GARDEN ROUTE NATIONAL PARK :

THE TSITSIKAMMA SANP ARKS SECTION

STATE OF KNOWLEDGE

Contributors: N. Hanekom 1, R.M. Randall 1, D. Bower, A. Riley 2 and N. Kruger 1

1 SANParks Scientific Services, Garden Route (Rondevlei Office), PO Box 176, Sedgefield, 6573 2 Knysna National Lakes Area, P.O. Box 314, Knysna, 6570

Most recent update: 10 May 2012

Disclaimer

This report has been produced by SANParks to summarise information available on a specific conservation area. Production of the report, in either hard copy or electronic format, does not signify that:
the referenced information necessarily reflect the views and policies of SANParks;
the referenced information is either correct or accurate;
SANParks retains copies of the referenced documents;
SANParks will provide second parties with copies of the referenced documents. This standpoint has the premise that (i) reproduction of copywrited material is illegal, (ii) copying of unpublished reports and data produced by an external scientist without the author’s permission is unethical, and (iii) dissemination of unreviewed data or draft documentation is potentially misleading and hence illogical.

This report should be cited as: Hanekom N., Randall R.M., Bower, D., Riley, A. & Kruger, N. 2012. Garden Route National Park: The Tsitsikamma Section – State of Knowledge. South African National Parks.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 2 2. ACCOUNT OF AREA...... 2 2.1 Location...... 2 2.2 Proclamations...... 2 2.3 Size...... 3 2.4 Boundaries...... 3 2.5 Controlling Authority...... 3 2.6 Legislation...... 4 3. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS ...... 5 3.1 Geology ...... 5 3.2 Physiography...... 5 3.3 Physics ...... 6 3.4 Chemistry ...... 7 4. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS...... 7 4.1 Flora ...... 7 4.2 Fauna ...... 9 4.3 Other life forms ...... 17 5. HISTORY...... 18 5.1 Archaeology...... 18 5.2 Paleontology...... 18 5.3 Historical aspects...... 18 6. MANAGEMENT...... 18 6.1. Management of vegetation...... 18 6.2 Management of animals...... 20 6.3 Resource utilization...... 21 6.4 Pathogens and diseases...... 21 6.5 Fire Control...... 22 6.6 Environmental modification...... 22 6.7 Zonation...... 22 6.8 Park expansion ...... 23 6.9 Social ecology (people and tourism aspect)...... 23 7. REFERENCES / BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 23 8. APPENDICES ...... 43 8.1 Species list – Marine algae (Seaweeds) and Corticioid fungi ...... 43 8.2 Species list – Vascular plants...... 48 8.3. Species list - Marine invertebrates ...... 61 8.4 Species list – Butterflies...... 64 8.5 Species list – Marine fish ...... 65 8.6 Species list – Amphibians ...... 73 8.7 Species list – Reptiles...... 73 8.8 Species list – Birds...... 74 8.9 Species list – Mammals ...... 79 9. Summary of available information...... 81 10. MAPS ...... 81 10.1 Map of West Coast National Park ...... 81 10.2 Map of Geology ...... 81 10.3 Map of Hydrology...... 81 10.4 Map of Soils and Landtypes...... 81 10.5 Map of Vegetation...... 81

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1. INTRODUCTION

The Tsitsikamma SANParks Section of this report is synonomous with the old Tsitsikamma National Park, which now forms part of the much larger Garden Route National Park. This reserve has a complex history. In December 1964 the Tsitsikamma Coastal and Forest National Parks were proclaimed. The Forest Park was deproclaimed in 1989, and the name of the Coastal Park was later shortened to Tsitsikamma National Park. Other major changes included the extension of the seaward boundary, the acquisition of the De Vasselot Nature Reserve and the lease of Soetkraal. In the late 1990s this park was some 64 000 ha in extent and included both a terrestrial and a marine component. It is the oldest marine national park in Africa (Robinson & De Graaff 1994), conserving seven percent of the rocky shoreline of the Agulhas Biogeographical Region, as well as large populations of recreationally and commercially exploited reef fish (Buxton 1987), which are vulnerable to exploitation (Buxton & Smale 1989; Roberts & Polunin 1991; Halpern 2003). The Tsitsikamma Area is also well known for its Afromontane Forest (29 km²), hiking- and underwater trails, as well as its scenic vistas. During the mid 2000’s more than 170 000 people visited the area annually. The Protected Areas Consulting Services (1996) considered this area worthy of the IUCN category II (National Parks) status.

2. ACCOUNT OF AREA

2.1 Location The Tsitsikamma Section of the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) is situated on Cape coast, where it straddles the boundary between the Western Cape and Eastern Cape (Figure 1). The centre of this section is approximately 80 km west of Humansdorp and 50 km east of Plettenberg Bay (Chief Director of Surveys and Mapping 1991, Director-General of Surveys 1979). The section consists of five different sectors, namely: (i) The section corresponding to the original Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park (TCNP), which stretches some 60 km along the coast between Groot River (east) (24 o 12'E, near Oubosstrand) and Groot River (west) (23 o 34'E, in Nature's Valley), and in this document it will be referred to as the TCNP (ii) The De Vasselot section , which abuts the western boundary of the TCNP at Groot River (west) and stretches westwards to Grootbank (23 o 30'E) near Keurboomstrand, and landward of the high tide mark for 3 - 5km. (iii) Soetkraal , which is situated approximately 11 – 20 km inland from the coast and extends in an east- west direction along the Tsitsikamma Mountains Range. (vi) The Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area (MPA), consisting of a restricted zone that stretches between Groot River (east) and Groot River (west), and extends between 0.5 and 3 nautical miles offshore.

2.2 Proclamations The size of this conservation area has changed over the years, with the following proclamations:

(i) In 1964 the Coastal and Forest National Parks were proclaimed (Government Gazette No 936; Notice 324, 4 December 1964). The original coastal park stretched some 60 km between Groot River (east) and Groot River (west), and included the areas approximately 0,9 km landward and 0,5 nautical miles (or 0,9 km) seaward of the low water mark (Government Gazette No 4237, Notice 61, 29 March 1974). (ii) In 1983 the seaward boundary of the park between the Groot (east) and the Bloukrans (23 o 39'E) rivers was extended to three nautical miles (or 5,56 km) offshore, while along the rest of the coast (Bloukrans River to Groot River (west)) it remained at 0.5 nautical mile (Government Gazette No 8871, Notice 125, 3 September 1983). (iii) In 1987 the De Vasselot Nature Reserve (2561 ha) was added to the coastal park (Government Gazette No 11068, Notice No 2814 & 2815, 18 December 1987). (iv) The small Tsitsikamma Forest National Park was deproclaimed in 1989 (Government Gazette 1989), and the name of the coastal park was shortened to the Tsitsikamma National Park (Government Gazette No 17298, Notice 1077, 28 June 1996). (v) In October 1991 a 30 year lease was signed with Rand Mines Properties Limited to contractually manage the Soetkraal area in the Tsitsikamma Mountain Range. (vi) In 1996 the seaward boundary of the De Vasselot section was extended 0,5 nautical miles (0,9 km) offshore (Government Gazette No 17073, Notice 538, 4 April 1996).

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(vii) In December 2000 the marine section of the park (excluding the marine area off De Vasselot) became the Tsitsikamma National Park Marine Protected Area (Government Gazette No. 21948, Notice 1429, 29 December 2000, Marine Living Resources Act 1998 (Act No. 18 of 1998)). (viii) In 1997 Soetkraal was proclaimed a contractual park in terms of the National Parks Act, 1976 (Government Gazette No 17728, Notice 100. 17 January 1997, National Parks Act, 1976 (Act No. 57 of 1976). It status may change in the near future. (ix) In 1995 Erven 382, 444 and the Remainder of Erf 434, Nature's Valley was proclaimed a contractual section of the park (Government Gazette No 16293, Notice 368, 10 March 1995), followed in 1996 by (Buitenverwachting) Portion 1 of Farm 299 and Portion 3 of the farm Matjies River 295 (Government Gazette No 16927, Notice 30, 19 January 1996), (x) In March 2009, the Minister of the Department of Environmental Affairs announced the proclamation of the Garden Route National Park, which incorporates the indigenous forest and fynbos areas located to the north of coastal sections of the park and, which were previously administered by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry.

2.3 Size The areas of the various sectors of the Tsitsikamma Section (the ex Tsitsikamma National Park) are as follows: TCNP terrestrial 1 960 ha TCNP marine (Tsitsikamma MPA) 34 300 ha De Vasselot terrestrial 2 560 ha De Vasselot marine (adjacent to MPA) 792 ha Soetkraal terrestrial 24 392 ha Buitenverwachting 210 ha Total area 64 214 ha

2.4 Boundaries The terrestrial section of the TCNP is long ( c. 60 km) and narrow ( c. 0.9 km), stretching from Groot River (east) to Groot River (west). The landward boundaries extend approximately 0.9 km inland of the low water mark, running along the upper slopes of the steep coastal escarpment abutting the shoreline (Statutes of the RSA - National Parks, National Parks Act, No. 57 of 1976). Similarly, the adjoining De Vasselot sector stretches from Groot River (west) to Grootbank, but extends further (3 - 5 km) inland and ‘encircles’ the village of Nature's Valley (RSA. Government Gazette No 1053, 21 June 1974 in Pretorius et al. 1980). To the north of De Vasselot, within the Tsitsikamma Mountain Range, Soetkraal extends some 40 km in an east-west direction and consists of eight large farms. These are: Boven Palmiet Rivier (20), Onder Palmiet Rivier (22), Dwars Rivier (23), Slaaps Bosch (15), Langbosch Rivier (16), Keur Rivier (18) both Adjoining Klipheuvel (296), Adjoining Onbedacht (271) (RSA Government Gazette No 17728, Notice 100, 17 January 1997; Chief Director Survey & Mapping 1979a, 1980)

The Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area (MPA) stretches along the coast of the TCNP, with the seaward boundary extending 3 nautical miles (5,6 km) offshore between the Groot River (east) (24 o 12'E) and Bloukrans River (23 o 39'E), but only 0.5 nautical mile (0,9 km) between the Bloukrans River and Die Punt at Nature’s Valley (23 o 35'E)( (RSA Government Gazette No. 21948, G.R. 1429, 29 December 2000, Marine Living Resources Act 1998 (Act No. 18 of 1998). The entire MPA is a Restricted (or no take) Zone, but excludes the marine section of the national park that extended 0.5 nautical miles offshore along the De Vasselot coast (RSA Government Gazette No. 17073, G.R. 538, 4 April 1996).

2.5 Controlling Authority • The TCNP, De Vasselot and ex DWAF areas are administered solely by SANParks, and are classed as a schedule one national park. • Soetkraal was leased from Rand Mines Limited (IProp) on a 30 year basis and was managed by SANParks as a contractual (Schedule 5) park. In 2004 the Department of Public Works registered an expropriation notice against IProp for this property, and in December of that year the Minister of Public Works issued and instruction to the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism that the Soetkraal properties be purchased from the owners. Currently negotiations are still in process. • The sand dunes to south and southwest of Nature's Valley village (Erven 382, 444 and a portion of 434) are contractually managed by the Bitou Municipality, Nature’s Valley Ratepayer's Association and SANParks according to initially the National Parks Act and since 2003 the National Environment Management: Protected Areas Act (NEMPA).

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• Buitenverwachting (just northwest of Grootbank) is contractually managed together with the owners of the property (Buitenverwachting (Pty) Ltd.) on a 30-year contract.

2.6 Legislation The management practices of South African National Parks must comply with several national policies and legislation (Environmental Legal Register - Tsitsikamma National Park (Ms A. Dreyer, Environmental Legal Services). These are as follows:

Laws of general application Constitution of the RSA, 1996 National Environmental Management Act, 1998 Environment Conservation Act, 1989 Promotion of Access to Information Act, 2000 Environment Conservation Act, 1989 National Parks Act, 1976 Health Act, 1977 Aviation Act, 1962

Water Management National Water Act, 1998 Water Services Act, 1997 National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act, 1977 Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 National Buildings Regulations and Building Standards Act, 1977 Nature Environmental Conservation Ordinance No 19 of 1974

Waste Management Environment Conservation Act, 1989 National Road Traffic Act, 1996 Advertising on Roads and Ribbon Development Act, 1940 The South African National Roads Agency and National Roads Act, 1998 Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 Hazardous Substances Act, 1973 Health Act, 1977 National Building Regulations and Building Standards Act, 1977 Marine Living Recourses Act, 1998 (Act No. 18 of 1998)

Land and soil National Environmental Management Act, 1998 Environment Conservation Act, 1989 Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983

Planning of new activities Environment Conservation Act, 1989 Development Facilitation Act, 1995 Sea-Shore Act, 1935

Biodiversity Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 National Veld and Forest Fire Act, 1998 National Forests Act, 1998 Agricultural Pests Act, 1983 Animal Health Act, 2002 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Animals Protection Act, 1962 Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act, 1983 National Parks Act, 1976 Marine Living Resources Act, GN R111 of 2 September 1998 Sea Birds and Seals Protection Act, 1973 (Act No. 46 of 1973)

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Heritage resources National Heritage Resources Act, 1999 National Parks Act, 1976

Protected Areas National Parks Act, 1976 National Forest Act, 1998 Environmental Conservation Act, 1989

International Conventions, Treaties and Principles Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973.

3. ABIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 Geology

3.1.1 Geology The quartzitic sandstone of the Goudini (Tchando) and Peninsula Formations of the Table Mountain Group underlie the terrestrial areas of the TCNP (Figure 2; Toerien 1976; Chief Director of Surveys and Mapping 1991, Director-General of Surveys 1979). The main formations of De Vasselot are the Gydo Formation (shales and subordinate siltstone) of the Bokkeveld Group, as well as Skurweberg (Kouga) - and Baviaanskloof formations of the Table Mountain Group (Pretorius et al . 1980; Director-General of Surveys 1979). The Table Mountain Group also underlie the nearshore regions of the Tsitsikamma MPA, but they give way to a strongly folded Cretaceous Group some 2-3 km offshore (Flemming et al . 1986).

Soetkraal lies along the backbone of the Cape Fold mountains. Its geology is part of the Cape Supergroup system, and the formations present are the Goudini, Peninsula and small areas of Skurweberg (quartzitic sandstone, profusely crossbedded) and Cedarberg (shale, arenceaous shale). (Director-General of Surveys 1979). The Soetkraal valleys are lined with a layer of grey clay derived from a shale layer from within the Table Mountain group (Wagener pers. comm. in McIlleron 2003).

3.1.2 Soils / Sediments According to 1:250 000 landtype maps (Institute for Soil, Climate and Water 2004), the Tsitsikamma Section has thirteen land types (Figure 3). The dominant ones in the TCNP (Fa 30) and De Vasselot (Fa 31 & Fa 32) have a large component of lithosols (shallow soils on hard weathering rock), while that (Ib 64) of Soetkraal has a substantial amount of rock and, to a much lesser degree, imperfectly drained soils (Institute for Soil, Climate and Water 2004).

In De Vasselot (and probably in the rest of the Tsitsikamma Section) the soils are strongly influenced by the removal of marine clays on the tertiary shoreline. ‘Duplex’ soils (i.e. sandy surface soils with a sharp transition to underlying clays) are common (Pretorius et al . 1980). The underlying clays are often saline, impermeable and seasonally saturated. Seasonally saturated soils (Westleigh, Kroonstad) are dominant on the plateau above the coastal escarpment. They are also associated with dry ground on the rim of the plateau that has underlying clays (Eastcourt, Sterkspruit, and Swartland). Shallow sandy soils overlying rock (Mispah and Glenrosa) are common against the steep coastal slopes of Table Mountain sandstone. Near the coast (especially in the Nature’s Valley region) the aeolian influence is visible. Here soils are derived from a mixture of dune sand and clay material from underlying shale (Pretorius et al . 1980). Cobble beds are found flanking the major gorges on the plateau (Thwaites 1984b).

3.2 Physiography

3.2.1 Topography Except for a small sandy beach at Nature’s Valley, the shoreline of the Tsitsikamma Section is rocky, comprised of ridges and interlying troughs running parallel to the coast. Above the narrow shoreline, the coastal escarpment rises steeply to a height of 150 - 220 m, and then flattens off onto a plateau, which extends approximately 8 km to the base of the Tsitsikamma Mountain Range (Toerien 1976). The terrestrial section of the TCNP lies on this steep coastal escarpment, and it is only in the De Vasselot section that the park includes substantial portions of the plateau (Chief Director of Surveys and Mapping, 1979b, 1980, 1981). The erosive powers of the sea, together with changing sea levels, have formed a series of caves on the coastal escarpment, and many of these have been mapped (Craven 2007).

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Soetkraal extends along the length of the Tsitsikamma Mountain Range, and includes several valleys (c. 450 m above sea level) and steep and high mountain slopes ( c. 1000 - 1675 m ASL). The terrain is rugged and crisscrossed by many streams (Chief Director of Surveys and Mapping 1979a, 1980).

The seafloor shelves fairly quickly reaching a depth of approximately 25 m and 80 m at 0.9 km and 5.6 km offshore (Flemming et al. 1986). Most (c. 80%) of the seafloor is covered by fine sandy sediments, reaching a local thickness of up to 35 m. (Flemming et al. 1986) . The subtidal rocky reefs are fragmented and confined mainly to the near- and mid-waters of the western sector of the MPA, and many of these outcrops consist of low platforms mantled in thin gravel sheets (Flemming et al. 1986) .

3.2.2 Drainage The catchments of most rivers flowing through the TCNP and De Vasselot extended well beyond the boundaries of the old park into the foothills of the Tsitsikamma Mountains. However, the recent amalgamation of the DWAF land in the 'southern' Cape with that of SANParks will provide SANParks with greater jurisdiction over the catchment of tributaries of the Elands-, Storms-, Elandsbos-, Bloukrans- and Groot (west) rivers. Soetkraal ‘encompasses’ the upper catchment of Langbos, Palmiet and Diep rivers (Russell 2002).

3.2.3 Bathymetry The seafloor shelves fairly quickly reaching a depth of approximately 25 m and 80 m at 0.9 km and 5.6 km offshore (Flemming et al. 1986)

3.3 Physics

3.3.1. Climate The climate along the coast is mild, and frost is rare. At Storm River Mouth the mean monthly maximum and minimum air temperatures recorded over a 12 year period (1992 - 2003) ranged from 19.0 - 24,8 o C and 9.9 o - 17.8 o C respectively, while the annual rainfall of 743 mm, is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year (Hanekom 2005). A year round feature of the south coast is the prevailing westerly winds (Stone et al. 1998), while onshore easterly winds are prevalent during summer (Schumann et al . 1982).

3.3.2 Hydrology Excluding the Groot River (East), which forms the eastern boundary of the park, 12 perennial rivers flow southward through the Tsitsikamma Section (Figure 4). The largest of these rivers are the Groot River (west), the Bloukrans-Vark, Storms-Witteklip and Elands-Kruis systems, which have calculated catchment areas of 87, 80, 98 and 82 km² respectively (Morant and Bickerton 1983; Chief Director of Surveys and Mapping, 1979b, 1980, 1981). The mean annual flow rates recorded at the gauging stations on the Bloukrans and Kruis rivers between 1960 and 1980 are 44 and 66 m 3 x 10 6 respectively (Directorate of Water Affairs in litt . 1981), and the values estimated for the entire Bloukrans-Vark and Elands-Kruis systems are 65 and 86 m 3 x 10 6 respectively (N.H. unpubl.). The estuarine or mouth sections of these rivers are relatively pristine (Heydorn 1986; Harrison et al . 1995, 1996). However, the majority of them (Brak, Helpmekaars, Klip,Witels, Geelhoutbos, Kleinbos, Bruglaagte, Langbos, Sanddrif) are merely narrow inlets that offer very little habitat for fishes or estuarine species. A further seven (e.g. Sout, Bloukrans, Lottering, Elandsbos,Storms, Elands and Groot (east)), are located within deeply incised valleys and provide limited littoral habitat for estuary-associated fishes. It is only the Groot (west) system, which serves some estuarine function for both marine migrant and resident fish species (James & Harrison 2009).

3.3.3 Oceanography Sea temperature Mean (1993 - 2003) monthly surface sea temperatures measured at Storms River Mouth area ranged from 15.9oC to 19.4oC (Hanekom 2005), and is substantially affected by cold upwelling events during spring and summer (Hanekom et al . 1989). Similar upwelling processes have been recorded on the South- and South-east Coast (Beckley, 1983; 1988; Schumann et al. 1982; 1988). Coastal surface sea temperature (SST) has been shown to be very good monitor of wind-forced coastal upwelling conditions along this coast (Schumann et al. 1995; Schumann 1999). Winds and SST are correlated with the the southern oscillation index, such that more easterly component winds are experienced at high phases (La Nina) with consequent decrease in coastal SST. The summer wind forcing here is very different to the situation off the west coast of South Africa, with wind variability occurring on much shorter time scales

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from 2 to 6 days. This has important consequences for plankton blooms and is a likely reason why production on the south coast is less efficient than off the west coast (Schumann 1999).

Sea currents The continental shelf deflects the fast flowing Agulhas Current far away from the Tsitsikamma coastline (Shannon 1989), and the current system in the nearshore zone is complex. Attwood et al. (2002) deploying drogues recorded reversal in surface current direction. Roberts and van der Berg (2005), using acoustic equipment, found that the eastward (longshore) flow was dominant in the surface (5m) layer, with an absence of a overall seasonal trend. However, at a depth of 31 m flow patterns varied with seasons. In winter the current direction was similar to that of the surface water, but it flowed in the opposite direction during mid summer (December and March). The average velocity of the current on the surface was more than double that measured at 35m depth (24 vs 10 cm/s vs), and overall displacement was in an easterly direction (Roberts and van der Berg (2005), which has implication for the transport of fish eggs and larvae. Wave regimes Wave measurements recorded by ships less than 250 km seaward of the southern Cape coastline (34 o - 35 o S, 23 o - 25 o E) showed that the prevailing wave form was from a westerly direction, 1.6 - 3.0 m in height, and having a wave interval of 6 - 8 m / seconds (Swart & Serdyn 1981). A similar wave regime, with slightly smaller wave heights ( c. 1.0 - 2.0 m), is likely along the exposed shores of the Tsitsikamma Section.

3.4 Chemistry

3.4.1 Water chemistry Harrison et al . (1995, 1996), using seven parameters (dissolved oxygen, oxygen absorbed, unionised ammonia, E. coli. nitrate nitrogen, phosphate phosphorous and chlorophyll- a) calculated a water quality index rating value (between 0 (poor) - 10 (good)) for the various estuaries along the Cape Province. The index ratings for the estuaries (or river mouths) within the Tsitsikamma Section ranged from approximately 5.5 to 9.0, with elevated E. coli levels impairing the water quality of several of these estuaries. Additional water quality data exists for the estuarine section of the Sout / Salt River and Groot River (west) (Morant & Bickerton 1983), as well as the freshwater section of the Salt River (De Moor et al . 2004). Surveys by a combined team of scientists from Rhodes and Stellenbosch Universities, and the Eastern Cape River Health, with assistance by SANParks completed surveys of aquatic macroinvertebrates in eleven rivers in the Tsitsikamma region of the Garden Route NP. The lower Salt River site had extremely elevated levels of orthophosphate and nitrate/nitrite for one sampling season (Winter) that coincided with a rainfall event. The Buffels River system is very different in chemical composition to the rest of the rivers in the region, with consistently high values for conductivity, fluoride, sodium, dissolved magnesium and chloride. The River Health Programme (2007) rated the water quality of the lower sections of both the Salt - and Groot rivers as natural (excellent). Water analysis of marine environment appears to be restricted to work by Mitchell-Innes (1988), where once-off, spot seawater samples in the Storms River region were analyzed for phosphate, nitrate and silicate.

3.4.2 Pollution Elevated E. coli levels recorded by Harrison et al . (1996) suggested faecal pollution contaminates the waters of several rivers / estuaries in the Tsitsikamma Section.

3.4.3 General chemistry No data

4. BIOTIC CHARACTERISTICS

4.1 Flora

4.1.1 Non-vascular (Algae, Diatoms, Bryophytes) 4.1.1.1. Marine phytoplankton Studies are limited. Spot samples taken in 1984 indicated that phytoplankton, which was dominated by diatoms, was sparse in the surface waters, but more abundant within and beneath the thermocline, as well as immediately after upwelling. The most common species included Hemiaulus sinensis ,

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Leptocylindrus danicus , Nitzschia delicatissima , N. pungens and Rhizosolenia delicatulum (Michell-Innes 1988).

4.1.1.2. Marine algae A comprehensive survey recorded 211 seaweed species in the Tsitsikamma Section (Appendix 8.1a). It is the greatest number of seaweeds recorded along any stretch of the South African coastline and it is equivalent to 25% of the seaweed flora of South Africa (Bolton & Stegenga 2002, Stegenga et al. in litt . 2002). The samples include two new species of red algae, namely Scageliopsis tsitsikammae nov. spec. and Hypoglossum imperfectum nov. spec. (Stegenga et al. 2000; 2001).

4.1.1.3. Fungi Mycorrhizal (symbiotic associations between plant roots and fungi) status of indigenous tree species in a forest biome of the Eastern Cape has been investigated, but not at Tsitsikamma (Hawley & Dames 2004). A preliminary investigation of in the De Vasselot area recorded approximately 40 species of corticoid fungi, or wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes (Appendix 8.1b).

4.1.2 Vascular (Pteridophytes, Spermatophytes) 4.1.2.1. Aquatic vegetation The Groot River (west) estuary is the largest and probably the only estuary in the Tsitsikamma Section that has notable stands of aquatic angiosperms. It has a profuse growth of Ruppia maritima and R. spiralis in the creek west of “The Island” (Morant and Bickerton 1983). Aquatic angiosperms appear to be virtually absent in the marine sector, sparse in the riverine sections in the TCNP and fairly common in rivers of Soetkraal, where they must still be described.

4.1.2.2. Semi-aquatic vegetation In the Groot River (west) estuary , the largest estuary in the Tsitsikamma Section, wetland species such as Mariscus thunbergii , Juncus kraussi and Phragmites australis are found on the western bank, while Samolus porosus is abundant on the island and eastern bank (Morant and Bickerton 1983). Based on aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation, this estuary had an intermediate botanical importance rating compared to 31 other estuaries in the Cape Province, while the Salt River estuary was low (Coetzee et al . 1997). Nevertheless a high priority should be given to the rehabilitation of the Groot River estuary (Turpie & Clark 2007). The vegetation of the freshwater sections of these and other river systems in the Tsitsikamma Section is poorly studied. However, stands of Prionium serratum (palmiet) have been noted in the Salt- (De Moor et al. 2004), Storms- and Palmiet rivers (N.H. pers. obs.). The River Health Programme (2007) rated the riparian vegetation of the lower sections of the Salt River and Groot River as natural (excellent) and good respectively.

