell, forcst covcrcd pcth~ulcr (300 m) to tlic rr~ortlrci~stof Aquin oti tl~csout;'crti coirst of the souulicrn pctiinnuln, irs untouched irrcir tlii~thrrrl>ors nwicrous scrr1)irds i~ntlcoirst ccosystcrnn.

1,irrgc flocks of fli~~iiitigos,tcr:ls, ducks, stilts, Ilc- row, plovers, gulls, ibises iltiil cgrcts tninglc 011 ilntl off tlic shotts of I)otli Ii~kcs,cspcciirlly tluritlg tlic witi- 2. Create u Ntrllonul IDurkService under INHACA with the cllrect tcchnlcul upp port of MAHN1)H. This tcr tilontlis, I,'I:tirt~g S:rutni~trci~lso contilitis ;I signifi- ciltit nutnhcr of crocodiles (Crocodylus KC&!) cstiniil- orgi~nizi~tio~lshould hirvc direct ilcccss to the I'rcsitlm- cy, to give il enough p!)liticirl weight to crct cffcclivcly. tctl at 450 irrlults ('l'llorhii~rtii~rson,IOH4), ilntl ;I coloiiy Ijy coortlitii~tingwith MAHNIiR, it would avoid i1ny of igui~ni~son ;I srnirll istrlirtcd rocky islct. 'She croco- dilcs ilrc occosionirliy trilppcd iltld killcd I>yloci~l I'ishcr- potcntii~l policy conflicts bctwccn utiliztion i~nd conscrvution of natural resources. It should havc un men it1 thcir nets, hut thcy arc thrcatcrrcd primarily by thc dcstruci%n (A' thcir brcctlit~ggrounds. 'l'llc wii- irtlequirtc hutlgct: crnd staff and be udequutely equippcd tcrfowl, particularly tlucks, ilrc hunted often quitc irnd tririncd. w:~titonly killed cluritig tlic winter ~nonthsirnd tnilny 3. Adopt the IUCN World Conservution Strategy - timcs cvcn b'lmningos ilrc shot by unscrupulous hun- ol)Jectivee. Thesc objectives arc: fcts. - to mrrintt~inlesscntial ecological proccsscs and lifc- Ihng de Mirugohne in thc southcrn peninsula ncirr support systems (such as soil rcgcncration and protec- L,cs C'aycs harlnrs ;I small flock of Amcricirn Fli~min- tion, thc cleansing of waters), on which human survivul gos and othcr waterfowl and shorcbircl!;. It is iI deep i~nddcvclopmcnt dcpcnds; frcshwirtcr litkc that once hird crocodiles. - to prcs::rvc genetic diversity (the range of genetic Thc Ile de la Gonave once contained beautiful har- mi~terii~lfound in the world's organisms), on which dwood forcsts that wcrc cut for lumber during th, ."" depend the functioning of many of the above processes century, but still hirs an active population of some 84 and lifc-support systems, thc breeding programs ncces. spccics of birds (Wctmorc and Swalcs, 1931) and a sary for the protection and iniprovement of cultivated brccding colony of iguanas on its wcstcrn tip. pli~nt~,domesticated animals dnd microorganisms, ds wcll as many scientific and medical advances, technical Tortue Island, off the north coast of Haiti, has 47 innovations, and the security of the many industries different spccies of birds and is bclievcd (Woods, pcr- that usc living resourccs; sonal communication, 1985) to have had a large and distinct animal fauna in prccolombian timcs and may - to cnsure sustainable utilization of species and yet contain some specics of rodcnt (Isolobodon sp.) ecosystems (notably fish and other wildlife, forcsts and and insectivores (Ncsophantes sp.) that are extinct grazing lands), which support millions of rural commu- elsewhere in Haiti. nitics as well as major industries. Any attempt to pre- serve Haitian wildla~ndsand wildlife must be based on The ArtiboniteIEstere river estuary zone contains the principle of conwrving nature for human develop- large tracts of mangrove, swamps and wc [lands provi- ment. ding sanctuary for many migratory and rcsident birds, particularly shore birds such as herons, ibises and 4. Implement the following as support to or which egrets. The Estere area has the largcst mangrove forest complement recommendations 1, 2 and 3: in Haiti containing some 8490 ha. The area contains Prepare detailed studies in ordcr to expand the the best remaining habitat for the manatee and most - remaining manatees live there. system of protected areas to include other significant natural areas and the representative samples of Haiti's The Ile de la Navasse, claimed by both Haiti and unique tcrrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems. the Unitcd States, is reported to provide nesting - Initiate a program of public education about the grounds for many seabirds. It is uninhabitcd and its environment and resource conservation for both urban flora and fauna have not been investigated. and rural schools. Three areas that should be considered immediately - Strictly enforce all existing laws on the protection are: of flora and fauna, watersheds, and the utillization of governmental lands. Etang Saumitre and its surrounding coast and the mountainside to its north since it harbor numerous -Establish a Natural History Museum mdBotanical waterfowl, crocodiles slnd iguanas and since many Gardens to become centers for research and education springs flow on it shores. about Haiti's endemic flora and fauna. (c.g., conscrvalion ilntl rcstoriilion) rrs 4111 itllcgriil pirrt of my rt~rrrltlcvclopmcnt projcct. ~Jnfortuniltclythe prol,lctns of coascrvi~tionin Ili~iti I~nplcn~c~~tii fruit trcc i~trclfuclwoocl rcforcsti~tion rlncl one niigI1t irtlcl, in most countries, ilrc to ;I greet progriltn it1 the mountilitls, irs wcll its ill tl~cflrrtli~ntls, cxtcnt lmlitici~l.IJntil dcci~ionsilrc nii~clcill the Iiigllcst levels to itnplcnicnt iln effective conscrvi~tio~lprogrim, very little citn Ilc tlonc. 'l'hc lwk ol' understittitling of tlic iaiportilncc of cnvironnicn till conscrvirt ion ilntl lllc cxtcrisivc poverty of the great mnjorily of tlw Ileilii~n pcoplc irrc fiictors tllirt must be consiclcrctl.

It is clear, thi~tunless urgcnt i~ntlimmccliiitc i1cti011 is tilkctl by tlic (iOll, on unprcccdcntcd ecological i~ndcnvironmcntid crisis will occur, irreversibly dcs- - Donor agencies perform environmental impact troying I-hiti's t~i~t~ri~lrcsourcc hub , the country's studies us u part of projcct design and include nitturd endemic fi~t~tl~and flora and dirninis# ~ng the carrying resource or cnvironmcnial munclgcmcnt componcrrts cilpiicity of the nittion to support its population. VII The Peasantry and the Physical Environment

A,- INTRODUCTION to defray the costs of their own upkeep had developed effective techniques of intensive food cultivation. Tur- Haiti is the New World's most agrarian society. Fol- ning necessity to opportunity, the slaves not only pro- lowing its birth as a modern nation in the western visioned themselves, but operated ao island-wide in- hernispherc's only successful slave revolution (1804), ternal market system, generated modest personal inco- Haiti quickly became a country of peasants. Since that mes, and even passed de facto rights in $articular par- time, the vast majority of Haiti's citizens have conti- cels of land on to their children. Under pain of severe nued to be independent farmers dedicated to living penalty, many slaves also persisted in serving persona- on their ow11 land. In spite of significant urban migra- lized spirits and family ancestors in innovative, Afri- tion and the recent growth of ia dynamic assembly can-based rituals of celebra~tionthat were the precur- industry sector in the capital, over 80% of the country's sors of modern Haitian religion. In short, the founda- population remains rural, freeholding, and directly dc- tions of today's peasant cuiture were laid long before pendent upon agriculture for its livelihood. Thc Hai- the Revolution brought freedom and independence. tian countryside is occupied throughout its entire length and breadth by pcasant households. Each hou- These emergent creole traditions were further enri- sehold is a distinct unit of production and consumption ched by continuously high 'levels of slave importation which is grounded quitc literally in its land lesources. from Africa throughout th~e18th century. The high Thus, to understand the Haitian physical environment demand fol slave labor wrrs fueled by an extremely and its prospects, it is essential to explore the complex high mortality rate due to the harsh regimen of the historical, material and spiritual relationships that link sugar plantations. In 1789, on the eve of the Haitian the landscape to its inhabitants. Revolution, the slaves borrr in Africa as free men and women, may well have outnumbered the creole slaves B.. FRQM SLAVE TO PEASANT born to the condition of bondage in St. Dominguc. Together, they were cl~seto 500,000 strong, as com- Haitian Deasunt culture has its beginnings in the pared to approximately 30,000 free persons of color 18th centu.. 3. It was born in the struggle of ni-arly one (gens de couleurs, or affrrrnehis) and 40,000 whites. million slaves of West and Central African origin to Fifteen years later, those who survived the Revolution survive and to assert their humanity in the face of a were thus able to draw freely on their memories of brutal plantation regime under French rule. By the Africa, as well as to build upon their accomplishments middle of the 18th century, creole slaves - the chil- as slaves, in constructing a, new way of life. dren and grandchilden of enslaved Africans who were originally purchased from many language groups by The Haitians of the i9th century set out to define plmtation owners eager to impede potentially dange- their newly-won freedom in terms of personal auto- rous communication and cooperation - were already nomy and economic self,.sufficiency.The f .merslaves speaking a fully developed Haitian Creole as their staunchly resisted the efforts of Haiti'e, nc;w leaders common native tongue. Slaves assigned provision and large landowners to engage them as nominaliy grounds and forced to work in their cff-time in order free laborers on the same lplantations that they had so rccc111IyWOI k~,.tl1111(l(*r IIIC Iilsl~,t IIIW~IIIII~! to work 1.01 IIII~ovorsccr, tllcy sotr~l~lIII c.stc~l)li~I~Il~c.~r~sc.lv~s ;IS ~~ttlcl)ct~dc~~',,~illlrlhOl~~ill~, i~y.t.iiwltttt,~l I)I.O~II~:CI\.

