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An Initial Estimate of Avian Ark Kinds

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An Initial Estimate of Avian Ark Kinds Answers Research Journal 6 (2013):409–466. www.answersingenesis.org/arj/v6/avian-ark-kinds.pdf An Initial Estimate of Avian Ark Kinds Jean K. Lightner, Liberty University, 1971 University Blvd, Lynchburg, Virginia, 24515. Abstract Creationists recognize that animals were created according to their kinds, but there has been no comprehensive list of what those kinds are. As part of the Answers in Genesis Ark Encounter project, research was initiated in an attempt to more clearly identify and enumerate vertebrate kinds that were SUHVHQWRQWKH$UN,QWKLVSDSHUXVLQJPHWKRGVSUHYLRXVO\GHVFULEHGSXWDWLYHELUGNLQGVDUHLGHQWLÀHG 'XHWRWKHOLPLWHGLQIRUPDWLRQDYDLODEOHDQGWKHIDFWWKDWDYLDQWD[RQRPLFFODVVLÀFDWLRQVVKLIWWKLVVKRXOG be considered only a rough estimate. Keywords: Ark, kinds, created kinds, baraminology, birds Introduction As in mammals and amphibians, the state of avian $VSDUWRIWKH$UN(QFRXQWHUSURMHFW$QVZHUVLQ WD[RQRP\LVLQÁX['HVSLWHWKHLGHDORIQHDWO\QHVWHG Genesis initiated and funded research in an attempt hierarchies in taxonomy, it seems groups of birds to more clearly identify and enumerate the vertebrate are repeatedly “changing nests.” This is partially NLQGVWKDWZHUHSUHVHQWRQWKH$UN,QDQLQLWLDOSDSHU because where an animal is placed depends on which WKH FRQFHSW RI ELEOLFDO NLQGV ZDV GLVFXVVHG DQG D characteristics one chooses to consider. While many strategy to identify them was outlined (Lightner et al. had thought that molecular data would resolve these 6RPHRIWKHNH\SRLQWVDUHQRWHGEHORZ issues, in some cases it has exacerbated them. For this There is tremendous variety seen today in animal HVWLPDWHRIWKHDYLDQ$UNNLQGVWKHWD[RQRPLFVFKHPH OLIHDVFUHDWXUHVKDYHPXOWLSOLHGDQGÀOOHGWKHHDUWK presented online by the International Ornithologists’ since the Flood (Genesis 8:17). In order to identify 8QLRQ ,28 ZDVXVHG *LOODQG'RQVNHUD which modern species are related, being descendants 2012b and 2013). This list includes information on RI D VLQJOH NLQG LQWHUVSHFLÀF K\EULG GDWD LV XWLOL]HG extant and some recently extinct species. Any birds :KHQK\EULGGDWDLVODFNLQJDFRJQLWXPDSSURDFKLV NQRZQRQO\IURPWKHIRVVLOUHFRUGZLOOQRWEHLQFOXGHG SUHIHUUHG WKLV LGHQWLÀHV QDWXUDO JURXSLQJV EDVHG RQ in this analysis. human cognitive senses. Generally the cognitum at the family level (which is usually fairly strong) is preferred Order Tinamiformes ZKHQ K\EULG GDWD LV ODFNLQJ WKRXJK REYLRXV FRJQLWD Tinamidae (The Tinamous kind) surrounding this level are noted. Another method that has been used to identify EDUDPLQV FUHDWHG NLQGV LV VWDWLVWLFDO EDUDPLQRORJ\ The methods of baraminic distance correlation (BDC) and multidimensional scaling (MDS) are discussed in more detail elsewhere (Wood 2008). Though they are important tools, Lightner et al. (2011) did not consider them as reliable as hybrid data and a cognitum DSSURDFK RQ H[WDQW VSHFLHV 5HVXOWV IURP VWDWLVWLFDO baraminology studies will be noted here where applicable. Previous research has provided an initial estimation RI PDPPDO DQG DPSKLELDQ NLQGV +HQQLJDQ D +HQQLJDQELightner 2012). This paper will focus RQLGHQWLI\LQJH[WDQWELUGNLQGV7KHUHDUHRYHU Fig. 1. Crypturellus cinereus. 