4.1.2.3. Terrestrial vegetation Many of the indigenous forest species and common flowering plants in the southern Cape and Tsitsikamma area have been described in ‘field guides’ (Courtenay-Latimer et al. 1967; Von Breitenbach 1974; Rycroft 1980; Moriarty 1982), and 523 species from 112 families are found in the area (Appendix 8.2).). The vegetation of the Tsitsikamma Section largely comprises two vegetation types/broad habitat units, i.e. Tsitsikamma Mountain Fynbos and Knysna Afromontane Forest (Cowling & Heijnis 2001), which roughly correspond with the Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos and Southern Afrotemperate Forest of Mucina et al . (2005) (Figure 5). Small patches of three other fynbos types occur in the De Vasselot- Perdevlakte area, namely South Outeniqua Sandstone Fynbos, Garden Route Shale Fynbos and Western Shale Band Vegetation (Mucina et al . 2005). In a preliminary survey the vegetation of the TCNP and De Vasselot was classified into four broad communities, namely Afromontane Forest (2506 ha), two Mountain Fynbos communities (1386 ha) and Littoral Herbland (15 ha)(Hanekom et al. 1989). The distribution of indigenous forest patches in the Tsitsikamma appears to be partly determined by recurrent, but sporadic and severe berg-wind fires (Geldenhuys 1987). The forest of the Groot River (west) system is of particular importance, because three forest species [Strychnos decussata (Cape teak) Hippobromus pauciflorus (false horsewood) and Strelitzia alba (wild tree banana)], with limited representation elsewhere in the Southern Cape, have small, but expanding populations in this area (Geldenhuys 1992; 1993). Substantial numbers of the Endangered black stinkwood Ocotea bullata are also found is forest . The populations the forest herb Streptocarpus rexii in the Tsitsikamma & Wilderness National areas represent the most southerly and westerly distribution of this species in South Africa (Bellkstedt 2004), and this southerly radiation occurred during the Holocene (Hughes et al. 2005). Populations of Streptocarpus rexii in eastern South Africa has little or no nuclear genetic diversity, and most share a common chloroplast halotype (Hughes et al. 2005).

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Five Redlisted species (Endangered Leucospermum glabrum and Ocotea bullata, and Vulnerable Erica glandulosa fourcadei, Indigofera hispida and Dioscorea sylvatic ) are found in the coastal section of the Tsitsikamma Section, as well as Tsitsikamma endemic ( Delosperma saxicola) (Table 1).

The dominant vegetation of Soetkraal (24 000 ha) is Wet and Mesic Mountain Fynbos (Moll & Bossi 1984), forming part of the Tsitsikamma Mountain Fynbos Complex (Cowling & Heijnis 2001) or Tsitsikamma Sandstone Fynbos (Mucina et al 2005) There are small patches of Afromontane (Afrotemperate) Forest on protected mountain slopes.

4.2 Fauna

4.2.1 Protozoa No data

4.2.2 Invertebrates 4.2.2.1 Zooplankton Preliminary, marine ichthyoplankton studies by Tilney & Buxton (1994) and Tilney et al. (1996) were complemented by more detail work by Wood (1998). He identified 75 taxa of fish larvae, described the early life history stages of 30 of these taxa, and refined the estimates of the extent to which the fish larvae could be dispersed by the nearshore currents. Morant and Bickerton (1983) listed more than 25 taxa of zooplankton recorded from the Groot River (west) estuary

4.2.2.2 Aquatic invertebrates Two surveys have been undertaken in the Salt River (within & outside the park) in 2000, as part of an environmental impact assessment, followed by additional study in 2004 (De Moor et al. 2004). The results of the first two surveys showed that in the four orders of insects that were examined in detail (Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera and Diptera) there were 13 previously undescribed species, as well as three new genera, and some remarkable range extension of certain species. The river also produced the richest known diversity of species in the mayfly family Teloganodidae for Africa (De Moor et al. 2004). Water abstraction from the catchment of the Salt River is the most serious threat to the continued existence of these macroinvertebrate communities, and reduced flow volumes can exacerbate or result in a multitude of detrimental impacts (De Moor et al. 2004). The River Health Programme (2007), using the South African Scoring System, rated the aquatic invertebrate fauna of the lower reaches of both the Salt - and Groot rivers as natural (excellent), but the upper reaches of the former river showed signs of human- related disturbances.

The recent surveys (2000-2009) of 11 rivers in the Tsitsikamma region have revealed an exceptionally high diversity in CFK (Cape Floral Kingdom) endemic aquatic. Four undescribed genera and 33 undescribed species and a family that is new for the region were recorded. The total number of new undescribed species of Ephemeroptera for the region is one or two new genera and nine species. The total number of new undescribed species of Trichoptera for the region surveyed now stands at two new genera and 20 species. Of the 48 species of Trichoptera recorded there is one genus and 11 undescribed species that have now been found only in rivers in the Tsitsikamma region other than the Salt, emphasizing the conservation importance of several rivers in the region. It is also possible that there are now two previously undescribed species of Simulium from the region; one species recorded from the Salt. River, and the second one from the Upper Groot River West and Lower Bloukrans River. All the rivers have two distinct assemblages of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities, namely an upper mountain stream biota, and biota downstream in the foothills.

Three of the 11 rivers studied have neither indigenous nor exotic alien fish. Thus the macroinvertebrates in these rivers have evolved under unique conditions in terms of predation pressure, which has many implications in terms of morphological and behavioural evolution. Of these rivers, the Bobbejaans recorded the highest diversity of species (including one unique new species of Trichoptera and seven of the undescribed species recorded) and the Upper Salt River contains the highest number of new undescribed species (nine). The Lottering River recorded high numbers of some of the new undescribed species. These rivers deserve special conservation attention. The Buffels and Matjies rivers differ from others in the region with respect to water chemistry and species composition and they can be considered as a separate cluster of rivers deserving individual attention. These rivers contribute one unique undescribed species of Oecetis and four of the new species of Trichoptera but only widespread species of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Megaloptera and Odonata.

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The upper reaches of all the Tsitsikamma Rivers are important to maintain and conserve the full diversity of endemic CFK species. These reaches should also be considered as being important for the conservation of adjacent rivers, as migration between rivers enables recolonisation during times of environmental stress. The present survey support the recommendation relating to the proposed proclamation of the Salt River and some of the other eleven rivers surveyed as sanctuaries for freshwater aquatic macroinvertebrates. Some of the most serious threats to the survival of the rare endemic species are increases in sediments, nutrients and pH and a decrease in flow volumes which leads to an increase in water temperature.

Once off collection recorded at least 10 species of Cape water beetles in the park (Bilton 2008). The Cape endemic hydraenid, Ochthebius capicola, which was considered extinct on the Cape Peninsula, has been recently re-discovered at two adjacent locations as well as at a new site in Tsitsikamma National Park. This species shows a preference for algae-covered rock surfaces in the hypersaline pools of the supralittoral zone (Turner 2004). Genetic studies indicate that the geographic outlying populations of the isopod Mesamphisopus abbreviatus in the streams of Tsitsikamma are probably a phylogenetically distinct taxon of a yet undescribed species (Gouws et al. 2005). Perkins (2008) recorded Mesoceration disjunctum (a new species) at Nature’s Valley and a new distribution record for Mesoceration dissonum at Storms river.

Tietz and Robinson (1980) described the major marine invertebrates found on the Tsitsikamma coast (Appendix 8.3). The structure of intertidal invertebrate communities is determined primarily by wave action (McQuaid & Branch 1984; 1985). Filter feeders dominate the wave exposed shores, while herbivores reach their highest abundance on sheltered shores of the Tsitsikamma Section (Hanekom unpubl.). The brown mussel Perna perna is abundant in the lower balanoid zone of exposed shores, and the mean density of mussels recorded at eight sites along the coastline ranged from 900 - 19 860 individuals per m² (Crawford and Bower 1983). Secondary settlement of juvenile mussels occurs in spring through to early winter. Growth is fast, with shell lengths of approximately 35 and 50 mm being attained after one and two years of growth respectively (Crawford and Bower 1983). The invasive Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, which is the one alien invertebrate species that has caused significant ecological impacts along the South African coast (Robinson et al . 2005), was absent from the mid shore at Storms River until 1987. Its mean densities were low (< 15 individuals/0.1 m²) in the mid 1990s, but thereafter increased steadily, peaking in 2004 before declining in 2005 (Hanekom 2008). The toothed barnacle Chthamalus dentatus experienced a significantly (p ≤ 0.05), but temporary decline in density and biomass values following the invasion in the early 2000s (Hanekom 2008). At sites on the south coast where the two mussel species co-occur, P. perna was most abundant on the low-shore and M. galloprovincialis on the high-shore, with a mixed zone at the mid-shore level (Bownes & McQuaid 2006). Growth rates of juvenile M. galloprovincialis decreased upshore, but M. galloprovincialis is probably able to maintain high densities on the high-shore through persistence of successive settlement of slow growing individuals, even though the growth rate of juvenile M. galloprovincialis decreased upshore (Bownes 2005; Bownes & McQuaid 2009). Mussel densities were lower in the Tsitsikamma Section than at Plettenberg Bay (Bownes 2005; McQuaid 2006).

The distribution, abundance and recruitment of alikreukels Turbo sarmaticus at Swartrif (near the Storms River mouth) varied markedly during the 1970s & 1980s, but there was an overall decline in numbers (Yssel 1989). The potential life span of alikreukel was calculated to be greater than 10 years, and the mean production / biomass ratio for the population to be 0.55 (Yssel 1989). Exploitation of alikrreukel along the south east coast tends to be localized, with refuge and subtidal populations persisting However, exploitation of abalone Haliotis midae was far more extensive and intense (Proudfoot 2006).

In May 1991 tests of hundreds of red-bait specimens in the Tsitsikamma Section became infected with bacteria of the Vibrio genus, and large declines in the populations were recorded. Recolonization by red- bait Pyura stolonifera into the naturally denuded areas was much faster than for experimental cleared plots (Hanekom et al . 1999).

A study of the octopus Octopus vulgaris along the south-east coast (including the park) found females dominant in the intertidal area (sex ratio 2:1), but a 1:1 sex ratio in the subtidal, where individuals were substantially larger. Mature females were only found subtidally, and brooding females were found throughout the year, but numbers peaked in summer. The main prey items in both the intertidal and subtidal areas were crustaceans and teleosts (Oosthuizen & Smale 2003).

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The Tsitsikamma MPA is situated within the general spawning area of the commercially exploited chokka squid Loligo vulgaris reynaudii and spawning individuals have been recorded (sporadically throughout the year, but mainly in summer) at ten areas within the MPA. Spawning occurred either on sand or low profile rocky reefs at depths of between 22 and 35m (Sauer 1995). A synthesis of currents on the Agulhas Bank shows that the flow pattern is complex, while copepods, a food source for squid paralarvae, are widely available (Roberts & van den Berg 2002). Current measurements suggests that squid parallavae from the inshore spawning grounds, between Cape St Francis and Plettenberg Bay, are mainly transported eastward and those larvae spawned inside the MPA are likely to be exported beyond its boundaries (Roberts & van den Berg 2005). Tagged adult individuals from the park also tended to dispersed eastward (Sauer et al. 2000).

At Tsitsikamma the sizes of the limpet Cymbula oculus decreased progressively between sheltered, intermediate and exposed sites, although recruitment was greater at exposed sites. Females were consistently larger than males, but were less abundant (sex ratio 0.6:1) (Branch & Odendaal 2003).

Important physical parameters structuring intertidal communities on the South African rocky shores are gradients of desiccation that produce a vertical zonation, as well as the differential effects of tidal ranges and wave action, which acts as a structuring force and mediates biological interactions (McQuaid & Branch 1984, 1985; Bustamante et al. 1997), and similar patterns of vertical and horizontal distribution of community biomass and species richness have been recorded in equivalent rocky shore habitats, regardless of geographical location along the South African coast (Bustamante et al. 1997; Blamey & Branch 2009). The structure of these low-shore communities were determined primarily by differences in wave action, and that of the high-shore communities by high temperature and desiccation (Bustamante et al. 1997; Blamey & Branch 2009). In the Cochlear zone and entire intertidal (Cochlear- and Balanoid zones combined) of Tsitsikamma MPA biomass values of invertebrates and filter-feeders were significantly (P < 0.05) higher at semi-exposed shores, while grazer biomass was greater at sheltered sites, and a negative relationship (P < 0.01) and a moderate to weak correlation (r > 0.42) was recorded between filter-feeder biomass and grazer biomass (Hanekom 2011). This negative relationship reflected changes in standing biomass of the two dominant filter-feeders ( O. angulosa and Perna perna ) against that of the dominant grazers ( Scutellastra cochlear ). On sheltered shores the biomass of trophic groups varied significantly (P < 0.05) across the intertidal gradient studied, with values of grazers and algae decreasing with increased aerial exposure. Similar, but less substantial (P > 0.05) variations were recorded at semi-exposed sites (Hanekom 2011). The general species composition of the macrobenthos was comparable with that recorded by Bustamante & Branch (1996) for the Agulhas- and Natal provinces, but the biomass in exposed and semi-exposed intertidal areas was dominated by only two to four species.