111 the 20th cclllury, the pci~sitnlryis I'i~(:i~lgscrioui; cl~itllc~~gcstllirl tllrci~tct~its continuctl viilhility. Whilc lllc protlr~ctivityof pci~sil~lti~griculturc Ili~s long un- tlcrwriltc~lthe ~ii~liolli~leconomy, no corrcspontling rcitlvcsltncnt ol' resources, cithcr pul)lic or ptivittc, Pc;~sirntagriculture is virtuillly 111)icpitousin I-liriti, hirs yct 1)ccn nii~dcin the rurirl sector. Untlcr such i~ndis ccr1;h to rcmain so in the forcsceill~lcfutyrc. circumstitnccs, ;I dcclitlc in pcitsunt ~)roductivitywits 'I'hcrcfi w, ilny proposed futurc intcrvcntions in rural incvitilblc. 'lhc prcssurcs of populi~tiongrowth, cro- iIt.cils must ncccss;lrily ti~kciiccount of the bosic fci~tu- sion, shrinking Silr111size i~ntlsoil cxhi~ustionhitvc trap- rcs of pcits;tnt fimi systems and strive to offcr the ped the pcasitntry in it vicious cycle of cvcr-diminishing small fitrnlcr ic real clri~nccto participate in the solution returns to lalwr. Currently, the majority have little of Haiti's cnvironmcnti~lproblems. hope #of cvctr one profitirl)lc agriculturid season, let alone prospects for long-term s:rvings and invcstmcnt. Heterogeneity of the peasuntry Whilc they remilin, for the most part, committed to thcir wily of life its independent, small-scale agricultu- The 1 laitian peasantry is not ii single homogeneous rill proiluccrs, they arc hi~rdlysatisfied with the stci~dily class. Variations in pci1:;ilnt cconomic status alc rcflcc- worscnirrg conclition!i of thcir existence. Looking tcd in highly diffcrcntiatcd relations to the markct, ahead to the ncxt generation, today's peasant com- pi~ttcrn~)flandholding, i~ntlvaried cropping strate- monly strivcs to ensure thc futurc of his children 02 gies. Wc;~lthicrpeasant familics gcncrillly havc grcatcr s* s* of thc agricultural scctor through education, cmi- access to savings. Thcsc families arc likely to invest gration, itnd altcrnativc forms of employment. in land and livestock, but surpluses may also bc inves- ted in commerce, speculation, money-lending or emi- In rctrospcct, it is all too eitsy to allow flaiti'scurrcnt gration. Wealtliier peasants are more oriented to pc- prcdicarncnt to obscurc the fundamental accomplis- rcnnial and cxport crops, and can afford both the hments of the Haitian pcop!e. Freed by thcir own higher capital inputs and the lag bctwcen investment Irands of both colonial control and slavery, they were and rcturn that these crops require. to articulate a vision of freedom that was, above all, their own. For the bettcr part of a century the peasan- In contrast, poor pcasant households tend toconceal try pursucd that vision successfully, with results that the prcsencc of a hiddcn rural proletariat. Most of the comyarcd quite fi~vorablyto the circumstances of their rural poor arc not landless sharecroppers. They arc Afro-American compatriots throughout the hcmisphe- more likcly to be small landowners who are f~:cc-! to re. If their descendants today havc been unable to supplement thcir farm income by occasional or seaso- sustain that powcrful vision of freedom in its entirety, nal day labor and petty commerce. The var;t majority nor cven to maintain a satisfactory standard of living, of pcasant families are landowners; yet the majority thici in no way diminishes the historical and crrltural of them ;re also land poor in absolute as well as in significance of thcir original achicvemcnt relative terms. C.- CHARACTERISTICS OF THE Thus. cven on privatcly held lands, most hillside PEASANT FARMING SYSTEM farmers are too poor to forego even a portion of their annual crop production and income for soil conserva- Land scarcity, in the face of an cxpanding rural tion structures or for the establishment of perennial, population, has resulted in the cutting of Haiti's iorcsts multi-year cropping patterns. Even where the appro- to meet the need for cropland, even in mountains and priate technologies are already known to peasar~ts,the fragile land areas unsuitable for sustained agriculture. required inputs, including tools and intermediate-term While thc large-scale cutting of trees for charcoal pre- investment capital, are not readily available. Complex land tenure pxtterns In principle, iin effective national cadastral survey is desirable; in practice, it is unlikely to lead to a more The predominant feature of peasant tenurt: is its equitalde distribution of holdings or to more secure "mixed" character. Farmers generally work scveral land tenure under present social and political arrange- plots under several different modes of tenure, simulta- ments. In any case, it requires more than a pre-project neously renting, sharecropping, owning and renting cadaster to insure that land tenure arrangements and out land. A given farmer's operational farm unit may security remain relatively unnffacted by land improve- vary from seilson to season depending on his needs ment projects. 'The most significant constraints to land and on his ability to gain access to land, usually through tenure security reside in the socio-political context of personal and kin ties. Furthermore, peasant land te- peasant powerlessness rather than In the lack of ade- nure is characterized by a dual system of formal, legal quately surveyed and titled garden plots. tenure and of holding land by "custom", in ways either provided for, nor excluded by, the law. This Diversity of farming strategies often ambiguous system of law and custom serves se- Just as there is no homogeneous peasant class, there veral functions: to protect the moral rights of kin, to is no homogeneous farming economy in Haiti. Rather, avoid or delay the cost of paying taxes on transfers of there is a range of peasant economies, each one with title, and to avoid potential abuses by officials and its own mix of strategies and varied impacts, both competing claimants. positive and negative, upon the environment. This di- versity is attributable, in large measure, to immense The varied character of land holding affects agricul- variation in micro-climatic conditions, as well as to the tural decision-making. Some plots are more readily highly dispersed pattern of multi-plot farm units in alienated than others. Some are used as collateral on any particular area. loans. Some are privately farmed while collectively owned, through group inheritance. The relative secu- Where there is sufficient rain, mountain peasant rity of a plot clearly affects the farmer's willingness to agriculture is based on intensive intercropping, and invest in it, or to plant it with perennials, or to build tubers are an important food crop. Well-watered costly earthworks for soil conservation. Indeed, where highlands tend to have more land devoted to peren- land is not ownrd outright by those who work it, as nials, and a greater diversity of cultigens, except in is the case with a significant percentage of fragile hill- areas of specialized vegetable production such as Kens- side lands, there may even be positive incentive for coff (near Port-au-Prince), where the traditional cof- the operat\?r to overexploit the plot under his tempo- feelcorn/bean association has been supplanted. Arid rary control There i!; good evidence that both State lowlands tend more toward "extensive" cropping stra- lands and absentee holdings are virtually "mined" by tegies, fewer crops, longer periods of fallow, fewer poor leaseholders and sharecroppers with no perma- planting seasons, and a greater reliance on grazing. nent stake in the resource base precisely because they Where irrigation is available in lowland plains, peasant are under intense pressure to survive from one crop- agriculture more easily controls the factor of nsk and ping season to the next. Certain land reforms, such as therefore focuses on cash cropping, with high capital the "privatization" of selected State land and absentee inputs and high labor demand, attracting large num- holdings in favor of those who work to improve them, bers of landless and land-poor agricultural wage labo- or at least the assurance of relatively secure access rers. through long-term leaseholds granted to the actual farmers in place, might go a long way towards impro- In short, differing crop strategies represent distinct ving the current situation in some of the most fragile variations in crop rotation, length of fallow, land tenu- and critical areas of the country. re, slack season activity, patterns of storage, and the relative monetization of peasant houshold economies. These complex variations in farming strategies and On the other hand, the much discussed general cli- potential are directly correlated with the significant mate of insecurity of tenure on small, owner-operated holdings may neither be as widespread nor as amena- environmental diversity characteristic of Haiti. They are bound to complicate any national programs aimed ble to legislated, externally-imposed solutions as is at the improvement of peasant farming systems from commonly suggested. Certainly, the situation on such the point of view of their ecological soundness and private peasant holdings does not provide prima facie sustainability. justification for a national cadastral survey, as is some- times recommended. On the contrary, there is good Peasnnt access to land,labor and capital evidence on record that local cadasters have already Icd to abuses, and even to the loss of land by small, Capital is by far the scarcest of the peasant house- powerless farmers. While customary arrangements hold's production factors. Capital shortages are a sig- and ambiguous ownership may complicate the imple- nificant constraint to peasant production and tend to mentation of projects' land management strategies, foster destructive land use practices. Labor is the least they often serve to protect access to land on the part scarce factor of production, while land is the pivotal of small peasant farmers. factor. Land serves as the powerful futcrum for gaining access to labor and capital resources. Land is the pri- is@ a deficit producer and a marketer for subsistence mary source of livelihood and the most significant form goals. That is, the average peasant producer produces of investment. Peasant farmers have relatively more than the minimum necessary to support rlimself control over land and labor resources than over capital. and his family; he operates at a loss, and likely loses As the most significant form of peasant wealth, land ground in one way or another every year. Yet he must is readily bought and sold. Since land changes hands go to market (or, more precisely, send his wife to easily, there may be some disincentive to invest in market) every single week, in order to secure those perennials crops, except as a long-range investment basic necessities without which his daily consumption strategy amorlg the better off peasants. On the other requirements cannat be met. Such essential items in- hand, land improvement investments, especially is the clude cooking oil, salt, matches, laundry soaps, coo- form of trees plantings, significantly enhance the local king vessels, cloth, and a host of other manufactured, market value of any particular plot of land, and thc processed or non-locally produced goods. These neces- net incentive for such investments, particularly those sities are available only through purchase, and some requiring low capital inputs, is likely to be positive. portion of perennially scarce on-farm produce must be sold to generate the needed cash. Paradoxically, h!(arket/cash orientation the poorer the peasant, the higher the proportion of his on-farm produce sold at market. This inverse rela- While there is a mix of monetary and non-monetary tionship holds at least within the lower and middle features in the peasant economy, the Haitian peasant strata of the peasantry, until the true surplus producer adaptation evolved in a modern, post-colonid setting, emerges in the upper reaches of rural society. The and has always been firmly embedded in a cash nexus. terms of exchange, needless to say, are controlled from Today's peasant is neither a classic subsistence pro- without, and are almost invariably weighted against ducer, nor the marketer of a true surplus. Rather he the small local producer.

Fig. VII-I: Going into a town market (photo WFPIRome) Increasing importance of annual crops Major storms are not only destructive in the short run, but they may have a long-term impact on the In the face of this constant need for small sums of qnvironment, as well, by forcing peasants to adapt to cash in order to provision the household with daily drastic conditions by altering their farming strategies necessities, peasant farming strategies currently de- in ways that ultimately lead to even greater negative pend primarily on the sale of food crops. Not only has effects on the local ecology. Thus, for exsmple, pea- food-crop production always been spread more evenly sants in the Jacmel region cite hurricanes as the preci- throughout the annual cycle than traditional export pitating cause for a significant transformation of their crop production but, during the past fifteen years, farming practices - a major shift away from perennial- prices for domestic food crops have tended to rise crop production to annual-crop production. Once a faster than prices for export crops. Although food-crop hurricane destroyed established coffee plantations on prices are characterized by significant fluctuations in south-facing slopes, and simultaneously destroyed the the short run, they have steadily risen in price in the bulk of the local food supply still in the ground, there long run. On the other hand, both prices and the pro- was little choice but to plant food crops extensively duction of export crops have tended to be highly uns- on the once-protected hillside I~rids,and to do so as table. quickly as possible. ilnable fillancially to wait for new t coffee plar~tingsto become poductive, most peasants This situation has clearly tended to favor food crops in the area appare4y failcd to re-established their produced for the local market as the primary cash crop perennial plantations, 3au continue to produce an- of the peasant production system. Moreover, the ne- nuals on lands where they are essentialy inappropriate. cessity for cash crops with a quick turnaround time and favorable prices provides an additional strong in- Charcoal production and centive to plant annual, "erosion-intensive" crops such fuelwood consumpticn as corn and beans, as opposed to the slower growing, soil-holding perennials such as tree crops, coffee and The production of charcoal comes primarily, but cocoa. not exclusively, from large-scale production zones in semi-arid regions of the country (i.e., Northwest, Avoidance of risk CGte-de-Fer). Large-scalz production of charcoal is a relatively recent phenomenon. Its advent coincides With a large percentage of small farmers living on with the tremendous growth of Port-au-Prince since the very margins of survival, peasant farming is more the !940's, and also with the destruction of crops and strongly oriented to minimizing risk than to maximi- the felling of trees by hurricanes. In many charcoal zing production. The risk factor tends to promote a producing areas, the first period of charcoal produc- diversity of holdings and tenure arrangements on small tion can be dated within living memory, and this date plots in order to spread the risk within a single peasant often coincides with the passing of a destructive hurri- farm unit. Different plots located in different micro-cli- cane. The landmark date in this regard is 1954, with matic zones, are managed in different ways. the tremendous destruction left in the wake of Hurri- One extremely significant, yet virtually uncontrolla- cane Hazel ble risk factor, with profound effects on peasant farm- Unlike charcoal, whose demand curve has risen ing systems, is the island's location in the path of nu- dramatically with the recent explosion of the urban merous tropical storms and hurricanes. The following population, the peasant demand for fuelwood for how list of natural disasters is not complete, but it is indi- schold cooking needs, though absolutely high, has ri- cative of the unusual significance of natural disasters sen relatively gradually with rural population growth in a domain of production where success is tenuous, and has always been evenly distributed geographically. at best, and where peasant's ability to absorb loss is These local needs have traditionnaly been met through very limited. the gathering of dead wood and the pruning of bran- 1947 drought Hurricane Beulah ches from living trees. The commercial exploitation 1954 Hurricane Hazel drought of both fuelwood (for rural and urban industries such 1956 Hurricane Greta drought as bakeries, dry cleaners, essential oil distilleries, etc.) 1956 drought floods and charcoal, on the other hand, has always been fo- 1958 Hurricane Ella drought cused and intense, moving from one locale to another 1958 drought floods only after near-total deforestation has occured. Pea- 1959 Hurricane Gracie drought sants in many parts of the country have only turned 1959 drought drought from gathering dead wood to cutting trees down for 1963 Hurricane Flora drought their own fuelwood needs after their local resources 1963 floods drought have suffered the effects of such commercial exploita- 1964 Hurricane Cleo Hurricanes David tion. In some specific areas, in fact, this dynamic may & Frederick be as significant a factor in severe deforestation as the 1966 Hurricane Inez sheer effects of population pressure on agriculture ex- 1966 drought floods pansion and household fuelwood demand. Peasants, trees and agroforestry nial land may be divided, for example, while trees on the same land, and their produce, might remain a Given the wholesale destruction of forest cover built collective resource for generations. Trees may be into peasant agriculture, the impression is sometimes owned entirely ~eparetelyfrom the land upon which given that peasants do not plant trees. This is empha- they grow. Land may be rented or sharecropped sepa- tically not the case. Peasants have commonly planted rately from the trees present on the land, which them- fruit trees, although not in large numbers. Trees of selves may be rented for one or more seasons. many kinds are traditionally planted in patterned agroforestry associations, as evidenced in the botany Traditionally, peasant farmers have tended not to