6RXUFH :LNLSHGLD KWWS OLYLQJVSHFLHVRIELUGVPDNLQJWKHPWKHPRVWVSHFLRVH ZZZHQZLNLSHGLDRUJ class of vertebrates descended from those preserved on WKH$UN7KHUHLVDODUJHDPRXQWRIK\EULGGDWDDYDLODEOH This single family order comprises nine genera for birds (McCarthy 2006). There are several examples DQG VSHFLHV 6XSHUÀFLDOO\ WKH\ DSSHDU FKLFNHQ in well-studied species where hybrid data connects OLNH ,W LV GHEDWHG ZKHWKHU WKH\ DUH PRUH FORVHO\ several large, diverse families (within the orders UHODWHG WR FKLFNHQV *DOOLIRUPHV RU ODUJH ÁLJKWOHVV Galliformes, Charadriiformes, and Passeriformes). ELUGVNQRZQDVUDWLWHV +RZDUGD 7KH\KDYH ISSN: 1937-9056 Copyright © 2013, 2016 Answers in Genesis, Inc. All content is owned by Answers in Genesis (“AiG”) unless otherwise indicated. AiG consents to unlimited copying and distribution of print copies of Answers Research Journal articles for non-commercial, non-sale purposes only, provided the following conditions are met: the author of the article is clearly identified; Answers in Genesis is acknowledged as the copyright owner; Answers Research Journal and its website, www.answersresearchjournal.org, are acknowledged as the publication source; and the integrity of the work is not compromised in any way. For website and other electronic distribution and publication, AiG consents to republication of article abstracts with direct links to the full papers on the ARJ website. All rights reserved. For more information write to: Answers in Genesis, PO Box 510, Hebron, KY 41048, Attn: Editor, Answers Research Journal. The views expressed are those of the writer(s) and not necessarily those of the Answers Research Journal Editor or of Answers in Genesis. 410 J. K. Lightner a palaeognathous palate, as do ratites. However, XQOLNHUDWLWHVWKH\KDYHDNHHORQWKHVWHUQXPDQG IXOO\ GHYHORSHG ZLQJV VR WKH\ FDQ Á\ Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive). Considering this FRQWURYHUV\WKHIDPLO\RUGHUVHHPVDQDWXUDOSODFHWR SRVWXODWHWKHOHYHORIWKHNLQG Order Struthioniformes Struthionidae (The Ostrich kind) Fig. 3. Rhea americana. 6RXUFH:LNLSHGLDKWWSZZZ HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ DNA similarity between species. Casuariiformes is reduced to a suborder beside these two groups, and 7LQDPLIRUPHV LV NHSW LQ D VHSDUDWH RUGHU EHVLGH these in their taxonomy. So there is a fair amount of VLPLODULW\DPRQJWKHVHÀUVWIRXURUGHUVRQWKH'1$ Fig. 2. Struthio camelus. 6RXUFH:LNLSHGLDKWWSZZZ OHYHO WRR 6LQFH ZH GRQ·W NQRZ KRZ WR DVVHVV '1$ HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ VLPLODULW\LQDZD\WKDWLVKHOSIXOWRLGHQWLI\NLQGV This family contains a single genus with two species WKHHVWLPDWHLVNHSWDWWKHIDPLO\RUGHUOHYHO *LOODQG'RQVNHUD 7KH\DUHWKHODUJHVWOLYLQJ ELUGV $OWKRXJK ÁLJKWOHVV WKH\ DUH JRRG UXQQHUV Order Casuariiformes and once inhabited open areas all over Africa and in Casuariidae (The Cassowary kind) WKH0LGGOH(DVW 5REHUVRQ )URPDFRJQLWXP VWDQGSRLQW RVWULFKHV ÀW LQ ZLWK RWKHU UDWLWH ELUGV such as rheas and emus. These physical similarities were the basis of earlier taxonomists grouping ratities WRJHWKHU /DWHU ZRUN VXJJHVWHG WKH\ ZHUH QRW DV closely related, so many similarities were attributed to convergent evolution (Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive). The only hybrid data are from crosses between the two species of ostrich (McCarthy 2006). Since other ratites currently