Since the late 1980s, there has been a substantial increase in the abundance of the alien mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis on the south coast, but this has been variable and site specific (Ruis 2004; Robinson et al. 2005). At sites where Mytilus galloprovincialis were plentiful, this species tended to dominate the high shore and P. perna the low shore, with a mixed zone at the middle level (Bownes and McQuaid 2006; Hanekom 2008). The influx M. galloprovincialis in the lower- and middle Balanoid zone appeared to have resulted in an increased in the overall mussel density, a reduction in P. perna numbers, but no apparent change (P> 0.05) to the biomass and (Shannon-Weaver) diversity index of the fauna associated with the mid zone of mussel bed (Hanekom 2008).

A preliminary investigation of subtidal macrobenthic communities along a depth profile in the Tsitsikamma Section was done (Hanekom & Coetzee 1990). An ordination analysis separated the sites primarily along a depth gradient, but was also influenced by a second factor (probably reef profile). Three clusters were identified, each characterized by certain dominant phyla or species. The first group occurred on corrugated, low relief reefs, where algae were abundant and solitary ascidians (primarily Pyura stolonifera ) were absent. The second group occurred on high relief ridges where algae were still present, but Pyura stolonifera were abundant. The third group were deep water (20 - 27m) sites with medium to high relief reefs, where poriferans, hydrozoans and bryozoans were common (Hanekom & Coetzee 1990). In other studies a new genus of latrunculid sponge was described (Kelly and Samaai 2002), while chemical composition of several marine ascidians and sponges were determined (Hooper et al. 1995; McPhail et al. 1998; McPhail et al. 2000; Antunes 2004).

4.2.2.3. Terrestrial invertebrates Thirty-five plant-parasitic nematode species, including two new species of the subfamily Criconematinae have been recorded from the park (van der Berg 1996), and 17 of these species also occur in Wilderness

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National Park (van der Berg 1993, 1996). The general distribution of populations of Helicotylenchus brevis and H. exallus were investigated (Marais 1998)

4.2.3 Fish The fresh water streams in the Tsitsikamma region are generally impoverished (Smith & Smith 1966). Russell (2002) sampled six river systems in the Tsitsikamma Section and recorded four indigenous freshwater species ( Pseudobarbus afer , the Endangered Pseudobarbus tenius , Sandelia capensis and Anguilla mossambica ) and one alien ( Micropterus salmoides ). The River Health Programme (2007) rated the fish component of the lower sections of both the Salt - and Groot rivers as natural (excellent).

In the major estuaries / river mouths of the Tsitsikamma Section, Harrison et al. (1996) recorded only 15 fish species. Three of the species were estuarine-dependent, the others were marine species, having various degrees of dependence upon estuaries during the juvenile phase of their life cycle.

The marine area of the Tsitsikamma Section is situated west of a nursery area for the ragged-tooth shark Carcharias Taurus that extends from East London and Cape St. Francis (Dicken et al . 2006a,b). Burger (1991) and Wood et al. (2000) supplemented the species list of Buxton and Smale (1984) for the marine sector, and a total 202 fish species from 84 families have been recorded within the Tsitsikamma Section (Appendix 8.4 5). Of these 15 are Red Data species (Table 1). The size and species composition of fish differ between shallow (< 10 m) and deep (10 - 30 m) reefs in the Tsitsikamma Section (Buxton and Smale 1984). Food availability is the major determinant of ichthyofaunal distribution along the depth profile, and a single species tends to dominate each depth zone, while diversity, species richness and evenness of the ichthyofauna increase with depth (Burger 1990).

The biology and life history changes of several fish species found in the Tsitsikamma Section have been studied. These include dageraad Chrysoblephus cristiceps , roman Chrysoblephus laticeps (Buxton, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1993), red steenbras Petrus rupestris (Smale 1988, Smale & Punt 1991), blue hottentot Pachymetopon aeneum (Buxton & Clarke 1986), hottentot Pachymetopon grande (Buxton & Clarke 1992) musselcracker Sparodon durbanensis (Buxton & Clarke 1991), poenskop Cymatoceps nasutus (Buxton & Clarke 1989), blacktail Diplodus sargus capensis , zebra D. cervinus hottentotus ( Mann & Buxton 1992, 1998) and carpenter Argyrozona argyrozona (Brouwer & Griffiths 2004, 2005a, 2005b; Brouwer et al. 2003). Carpenter has two distinct areas of abundance, one on the central and other on the eastern Agulhas Bank (Brouwer & Griffiths 2005b), but both these stocks are heavily overfished (Brouwer & Griffiths 2006).

Most ( c. 80 %) of the above fish species have potential life spans of greater than 20 years, reaching sexual maturity after three or more years (Table 2). Species such as dageraad, roman, blue hottentot and poenskop are all protogynous hermaphrodites, and undergo sexual reversal. Consequently, in these species all males are derived from functional females and are older than six years (Table 2).

In both a boat-based- and a shore-based- mark and recapture programme approximately 4 000 fish have been tagged. Mark and recapture data suggest the reef fish carpenter, roman, dageraad and juvenile red steenbras, as well as inshore species blacktail, zebra, hottentot (bronze bream) and galjoen Dichistius capensis have a high degree of residency in the Tsitsikamma Section (Brouwer 2002; Cowley et al . 2002; Brouwer et al . 2003; Cowley 2000) and corresponded with the results from the Agulhas Bank (Griffiths & Wilke 2002). Telemetry studies at Goukamma MPA indicate that the roman has a very small home range of between approximately 1 000 m² and 3 000 m² (Kerwath et al . 2007), and simulation models suggest that for resident species, such as roman, even small MPAs (6 km²) can offer protection (Kerwath et al. 2008). The slow growth rate and the stenotopic behaviour makes these species vulnerable to over-exploitation, and the catch rates during these studies are much greater than those recorded for fishers in open fishing areas in the southern Cape (Brouwer 1999; Cowley et al. 2002; Cowley 2000;; Götz 2005; King 2005; Smith 2005; Pradervand & Hiseman 2006; Götz et al. 2011). Roman had a higher density, mean size and age at maturity inside the Goukamma MPA than in adjacent exploited areas (Götz et al. 2008). In addition microsatelite markers have been determined for roman from caught in Tsitsikamma MPA (Teske et al. 2009), and these will be useful to detect whether populations resident in MPAs along the South African coast are genetically connected, and whether there is spillover of recruits into adjacent exploited areas.

Survey selectivity estimates suggest that there is some longshore movement of inshore hake Merluccius capensis as they grow. Young hake (< 3 yrs old) are primarily restricted to the west coast, but large proportion of the intermediate aged fish appear to move to the south coast (Rademeyer et al. 2008a).

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Some of the older (>6 years old) fish move back to the west coast. The spawner biomass of this species has dropped to about 30% of the pristine level (Rademeyer et al. 2008a), and an Operational Management Procedure for the South Afrcan (inshore and offshore) hake resource has been developed (Rademeyer et al. 2008b).

On the south-east coast, shallow subtidal bays, associated with rocky shores appear to be important nursery sites for late-stage larvae and early juveniles of blacktail and strepie (Strydom 2008), and estuaries crucial for spotted grunter Pomadasys commersonnii and juvenile dusky kob Argyrosomus japonicus (Childs et al. 2008; Cowley et al. 2008). Reduction in freshwater inflow into an estuary may lead to a decline in numbers of these spotted grunter and dusky kob utilizing this habitat (Lamberth et al. 2008).

The periodicity of opaque zone formation in the ololiths of three of the above reef species has been validated using oxytetracyline markers (Potts & Cowley 2005), while experiments have shown that the rate of tag loss of D-tags and T-tags is high (Kerwath et al. 2006). In water shallower than 20 in Goukamma MPA, the selection of legal-sized roman can be increased by about 23% and immediate capture mortality of undersized fish can be reduced by 50% by using large hooks, sardine as bait and by fishing for less than one-angler-hour per site (Götz et al. 2007).

In the overall offshore ot the Southern Benguela system fishing and to a greater extent the anchovy- sardine interaction with zooplankton and predators appear to be important drivers (Shannon et al. 2008). Fishing stress and the collapse of small pelagic stocks may lead to a shift towards a bottom-up trophic control mechanism becoming a dominant driver of this system, increasing the impact of environmental events including climate change (Watermeyer et al. 2008). From 1997 – 2005, the core distribution of the pelagic sardine Sardinops sagax , an important prey item for four seabirds off South Africa, shifted 400 km to the south and east, which influenced its availability to breeding birds. It became progressively less available to seabirds in the Western Cape Province (Crawford et al. 2008a & b).

The potential influences of natural forces (climate change, sea-surface temperature anomalies, natural variability, etc.) on near-shore marine fish communities may be of similar temporal and spatial scale as human impacts. Consequently the Elwandle Node of the South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) established a research site in the Tsitsikamma Section to establish a reliable measure of natural changes in marine ecosystems of the MPA.

Economic benefits through fish exports in terms of larvae (recruitment) and adults from the MPAs in the Garden Route were estimated to be in the order of R33 million annually (Turpie et al. 2006).

Table 2. Maximum age, occurrence of sex reversal and age at sexual maturity of females and males. Key. Source: B87; B89; B3 = Buxton 1987, 1989, 1993 B&C6; B&C9; B&C1; B&C2 = Buxton & Clarke 1986, 1989, 1991; 1992 Br&G4,5 = Brouwer & Griffiths 2004, 2005; F6 = Fennessy (2006); M2 = Mann 1992; S8 = Smale 1988; S&P1 = Smale and Punt 1991;

Species Max Sex Maturity Source age rev female male

Carpenter ( Argyrozona argyrozona ) 30 - 5 5 Br&G4,5

Roman ( Chrysoblephus laticeps ) 18 + 4 8 B7; B9; B3

Dageraad ( C. cristiceps ) 22 + 3.5 12 B7; B9; B3

Red steenbras ( Petrus rupestris ) 33 - 7 7 S8; S&P1

Blue Hottentot (Pachymetopon aeneum ) 12 + 4 7 B&C6

Poenskop ( Cymatoceps nastus ) 45 + 6 19 B&C9

Mussel cracker ( Sparodon durbanensis ) 31 - 5 5 B&C1

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Hottentot ( Pachymetopon grande ) 40 - 5.5 5.5 B&C2

Zebra ( Diplodus cervinus hottentotus ) 33 - 6 6 M2

Blacktail ( Diplodus sargus capensis ) 21 - 4 4 M2

Yellowbellied rockcod ( Epinephelus marginatus ) 16 + 6 c.12 F6

4.2.4 Amphibians The preliminary checklist of Carruthers & Robinson's (1977) was supplemented by that of Branch & Hanekom (1987). Thirteen frog species have been recorded in the Tsitsikamma Section (Appendix 8.5 6), including the Endangered Knysna leaf-folding frog Afrixalus knysnae and a southern Cape endemic, the plain rain frog Breviceps fuscus (Minter et al . 2004). In 2010 an Eastern leopard toad was recorded at Ngubu hut (Dr I. Russell in lit. 2010)

4.2.5 Reptiles A preliminary checklists was compiled by Branch and Hanekom (1987). A total of 13 snake, 10 lizard and agama, 2 tortoise and 4 turtle species have been recorded in the Tsitsikamma Section (Appendix 8.7). The blue spotted girdled lizard Cordylus coeruleopunctatus and Knysna dwarf chameleon Bradypodion damaranum are endemic to the southern Cape. The four turtle species are Red Data Book species, but they are all vagrants to the Tsitsikamma Section (Branch and Hanekom 1987; Branch 1988) (Table 1).

4.2.6 Birds The comprehensive checklist of Skead & Liversidge (1967) for the then Tsitsikamma Forest and Coastal National Park was updated by records from Robinson (1976); Bower & Crawford (1983); Pretorius et al. (1980), Hanekom et al . (1987); McIlleron (unpubl.) Whittington 2004). A total 213 bird species were recorded (Appendix 8.7)

Detailed studies of birds in the Tsitsikamma Section are limited. The key findings are follows:

• Vegetation structure and composition variation in the Knysna (dry – moist) Forest complex do not appear to influence the bird and invertebrate communities found within these forests (Koen & Crowe 1987).

• Two nests of crowned eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus were recorded in or close to the old park (Boshoff 1988).

• Rock hyrax, blue duiker and bushbuck respectively formed 25, 22 and 18 percent of the prey individuals recorded from six crowned eagle nests in the southern Cape forest biome (Boshoff et al. 1994).

• More than 50 pairs of the kelp gull Larus dominicanus , 70 of Cape cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis , and 20 of white-breasted cormorant P. carbo were recorded nesting in the Tsitsikamma Section in 1980 and 1981 (Crawford 1983). However, this represents a very small (<1%) proportion of the overall breeding populations of these species (Du Toit et al. 2003).

• A new breeding locality (four nests) for crowned cormorant Phalacrocorax coronatus was noted at the Number 12 Stack in the Tsitsikamma Section (Whittington 2004).

• Four nests of the African black oystercatcher Haematopus moquini were noted in 1982, and shell remains close to the nests suggested that the shellfish diet of these birds was comprised primarily of limpets (Scutellastra argenvillei and S. cochlear ) and brown mussels (Perna perna ) (Crawford 1983).

Climate change and a substantial shift in the core distribution of the pelagic sardine Sardinops sagax have affected distribution and breeding success of several seabirds off South Africa, in particular the African penguin ( Spheniscus demersus ), Cape gannet ( Morus capensis ) and Cape cormorant (Phalacrocorax capensis ) (Crawford et al. 2008a,b & c), while large numbers of Cape cormorants died of pneumonia between Tsitsikamma and Sundays River in 1965 (La Cock 1985 in Crawford et al. 1992). Long-term trends in numbers of African penguins breeding off the western & eastern Cape

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appear were significantly related to the combined biomass of anchovy and sardine off South Africa (Crawford et al. 2011).