Fig. VII-2: Gathering firewood in the arid Northwest (photo WFP/Rome) of the peasant houseyard and residential compound, plant hardwood trees, but hardwood seedlings are of- in living fences or boundary markers (for gardens, ten protected, or transplanted from sites where they yards or animal pens), and in shade cover for such sprout by natural regeneration. USAID's Agrofores- crops as coffee and cacao. Peasant farmers also have try Outreach Project, however, has clearly demonstra- a distinct preference for self-regenerating and self-pro- ted that peasants are more than willing to plant non- pagating trees. In arid zones, there is a traditional fruit-bearing trees on a large scale, if certain conditions practice of macaging woodlots of Prosopis (bayahonde are met. Small peasant farmers, in collaboration with or mesquite), a coppicing, drought-resistant wood spe- this project, are presently planting trees, at their own cies highly valued by peasants as construction timber expense in land and labor, at the rate of seven million and for charcoal production. trees per year. Overall project objectives are to pro- Indeed, trees of virtually any kind are of such consi- mote cash cropping of trees by small farmers, to plant derable importance to the peasant that distinct rules multi-purpose trees as a renewable natural resource, of ownership and inheritance apply to them. P ~trimo- to foster soil conservation, to develop new sources of Fig. VII-3: Peasant families are self-reliant units processing their own homegrown grains for sale or consumption. (Photo courtesy of S. Seguino) income in rural areas, and to generate new supplies D.- RELEVANT LITERATURE of timber, fuelwood, fruit and forage. The best regional study of human geography in Haiti Much like the land, which at one time, at least, is the work by H. Wood, Northern Haiti: Land, Land ensured the continued viability of peasants as indepen- --Use and Settlement. A Geographical Study of the DB- dent producers and free men, trees too are imbued partement du Nord, University of Toronto Press, 1963. with more than just material significance. They play The best general study of Haitian peasants is a work a symbolic role in the spiritual lives of rural Haitians, by another geographer, P. Moral, Le Paysan Haitien, as well. Some trees on peasant lands, for example, are Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris, 1961. protected from cutting by strong taboos linked to fa- The effect of peasant settlement on the land in two mily spirits or special pilgrimage sites. Many trees, countries is vividlv contrasted in E. Palmer's disserta- especially certain species and most old trees, are consi- tion, Land Use and Landscape Changes Along 5 dered to be repositories of various types of spirits. It Dominican-Haitian Borderlands, University of Flori- - is customary in many areas to plant a tree over the da, 1976. spot where the afterbirth is buried at childbirth, and The most important recent work in Haitian geogra- to consecrate its future production and value to the phy is the political geography of G. Anglade: L'Espace newborn. The child is expected, someday, to profit Haitien (1974), Espace et LibertC en Haiti (1982) and from it, and to be anchored by it as he or she grows especially, the Atlas Critique d'Haiti (1982), Montreal up to face the increasingly stringent demands of ma- (Centre de Recherches Caraibes de I'Universite de king a living on the land. Montreal). VIII Water Resources / Sanitation / and Environmental Health

A*- INTRODUCTION the remainder of the country. The Centrale Autonome Signs of environmental pollution are evident in Hai- Mdtropolitaihe d'Eau Potable (CAMEP) now supplies ti, particularly in the densely populated sections of only 60 percent of its potential customers. This percen- urban areas. Surface and groundwaters are being pol- tage is expected to decrease to 50 percent in the next luted by human waste; and solid wastes are dumped six years. The Service National d'Eau Potable (SNEP) into the drainage ways. The air in Port-au-Prince serves 700,000 people or 16 percent of the population contains dust and emissions from poorly inspected ve- outside the metropolitan area. This proportion is ex- hicles. Control of environmental pollution is non-exis- pected to increase to 39 percent in 1991. tent. The two most pressing environmental health is- sues are access to a relatively safe water supply system It is unlikely that PLAN'S goals for the international and access to a safe method of human waste disposal. water and sanitation decade will be realized, but the gap between targeted demand and level of population Haiti's population is projected to increase from served will keep narrowing. Progress towards some 5,200,000 in 1985 to 6,500,000 in 2006, the long range reason*.tblegoal is slow, but some planning activities planning horizon selected by the Ministry of Plan. Du- undervfay are promising and should be encouraged. ring that period the proportion of rural population will An ef~ectiveCONADE (National Water Council) decrease from '74 to 43 percent, while the metropolitan would be a powerful planning and regulatory agency area will grow from 720,000 to 2,200,800 persons. Em- to protect water resources and ensure their reasonable ployment and government services are better in the availability for competing uses. Port-au-Prince area, which thus attracts many people. Other national development constraints include a high Water resources, though not precisely known, are population density (670 people per square kilometer believed adequate to meet basic domestic needs. The of arable land), low agricultural productivity and a main constraint is deficient cashflows and for CAMEP, lack of basic infrastructure. to a certain extent, losses through leaks and piracy. Water quality at most systems can be improved by Socio-economic trends are alarming and develop- more frequent testing. Establishing a national code of ment prospects constrained. However, a planning pro- drinking water quality standards would help in the cess has begun and it holds the promise of future im- selection of water sources and the preparation of treat- provement. The Ministry of Plan has prepared a deve- ment guidelines. Finally, employees at the ioterme- lopment strategy dividing the country into four new diate and lower levels could be motivated and upgra- planning regions. The scenario envisioned for the year ded through training. 2006 is for essential services to be available to all urban areas and the largest rural centers; for 60 percent of The metropolitan drainage program, underway, will total jobs to be outside the metropolitan area and for help alleviate considerably the problems of stormwater four provincial cities to exceed a population of 100,000 and solid waste disposal in the Port-au-Prince area. serving as regional development poles. Another nota- Other programs are under consideration for soce ble planning effort is under way for water supply and large provincial cities. Disposal of stormwater and so- land use in the metropolitan area of Port-au-Prince. lid waste is critical in rural areas. The water supply sector has a long way to go to Only 35 percent of the population have adequate meet its needs both in the metropolitan areas and in means of human waste disposal. That is an increase from 20 percent in 1971. PLAN envisions a program some which may have only a few hundred persons to construct family latrines for all the unserved popu- (Institut Haitien de Statistiques, 1978). The majority lation by 1990. A most serious problem is disposal of of the population (74 percent) live in rural areas and sullage (from latrines) and septage (from septic tanks). most of thc urban populat;oti (55 percent) is in the With its limited means, the Division of Public Hygiene metropolitiin area. Outsid:: Port-au-Prince, only 10 meets only 10-20 percent of the necds, the rcmainder cities hrtvc more than 10,000 people. of the work being done unsafely by honey dippcrs. Tlic populations (IHS, 1980) of the largest citics arc K estimated iis follows: B.- URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION TRENDS Port-iiu-Princc 830.000 I'ort-de-Paix 16,000 E l'ilblc VIII-1 presents the population estimates and Ciip-Haitien 66,300 Jacmcl 14,100 projections proposed for the four new pli~nningregions Goniti'ves 35,100 Dcsdunes 14,000 biiscd on the results of the thrcc censuses of 1950, Lcs Caycs 35,100 I-linchc 10,400 1971 and 1982 iis reported by the Haitian Institute of St. Marc 24.900 JCrCmic 1 5) ,000 Statistics (Scptcmhcr 1982). Petite-Rivic'rc dc I'Artibonitc 10,000 Tlic total population of tlic country for the period 1950-2006 is shown on Figure VIII- I along with projcc- From an environmental planning standpoint, Plan tion made by the Ministry ol' Plan itlid Institute of divides tlic population into thrcc groups (National Pro- Statistics (IHS) for comparison. In the rcsults of the gram for Water Supply and Sanitation, 1984): censuses, urban avciis include citics, communc +xiits - Urban i~ndscmi-urbzn communities, including Port- and certain communities wit11 simihr hciusing pilttcrti~. au-Prince and census centers that will havc a popula-

Nor111 Ilc'pt. Northcast Ilcpt. North Rcgion Total Artitwnitc Dcpt. C'cntcr Dcpt. Northwest Dc'pt. Tronsvcrsalc Rcgion Totill West Dcpt. Southeitst Dcpt West Region Total South Dcpt. Grand'Ansc Dcpt. South Region Total

Metropolitan Arca Port-au-Prince

Other Urhnn Arciis ('L) 45% 44.S'%, 43.2% 4 1 '%)

Ruriil Population 3,752.584 3,700.000

("/.I 74% 7 1 '%I

Sourcc: Based on cetisus result and trends predicted by the Ministry of Plan (1084). wells. These relatively dense communities include the remaining 150 urban towns with a total population of 300,000 plus approximately 1,000,000 people in the *sections ruralesv. - Scattered rurul communities that can be served only by individual systems and include the remainder of the rural population, that is ?.,700,000 people.

If present population trends continue, one can ex- pect Haiti's population to greatly increase thereby in- creasing the need for water supply sanitation services, and pollution control. Overall densities will increase to 235/Km2. The rural population will actually decrease and its relative share will go from 74 percent in 1985 to 43 percent in 2006. Under these conditions, it becomes more imperative than ever to manage environmental resources carefully and to plan for long term objectives even if project implemenlation cannot go beyond short-term needs. In rural areas and the smallest towns and villages, projects to increase basic services such as water supply and sanitation should continue. At the other end of the spectrum, the situation will become explosive in the metropolitan area unless ne- cessary actions are taken to meet the needs of a popu- lation exceeding 2,000,000 people. The current infras- tructure elements, barely adequate for the population Fig. VIII-1: Population Trends of 150,000 in 1950, will require considerable improve- ments. It is imperative to adopt measures as part of a land use plan that will provide adequate water supply tion of 5,000 or more in 1990. Thirty such communities and sanitation services as well as pollution controls. (including the capital) have a present total population of about 1,200,000. An important first step in these planning endeavors was taken during the preparation of the CAMEP's -Concentrated rural communities that can be supplied master plan to supply the metropolitan area with water from regional systems, springs and drilled or excavated to the year 1995 (SAFEGE, 1984). In cooperation with other divisions of the Ministry of Public Works, CAMEP's consultant prepared a preliminary land use master plan that essentially proposes a preliminary land use master plan that essentially proposes a deve- lopment scenario for Port-au-Prince including: - protecting agricultural lands as well as lands with a slope greater than 25 percent (at the same time this will protect part of the CAMEP's watershed from the risks of pollution by residential or industrial develop- ment); - directing future expansion towards the northeas- tern and northwestern areas. The prospect of 2,200,000 people (34 percent of Haiti's projected population) in the metropolitan area is frightening, but may be worse if the provincial towns cannot slow down the exodus towards Port-au-Prince and absorb a reasonable share of the population growth. Programs to develop these towns into primary and secondary centers of development should continue Fig. VIII-2: Water supply plan at an intensified rate. C.0 WATER RESOURCES because of low precipitation or the presence ol'imper- Water Supply meable layers, as in the Central Plateau and parts of Two government ministries share the responsibility the northwest peninsula and the Island of La Gonave for managing and developing water resources in Haiti. (DATPE, 1984). The Ministry of Agriculture, through the Service des A complete inventory of water uses is not available Ressources en Eau is in charge of water resources for all the watersheds. For the Cul-de-sac plain (which studies, research, control and protection and also is not representative of the entire country because of develops water resources for irrigation. The Ministry extensive uses and relatively abundant resources), of Public Works provides drinking water through two groundwater use may be summarized as follows (SA- organizations: CAMEP for the metropolitan area and FEGE, 1974): SNEP for the remainder of the country. In practice, however, there is little control over the use of water irrigation 100,000,000 mclyear resources and several other government and non-go- industry 15,000,000 mclyear vernment organizations execute water supply pro- Port-au-Prince's potable 8,000,000 mdyear grams. individuals wells 125,000 mclyear Despite past studies, there is no definitive asses- sment of Haiti's water resources. A current project Water Quality sponsored by an agency of the United Nations is col- Water supplied by CAMEP and SNEP is disinfected lecting and analyzing data that may allow a quantifica- before distribution and is considered relatively safe. tion of the resource. However, it is generally agreed However, in some installations, treatment is irregular that there is enough water for drinking purposes and because of breakdowns and the absence of backup that the water supply problem is: to find means of equipment. Water from surface sources and uncapped developing the resource (DATPE, 1984). springs presents a high risk of contamination. Water supplied by private vendors in the Port-au-Prince area Groundwater is abundant and easily accessible in is considered unsafe because it is not disinfected and some areas, particularly in the coastal plains (Plaine its sources are not protected. Strictly speaking, there du Nord, RiviGre Colombier, Plaine des Gonaives, is no controlled potable water in the country; even the Basse Artibonite, Plaines du Cul-de-sac, de LCogiine, treated and bottled water sold by two plants cannot de Jacmel et des Cayes). Aquifers in these areas yield be absolutely guaranteed; although the treatment between 10 and 120 liters per second. Their waters method is satisfactory, contamination may occur du- are of good quality except for salt water intrusion in ring the bottling operation (DATPE, 1984). some cases. Groundwater resources in the Plains of Gonaives and Cul-de-sac have been exploited to a Water-related diseases are prevalent in Haiti, parti- certain extent. Other areas are rich in groundwater cularly in the rural areas where potable water systems that cannot be easily developed (40 percent of the are rare. In 1980, several thousand cases of water-re- country receives between 1600 and 2000 mm of rainfall lated diseases were reported as shown on table VIII-2. per year, but has a karstic substratum). Groundwater The actual number of infections is much higher, par- sources could yield between 0 and 1000 liters per se- ticularly for diarrhea, which is not often reported. In cond of water of good quality, except for an excessive any case, the numbers are too high. Children are par- hardness. Finally, some areas are poor in groundwater ticularly affected. In 1979, diarrheas alone caused the