occupy different orders LQWKH,28FODVVLÀFDWLRQVFKHPHDQGWKHUHLVQR K\EULGGDWDOLQNLQJWKHVHRUGHUVWKHOHYHORIWKHNLQG ZLOOEHFRQVLGHUHGWKHIDPLO\RUGHUIRUQRZ Order Rheiformes Rheidae (The Rhea kind) This family also contains a single genus with two VSHFLHV *LOO DQG 'RQVNHU D 7KHVH WDOO ORQJ OHJJHG ÁLJKWOHVV ELUGV DUH H[FHOOHQW UXQQHUV 7KH\ live in South America, usually in open grasslands &KROHZLDND 'HVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWWKH\JURXS with other ratites from a cognitum perspective, they are not combined with them here. The only hybrid data is between the two species of rhea (McCarthy 2006). Sibley and Monroe (1990) place rheas in an infraorder beside the ostrich based on DNA-DNA Fig. 4. Casuarius unappendiculatus. 6RXUFH:LNLSHGLD K\EULGL]DWLRQVWXGLHVZKLFKJLYHDQHVWLPDWHRI KWWSZZZHQZLNLSHGLDRUJ An Initial Estimate of Avian Ark Kinds 411 $VLQJOHJHQXVZLWKWKUHHVSHFLHVLVUHFRJQL]HGLQ Order Apterygiformes WKLVIDPLO\ *LOODQG'RQVNHUD 7KHVHODUJH Apterygidae (The Kiwi kind) ratites are found in the Australo-Papuan region. They live in the rainforest. They are considered closely UHODWHGWRHPXVDQGDUHVRPHWLPHVFODVVLÀHGLQWKH same family. They are relatively common in the fossil record. There is a fossil believed to be intermediate EHWZHHQ FDVVRZDULHV DQG HPXV &KROHZLDN E *LYHQ WKLV WKH OHYHO RI WKH NLQG FRXOG DFWXDOO\ EH higher, at the order or possibly above. Since hybrid GDWD LV ODFNLQJ WKH NLQG ZLOO EH FRQVLGHUHG DW WKH family level to avoid a bias that will underestimate WKHQXPEHURINLQGVRQWKH$UN Dromaiidae (The Emu kind) Fig. 6. Apteryx australis. 6RXUFH:LNLSHGLDKWWSZZZ HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ This family is comprised of a single genus with ÀYHVSHFLHV *LOODQG'RQVNHUD 7KHUHLVK\EULG GDWDOLQNLQJWKUHHRIWKHVHVSHFLHV 0F&DUWK\ .LZLVDUHXQXVXDOÁLJKWOHVVELUGVZKLFKOLYHLQ1HZ Zealand. These nocturnal birds stay in a burrow during the day, and come out to forage at night 5REHUVRQ 7KHVH UDWLWLHV DUH EHOLHYHG WR EH more closely related to the extinct moas (Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive). Order Galliformes (The Landfowl kind) Fig. 5. Dromaius novaehollandiae6RXUFHKWWSZZZ SXEOLFGRPDLQSLFWXUHVQHW Fig. 7. Gallus sonneratii. 6RXUFH:LNLSHGLDKWWSZZZ This family is monotypic, comprised of a single HQZLNLSHGLDRUJ VSHFLHV *LOODQG'RQVNHUD 7KLVODUJHUDWLWHLV native to Australia. It inhabits grassy areas or open /DQGIRZO ZKLFK LQFOXGH FKLFNHQV WXUNH\V DQG forests. These shaggy birds spend most of their time SKHDVDQWVDUHFRPSULVHGRIÀYHIDPLOLHVZLWK foraging, consuming grass and plants. They will also VSHFLHV *LOO DQG 'RQVNHU D )RXU RI WKHVH eat large quantities of insects when they are available families (Cracidae, Numididae, Odontophoridae, and 5REHUVRQ 7KLV IDPLO\ LV UHSUHVHQWHG LQ WKH Phasianidae) are united by hybrid data (McCarthy fossil record and several species went extinct in the 7KHÀIWKIDPLO\0HJDSRGLGDHKDVORQJ early nineteenth century (Handbook of the Birds of been considered more closely allied with Cracidae the World Alive). than either of these two families are with the other 412 J. K. Lightner three families (Wetmore 1930). In fact, Sibley and Monroe (1990) list Megapodidae and Cracidae in a separate order from the others based on DNA-DNA K\EULGL]DWLRQ VWXGLHV 7KXV ZLWK &UDFLGDH EHLQJ
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