4.2.7 Mammals The preliminary mammal checklist of Robinson (1976) for coastal section of the Tsitsikamma Section was supplemented by records from Crawford (1982b), Hanekom et al. (1987) and Pretorius et al. (1980). Forty-one terrestrial mammal species have been recorded for this section. These included 2 primate-, 10 carnivore-, 4 antelope- and 16 rodent- species (Appendix 8.8 9). Nineteen mammal species have been recorded in Soetkraal (Appendix 8.8 9), and six of these species, aardvark, grey rhebuck, klipspringer, feral donkey, scrub hare/ and small-spotted genet/ have not been noted in the coastal section of the Tsitsikamma Section.

Detailed studies of some species have been done. The population density estimates of the Vulnerable blue duiker Philantomba monticola in the Tsitsikamma Section are similar to those determined from four southern Cape forests and two Zairean forests, but are at least three times lower than densities recorded by Bowland (1990) in KwaZulu - Natal (Hanekom & Wilson 1991). The apparent scarcity of food, the low numbers of antelope in the southern Cape forests and the results of research in Zaire, suggest that the nature of the habitat could be limiting duiker numbers in the Tsitsikamma Section (Hanekom & Wilson 1991). Nevertheless, predation by leopard, caracal and crowned eagles may have a local effect (Crawford & Robinson 1984; Boshoff et al. 1994). Feacal pellet counts done at Diepwalle near Knysna suggested marked changes in the blue duiker populations between 1970 and 1997 (Seydack et al. 1998), and large temporal variations in may occur in the population densities. Blue duiker commonly lives in pairs (Crawford 1984), and may play a role in seed dispersal in forests (Feer 1995). The occurrence of blue duiker in forest patches is influenced by its size and distance from mainland forests (Lawes et al. 2000).

Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus is the only other antelope species frequenting the forests of the southern Cape, but their population densities ( c. 6 individuals. ha -1) in these forests are approximately one-quarter of those from the savanna biome (Odendaal & Bigalke 1979; Seydack 1984; van Daalen 1984). Fynbos occurs on nutrient-poor soils, and therefore has a low carrying capacity for sustaining large herbivores (Cody et. al . 1983 in Rebelo 1992). In the Knysna forests the bushbuck generally occurs singly, but home ranges overlap, and breeding is non seasonal (Odendaal & Bigalke 1979), and it feeds primarily ( c. 85 %) on browse (Odendaal 1983).

Approximately 30 African clawless otters Aonyx capensis occur along the coast of the TCNP (van der Zee 1982; Arden-Clarke 1983). The overall recorded foraging ranges are between 8.5 and 19.5 km (Arden- Clarke 1983), and approximately 80 % of prey items consists of four species, namely Cape rock crab Plagusia chabrus , common octopus Octopus (granulatus ) vulgaris , rocksucker(fish) Chorisochismus dentex and shore crab Cyclograpsus punctatus (van der Zee 1981).

Cape grey mongooses Galerella pulverulenta are common in the Storms River Rest-camp area and sightings are generally in dry scrub forests or forest verges, and of solitary animals. However, groups are noted during mating season and parturition (summer and early winter). They are most active during early morning and late afternoon and seasonally from late autumn through to early spring, with adults tending to remain in a given territory (Crawford et al . 1983).

The numbers of rock hyrax Procavia capensis in the Storms River Restcamp increased steadily in late 1970s and early 1980s, before stabilizing in the mid 1980s. A simple simulation model was constructed and applied to evaluate different management options (Fairall and Hanekom 1987). Sightings of the caracal Felis caracal occur throughout the Tsitsikamma Section on a fairly regular basis, while those of the leopard Panthera pardus are less frequent (viz. 20 sighting in the western sector of the Tsitsikamma Section between May 2000 and September 2003) (Andre Riley Unpubl records).

Four species of insectivorous bat species, and substantial numbers of the Egyptian rousette bat Rousettus aegyptiacus have been recorded in caves in the Storms River gorge (ca. 3 000 individuals) and Elands River gorge (ca. 300 – 400) (Herzig- Straschel & Robinson 1978; Craven 2007). The fruit bats feeds on the fruit of plants such as essenhout, saffron, poison bush and mistle toe, and their nocturnal activities are significantly longer in summer than in winter. Parturition apparently occurs between October and June, with a peak in December (Herzig- Straschel & Robinson 1978).

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A wide variety of dolphins and whales have been recorded on the south coast, but many are seasonal visitors (Dr V. Cockcroft pers comm. 2007). The Vulnerable Indian humpback dolphin Sotalia chinensis forms small schools ( c. 7 individuals), feed on inshore reef fish and invertebrates and remained in the area throughout the year (Saayman et al . 1972). Further offshore the Vulnerable Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphin Tursiops aduncus swims in intermediate size schools ( c. 60 individuals), is abundant during spring and summer, and appears capable of exploiting both reef and off-shore pelagic food sources, while pelagic dolphins Delphinus delphis and Stenella coeruleoalba are found in large schools (>100 individuals) far offshore (Saayman et al . 1972). The more common whale species found off the Tsitsikamma – Plettenberg Bay coast are the southern right whale Eubalaena australis , Near-threatened humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae and Vulnerable Bryde’s whale Balaeoptera edeni (Anon. 2003; Dr V. Cockcroft pers comm. 2007) . Southern right whales calve in sheltered, sandy bays in late winter early spring (Anon. 2003), but their numbers off the Tsitsikamma coast are low compared to that of the south-western Cape (Best 2000). Humpback whales visits the Tsitsikamma Section from June to November during their migration to feeding grounds in the Antartic, while some of the Bryde’s whales are resident off the south coast, but are generally seen 6 – 15 km offshore, in groups of 5-6 (Anon. 2003; Dr V. Cockcroft pers comm. 2007). Sightings of Bryde’s whale in the Plettenberg Bay area were highest in summer and autumn, with a peak in April that corresponds to increased feeding activity and above average aggregation sizes (Penry et al. 2011). During this period they were often seen feeding in association with the common dolphin Delphinus capensis and Cape gannet (Penry et al. 2011). Elwen et al. (2011) reviewed of cetacean research in the southern African subregion.

The Cape fur seal Arcocephalus pusillus pusillus colony at Robberg Peninsula, Plettenberg Bay, has increased in size from less than 300 individuals in 2000 to more than 3100 in 2009, with the vast majority being non-breeding animals (Huisamen et al. 2011). The influx of seals to the Robberg area may be associated with shifts in prey availability at the ecosystem level (Huisamen et al. 2011). Some of these seals would presumably forage within the Tsitsikamma MPA.

Table 1 . Red Data Species (with a status of near threatened or greater) recorded in Tsitsikamma Section. Used SANBI (2008) for plants, IUCN Redlist (2006) for fish and reptiles, Minter et al . (2004) for amphibians, Barnes (2000) for birds and Friedmann & Daly (2004) for mammals, and vag. indicates species that are vagrants or occasional visitors to Tsitsikamma Section.

Scientific name Common name Red Data Status Vag Plants Leucospermum glabrum Endangered Ocotea bullata Endangered Erica glandulosa fourcadei Vulnerable Indigofera hispida Vulnerable Dioscorea sylvatica Vulnerable

Fishes Pseudobarbus tenuis Slender redfin Endangered Carcharias taurus Spotted ragged-tooth shark Vulnerable Carcharodon carcharias Great white shark Vulnerable Galaeorhinus galeus School shark Vulnerable Squalus acanthias Piked dogfish Vulnerable Chaetodon marleyi Marley’s butterfish Vulnerable Carcharhinus brachyurus Bronze whaler Near threatened Carcharhinus brevipinna Spinner shark Near threatened Carcharhinus obscurus Dusky shark Near threatened Epinephelus andersoni Catface rockcod Near threatened Haploblepharus edwardsii Puffadder shyshark Near threatened Haploblepharus fuscus Brown shyshark Near threatened Isurus oxyrinchus Shortfin mako Near threatened Poroderma africanum Pyjama shark Near threatened Triakis megalopterus Spotted gully shark Near threatened Pseudobarbus afer Eastern Cape Redfin Near threatened Lithognathus lithognathus White steenbras Cons. Dependent

Amphibians Afrixalus knysnae Knysna leaf-folding frog Endangered

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Reptiles Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback Critical endangered Vag Table 1 continued Scientific name Common name Red Data Status Vag Caretta caretta Loggerhead Endangered Vag Chelonia mydas Green turtle Endangered Vag Eretmochelys imbricata Hawkbill sea turtle Critical endangered Vag

Birds Sterna dougalli Roseatte tern Endangered Vag Diomedea exulans Wandering albatross Vulnerable Vag Diomedea cauta Shy albatross Vulnerable Vag Hirundo atrocaerulea Blue swallow Vulnerable Vag Morus capensis Cape gannet Vulnerable Spheniscus demersus African penguin Vulnerable Gorsachius leuconotus Whitebacked night heron Vulnerable Polemaetus bellicosus Martial eagle Vulnerable Vag Circus ranivorus African marsh harrier Vulnerable Vag Sarothrura affinis Striped flufftail Vulnerable Podica senegalensis African finfoot Vulnerable Neotis denhami Stanley’s bustard Vulnerable Bradypterus sylvaticus Knysna scrub-warbler Vulnerable Thalassarche melanophris Blackbrowed albatross Near threatened Thalassarche chlororhyncos Yellownosed albatross Near threatened Macronectes giganteus Southern giant petrel Near threatened Macronectes halli Northern giant petrel Near threatened Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned petrel Near threatened Procellaria cinerea Grey petrel Near threatened Phalacrocorax capensis Cape cormorant Near threatened Phalacrocorax coronatus Crowned cormorant Near threatened Phoenicopterus ruber Greater Flamingo Near threatened Phoenicopterus minor Lesser Flamingo Near threatened Stephanoaetus coronatus Crowned eagle Near threatened Circus maurus Black harrier Near threatened Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon Near threatened Campethera notata Knysna woodpecker Near threatened Haematopus moquini African oystercatcher Near threatened Vanellus melanopterus Black winged plover Near threatened Hydropogne caspia Caspian tern Near threatened Alcedo semitorquata Half-collared kingfisher Near threatened

Mammals Philantomba monticola Blue Duiker Vulnerable Sousa chinensis Humpback dolphin Vulnerable Tursiops aduncus Indian Ocean Bottlenose Dolphin Vulnerable Balaeoptera edeni Bryde’s whale Vulnerable Mellivora capensis Honey badger Near Threatened Amblysomus (iris) corriae Fynbos golden mole Near Threatened Minopterus fraterculus Lesser long-fingered bat Near Threatened Minopterus schreibersii Schreiber’s long-fingered bat Near Threatened Rhinolophus capensis Cape hoseshoe bat Near Threatened Rhinolophus clivosus Geoffroy’s hoseshoe bat Near Threatened Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale Near Threatened

4.3 Other life forms

4.3.1 Bacteria No data

4.3.2 Viruses

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Between May 2004 and early 2005 Bovin Tuberculous was reported in cattle on a farm adjacent to Tsitsikamma area, but there appear to be no incidences for the Tsitsikamma Section (Mr A. Riley pers comm. 2004).

4.3.3 Fungi No data

5. HISTORY

5.1 Archaeology Deacon (1970) excavated two San middens close to the Storms River Mouth. Although the two caves were within two kilometres of each other, significant (P<0.01) differences were found in the shell remains of marine invertebrates found in the two caves, suggesting that foraging was very localised. Furthermore, two sinker like objects and skeletal remains of a wide range of fish species suggested that these nomadic people fished with hand-lines.

F.W.FitzSimons, Director of the Port Elizabeth Museum (1906-1936) conducted surveys and excavations in the Tsitsikamma coast area (FitzSimons 1923, 1926; Schauder 1963). Later Turner (1970) searched for these caves and provided descriptions of the locations, caves and deposits, as well as the material stored in the Port Elizabeth Museum. Skead (1972) suggested the likely locality of Whitcher’s Cave. Robinson (1977) reviewed some of the archaeological work performed in the Coldstream and "Tsitsikamma" caves and he concluded that the two caves were synonymous.

Soetkraal may also have notable archaeological artifacts, as one of the few rock shelters inspected contained Khoisan paintings (Riley 2003).

5.2 Paleontology No data

5.3 Historical aspects Artifacts suggest that Strandlopers inhabited the caves along the coast, while San lived in semi- permanent communities in the Tsitsikamma Mountains. The Khoikhoi and Bantu people, however, apparently did not settled permanently in the coastal area. The early European explorers and travelers also tended to avoid the area, because of the deep gorges and dense indigenous forests (De Ronde 1995). It was only from 1780 that timber was exploited between the Salt River and Groot River area, and during 1866 that the Bloukrans Forest and Witelsbos Forest were opened up for timber exploitation. This was probably the first time Europeans settled permanently on the fringes of the Tsitsikamma district (De Ronde 1995). Controlling and limiting wood harvesting to a ‘sustainable’ level in the southern Cape forests was a long and difficult task (Von Breitenbach 1974; Van der Merwe 1998). Finally in 1939 the right of the woodcutters to work the forests was annulled, and state owned forests in the region were closed to non sustainable harvesting (Von Breitenbach 1974). After extensive negotiations between the National Parks Board and the then Secretary of the Department of Forestry and his Minister, the Tsitsikamma Coastal and Forest National Parks were proclaimed in 1964 (Knobel 1989, Robinson 1989).