Table VI11-2 SOME REPORTED CASES OF WATER-RELATED D1SEASE:S IN 1980

Area and Population Diarrhea Intestinul Infections Typhoid Cases 11000 Cases /I000 Cases /I000 Port-au-Prince Gonai'ves Port-de-Paix Hinchc St-Marc Petit-GoSve Bclladt?re Jacmel North Dept. South Dept.

Source: CONADEPA (April 1984), from Bullctin dc Statistiqucs ct d'Epidkmiologic. D+i~rtcnicnt dc la Sant6 Publique ct de la Population. death of 9 percent of the babies under one year (UNI- CAMEP is an agency of the Ministry of Public CEF, 1984). Works, Transports and Communications (TPTC) crea- Existing Water Supply Systems Ted to provide drinking water to an area that includes In 1978 there were 40 domestic water supply systems the cities of Port-au-Prince and PCtionville, the com- in the country serving 700,000 people or 15 percent munities of Carrefour and Delmas, the towns of Gres- of the population, mostly in Port-au-Prince and other sier and Croix-des-Bouquets, and the Quartier Croix urban areas (Harza Engineering Company, 1979). des Missions. This vast franchise area is designated as the ccCommunaut6 Urh:linen or Metropolitan District. Since then several other systems have been added Presently, CAMEP serves only Port-au-Prince, PC- to the network and some have been expanded. It is tionville, Carrefour and Delmas. The last major expan- estimated that, by the end of 1985, a total population sions of the system were financed in 1969 and 1977 by of 1,200,000 or 23 percent will have access to a com- the Inter-American Development Bank. munity water supply. A good portion of these people live in the metropolitan area (42 percent) and in the CAMEP supplies its customers from 17 springs pro- 13 provincial cities of 10,000 or more (25 percent). ducing 44,000 mc per day and three wells in the plain Thus, 67 percent of the urban population will have of Cul-de-sac producing 22,500 mc per day. It is esti- access to a community water supply while there will mated that the safe yield of these combined sources be practically no water supply systems in the rural is 70,000 mc per day. CAMEP uses distribution reser- areas with a scattered population. voirs with a total capacity of 36,650 mc. Maintenance of these structures and the distribution pipes leave The existing water supply systems are the results of much to be desired. The quality of the raw water is investment programs by government agencies, and bi- generally good except for a high salinity in the Cul-de- lateral and multilateral cooperation organizations. Sac and traces of bacteriological contamination at two (Table VIII-3). The government devotes 4 percent of springs, Plaisance -and Cerisier, caused probably by the budget to potable water projects and this contribu- malfunctioning latrines and septic tanks. All the sour- tion is financed by external assistance at 85 percent ces (springs and wells) have a disinfection unit except (UNICEF, 1984). Their actions are summarized as one spring (Source Doco), but the equipment at some follows: installations often does not work.

Flg. Vm-3 Refuse disposal and sanitation are problematic in most poor neighborhoodsof Port-au-Prince (Photo, courtesy ofS. Squino). Table VIII -3 SUMMARY OF EXISTING AND PROPOSED WATER SL'PFLY SYSTEMS Service Area Population Served in 1978 1985 1991 Metropolitan Area Balance of West Dept. Southeast Department North Department Northeast Department Artibonite Department Center Department Northwest Department South Department Grand' Anse Department

Total Served 715,000 1,200,000 2,300,000 Total Population 4,750,000 5,200,000 5,600,000 Percent Served 15% 23% 41 %

SYSTEMS TO BE COMPLETED IN 1985 (UNDER POCHEP AND UNICEF) Service Area Pop. Served Service Area Pop. served North (18) 15,200 West (50) 27,400 Northeast (0) 0 Southwest (3) 4,900 Artibonite (38) 34,100 South (18) 23,100 Center (4) 6,500 Grande Anse (8) 9,500 Northwest (0) 0 Subtotal (139) 120,700 Total SNEP in Operation in 1985: 725,800

Source: Harza Engineering Company (1979);) SNEP (January 1985) and Project POCHEP's files

CAMEP presently servcs about 500,000 people (Direction Gdntrale) and four regional offices at Port- through: au-Prince, Cap-Haitien, Gonaives and Cayes. SNEP's - 40,000 connections, 25 percent of which iire illegal financial means are extremely limited, but the agency and do not contribute any revenue (total 300,000 peo- hiis received assistance from several donors including ple). United Nations agencies (UNICEF, WHO), the World Bank (IBRD) the Inter American Develop- - 80 functioning standpipes at the disposal of the ment Bank (IDB), the German Foundation for Tech- sixty-five percent of the urban population that is below nical Assistance (GTZ), and the U.S. Agency for In- the absolute level of poverty. Actually, less than 80,000 ternational Development (USAID). people derive their water from this source; the overwhelming majority of the group purchase water This year SNEP will have 185 water supply systems from private vendors (300,000 people), share a connec- in operation, serving a total population of 700,000 in tion with a subscriber (100,000), break illegally into the departments, including those to be completed in CAMEP's pipes (40,000) or use approximately 120 1985. spring and private wells. Most of these systems are capped springs, three no- table exceptions being those serving lthe cities of Cap- Water loss through leaks and waste is estimatcd iit Haitien, Gonaives and Cayes. The community systems 50 percent (70 percent by one account). There are no range from a dug or bored well with a hand pump water meters. CAMEP's annual revenue is less than serving 200 people, to the system at Cap-Haitien ser- $700,000 while the vendors collect close to $4,000,000 ving close to 60,000 people through house connections (DATPE, 1984, and Pass, 1982). and public fountains. Several organizations assisted in SNEP is another agency of the Ministry of Public the financing of these systems or participated in their - Works. It is responsible for the construction, operation construction, particularly: the IDB (10 largest cities), and maintenance of all water supply systems outside the Organization pour le DCveloppement du Nord the metropolitan area. SNEP has an executive office (ODlrr) the DSPP (Ddpartement de la SantC Publique et de la Population) at the Ministry of Health and size of the communities (total population: 900,000 ic several non-governmental organizations such as 1991). CARE, World Church Service, Missionary Church Association, German Foundation for Technical Assist- Supply all the concentrated rural communities ance, Canadian Agency for International Develop- through standpipes (total population: 1,000,000 in ment (CIDA). 1991). 0 There is no evidence of national drinking water sup- For scattered rural communities, provide sanitary ply standards. Conversations with managers of CA- surveillance services to improve the quality of existing MEP, SNEP, the Public Hygiene Division, and the individual drinking water sources. A few simple faci- Sanitation Office indicate that the main concern is lities would be built, e,g, cisterns for collecting rainwa- bacteriological contamination, although physical-che- ter (total population: 2,500,000 in 1991). mica1 analyses are sometimes also conducted. Some Thus, PLAN envisions that by the end of the water portable kits for testing water quality are available to and sanitation decade, community systems will serve SNEP. 55 percent of the population and the Ministry of Health Included in the existing systems are those construc- will improve the quality of the drinking w!er for the ted by the sanitation office (Bureau d'Assainissement) remainder. This is a very ambitious plan that requires of the Ministry of Health. The 35 systems serve 92,000 investments of $90,000,000 on the part of the govern- people in 73 communities whose populations vary from ment (including external assistance) and $50,000,000 700 to more than 5,000. Under an i~grcementbetween from the communities. the Ministries of Health and Public Works, and the Some projects under design or construction are li- financing agencies (IDR and the European Economic kely to be completed by 1991. They include: Community), the systems are constructed under Poste Communautaire de I'Hygikne et de I'Eau Potabic? (PO- Installation of 400 additional hand pumps (INDIA CHEP), but SNEP will opcrate and maintain them. Mark 11) to serve 100,000 people in the plains of Cul- The Bureau d'Assainissement expects to complete the de-Sac, LCogane, Artibonite, Nord and Cayes, and first phase of the POCHEP project by September 1985. financed by the CIDA, Rotary International and the GOH. Included in the project is the pcrchase of a UNICEF has cooperated with SNEP in the instal- drilling machine that SNEP can use to supply additio- lation of 100 hand pumps (INDIA Mark 11), io servc nal communities. 40,000 people throughout the country and 15 gravity systems for 17,000 people in the Northwest. Water supply systems for 12 towns in the Plateau Central: Pignon, La Victoire, Ranquitte, Maissade, Water Supply Trends and Prospects Savanne Haleine, Mombin Crochu, Cerca-La-Source, Colladbre, Saltadke, Thomonde, La Belonne, and In recent years the country has made some progress Malte Peralte (Los Palis is already in operation). Fi- towards meeting the water supply needs of the popu- nanced by UN, the population served in 1991 will be Inrion. On the average, the number of people having 16,000. access to a community system increases by 70,000 every year. However, the rate of progress is reduced ODN, with a loan from the IBRD, will construct by population growth. Thus, in the past 7 years the wells and gravity systems to serve 125,000 people in number of people served has increased from 700,000 the North and Northeast. to 1,200,000, but the percentage served has only in- creased from 15 to 23. (Figure VIII-2). If this trend CARE, with USAID financing and SNEP's par- were to continue, it would take more than 60 years ticipation, will build or rehabilitate 40 gravity systems for supply to catch up with needs. What are the pros- and solar energy installations to serve 160,000 people pects for improvement? in the southern peninsula. PLAN'S CONADEPA (GOH, 1984) has prepared a. UNICEF, with the financial participation of the a water supply plan with the following objectives for Government and the beneficiaries, will construct or rehabilitate gravity systems to supply 72,600 people in 1990 the end of the International Water and Sanitation several communities of the northwest, west, and Decade: Grand-Anse. Supply the entire population of the metropolitan The Government and Protos (Belgian NGO) will area; 30 percent through private connections and 70 finance and construct a potable water system for 11,000 percent through public standpipes (total population people at Hinche. 1,200,000 in 1991). With a grant from the GTZ the GKW enginering Supply the remainder of the urban population firm has prepared feasibility studies and preliminary through private connections and public standpipes in design of water supply systems to serve 7 secondary proportions varying from 2%s to %s, depending on the cities: Pase-Reine (near Cionaives), Desdunes, Desca- heaux, Dessalirres, Petite-Rivikre dc I'Artibonite, In its national program, PLAN mentions some othcr Ville Bonheur, Arcahaie, and Cabaret. Total popula- ~orthwhilcprojects: tion in 1991 is cstimatcd at 78,000. A pilot project to supply water through public stand- Sweral non-governmental organizations are active pipes to 150,000 peoplc in the low income, northwest in the water supply sector. In addition, the Ministry scctions of Port-au-Prince. The Office National clu Lo- - of Plan will soon seek financing for a second phase of gement (ONL), a national housing agency, is already . the POCHEP project; its preliminary design has involved in rehabilitating housing for 3000 families in already been completed under a grant of IDB, which, part of this area (at Drouillard, Linthau I and Linthau reportedly, is willing to finance part of it (estimated 11). Stormwater removal will also be provided under cost: $21,000,000). Thesc two sources will supply ap- thc sccond phase of thc metropolitan drainage plan. proximately 300,000 persons. Financing has nor yet becn secured. It may be assumed that the existing systems outside A national rural water supply master plan to be the metropolitan area have enough capacity to acco- prepared by SNEP with support and participation from modate at least half their natural growth or will expand the Ministry of Health and active NGO's. accordingly. With the existing capacity and control to A pilot project to provide water supply and sanita- rcduce losses and curb illegal connections, Port-au- tion installations to 50,000 people in a rural area to . Prince can easily increase the number of its customers be selected. The project would be implemented by by 20 percent, which is by far insufficient to meet SNEP in close coordination with the current primary additional demand. In all, the existing systems can health care program. serve 230,000 morc pcoplc in 1991. A promotion program to encourage potential CA- Thus, by 1991, it is reasonable to expect a total of MEP customers to obtain private connections to the 2,300,000 people (41 percent of the population) to network. The program will be implemented by CA- have access to a community water supply. That is an MEP in collaboration with ONL and the Ministry of increase of 1,100,000 or 92 percent in. the next six Health. years. Although less optimistic than PLAN'S plan, this @ Improvement of the Kenscoff system to serve zddi- estimate shows an improvement over the progress tional SNEP and CAMEP customers. made between 1978 and 1985. If this trend continues, before the year 2006, about 80 percent of the popula- An inventory of existing water supply systems and tion will have access to a community system. Then a determination of needs of rural and urban popula- supply will catch up with a targeted demand, defined tions, to be carried out by the Ministry of Agriculture. as the entire urban population plus 50 percent of the A campaign to encourage the population to partici- rural population (it ib not reasonable to serve the scat- pate in the water supply and sanitation programs. tered rural areas through community systems). AI information and training program for low cost Beyond 1990-91, the water supply situation is less water supply and sanitation options to be financed by clear. It may be noted, however, that SNEP has on Canadian International Development Agency, UNDP file, feasibility studies and preliminary plans for more and others. than !GO water supply systems and only financing is An organization of Corlseil National de I'Eau needed for their implementation. For CAMEP there (CONADE), a national water authority to coordinate is a water supply master plan, just prepared with assist- the plan and manage water resources for the entire ance from Fonds d'Aide et de Coopdration, France country, including water supply and sanitation activi- (FAC). ties. This is an importation project that was scheduled The fundamental objective of the CAMEP master to begin in October 1982, but has made little progress. plan is to provide, by 1995, the entire metropolitan The water supply sector faces some serious difficulties. area with chemically as well as bacteriologically safe The most serious problem is deficient cashtlows. Both potable water, in sufficient quantity and at a reasona- SNEP and CAMEP are heavily subsidized because blc access distance. The water will be treated as neces- revenues are not sufficient to meet operating and main- sary (removal of carbon dioxide and disinfection). In tenance experlses as well as expansion needs. For the long run (beyond year 2000), CAMEP must consi- example, for the years 1981 through 1983, SNEP has . der the use of surface waters (Rivers: Froide, Mornan- shown an average deficit of $520,000 per year (more ce, Grise) to meet its demand (CAMEP 1984). than 50 percent of its budget). This does not include capital amortization for the systems that were donated. SNEP is preparing a survey of water supply needs Means to increase SNEP's revenues, for example, by within its jurisdiction. The study starts with an accurate financial participation of the beneficiaries, should be inventory of existing systems. It will enable the agency pursued in addition to external assistmce. Govern- to determine a priority list. mental subsidies have gradually decreased by 18 per- Another notable activity at SNEP is the program of cent beiween 1961 and 1983. CAMEP has a similar institutional reinforcement conducted with the assist- problem, but it could be solved more easily as CA- ance of the German government. It aims at increasing MEP's customers can gcnerally afford to pay for water SNEP's planning and management capabilities. service. For example, water vendors in the Port-au- Prince area, some of whom use CAMEP's water, could nities. Many streets of Port-au-Prince, which receive control water losses, curb illegal cbnnections and col- more attention than the remainder of the country, are lect fees from all users. Another area that can be im- filthy. In some areas, they are covered with litter and proved for both agencies is the control of the quality mud. In the crowded low-income areas of the city, of the water delivered. In the rural and semi-urban water is scarce and sanitation poor, wastes are disposed areas, however, it is recognized that water supply avail- close to living quarters thus creating a dangerous situa- ability is more urgent than water quality as sanitxy tion. education has not advanced far enough to guarantee Responsibility for ensuring healthy environmental that contamination does not occur betwecil source and conditions revolves mainiy around the Ministry of Pu- point of consumption. The mere scpply of drinking blic Health and Population with three notable excep- water is a health improvement. tions. Its Division of Public Hygiene is in charge of The establishment of a national code of drinking human waste disposal and many other activities. Its water standards and the preparation of treatment gui- Sanitation Office is involved in water supply and la- delines. The CEP team suggests that the recent WHO trine construction (POCHEP). Municipal administra- drinking water standards be adopted with modifica- tions handle solid waste disposal at Port-au-Prince and tions, as necessary, to take into account rural and most provincial cities, while stormwater drainage and urban socio-economic conditions and financial means. street cleaning are the responsibility of the TPTC. For example, these standards can very well apply to There is a Division of Land Development and Environ- CAMEP, but is is not practical to require the same mental Protection at the Ministry of Plan, but it is not level of quality in rural systems that supply fewer peo- active in pollution control. The same is true for an ple, do not bring revenues and whose water is likely environmental protection service within MARNDR. to suffer some secondary contamination before Human wastc and solid waste disposal, drainage, en- consumption. vironmental pollution, some cases of industrial waste management and sanitary education are briefly dis- The upgrading and motivation of personnel re- cussed in the following paragraphs. sources at the intermediate and lower levels through Human waste and the Division of Public Hygiene training and incentives. However, at the management and supervisory levels of both CAMEP and SNEP, This branch of the Ministry of Health has a sanita- although much dedication and pride was detected tion subdivision that includes four sections: there may be at times a sense of frustration caused by House inspections, refuse disposal and control of the limited means to be applied tooverwhelming task. drinking water quality through laboratory tests for chlorine residual. D. SANITATION Food and beverage quality control, from produc- Whereas water supply has received a great deal of tion to consumption (markets, bars, restaurants, ho- attention from governmental agencies, as well as bila- tels, etc.) teral and multilateral organizations, environmental sa- Vector Control nitation is almost completely neglected. The lack of Human waste disposal (construction of latrines funds mainly hampers rapid progress in the field of and disposal of wastes from latrines and septic tanks). drinking water supply, but its complementary field is The Division has about 150 employees, including a treated as a poor cousin. There are frequent com- sanitary engineer, 2 sanitary inspectors and 13 sanitary phints about the inadequacy of the water systems, but officers. Some members are old or handicapped. The a real perception of the need for environmental sani- Division's budget amounts to $784,000 provided mos- tation measures is lacking. Haitian leadership appears tly by the Ministry of Health (80 percent). Revenues to be not willing to pay for such measures, until envi- from human waste disposal charges represent less than ronmental pollution becomes a nuisance that affects 3 percent of the budget. USAID contributes 13percent " them directly. through the rural health project. The division operates Adequate legislation to deal with urban sanitation through four regional offices, divided into districts. problems is lacking. For example, the only article in The metropolitan district includes eight subdistricts. the hygiene code regulating the disposal of human The vast majority of the Haitian population do not waste merely states (paragraph 20): "all houses and have an adequate means of human waste disposal. commercial or business establishment must have latri- According to the results of a 1971 census, (Parisien, nes or septic tanks that must satisfy the cquirements 1979, from a publication of the Institute of Statistics), of the sanitary officer as to their location and all other less than one percent of the population had a flush aspects ... It is prohibited to spill fecal matter or urine toilet and, presumably, a septic tank, and 19 percent on the ground." used latrines; the remaining 80 percent used open fiel- ds, sometimes adjacent to the housing units. According The extent of pollution problems in rural and urban to UNICEF (1984) the proportion of the population areas is not well known, but there is a consensus among using latrines or septic tanks would now be around 40 workers in the public health field that environmental percent, most of them in the urban areas. In 1984, conditions are poor, except in a very few rich commu- WHO estimated that at the end of 1983, 41 percent of the urban population and 12 percent of the rural a problem as few tanks are followed by an adequate population would thus have access to an acceptable absorption field. Two other known instances of sewage means of waste disposal. PLAN (GOH 1984e) estima- disposal into the drainage system are at a market, ted the overall proportion at 33 percent. Marchei Vallitres, and a school, Ecole Rtpublique du Generally speaking, the design and construction of VCntzuCla (personal communication, Division of Pu- blic Hygiene, 1985). Illegal connectit ns are common the latrines and septic tanks are inadequate because there are no relevant regulations. Their operation and in the lower zone of Port-au-Prince because of its in- maintenance are also deficient and most of them are tense development and a high water table that makes overloaded, requiring frequent emptying, One com- wastewa'ter disposal difficult. Sometimes, kitchen and mon deficiency is the lack of ventilation, causing odors laundry wastewaters find their way into storm sewers, in houses with septic tanks and both odors and flies as well as through street collectors. in latrines. No authority reviews the design of septic The provincial cities face similar, but less severe tanks nor inspects their construction. problems because of their lower population densities. In 1984, the Division of Public Hygiene emptied 100 A recent survey (GKW, 1984) found the following septic tanks and 230 latrines in Port-au-Prince. Accor- conditions in the locities that had water supply systems ding to the Division's director, this represents only 10 installed in 1983 (St. Marc, Gonai'ves, Jacmel, Cap- to 20 percent of the needed disposal. The Division has Haitien, .Les Cayes, Port-de-Paix, JCrCmie, Aquin, only two trucks for this service. For lack of an adequate LCogSne, MiragoSne): There are very few flush toilets; final disposal site, the waste thus removed from the the tanks into which they discharge are not adequate. latrines and septic tanks is dumped untreated onto a More than 40 percent of the the population does not private field. Some time ago, the Division managed have a means of human waste disposal other than to obtain a disposal site at the foot of Morne 2 Cabris uncontrolled defecation. Most of the others use latri- (9 ha. of government land). With the asisstance of the nes, more than half of which need improvement. When Ministries of Health and Public Works, the site was the pit is filled, it is covered with earth and another transformed to operate as a landfill that could serve is dug. Wastewater is disposed In the yard by infiltra- indefinitely since the wastes would be removed after tion or discharge into the drainage system. decomposition and reused as fertilizer. However, for In the rural areas, therc are very few latrines. The unexplained reasons, the palace guard condemned the rural population disposes of excreta on the beaches, site before it could start functioning (as an emergency in fields, drainage ditches, dumps, and vacant lots. measure, they allowed the discharge of one truck load). Another site, found at Truitier near the refuse D.- SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL disposal landfill (10 km from the city), is awaiting preparation. It is not easily accessible when it rains. Solid waste disposal is the responsibility of the "Mai- The remaining 80-90 percent of the septage and sul- rie" in metropolitan Port-au-Prince. The mayor is Di- lage is collected by honey dippers at night, transported rector General of the SMCRS, or Service MCtropoli- in precarious and unsanitary conditions through city tain de Collecte des RCsidus Solides (Mttropolitan streets, and dumped at sea, in the storm sewers or Solid Waste Disposal Authority) and a sanitary engi- sometimes anywhere. neer serves as its technical director and deputy director general. In the provincial towns, the sanitary district There is no municipal sewage collection and disposal (Division of Public Hygiene) or the Mairie, or both, system in Haiti, but in Port-au-Prince, Engineering provide the refu!,e collection service. Science Inc. (1972) studied the wastewater disposal problem for the city. It recommended a separate was- Until recently, refuse disposal was chaotic in Port- tewater collection system for a portion of the city and au-Prince. Unsanitary conditions existed because the improvement of the septic tanks elsewhere. An advan- population in residential and business areas discarded ced primary treatment would be provided at two plants its refuse literally everywhere: stcets, storm sewers, (including the removal of grease, oil and flottable mat- drainage ditches, sea and water courses. In some areas, ter) before discharge of the effluents into the ocean the population openly burned part of its refuse to dis- at Lamentin to the west and Cite Soleil to the north. pose of it or reduce its volume. In addition to the The project has not been implemented because of its obvious public health hazards, these practices led to high cost. the obstruction of the drainage facilities to the point that the solid waste disposal problem had to be solved There are illegal connections of effluent pipes to the before the drainage network could be improved and drainage system although the extent of this problem extended. is not known. It is suspected that such conrlections are practiced by industrial and commercial entities, indivi- In 1980, SCET InternationalIBeture conducted a duals and even government institutions. Far example, solid waste disposal study. As a result, a program is it is reported that the effluent of the septic: tank of the being implemented, although with some delay. Accor- INLR is pumped directly into the Bois dr: ChCne, an ding to the technical director of the SMCRS, 70 per- important canal draining a good portion of Port-au- cent of the recommendations have already been reali- Prince. In general, disposal of ..eptic tank: effluents is zed: the managing structure is already in place; 30 new trucks are working and the remaining 35 trucks have the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries been ordered; the administration building is comple- (OPEC), Haiti is implementing the first phase of a ted, but not yet occupied; and the public promotion drainage project for metropolitan Port-au-Prince at a campaign is under way. The proportion should reach cost of $45,000,000. There are three subprojects: 100 percent by July 1985. The SMCRS now collects 300 tons of refuse per day 12t of an estimated produc- Reforestration of Morne I'Hbpital to slow down runoff, reduce erosion and sediment loads to the se- tion of 519 tons per day including: wers. This subproject is completed: 400,000 trees were - 380 tons from 950,000 persons in Port-au-Prince, planted, but they represent only 20 percent of the Pdtionville, Delmas and Carrefour at 0.4 kg per person area's reforestation needs. Platforms and retaining dry per day (SCET's population estimate); stone walls were also built. - 50 tons from commercial and industrial subscri- Collection of solid wastes, as discussed above. bers; - 75 tons from the public markets; and Repair and realignment of existing channels; cons- - 14 tons from parks, hotels, schools, ztc. truction of additional collectors. The Bois de Ch$ne canal has already been enlarged and secondary collec- SMCRS collects the refuse three times a week in tors have been cleaned. The construction of new col- front of the houses in certain areas, and daily from lectors is 90-95 percent complete. Results observed to 600 liter garbage cans or spot dumps in the less affluent date are encouraging. areas. These dumps will be eliminated when the pro- gram is in full operation, The refuse thus collected is All the principal provincial towns have stormwater disposed in a sanitary landfill at Truitier a few kilome- systems consisting of underground pipes, concrete ca- ters from the city. With its 200 ha this site can last at nals and street draining ditches, all of which receive least 20 years. A sensible improvement in the solid also refuse and wastewaters, to a certain extent. Their waste situation has been noted as a result of this incom- maintenance is inadequate. Two of the cities, Gonai- plete program, except the lower areas of the city where ves and Les Cayes are flat, low-lying and subject to the storm sewers still bring debris following rainstor- frequent flooding; their drainage would justify a spec- ms. ial study. Concerning solid waste disposal, a municipal refuse G.- POLLUTION composting plant operated for a few years near Port- There are many cases of environmental pollution in au-Prince, beginning in March 1980 (Farr, 1981). A Haiti, but there exists little documentation of them. pilot project demonstrated the feasibility of co-com- Some were mentioned in the preceding discussions of posting municipal refuse and latrine wastes (D.J.Dal- water supply, drainage and waste disposal. mat, J.F. Farr et al., 1983). At a construction cost of There are point and non-point sources of air and $7,000,000, the facility uses the PRATT process, a water pollution, still undocumented. Most of the European design. It has a design capacity of 1000 tons/ known cases are in Port-au-Prince and its vicinity. 24 hours. In 1983, it was processing only 30-100 tons Air pollution has not reached any great proportion, per day. The status of this facility is not known nor but on a clear day, from the hills surrounding Port-au- are the real reasons for its closure. Besides the appar- Prince, one can observe the smoke or dust from at ent difficulty in receiving the raw refuse, the facility least 12 chimneys shifting with the wind. The most produced compost that was too expensive for the farm- serious discharges are those of the sugar factory, ers ($1 1 per ton) and not easily accessible to potential HASCO, and the cement plant (Ciment dlHaiti). The customers. There has been a proposal to relocate the black smoke emanating from HASCO is the result of plant at Truiter near the sanitary landfill and the pro- burning cane residue to produce steam. The combus- posed site for disposal of latrine wastes by the Division tion is incomplete and escaping particles eventually of Public Hygiene. It would then be convenient to the fall on residential areas such as Delmas. Homeowners tracks of HASCO, (sugar plantations) a potential large have complained about this nuisance and the govern- customer. This would also allow a more efficient ope- ment has asked the plant to do something about it, ration by reducing the number of employees and trans- but to no avail. HASCO's position is that the particles portation costs. are not toxic and that the solution to the problem would require prohibitive investments. It has been sug- F.- STORMWATER DRAINAGE gested (Parisien, 1979) that one way to reduce this For years, stormwater drainage of Port-au-Prince impact is to concentrate combustion in the morning, was totally indadequate resulting in a considerable loss when the prevailing winds are more seaward. The ce- of lives and damage to buildings and personal proper- ment plant emits dust that affects mostly the nearby ty. The problem was aggravated by natural features residences of some 20 employees and to a lesser extent (e.g, steep slopes), uncontrolled development, remo- the community of Source Matelas. The metropolitan val of tree cover and an inadequate refuse collection area is too far (30 km) to be affected. service that encouraged disposal in the storm sewers Another source of air pollution in Port-au-Prince is and drainage ways. With assistance from the IDB and vehicular traffic. The situation is worse during morning and evening rush hours, when commuters converge solid wastes linto the sea: slaughterhouses, meat and towards the main business district from three direc- fish vendors, I-IASCO, Ciment d'Haiti. Pollution of tions or hurry to return home. PCtionville traffic is Port-au-Prince bay should be studied carefully: Conta- then chaotic and vcry slow along Delmas road and minants tend to get trapped in the inner parts of the Avenue John Brown. The intersection of Delmas, bay due to the direction of the currents circulating Martin Luther King and Hail6 SBlassiC is a permanent around the island of La Gonave. bottleneck. Some sections of the road to Carrefour are always heavily congested, a situation that is aggra- Industrial pollution does not seem to cause concern vat~dby a large number of slow moving trucks with in government circles. Perhaps it is a lack of awareness diesel engines. or it may be to save worker's jobs that prevent action from being taken. Industrial managers do not seem to Vehicle inspection is not thorough. Air pollution is be concerned either. The following summarizes infor- heavy along the congested arteries, due to emissions mation from major industries in Haiti: of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbo~is.Until traffic congestion can be relieved, mitigating measures could HASCO produced sugar from cane cultivated in is be adopted. Emissions tests in vehicle inspection, the own fields or bought from others. The company uses restriction of traffic, particularly of' slow moving septic tanks to treat the wastewater from its toilets trucks, at certain times on some roads could be consi- and discharges ihe processed wastewater into the sea. dered. Regulating ((tap-tapcamionette!;a which create The company uses its sludge as fertilizer to supplement compost it buys from the Dominican Republic. The h great deal of the chaos along the road to Carrefour, might be considered (e.g. institution specific ((tap-tap* solid residue of the sugar cane, called bagasse, is bur- stops for picking up or discharging passengers). ned to supplement fuel oil. Ashes are used in road beds or disposed of on fields. Dust and odor constitute other common torms of air pollution. In sections of Port-au-Prince and other ACIERIE D'HAITI produces all the steel used in cities, the streets are not paved and where traffic is construction and other activities in Haiti. Annual pro- relatively heavy, dust is a nuisance. Bad odorsemanate duction is 18,000 tons, only 25 percent of planned from some open markets and garbage dumps. capacity. The company uses water from CAMEP and rain water. It has a septic tank for toilet wastewater. Problems similar to those of HASCO may occur at It recycles its cooling watcr after sedimentation and other sugar plants (Darbonc lleilr LCogane, Caycs and disposes of the sludge at ther'ruitier sanitary landfill. Cap-Haiticn) and at numerous guildives throughout HAMPCO (Haitian American Meat and Produce the country producing "clairin" out of sllgilr cane. Co.) processes meat and uses water from wells. Ef- fluents from the slaughter house are chlorinatcd before Water pollution occurs in three forms. Surface wa- discharge. A septic tank receives toilet wastewater. ters are polluted by sediments resulting f~omerosion Manure is transported by wagon to sugar cane fields. and by all debris ur refusc. Runoff from both urban and rural areas brings to the receiving wnter courses RHUM BARBANCOURT uses well water, and re- oils, grease and fecal matter. Surface Watcr is not cycles the boiler water. Oil is recovered from the pro- uscd now to any extent for drinking watcr, but it may cessed waste and reused. The effluent is mixed with become thc long term source of potable water to supply cooling water and used for irrigation. Part of the ba- metropolitim Port-au-Prince. One potential source for gassc is used as fuel. The remainder is disposed in the the area, Rivikrc Grisc, may be subject to incidents fields or donated to local farmers to use as poultry of pollution at Damie11by HAMPCO, Rhurn Barban- litter. The Compilny is considering the feasibility of court, and small guildives. The milin cause of pollution using the bagasse to make briquettes that can be bur- of groundwi~tcris faulty and overlondcd latritlcs. Ina- ned as don~esticiuel instead of wood. dequntc septic tiink-soil absorption systems also pol- ENAOL extracts vegetable oils from soybeans im- lute thc groundwater. Although it is not documented, ported from the United States and Argentina. The oil pollution of ground water must be severe in densely produced is uscd locally. The residue serves as animal populated ilrcas of Port-au-Prince where latrine pits feed. There is little waste oil or solid waste. Processed arc very deep. Sonic areas also havc a high water wastcwater is disposed through canals and most of it table. Groundwater pollution is more dilngcrous is absorbed in thc soils before it reaches the beach. where the population uscs drinking wiltcr from wells, The operation is practically dust free. Wi~tcrsupply somctimcs located too close to latrines. comcs from Bon Repos (12 km). Cooling water is The third form of water pollution affccts the sea, rccirculated. which receives n huge volume of waste produced by MINOTERIE D'HAITI produces wheat flour for Iimd activities. In some cases, the wastes i1re ~Jischi~r- consumption in Haiti. Thcrc is no process wastewater. ged directly by industries, and individuals. In other Cooling water is recycled. It is a dust free operation cases they are brought to the sea by rivers, drainage because of the use of filters. ditches, or thc wind. In the Port-au-Prince awl, scve- rill smid and rclatively large commercial or industrial CIMENT D'HAITI uses sea water and fresh water enterprises along the coast discharge their liquid and from wells and a spring. It generates no process was- tewater and littlz solid waste, but produces a great who can afford septic tanks. To achieve this goal, deal of dust. PLAN envisioned a sanitation project that was to start in 1983 under the supervision of the Bureau d'Assai- Note: ENAOL and Minoterie d'Haiti are located nissement. The project was to construct 450,000 latri- st 26km; Ciment d'Haiti 31 km along the road to the nes in urban and rural areas. It is doubtful that the North. Impact upon a beach (Ibo Beach) and the vil- goal of 100 percent service will be reached in 1990. lage of Source Matelas is unknown. The trend in the collection and disposal of septagc H.-CONl i ';ISIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: and sullage is more alarming. Service has decreased PLAN h it. *IIMPLEMENT A SYSTEM over the past 40 years. In 1947, at the peak of its OF SANZTATION SERVICES performance in that regard, the Division of Public Hygiene had a total of five trucks for collection of From 1971 to 1985 the proportion of the population septage and sullage. Kow it has only two. Thuscapacity disposing of its human waste into latrines and septic has decreased by 60 percent while the population of tanks has increased from 20 to 35 percent. At this rate the metropolitan area has increased fivefold. of progress it would take more than 60 years to assure sanitary disposal of thc human waste for the entire Drainage and solid waste disposal are expected to population. PLAN has proposed th:! all thc inhabi- improve considerably in Port-au-Prince and the other tants dispose of their wastcs in family latrims by 1990, cities as a result of current or proposed sanitation pro- except 25,000 people in downtown Port-au-Prince who jects. Other population problems will worsen if will have access to a seweragc system and a few others nothing is done. IX. References