6. MANAGEMENT

A survey of the management effectiveness of South African National- and Provincial Parks found that the most common and fundamental problem affecting these parks is a lack of management capacity, especially with respect to the inadequacy of: (i) funding, (ii) personnel, and (iii) equipment/infrastructure (Pasquini 2004). There is also a need for increased participation of local communities, NGOs and private stakeholders in reserve management.

6.1. Management of vegetation

6.1.1 Burning

Fire is the most important disturbance agent in fynbos vegetation, and essential in maintaining biodiversity and natural ecological processes (Stock & Allsopp 1992, Van Wilgen et al . 1992). Of critical importance in the management of fynbos, is fire frequency, fire season and fire intensity (Van Wilgen et al . 1992, Bekker 1994). The management system envisaged is an Adaptive Interference Fire Management system, as described by Seydack (1992). Use would be made of both natural (particularly

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lightning) and artificial ignition and fires will be controlled in space and time according to a predetermined set of rules. These will be determined by the appropriate fire regime for the Tsitsikamma fynbos, fire risk to private property, veld age configuration at a particular time, etc. Particular attention would be given to requirements and measures to protect commercial plantations against fire damage, without jeopardizing the objectives of biodiversity conservation

Policies of regularly burning fynbos in summer to early autumn are based largely on the response of serotinous and other Proteaceae to fire (Van Wilgen et al . 1994). Although such a regime will favour Proteaceae, most managers believe that this is the best option generally for most fynbos (Van Wilgen et al. 1994). However, because a fixed fire regime will inevitably lead to the impoverishment of diversity by repeatedly favouring the same species at the expense of others, variations in the burning cycle is important for ensuring species' coexistence (Cowling 1987; Hobbs & Atkins 1988 in Van Wilgen et al. 1994). The fynbos on the steep coastal escarpment of the Tsitsikamma Section has a large ericoid and sedge component, but very few Proteaceae (Hanekom et al. 1989). Dr. J. Midgley (pers. comm. 1997) and Mr. J. Vlok (pers. comm. 1997) both suggested that no prescribed burning programme is required for this fynbos, but that natural fires should be allowed to follow their natural course.

The only substantial areas of proteoid fynbos within De Vasselot and TCNP are on the plateau areas between the northwestern borders of the Tsitsikamma Section and the Bloukrans River, and to a lesser extend between the Elands River and Groot River (east) (Fig. 1). It is recommended that a variable 12 to 20 year burning cycle be applied. This proposal conforms to the basic recommendations of Dr. J. Midgley (pers. comm. 1997) and Mr. J. Vlok (pers. comm. 1997) and the 15 year burning cycle applied at the nearby Petrus Brand Nature Reserve (Vermeulen 1995). It will prevent excessive senescences of fynbos and reduce fire hazards. Fire agreements need to be ratified as soon as possible with neighbouring land- owners, and special care should be taken in the fynbos area adjoining the upper sections of the Groot River Pass.

6.1.2 Stocking rates Not applicable

6.1.3 Alien plant control There are at least ten alien plant species that are a potential threat to the indigenous flora. These are Hakea sericea (hakea), Acacia saligna (port jackson), A. cyclops (rooikrans) A. longifolia (long-leaf wattle) A. mearnsii (black wattle), A. melanoxylon (Australian blackwood), Eucalyptus spp. (gums), Pinus radiata and P. pinaster (pines), Opuntia sp. (pricky pear), Ricinus communis (castor oil bush), and more recently Sesbania punicea (sesbania) and Pereskia sp.

In the past private contractors were paid to remove alien plants (hakea, rooikrans and pines) along the western sector (1972 - 1975) and the eastern sector (1976 - 1990) of the TCNP. In the De Vasselot section SANTsitsikamma Sections personnel, which were later assisted by teams from Working for Water, reduced populations of black wattle, Australian blackwood, pines and Pereskia sp. using mechanical means in combination with herbicides. Since the late 1990s the Working for Water Project has been extended throughout the coastal sections of the Tsitsikamma Section (Mr. A. Riley pers comm. 2004).

In the Soetkraal area SANParks initiated a multi-phased approach to dealing with the alien invasive plants, beginning shortly after the lease was signed and extending to the present.

The first phase (1993) was tackled in conjunction with the Plant Protection Research Institute and involved the use of biological control at Soetkraal and the area adjoining Onbedacht. The target species was silky hakea Hakea sericea and the three biological control agents used were the hakea fruit weevil Erytenna consputa and the hakea seed moth Caposina autologa, and a fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides that causes gummosis disease. Shortly before the big wild fire in 1998 the infection rate of gummosis disease was almost 100% (Gelderblom & Rowlinson 1999, Mr. A. Riley pers comm. 2004).

The second phase, which was initiated in 1995, involved the large-scale clearance of alien plants using mechanical means in combination with herbicides applied to cut stumps. The focus of this project has been the water courses, where the main target species is black wattle Acacia mearnsii .

The third phase, which began in 2001, characterized by a shift towards removing H. sericea and Pinus spp. and follow up work to remove growth in previously cleared areas (Randall et al. 2 004)

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Over R29m of state funds has been spent on clearing 18 000 ha of alien invasive trees and shrubs and about 8 000 ha of regrowth at Tsitsikamma National Park, with most of work being done in Soetkraal (Randall et al. 2 004). Preliminary assessments suggest that alien plants use approximately 10% of the mean annual runoff in the primary catchment areas of the southern Cape (Le Maitre et al. 2000), and the removal of alien plants at Soetkraal produced noticeable improvements in the rivers and their functioning within a few years in the form of restored wetlands and seeps around the river channel (Gelderblom & Rowlinson 1999). Cost-benefit analyses of the Working for Water Programme for the Tsitsikamma Mountain Catchment to the east of Soetkraal have been done (Hosking & du Preez 1999; 2002; 2004).

6.1.4 Rare Plants No special management practices are taken to protect rare species, but botanical surveys, where rare species are recorded and mapped, will be encouraged.

6.1.5 Vegetation Monitoring Limited monitoring of the burning cycles and evaluation of the fire regimes of the different fynbos areas of the Tsitsikamma Section has taken place, and a record of wild fires in the Tsitsikamma region has been compiled.

6.2 Management of animals 6.2.1 Introductions / Translocations Two attempts at introducing antelope to the coastal region were carried out. In 1974 four blue duikers from the Queens Park Zoo at East London were translocated to the TCNP, but they all died within a year of their arrival (Crawford & Robinson 1984).

Secondly, during 1973/74 seven eland from Coleford, Loteni and Willem Pretorius Nature Reserves were released in the foothills of the Tsitsikamma Mountains, an area controlled by the then Department of Forestry (internal records, NPB). These animals adapted well to the environment, and their numbers increased. Unfortunately the local inhabitants complained that the elands were damaging their gardens and orchards. Consequently, the Department of Forestry was forced to cull these animals (Hanekom & Bower 1996).

SANParks decided to adopt a cautious approach to re-introductions of mammals to Soetkraal, because of the nutrient poor status of the fynbos, the relatively fragile nature of the fynbos plant communities and the lack of boundary fences (National Parks Board 1993). Initially SANParks will probably concentrate on smaller herbivores, such as grey rhebuck and klipspringer, but re-introductions of mountain zebra, eland and red hartebeest are distinct possibilities once proper evaluations of the habitat have been done (Randall et al. 2004).

Smith et al. (2007) developed fishery indicators for local management initiatives in exploited areas, using Plettenberg Bay as a case study.

6.2.2 Culling Not applicable

6.2.3 Alien animal control Since the late 1980s, there has been a substantial increase in the abundance of the alien mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis on the south coast, but this has been variable and site specific (Robinson et al. 2005). At sites where Mytilus galloprovincialis were plentiful, this species tended to dominate the high shore and P. perna the low shore, with a mixed zone at the middle level (Bownes and McQuaid 2006; Hanekom 2008). The influx M. galloprovincialis in the lower- and middle Balanoid zone appeared to have resulted in an increased in the overall mussel density, a reduction in P. perna numbers, but no apparent change (P> 0.05) to the biomass and diversity of the fauna associated with the mid zone of mussel bed (Hanekom 2008), Changes in upper zone appear to be more substantial (Bownes and McQuaid 2006). Given its wide range, prolific reproductive habits and widely dispersing larvae it is probably impossible to control its spread and abundance on the shore (Picker & Griffiths 2011).

6.2.4 Rare animals Nil

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6.3 Resource utilization 6.3.1 Water supply / abstraction Hanekom and Bower (1996) described the system used to supply freshwater to the rest-camp and housing areas of the Tsitsikamma Section. An environmental study by van Tonder and De Villiers (1996) recommended several options for improving the water supply to the Storms River Mouth Rest- camp. These included (i) pumping from the freshwater section of the Storms River, (ii) pumping from the freshwater layer lying above the denser saline water in the marine section of the Storms River, and (iii) upgrading the sewage works and treating effluent for re-use as irrigation water.

6.3.2 Plant harvesting No plant harvesting occurs in the Tsitsikamma Section.

6.3.3 Invertebrate collecting (eg. bait) Bait collecting was prohibited in the TCNP in 1978 (Hanekom et al. 1997), and the ban continues to be enforced in the Tsitsikamma Marine Protected Area (RSA Government Gazette No. 21948, 29 December 2000, Marine Living Resources Act (Act No. 18 of 1998). However, bait harvesting, in accordance to the legislation of the Marine Living Resources Act (Act No. 18 of 1998), is currently permitted in De Vasselot (Mr. A. Riley, SANParks, pers. comm. 2003).

6.3.4 Fishing The history of recreational shore angling in the Tsitsikamma Section and angling catches made in the then 3 km recreational fishing zone between 1991 and 1995 is described by Hanekom et al . (1997). The recorded capture rates were at least 2.5 times lower than that from the De Hoop Nature Reserve and Terrace Bay in the Skeleton Coast National Park. Moreover, the catch was comprised primarily (> 45 %) of small sized species. The recreational fishing area was closed to angling in 2001 and the marine section from Groot River (east) to Groot River (west) was proclaimed as a Marine Protected Area (RSA Government Gazette No. 21948, 29 December 2000, Marine Living Resources Act (Act No. 18 of 1998). Currently no angling or spear fishing, except for approved research purposes, is permitted in the MPA, but is allowed along the De Vasselot section of coast near Nature’s Valley.

Faasen & Watts (2007) found that responses from local communities to the exclusion of fishing within the MPA were defined by their residence status, ethnicity, gender, income, and educational level. There is a general understanding by local communities that the purpose of the Tsitsikamma National Park is to conserve nature within its boundaries. However, there is a mismatch in the understanding of the term ‘conservation’ between the local communities and conservation officials of the South African National Parks (SANParks). Local communities consider conservation to include sustainable utilization while conservation officials from the practice pursue absolute protection of the marine fisheries resources. The majority of local communities in Tsitsikamma resent this SANParks ‘no-take’ policy on fishing. They would like access to the fisheries resources in the Tsitsikamma National Park for both subsistence and recreational purposes (Faasen & Watts 2007). Local communities desire active participation in the management of the park through democratically elected representatives, benefit sharing, creation of more job opportunities by the Park Management, free and increased access to the park, and regular communication with park officials (Watts & Faasen 2009).

6.3.5 Vertebrate harvesting No vertebrate harvesting occurs in the Tsitsikamma Section.

6.4 Pathogens and diseases 6.4.1 Virology Nil

6.4.2 Bacteriology In May 1991 the tests of hundreds of red-bait pods on the coast became infected and substantial declines in the populations were recorded. Standard characterization techniques, coupled with API tests showed that bacterial isolates from infected specimens belonged exclusively to the genus Vibrio (Hanekom et al . 1999).

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6.4.3 Parasitology The phylogeny and geographic distribution of Ganthiidae, a family of fish parasitic isopods, as well as the feeding ecology of Gnathia africana from the Tsitsikamma Section have been studied (Coetzee & Smit 2007; Coetzee et al. 2007). The family Ganthiidae has more than one hundred species (Coetzee & Smit 2007), while the rate of attachment of G. africana to fish is highest around midday and late afternoon, and is higher in intertidal pools than in the infratidal zones of the Tsitsikamma Section (Coetzee et al. 2007).

6.5 Fire Control In the past management entered into an agreement MTO Forestry (was SAFCOL), where the latter company cleared and maintained the firebreaks bordering the Tsitsikamma Section and their plantations, in return for financial remuneration on a 50/50 basis. In the De Vasselot section, SANParks personnel also work closely with The Crags Fire Association (Hanekom & Bower 1996; A. Riley pers comm. 2004.).

Prior to Soetkraal becoming a contractual park in 1992 Rand Mines Properties (RMP) and SAFCOL had an agreement about firebreaks on the southern side of Soetkraal. A firebreak would be cleared and maintained between the common boundaries. However, it was never apparently executed. SAFCOL later moved the firebreak to the boundary of the plantations. Subsequently SAFCOL / MTO Forestry approached SANParks to establish a new agreement for the maintenance of firebreaks (Randall et al . 2004), but these negotiations have lapsed without any official agreement being reached (Riley pers comm. 2004).