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Lundahl, M. 1983. The Haitian Economy: Man, Land Nelson, R. 1979. Zouazo Ayiti yo Boukc. Port-au- and Mnrkcts. StMartin's Prcss, New York. rincc, 103 p. 1972. Mission d'Assistunce Technique Sykos, L.R., , IntdgrCc, 1972. Rapport final. Haiti. W.R. McCann and A.L. Dalka 1982. Motion of Caribbean Plate during last ODRFA 1983. Programme d'uction (1983- 19116). 7 million years and implications for curlier Cenozoic movements. J. Geography Res. Olson, S.L. 1978. A Paleontological Perspective -of 87(813):10656-10,676. West Indian Birds i~ndMammuls: Pagcs 99-117 in F.G. Gil (ed) Zoogeography in Sloel, T.B. elal. 1978. Environmental, Natural Rc.ssources the Caribbean. Phila. Acad. Nut. Sci., and Development: The role of the US. Spcc. Publ. No. 13. Philadelphia, Agency for International Development. Pennsylvania. Washington D.C.: Natural Rcsourccs Defence Council. Otto, R., and W. Segrue 1980. A proposal for Environmental 1980. The herpetogeography of Action in Haiti. USAID/Washington. D.C. Hispaniola, West Indies. Studies Fauna & Curacao and other Caribbean Islands. Pan American 189:86-127. Foundallon, Inc. Man and Land in the Haitian Economy. Univ, of Florida Prcss, Gainesville (1958). 1984. Soil Conservation Works at Petit- Bois, Haiti - Trip Report for USAID, Parlslen, L. 1979. Quclques aspects dc la Protection dc ARDO. I'Environncment Physique en Haiti. Thesis: Ing. S;mitaire. Ecole Nationale de la 1984. Status and Ecology of the American Sent6 Publique, Renncs. France. 179 pages. Crocodile in Haiti. Univ, of Florida. Gainesville. Pereira, H.C. 1973. Land Use and Water Rcsourccs. Cambridge University Press. Thome, R. 1978. Land Tenure Insecurity in Haiti. USAID: Port-au-Prince. Plolkln, D. 1984. Haitian Women's Participation in Development: Energy and Forestry. Tlmyan, J. 1981. A study on State Land and Tenure UNPaper, mimeograph. Patterns in the Source-a-Philippe Region of La Gonave. Undergraduate Thesis: PNUDlFAO 1984. Protection ct Amdnagcment du B.A. in Social Science, Wheaton College, Bassin Montagncux du Limbd. Rapport Wheaton, Illinois. Terminal PO:DP/HAli77MW)S, Rome. USAlD 1984, (November). Fact Sheet on Haiti PNUD 1981. Etude Sfdimcntologique du RCser- voir PCligre. Rapport final, Montreal. Unlted NationsReport 1949. Mission to Haiti.