6.6 Environmental modification Except for the rest camps at Storms River and Nature’s Valley with their housing and tourist facilities most of the Tsitsikamma Section is in a near pristine condition. The extent of the rest-camp facilities, road systems and hiking trails are listed in Hanekom and Bower (1996)

6.7 Zonation A draft zoning plan was compiled in 2006 to establish a coherent spatial framework in the Tsitsikamma Section to guide and co-ordinate conservation, tourism and visitor experience initiatives (Holness in lit . 2006). The zoning of Tsitsikamma Section was based on an analysis and mapping of the sensitivity and values of the park’s biophysical, heritage and scenic resources; an assessment of the regional context; and an assessment of the park’s current and planned infrastructure and tourist routes/products; all interpreted in the context of park objectives. The zoning needs to be seen in the context of the Tsitsikamma Section being integrated in the short term into the Garden Route National Park. The key zones are: Remote Zone: This is an area retaining an intrinsically wild appearance and character, or capable of being restored to such and which is undeveloped and road less. There are no permanent improvements or any form of human habitation. Remote areas were designated in the mountainous Soetkraal area of the Tsitsikamma Section, as these areas are both logistically difficult for development and sensitive to development pressures (in particular disruption of catchment areas), as well as the coastline east of the Dolphin Trail, which is visually and aesthetically isolated from these transformed landscapes on the plateau above. Primitive Zone : The prime characteristic of the zone is the experience of wilderness qualities with access controlled in terms of numbers, frequency and size of groups. The zone shares the wilderness qualities of the Remote zone, but with limited access roads, hiking trails and the potential for basic small-scale self-catering accommodation facilities such as small bush camps or trail camps. The controlled access Otter and Dolphin trails are in this zone, as well as the controlled, vehicle access routes in the Soetkraal section. Quiet Zone : This zone is characterized by unaccompanied non-motorized access without specific access control and permits. Tourist infrastructure is limited to trails, viewpoints and hides. Larger numbers of visitors are allowed than in the Primitive zone and contact between visitors is frequent. Quiet zones were designated to allow visitors access on foot to hiking trails around the rest-camps at Storms River and De Vasselot. High Intensity Leisure Zone : The main characteristic is that of a high density tourist development node with amenities such as shops, restaurants and interpretive centres. This is the zone where more concentrated human activities are allowed and is accessible by motorized transport on high volume transport routes. High Intensity Leisure areas designated around the Storms River and Nature’s Valley Camps (including the staff and administrative areas) and the main access routes to these camps.

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Marine Restricted : The marine areas of the Tsitsikamma Section except the Groot River estuary and the marine areas east of Nature’s Valley residential area were classified as Restricted Marine Protected Areas in accordance with the appropriate legislation (Marine Living Resources Act). Effectively this declares the areas a “no-take” zone for any marine living resources.

6.8 Park expansion The expansion of Tsitsikamma Section remains important for SANParks in its attempt to consolidate the essential ecological patterns and processes associated with the marine-forest-mountain fynbos associations that are characteristic of the eastern portion of the Garden Route. The envisaged expansion would include a multiple number of different land agreements across the marine, terrestrial and wetland environments, and as such expected to be affected by the environmental legislation governing these different environments. Much of the plateau area north of the TCNP have been transformed by forestry, agriculture and housing. Nevertheless there is potential to expand the Tsitsikamma Section by linking the coastal sections (TCNP & De Vasselot) with mountain reserves to the north (Cowling et al. 1999).This would include: • The consolidation of ecological linkages from the Tsitsikamma Mountains to the sea, inclusive of the important river catchment (Groot, Bloukrans-Vark, Storms-Witteklip, Eland-Kruis) catchment systems, and their marine interfaces via their respective river mouths. • Rehabilitation of degraded lands included into the Tsitsikamma Section; • Encourage conservation friendly land management activities in the surrounding land-use mosaic, and catchments to further the identified important aquatic processes.

The most suitable corridor would be close to De Vasselot section of the Tsitsikamma Section (South African National Parks 1999).

6.9 Social ecology (people and tourism aspect)

6.9.1 Opinion surveys Results from three surveys ( viz . vistor-, community- and business surveys) showed that the park has a positive economic impact and that in general the local community is also positive towards the park. For greater impact, however, it was suggested that park should expand its recreational activities and improve its communication with the local community (Oberholzer, Saayman, Saayman & Slabbert 2009).

6.9.2 Tourism potential Static displays, videos and four different educational excursions, focusing on three main habitat types (riverine, marine and forest) and cultural history are being developed for the approximately 1 500 scholars that visit the park annually (O’Donoghue & Moore 2003).

7. REFERENCES / BIBLIOGRAPHY 7.1 Published and unpublished literature Note: This is a complete list of references pertaining to the park and all references herein are not necessarily cited in the text or associated table.

ABELLÁN, P., BILTON, D.T., MILLÁN, A., SÁNCHEZ-FERNÁNDEZ, D. & P.M. RAMSAY 2006. Can taxonomic distinctness assess anthropogenic impacts in inland waters? A case study from a Mediterranean river basin. Freshwater Biology 51 :1744-1756. ANDERSON, R.J. BOLTON, J.J., & H. STEGENGA 2009. Using the biogeographical distribution and diversity of seaweed species to test the efficacy of marine protected areas in the warm-temperate Agulhas Marine Province, South Africa. Diversity and Distributions 15: 1017 – 1027. ANDERSON, R.J., R.H. SIMONS & N.G. JARMAN 1989. Commercial seaweeds in southern Africa: A review of utilization and research. South African Journal of Marine Science 8: 277 - 299. ANDERSON, R.J. & H. STEGENGA 1989. Subtidal algal communities at Bird Island, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Botanica Marina 32: 299-311. ANON 2003. Garden Route Guide from Still Bay to Storms River . JacanaMaps. Johannesburg ANTUNES, E.M., BEUKES, D.R.., KELLY, M., SAMMAI, T., BARROWS, L.R.., MARSHALL, K.M., SINCICH, C.. & M.T. DAVIES-COLEMAN 2004. Cytotoxic Pyrroliominoquinones from four new species of South African latrunculid sponges Journal of Natural Products 67: 1268 - 1276. ARDEN -CLARKE, C. 1983. Population density and social organization of the Cape clawless otter Aonyx capensis Schinz in the Tsitsikamma National Park. Msc thesis. University of Pretoria. Pretoria, R.S.A. 202 pp.

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8. APPENDICES

8.1 Species list – Marine algae (Seaweeds) and Corticioid fungi

Appendix 8.1 a . Checklist of the seaweeds of Tsitsikamma Area (Stegenga, H., Bolton J.J., & R.J. Anderson in litt. 2002, Please address any correspondence to John Bolton ([email protected]).

Species Chlorophyta Bryopsis africana Caulerpa filiformis Chaetomorpha aerea Cladophora radiosa Cladophora cf. subsimplex Cladophora sp I Cladophora sp. II (sect. Longiarticulatae) Codium duthiae Codium extricatum Codium fragile Codium incognitum Codium lucasii ssp. capense Codium papenfussianum Codium cf. pocockiae Codium stephensiae Enteromorpha flexuosa Entromorpha prolifera Rhizoclonium riparium Sporocladopsis novae-zelandiae Ulva fasciata Ulva rhacodes Ulva sp(p).

Phaeophyta Acinetospora crinita Aglaozonia sp. Asteronema rhodochortonoides Bachelotia antillarum Chordariopsis capensis Colpomenia sinuosa Dictyota dichotoma Dictyota sp. Ecklonia radiata Ectocarpus fasciculatus Ectocarpus siliculosus Elachista sp. Endarachne binghamiae Exallosorus harveyanum Feldmannia globifera Feldmannia irregularis Feldmannia sp. Hincksia mitchelliae Hincksia sandriana Iyengaria stellata Levringia filiformis Phloiocaulon squamulosum Ralfsia verrucosa Sargassum elegans Sargassum heterophyllum Sphacelaria brachygonia Sphacelaria rigidula

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Appendix 8.1a continued

Species Zeacarpa leiomorpha Zonaria subarticulata

Rhodophyta Acrochaetium densum Acrochaetium hlulekaense Acrochaetium moniliforme Acrosorium acrospermum Acrosorium maculatum Acrosorium venulosum Aiolocolax pulchella Amphiroa bowerbankii Amphiroa capensis Amphiroa ephedraea Amphiroa sp. Anotrichium tenue Antithamnion diminuatum/diminuatum Antithamnion diminuatum/polyglandulum Antithamnionella tasmanica Antithamnionella tormentosa Antithamnionella verticillata Apoglossum (2 spp.) Aristothamnion collabens Arthrocardia corymbosa Arthrocardia flabellata Audouinella endophytica Audouinella pectinata Bartoniella crenata Bostrychia intricata Callithamniella capensis Callithamnion cordatum Callithamnion granulatum Callithamnion tripinnatum Callophycus africanus Caulacanthus ustulatus Centroceras clavulatum Ceramium arenarium Ceramium aff. Callipterum Ceramium camouii Ceramium centroceratiforme Ceramium dawsonii Ceramium glanduliferum Ceramium obsoletum Ceramium papenfussianum Ceramium planum Ceramium poeppigianum Ceramium tenerrimum Ceramium sp. Champia compressa Cheilosporum cultratum/cultratum Cheilosporum cultratum/multifidum Cheilosporum proliferum Cheilosporum sagittatum Chondria capensis Chondria cf. dasyphylla Choreonema thuretii Chylocladia capensis Colaconema codicolum

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Appendix 8.1a continued

Species Colaconema daviesii Colaconema nemalionis Compsothamnionella sciadophila Corallina officinalis Crouania franciscii Dasya scoparia Dasya spec. Dasyclonium palmatifidum Delisea flaccida Epimenia capensis Sahlingia subintegra Valeriemaya seagriefii Porphyrostromium boryanum Erythrotrichia carnea Falkenbergia rufolanosa Gelidium abbottiorum Gelidium capense Gelidium pristoides Gelidium pteridifolium Gelidium cf. reptans Gelidium sp. Gigartina acicularis Gigartina paxillata Gigartina polycarpa Grateloupia filicina Grifithsia confervoides Gymnothamnion elegans/elegans Gymnothamnion elegans/bisporum cf. Haliptilon sp. Herposiphonia clavata Herposiphonia didymosporangia Herposiphonia falcate Herposiphonia prorepens Herposiphonia secunda/tenella Heterosiphonia crispa Heterosiphonia dubia Heydrichia woelkerlingii Hildenbrandia rubra Hypnea musciformis Hypnea rosea Hypnea spicifera Hypnea tenuis Hypoglossum imperfectum Janczewskia meridionalis Jania adhaerens Jania crassa Jania verrucosa Laurencia flexuosa Laurencia glomerata Laurencia natalensis "Laurencia ""peninsularis""" Laurencia sp. Laurenciophila minima Leptofauchea anastomosans Lomentaria cf. diffusa Lomentaria corallicola Meiodiscus concrescens Membranella africana

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Appendix 8.1a continued

Species Microcladia exserta Nienburgia serrata Nothogenia erinacea Nothogenia ovalis Ophidocladus simpliciusculus Peyssonnelia capensis Peyssonnelia sp. Placophora binderi Platisiphonia miniata Pleonosporium caribaeum Pleonosporium filicinum Pleonosporium harveyanum Plocamium beckeri Plocamium corallorhiza Plocamium cornutum Plocamium maxillosum Plocamim rigidum Plocamium suhrii Pollesfenia laciniata Pollexfenia minuta Polysiphonia flaccidissima Polysiphonia incompta Polysiphonia namibiensis Polysiphonia scopulorum Polysiphonia tepida Hawaiia virgiliae ined. Porphyra capensis Porphyra spec Porteria hornemannii Pteroceramium pinnatum (ined.?) Pterosiphonia cloiophylla Pterosiphonia stangeri Ptilothamnion polysporum Ptilothamnion codicolum Pugetia harveyana Rhodophyllis reptans Rhodophyllis sp. Rhodothamniella floridula Rhodymenia holmesii Rhodymenia natalensis Scageliopsis tsitsikammae Stylonema alsidii Synarthrophyton patena Tayloriella tenebrosa Thamnophyllis pocockiae Tiffaniela schmitziana Vickersia baccata Wrangelia purpurifera

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Appendix 8.1b . Corticioid fungi (wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes) recorded in the De Vasselot Region in 2005 (modified from Hallenberg 2005)

Species Locality Biotope Substrate Amaurodon Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Asterostroma cervicolor Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Athelopsis glaucina Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Botryobasidium/Haplotrichum Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Botryohypochnus isabellinus Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Corticiaceae Grookloof trail Indig. forest Podocarpus Corticiaceae sp Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Cystidiodontia Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Cystostereum Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Dendrothele Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Dentipellis Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Duportella Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Favolaschia calocera Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Gloeocystidiellum flammeum Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Gloeocystidiellum porosum Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Hyphoderma puberum Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Hyphodontia knysniana Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Hyphodontia sambuci Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Laetiporus Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Leucogyrophana Grookloof trail Indig. forest On Podocarpus Lindtneria Grookloof trail Indig. forest On Podocarpus Litschaurella clematitis Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Mycoacia Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Myxacium Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Odonticium Grookloof trail Indig. forest Podocarpus Peniophorella praetermissa Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Phanerochaete Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Phlebia Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Polyporaceae Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Poria Grookloof trail Indig. forest Podocarpus Ramariaceae Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Scytinostromella Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Sistotrema/Ceratobasidium Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Skeletocutis lenis Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Stereum Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Stereum subtomentosum Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Subulicystidium Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Subulicystidium longisporum Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Trechispora Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Trechispora farinacea Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches Tremella Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Vararia albo-cincta Kalander trail Indig. forest Dead branches Vesiculomyces epitheloides Grookloof trail Indig. forest Dead branches

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8.2 Species list – Vascular plants

Appendix 8.2. Checklist of vascular plant species recorded in the coastal section of Tsitsikamma Area. (Modified from Kraaij in lit. 2008), with data source indicated: B = Morant & Bickerton (1983), C = Courtney-Latimer et al. 1967, H = Hanekom et al. 1989, M = Millenium Seed Bank collection (SANBI), R = Rycroft 1980, U = unpublished records