Prlntz, A.C., Jr. 1984. "A format for development assistance". USDAIUSAID 1983. A General Introduction to Water- Presented before the 16th Gencral shed Management. Assembly, IUCN, Madrid (November). USAID 1984. Summary program overview. Haiti PROTOS 1985. Personal communications with staff (December). on Fisheries. Ft. Libertd, Haiti. USAlD 1984. Country Development Strategy State- Puelle, D.W. 1983. Status of Inland Aquuculturc in Haiti. ment, FY '84. USAIDIPort-nu-Prince, Haiti. Report prepared for USAIDMaiti. ARDO, under Student Intern Program with Univ. UNDP of Maine-Orono. 19879. Rapport sur I'Assistance Externc en Haiti. United Nations, New York. Renoux-Meunler, A. 1978. lnvcntaire des Algues Marines dcs CBtes dlHaiti. Rapport Prkliminaire de la UNDPIFAO 1976. Rapport de la Mission PNUDlFAO Mission effectuCe pour le FAO, Project d'Cvaluation du projet reboisement, lutte HA1/78/004.l6pages. contre I'frosion et mise en valeur de for& naturelles en Haiti, Rome, FAO, Report No. (HAM2/012). Sharon, L. 1985. Personal communication on com- mercial fishing/Fisheries in Haiti. GSOl VaIIb. M.T. 1967. Les idfologies coopCrativcs et leurs USAlDIHaiti. applicabilitCs en Haiti. Paris: Maisonncuve et Lurose. SheladlaAssoclates 1983. Integrated Agricultural Devclop- ment Project Dubreuil. Report prepared Van Den Bossche, A. 1958. L'llc de la Gonavc (non-edited munus- for USAIDIHaiti. cript) (Available at Scheut-Fathers Archives. BP 1594, Port-au-Prince). Smucker, C.R. 1983. Peasants and Development Politics: A study in Haitian Class and Culture. Ph.D V.P.I. 1979. Maize varieties experimentation in Dissertation. Ann Arbor: Univ. Microfilms Haiti, First Report. Virginia Politechnic Michigan. Institut, Blacksburg, Virginia prepared for USAIDIHaiti. SAFECE 1984. Water supply for the Port-au-Prince Metropolitan Area. CAMEP. Port-au- Vlaminck, B. 1985. Personal communication (PROTOS, Prince, Haiti. Aquaculture Station, Fort-Libertf). Welb, S.M. 1981. International Trade in Corals. IUCN Bulletin 155: 483 pages. Smithsonian Inst., Conservation Monitoring Center, Gland, Wushington, D.C. Switzerland. Windgate, D. 1984. Discovery of breeding Black-capped Petrelson Hispaniola. Auk 81: 147-159. 1924. Geology of the Republic of Haiti. Dept. Travaux Publ., Port-au-Prince. World Bank 1985. Haiti Policy Proposals for Growth. 631 pages. Report No. 5601-HA, Washington, D.C.

Woods, C. et PI. 1985. Biogeophysical inventory of the World Bank 1982. World Bank Atlas. Washington, DC Morne La Visite and Pic Macaya National Parks. Univ. of Florida, in Press. Report World Bank 1982 a. Staff Appraisal Report-Haiti prepared under contract for USAIDMaiti. Forestry Project. Report No. 377a-HA, Projects Department, Latin American Woods, C. 1980. Collecting Fossil Mammals in thc and the Caribbean Regional Office, : An immensc journey. In: Wushington, D.C. The Plaster Jacket, Florida State Museum, no. 34, Geinesville. Young, K.K. 1980. The impact of erosion on the productivity of soils in the U.S. Pages 1985. Personal communication on birds, 295-303, in: De Boodt, M. and D. Gabriels, manatees, and sea turtles in Haiti. Florida cds. Assessment of Erosion, Wiley, State Museum, Gainesville. Chichester (England).

Woods, C.A. 1981. Last Endemic mammals in Zanonl, T. 1985. Personal communication on flora of Hispaniola. Oryx 16(2): 142-152. Haiti, Jardin Botanico National, Dr. Rafael M. Moscoso, Santo Domingo, R.D. Woods, C. and R.C. Rosen 1977. Biological Survey of Haiti: Status of Plagiodontia aedium and Solenodon Zuvckse, C. 1978. Land Tenure, Income and Employ- paradoxus. Recommendations concerning ment in Rural Haiti: A survey. Washington Natural Preserves and National Parks. USAID. Dcpt. of Zoology, Univ. Vermont, Burlington. ZuveLPs, C. 1977. An annotated bibliotraphy of Agri- Wetmore, A. and cultural Development in Haiti. USAIDl F.C. Lincoln 1933. Additional notes on the birds of Haiti Haiti. and the Dominican Republic. Proc. US. National Museum 82(25): 1-68. Zuvekns, C. 1978. Agricultural Development in Haiti. An assessment of sector problems. polici- Wetmore, A. and es and prospects under conditions of B.H. Swsles 1931. The Birds of Haiti and The severe soil erosion. USAIDIWashington, Dominican Republic. US. National Museum D.C. Appendices

Some varieties of beans, groundnut, millet, sorghum, soybeans and vegetables can be produced. Yields under rainfed agriculture will be low. Application of somewhat more than half or normal CROP SUITABILITY ZONING rates of fertilization may be considered. A computer analysis was made of the MA1 values for Haiti. Experience with the black soils at ICRISAT (International Crop The number of consecutive months with MA1 values exceeding Research lnstitue for the Semi-Arid Tropics) in India under similar 0.33 and the average MA1 for those consecutive months were cal- conditions of rainfall amounts and climatc has indicated the advnn- culated. These calculations were used to zone Haiti into six climatic tages of broad (1.5 m width) beds and furrows on flat (about 0.5 divisions. percent) slopes. On the heavier soils this system improves surface The followingzones are shown on a map presented as Figure: A-1 drainage and also slows runoff increasing the opportunity time for water to penetrate into the soil. Increases in gross crop value have ZONE 1 usually been threefold. This zone is generally not suitable for the production of cultivated crops without irrigation. Locations having all months with MA1 less ZONE 4 than 0.33, those with only one morhh with MA1 greater than 0.33 The rainy season (number of consecutive months of precipitation and bi-modal climates with one month with MA1 exceeding 0.33 such that MA1 values exceed 0.33) in this zone varies from five to then several dry months and then another month with MA1 greater six months. The average MA1 is 0.70 with a standard deviation of than 0.33 are including. The MA1 values for the rainy month are 0.12. Rainfall is usually dependable enough that with the application usually low. of somewhat over 100 kg of nitrogen good yields of maize (corn) can be produced on the better soils under good management. If ZONE 2 conditions are favorable, yields of six to eight tons per hectare The areas of lower rainfall are generally characterized by bi-moda; should be possible. Good drainage is a requisite. Some double precipitation. The two rainy periods are usually separated by two cropping is possible. or more dry months (usually June and July). Zone 2 generally has two rainy months followed some months later by two or more rainy ZONE S months with MA1 values exceeding 0.33. Climates with two rainy This zone has a rainy season of seven to nine months. The average months and then later one month of usable rainfall or one month MA1 IS 0.86 with a standard deviation of 0.15. With good water followed later by two months are also included. For the periods of conservation, adequate drainage management the climate is suitable two rainy months the average MA1 value found is 0.51 with a for production of high yields of a large number of crops. standard deviation of 0.10 (68 percent of the MA1 values are be- Large areas are mapped as zone 5E. These locations have two tween 0.41 and 0.61). or more months of excessive rainfall. Good natural or artificial Average potential evapotranspiration for the two months is about drainage is required for most general crops. Rainfed rice production 320 mm. Rainfall is dependably available to supply somewhat more is recommended on the arear of favorable soils and topography. than half this amount. Crops requiring60 dnysor less for production Grapefruit and sugarcane can be considered for rainfed production can be prod~~ced.Application of fertilizers should not exceed about on suitable soils and topography. Coffee produces well at suitable 50 percent of normal amounts. Some millets and mungbeans mature elevations. in 60 days or less. Rainfall is useful for plant growth only when it enters the crop ZONE 6 root zone and becomes available to the plant. Some measures may The rainy season extends to from ten to twelve months. Most of be necessary in order to conserve rainfall. this zone is mounrainous. On suitable soils and topography rice, bananus, plaintoin, grapefruit, pineapple and sugurcanc can be ZONE 3 considered. The average MA1 is 0.92 with a standard deviation of The precipitation in this zone is also bi-modal. The minimum 0.10. Significant areas have two or more months of excessive preci- growing season consists of three rainy months and in some areas pitation. These locations are shown as zone 6E. there may be both a three month and a four month rainy season. Rainfall is generally sufficient so that normal applications of fer- The average MA1 for these three and four month periods is 0.63 tilizers should be considered provided other management practices with a standard deviation of 0.17. are satisfactory, Figure A-I: Crop SuftabDllty Zonev In uvcr;~gi~igthe MA1 valucs for this zone (rmd illso the otllcr c) Ihcrvcd iircils, nutioni~l parks: zones) MA1 Indices cxcccding I.oU were avcrirgcd in as bci~ig~(lui~l 1926(2), 193f1, 1037, 1944, 1947, I96H, to I.(lo. This wils to prevent i~ssigning;I hills due to unusual rilinf;~II IOH0(2), 1981, 1983, amounts. Scc "Wildlife". a LIMITATIONS The map, provides a good rcprcscnt;~tionof how conditions vary. ;I) Rural: 1962(3) (includes com~~icrcii~l The boundaries hctwccn irrcus of the vi~ricuszoncs arc not ilccuriltc. chirrcoal regulations). Scvcrul arcus arc separated based upon ;In analysis of di~t;~from ;I I)) Manufacture: 1974, 1970, 1970 single rainfall stirtion. The mcnsurcd data may or may not be typicid ("wilstcs"). of the area. No allowance could be made for possible inirccuracics of the ~ncasuririg,recording or reporting of rainfnll. Irriai~tion Scc "Agriculturc". In drawing the boundaries hctwecn zoncs somc use was ~n;~dcof topographic conditions and of five ycilrs of cxpcric~iccworking with --Land Use 1927,1962, IOM, 1972, 1975(2) irrigation and agriculture in general in Haiti. As more data become available and more expcriencc with ;~griculturcc;~n be utilizcd it -MincrallEncrgy Rcsourccs will be desirable that this zonation be iniprovcd irnd updated. The monthly MA1 valucs shown in chapter IV indici~teapproxi- mate planting dates. l'hcsc will vary somewhat from ycar to ycar 1984. (Quarries). and for the crop sclcctcd. In general, if the rainy rcirson is well defined. a month at the beginning of the rainy season w~thMA1 at -Parks See "Forestry (c)". 0.30 to 0.50 will indicate a desirable planting d;w of about the middle of the month. PlanningIRcgional dcvelopnient TAKEN FROM G.H. Hargreavcs and Z.A. Samani (1983) Rainfcd Agriculture in Haiti (A Practical Manual). International Irrigation Center, De- Public HealthlPopulations: 1919, 1937, 1945, 1954, 1978. See also partment of Agricultural and Irrigation Engineering. Utah State "Water quality, wustcs". University, Logan, Utah. pp. 21-25. MarinelCoastal resources1 Protection APPENDIX B Soil Managemcs IY58,1962.1963,1977. See also: "Water Supply. Watershed management". ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION FOR HAITI The laws, decrees, presidential cxecutive orders, regulations and Urban plannind Housing circuiarscollectcd for this CEP arc listed in lndex Iof this Appendix. Regulations (cnvironmcntal aspects): 1937. The list consists of over IOIJ entries, gathered from the following sources: Watcr Quality -FAOIUNDP, 1974 40 Items -Supplementsfrom Raymond Laurin 5 Water Supply (including "Watershed management"): -Supplementsfrom Jaro Mayda 45 1937(2), 1943, 1951. 1959, 1962, 1963, -Miscellaneous items from ministries 12 1964, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1979 (2). 1980. -Library of Congress, 1979 I -A list of unknown origin 1 Wildlife

The list is indexed (rcfer to Index I) by principal sectors and systems. Any items passed the Haitian legislature or other GOH INDEX II LIST OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION groups after January 1. 1985 are not included. CR ' = Rural Code INDEX I L = Law INDEX OF ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION BY SECTOR D = Decree AND YEAR OF ENACTMENT DL = Decree-Law (Some items are entered under more than one heading. A number CO = Communique in parentheses following the year indicates how many items have PD = Presidential Decree been indexed for that year). Rural Code-Haiti, May 6. 1826 Agriculture 1826, 1864, 1935, 1936, 1941, 1945, (Extracts) IYSO, 1951, 1952, 1950(2), 1959, 1960, Rural Code- Haiti, 1864 (extracts) 1962.1975. Law of Feb 24, 1919: creates service Nat'l dlHygiene (implementcd by Reglement Sanitaire, April 12, 1919). Law of Feb. 3, 1926 on National Forest Fisheries 1959, 1962, 19'11, 1978, 1979, (see Reserves. "rcsourccs protection"). Min. Decree of Apr. 30, 1926 on the St-Raphael National Forest. Forestry II! Protection against exploitation Limits Law of July 26, 1927: public lands of timber cutting for export: 1933,1936, divided into public and private domain. 1937, '1944(2), 1945(2): 1955, 1958, Law of Sept. 30, 1935 reorganizing the 1962,1981,1983. National Service for Agricultural b) Reforestration: promotion, financing Production and Rural Education. e 1938.IY44,l966,1Y72(2), 1974,1979(2) Law of 8, 1936 establishing the Cerisier 1981 ("WaterlSupply"). Plaisance - Resewed Zone L Law of Mity 28 prcscrihing nlcilsurcs I'rcs. Dccrcc of Mi~r.17, 1950: lrrigi~tion to stopdcforcstation works in Pli~incArtihonitc declared of L- Law of June 4 giving spcciid gui~ri~ntecs public utility. to whocvcr cultivutes soil mcthodici~lly. Min. Dccrcc of Aug. 17, 1951 modifying -DL- Dccrec-Li~wof Jun. 23, 193? on forest the boundi~ricsof the Ccrisicr - I'lai- regulation sirncc Rcscrvcd Zo~ic. DL- Dccrce-Law of Jul. 27. 27, 1937 on L~IWof Aug. 28. 19.51. coordinating the Urbanisme Arts. 37-45: Disposi~l of i~ctiviticsof thc various dcrviccs,, of liquid watcs drilinagc the Dcpartmcnt of Agriculture in ordcr Arts. 69-72: industrial or commcrciid to improvc administration i111ddclivcry cstablishmcnts: rcguli~tion of those of thcir services (Art. I1 defines the which endanger or inconvcnicncc re- iittributcs and duties of the wiltcr and sidcntial arcas or crciltc problc~nsof Forest Division). public health, or l~avcan impxt on on agricultural uctivitics. 1952 - L- Law of Scpt. 20. 1952: yearly tax on Art. 73: i'enulties CilW-h(H) (1937 "rural irrigation lands". value). 1954 - Ctl- Codc d1l4yigihnc d'Haiti. 1954: excepts D - Min. Dccrce of Aug. 13, 1937 declaring from various gcncral codes (civil, penal Rcservcd Zonc the region bctwccn commercial, ctc.), relevant to public Fonds Vcrrcttcsand Bodi~rie. health concerns. -11- Min. Dccrec of May 3, 1978 cstahlish- ingthe Day of thcTrcc. Law of Aug 17, 1955 regulilting planting, felling trunsport and cum- -DL- Decree-Law of Aug. 28, 1941 approving mcrcc of wood used of limcstonc the contract between Haiti and the furnaces. Societd Haitiano-Amtricainc dc D~vc- loppcment Agricolc (SHADA). Law of Scpt. 1958 protecting soils from DL- Dccrce-Law of Nov. 27, 1941 approving crosion, defining thc boundaries of Convention on the Protection of the "rcscrvcd zones" and regulating forest Flora, Fauna and Natural Sceneries of exploitation in Haiti. thc American Continent, provisional list Organic Law of March 14, 1958 (art. 1, of plant and animal species requiring 2.9and 10). protection; related i~ppcndices. Dccrce of Dcccmbcr 23, 1958: creatcs -D- Dccrcc of Mar. 20, 1943 protecting the Experimental stations demonstration springs of Thor. farms(Rcgul, issucd in Jan. 1959). - L- Law of Mar. 1, 1944 prohibiting the Min. Dccrcc of March 13,1959 modifying export of logs and boards of niahoguny the boundarics of thc rcscrvcd Zonc of 1m and of all other precious woods non- the watershed of the Ccrisicr - Plaisance processed springs. Dccrcc of Apr. 4, 1944 dccli~ring Law of Nov. 25, 1959: Establ. (cpartmcnt of State, Washington. 1D.C. 20520; contiict the 1979: declaring OpCration Koumhitc library's map departn~entfor ;I copy of a I:I,OHH),000 scale map of (volunteer non-profit reforcstution Haiti. organ., since 1972) tcr he of puhlic 4. General Informiltion i~ndOperation Map of thc Repuhlic of utility. Haiti at a scale of I:150,0HH); Map No. JM wailable from the Natio- I'rcs. Dccrcc of Nov. 9, 1979: First nal Archives; three copies and u negative arc in Ili~iti:one at ind, park established in Gon;~ives. MARNDR-DHN, one at ISPAN and onc is held hy Paul I'aryski; 27 ha (dtclaration of this ;Irc;l as rcscr- at the nloment Jim Talhot has the ncgativc. vedzoncof public utility). 5. RCpubliquc d'llaiti. Cchcllc I:25O.o(Ml, I'rojcction Transvcrsale Law of Nov. 27. 1979 on Fisheries ilnd de Mercutor, Organisi~tiondes Etats ,4n1r'ricains; map of aerial Mirriw Kcsources. photos, coordinates and their map nun~bmbased on 1968 study Law of Sept. 4, 1980: Fmest reserved conducted hy OAS; the acrial photos arc thow ol the 1Wh scrieh; zone (4). administered hy SCIADA. available from OAS. CommuniquC DARNDR of DCc. 16, 6. Defense Mapping Agency Hydrogra:i~icCenter, Washington, 1980: ohligation of all projects public D.C. 2039) has prepared ni~viyationalmaps at ;I sci~lcof 1: l0()40 or private that catch surfilce water or on Mcrcador Projection from a survey cotlductcd in 1956; provided that exploit groundwater. to be declared arc soundings in fathoms. heights in mctcls. Proceduresincase of infractions. 7. Institut Gfographique National. Service dc la Docunlcntution Law of Sept. 7, 1980: on forest Geographique, 2, avenue Pustcur. 94160 Satnt-Mondc, or Direction protection. GCnCrale, 136 bis, rue de Grenelle, 757W Paris, prepared Black Communiqut of Feb. 4, 1981: prohibit- and White and Color Infrared Photographs a! a scale of I:40.OHK) ing the cuttingof pines available only at the Haitian Service Geodcsie et Cartographic. Decree of Marc. 6, 1981: proclaiming 8. Aerial photographs available at the Servicc dc GCodCsic ct de the asaison d'arbre* Cartographie. Port-au-Prince. Decree of Apr. 4, 1983: Creating 9. Landsat images availables from EROS DATA CENTER, Sioux national parks "Morne Lavisiten and Falls. South Dakota 57198. "Morne Macaya". 10. Tacticul Pilotugc Charts, scale of I:500.(l0() are available from Decree of Mar. 2, 1984: Exploitation the Aeronautical Chart and Information Ccrtter. Second and Arsc- of quarries on the whole national nal, St. Louis. Missouri 631 18. Attn: PDP. territory. II. RCpuhliquc dlHaiti, Echcllc 1:5oO.(HUl, is availahlc at most Decree of Jan. 15 1985: Pic Macaya bookstores; this is general geopolitical map in color. region deckred "Protection Zone". 12. Topographic maps at scales of I:50,WO (entire country) and Enforcement of protective measures 1:100,000 (only some of the country) are available from Servicc initiated. Gcodesie; these arc Transverse Mcrcator Projections which show contour intervals of 20 meters; where 2 em = Io(H) m. 13. OAS has prepared a seriesof natural resourcesand population maps based on I956 on 1956 aeriul photos; AID Lihrary has these APPENDIX C as do most of the international Organizations and the various minis- tries. PARTIAL LIST OF MAPS, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS 14. Direction de I'AmCnagement du Tcrritoirc ct Protection dc .AND LANDSAT IMAGES FOR HAITI I'Environnement (DATPE) with thc assistance of Fonds d'Aide et Prepared by Jim Tnlbot de Coophition and a French consulting firm. BDPA, prcpi~rcda series of natural resource and population and transportation maps Listing of all maps, aerial photographs and Landsat images avai- at a scale of 1:250.000 based on 1978 aerial photos; this was cssen- lable to technical consultants, including their possible location. tially an update of the OAS series of maps. I.Record Group 127: Rccords of the U.S. Marine Corps from 15. Other maps and aerial photos are probably availahle from the General Servicds Administration, National Archives and Re- the various ministries such us TPTC. MARNDII. Plan. MMER cords Service, Washington, D.C. 20408; contact Mr. Robert E. which were targeted toward specific themes. Richardson. Cartographic and Architectural Branch. 2. Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress, Washing- Jim TaItmt, REMSKAR. ton. D.C. 20540; another repository of Haiti maps. June 14, 1985