FAMILY / species Source ACANTHACEAE Hypoestes aristata S Hypoestes aristata / forskaolii H,S Isoglossa ciliata H,S Justicia capensis H,S Justicia protracta S Siphonoglossa leptantha leptantha H,S AGAPANTHACEAE Agapanthus praecox H,S AIZOACEAE Tetragonia decumbens H,S Tetragonia sp? S ALLIACEAE Tulbaghia violacea C,H,S,M AMARYLLIDACEAE Amaryllis belladonna C,H Brunsvigia orientalis C,H Cyrtanthus elatus S Scadoxus multiflorus S Scadoxus puniceus H ANACARDIACEAE Laurophyllus capensis H,S Rhus chirindensis H,S Rhus crenata B, H Rhus glauca B, H Rhus laevigata S Rhus longispina H Rhus lucida B,H Rhus tomentosa S Rhus undulata S ANTHERICACEAE Chlorophytum comosum H,S APIACEAE Alepidea capensis C,S Anginon difforme S Apium graveolens S Centella virgata H,S Centella virgata S Ciclospermum leptophyllum S Peucedanum capense H,S APOCYNACEAE Carissa bispinosa H,S Cynanchum ellipticum S Gonioma kamassi H Sarcostemma viminale H Secamone alpini H,S AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex mitis H,S ARACEAE Zantedeschia aethiopica C ARALIACEAE Cussonia thyrsiflora H Schefflera umbellifera H

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Appendix 8.2 continued FAMILY / species Source ASPARAGACEAE Asparagus aethiopicus H,S Asparagus asparagoides H Asparagus densiflorus S Asparagus plumosus H Asparagus rubicundus H Asparagus setaceus H ASPHODELACEAE Aloe arborescens H Gasteria acinacifolia? U Kniphofia linearifolia C Kniphofia uvaria C ASPLENIACEAE Asplenium aethiopicum S Asplenium gemmiferum S Asplenium lunulatum H Asplenium rutifolium S ASTERACEAE Arctotheca calendula H Arctotheca populifolia B Arctotis acaulis S Aster bakerianus C,S Athanasia dentata C,H Athrixia heterophylla S Brachylaena glabra S Brachylaena neriifolia U Chrysanthemoides monilifera B,H Chrysanthemoides sp. S Conyza albida S Conyza scabrida S Corymbium glabrum C,S Cotula coronopifolia B Cotula sericea C,S Cotula sp. S Cotula turbinata S Cullumia decurrens H,S Dimorphotheca fruticosa S Disparago ericoides S Eriocephalus africanus H,S Euryops virgineus H,S Felicia aethiopica S Felicia amelloides S Felicia echinata H,S Gazania linearis H,S Gazania rigens C,S Gerbera ambigua S Gerbera cordata H,S Gerbera serrata S Helichrysum cymosum H,S Helichrysum dasyanthum H,S Helichrysum felinum H,S Helichrysum herbaceum S Helichrysum nudifolium S Helichrysum odoratissimum S Helichrysum petiolare H,S Helichrysum teretifolium H,S Hippia frutescens H,S Hypochaeris radicata S Metalasia muricata H,S

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Metalasia pulcherrima forma pallescens S Metalasia pulcherrima forma pulcherrima H Osteospermum herbaceum C,H Osteospermum monmifera S Othonna quinquedentata S Relhania calycina H,S Schistostephium umbellatum C,H Senecio angulatus C,H Senecio arniciflorus C Senecio crenatus S Senecio elegans H,S Senecio glastifolius S Senecio ilicifolius S Senecio lineatus S Senecio pterophorus S Senecio purpureus H,S Senecio speciosus S Seriphium plumosum S Stoebe alopecuroides C,H Syncarpha eximia C,S Syncarpha paniculata C,S Tarchonanthus littoralis H, R Ursinia anethoides C,S Ursinia anthemoides C,S Ursinia chrysanthemoides C,S Ursinia heterodonta S Ursinia scariosa S Ursinia trifida S Vernonia mespilifolia S BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens hochstetteri hochstetteri S BLECHNACEAE Blechnum attenuatum S Blechnum australe H BRASSICACEAE Heliophila linearis S Heliophila subulata S Sisymbrium turczaninowii S BRUNIACEAE Berzelia intermedia H,S Brunia nodiflora C,H BUDDLEJACEAE Buddleja saligna H,S Buddleja salviifolia R Nuxia floribunda H,R CAMPANULACEAE Wahlenbergia desmantha S Wahlenbergia uitenhagensis var. uitenhagensis S CAPPARACEAE Capparis sepiaria var. citrifolia H Maerua racemulosa H CARYOPHYLLACEAE Silene bellidioides B,M Silene sp. S Silene undulata S Stellaria media S CELASTRACEAE Cassine parvifolia H,S

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Cassine peragua H,S Cassine schinoides H,S Elaeodendron croceum H,R Gymnosporia heterophylla S Gymnosporia nemorosa H,S Lauridia tetragona H,S Maytenus peduncularis H,R Maytenus procumbens H,S Mystroxylon aethiopicum S Pterocelastrus tricuspidatus H,R Robsonodendron eucleiforme H,R CELTIDACEAE Celtis africana H,R CHENOPODIACEAE Bassia diffusa S Chenopodium album S Exomis microphylla B,S Salicornia sp. S Sarcocornia perennis B,S COMMELINACEAE Commelina africana S CONVOLVULACEAE Convolvulus farinosus S Ipomoea pes-caprae C CORNACEAE Curtisia dentata H,R CRASSULACEAE Cotyledon orbiculata var. orbiculata C,H,M Crassula orbicularis S,M Crassula rubricaulis C,H Crassula rupestris H,S CUCURBITACEAE Kedrostis nana S Zehneria scabra scabra H,S CUNONIACEAE Cunonia capensis H,R Platylophus trifoliatus R CUPRESSACEAE Widdringtonia nodiflora R CYATHEACEAE Cyathea capensis U CYPERACEAE Carex aethiopica H,S Carpha capitellata S Cyperus congestus S Epischoenus adnatus H,S Ficinia fascicularis H,S Ficinia nodosa S Ficinia sp. S Ficinia trispicata H,S Isolepis cernua var. setiformis S Isolepis diabolica S Schoenoxiphium lanceum S Schoenoxiphium lehmannii H,S Tetraria bromoides S Tetraria capillacea H,S Tetraria involucrata H Tetraria secans H,S

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Tetraria sp, S Tetraria sp.2 S Tetraria triangularis S DENNSTAEDTIACEAE Blotiella glabra S Hypolepis sparsisora S Pteridium aquilinum H,S DIOSCOREACEAE Dioscorea sylvatica S DIPSACACEAE Cephalaria attenuata S Cephalaria humilis S DRYOPTERIDACEAE Polystichum pungens H,S Rumohra adiantiformis H,S EBENACEAE Diospyros dichrophylla H,R Diospyros whyteana H,R Euclea crispa H,S Euclea polyandra H,S Euclea racemosa B,H Euclea schimperi H Euclea undulata H,S ERICACEAE Erica canaliculata S Erica chamissonis S Erica chloroloma H,S Erica coccinea S Erica copiosa H,S,M Erica cordata S Erica cubica C,M Erica curviflora C Erica cyathiformis S Erica demissa S Erica densifolia H,S Erica diaphana H,S,M Erica discolor H,S Erica etheliae S Erica formosa C Erica fuscescens S Erica glandulosa C,H Erica gracilis C,S Erica lanata H,S Erica nabea H,S Erica nemorosa H,S Erica pectinifolia C Erica penicilliformis H,S Erica plukenetii S Erica quadrangularis S Erica scabriuscula H,S Erica seriphiifolia C,H Erica sessiliflora C Erica sp. S Erica sparsa C,H Erica speciosa H Erica spectabilis S Erica uberiflora C, H Erica versicolor C,H

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha capensis H Clutia abyssinica S Clutia affinis H,S Clutia laxa H,S Euphorbia kraussiana H,S Lachnostylis hirta H Leidesia procumbens H,S FABACEAE Aspalathus alopecurus C,S Aspalathus asparagoides asparagoides H,S Aspalathus nigra S Aspalathus rubens H,S Aspalathus spicata S Calpurnia glabrata C Cyclopia subternata C Dipogon lignosus H Hypocalyptus coluteoides S Hypocalyptus oxalidifolius H,S Indigofera cuneifolia S Indigofera flabellata S Indigofera hispida C,H Indigofera humifusa S Indigofera procumbens C,H Indigofera sulcata C,S Liparia hirsuta C,H Otholobium prodiens S Otholobium sericeum H,S,M Otholobium stachyerum S Podalyria burchellii H,S Podalyria sericea B Podalyria sp. M Psoralea asarina S Psoralea pinnata C Rhynchosia cf. leucoscias S Rhynchosia totta S Tephrosia capensis S Trifolium burchellianum S Virgilia oroboides H,R FLACOURTIACEAE Dovyalis rhamnoides H Kiggelaria africana R Scolopia mundii H Scolopia zeyheri H Trimeria grandifolia H,S GENTIANACEAE Chironia baccifera C,H Chironia melampyrifolia C Chironia sp. S Chironia tetragona C,S Sebaea elongata C,S GERANIACEAE Geranium incanum S Geranium ornithopodon S Pelargonium capitatum C,H Pelargonium cordifolium C,H Pelargonium grossularioides C Pelargonium zonale C

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Streptocarpus rexii C,H,M GLEICHENIACEAE Gleichenia polypodioides S GOODENIACEAE Scaevola plumieri B,S GRUBBIACEAE Grubbia rosmarinifolia S HAEMODORACEAE Wachendorfia thyrsiflora C HAMAMELIDACEAE Trichocladus crinitus H,S HEMEROCALLIDACEAE Caesia contorta H,S HYACINTHACEAE Lachenalia unifolia C,S Ornithogalum dubium C,S Ornithogalum longibracteatum H,S HYPOXIDACEAE Hypoxis villosa H,S ICACINACEAE Apodytes dimidiata H,S IRIDACEAE Aristea capitata C Aristea confusa S Aristea ecklonii M Aristea ensifolia C,H Bobartia macrospatha C,H Bobartia orientalis C Chasmanthe aethiopica C,H Crocosmia aurea S Dietes iridioides C,H,M,S Geissorhiza inconspicua C Gladiolus huttonnii S Gladiolus liliaceus C,S Gladiolus rogersii C,S Gladiolus sempervirens C,S Gladiolus tristis C Ixia orientalis C,S Moraea ramosissima C,S Moraea spathacea C Sparaxis sp. M Tritoniopsis caffra C,H,M Tritoniopsis triticea C,S Watsonia galpinii C,S Watsonia knysnana M Watsonia longifolia C,S Watsonia meriana S JUNCACEAE Juncus capensis B Juncus effusus S Juncus lomatophyllus S Juncus rigidus S LAMIACEAE Leonotis ocymifolia C Plectranthus ecklonii M Plectranthus fruticosus C,S Salvia africana-lutea C,S Stachys aethiopica S

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Stachys graciliflora S Stachys scabrida S Lanaria lanata U LAURACEAE Cassytha ciliolata H Ocotea bullata H,R LINACEAE Linum africanum C,H LOBELIACEAE Lobelia anceps S Lobelia coronopifolia C,S Lobelia cuneifolia C,S Lobelia erinus S Lobelia neglecta C,H Lobelia pubescens S Monopsis simplex C,S Monopsis unidentata S LOMARIOPSIDACEAE Elaphoglossum angustatum S LYCOPODIACEAE Lycopodiella cernua C,S MALVACEAE Abutilon austro-africanum S Anisodontea scabrosa C,H Hibiscus diversifolius S Hibiscus pedunculatus S Hibiscus trionum S MELIACEAE Ekebergia capensis H,M MENISPERMACEAE Cissampelos torulosa H,R MESEMBRYANTHEMACEAE Aptenia cordifolia S Carpobrotus deliciosus H Carpobrotus edulis C,H Delosperma litorale H Delosperma saxicola V MORACEAE Ficus burtt-davyi H Ficus sur R MYRICACEAE Morella cordifolia U Morella quercifolia B,H Morella serrata H MYRSINACEAE Myrsine africana H Rapanea melanophloeos H,R OCHNACEAE Ochna arborea var. Arborea H Ochna serrulata H OLEACEAE Chionanthus foveolatus H Olea capensis S Olea capensis capensis H Olea capensis macrocarpa H,S Olea exasperata S OLINIACEAE Olinia ventosa H,R

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Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source ORCHIDACEAE Bartholina etheliae U Calanthe sylvatica C Ceratandra grandiflora C,S Disa aconitoides C Disa barbata C,S Disa bivalvata S Disa cernua S Disa chrysostachya C,S Disa cornuta C,S Disa hians S Disa racemosa C,S Disa sagittalis C Disa sp. M Eulophia aculeata C Liparis bowkeri? U Pterygodium acutifolium? U Satyrium acuminatum C,S Satyrium coriifolium C,S Satyrium humile C Satyrium ligulatum C Satyrium membranaceum C Schizodium bifidum S OROBANCHACEAE Alectra sessiliflora C,S Harveya capensis C,S Harveya laxiflora S Harveya purpurea C,S Harveya stenosiphon C,S OSMUNDACEAE Todea barbara S OXALIDACEAE Oxalis incarnata C,H Oxalis latifolia S Oxalis sp. S PENAEACEAE Penaea cneorum H Penaea cneorum ovata S Penaea mucronata S PHYTOLACCACEAE Phytolacca octandra S PIPERACEAE Peperomia retusa S PITTOSPORACEAE Pittosporum viridiflorum R PLANTAGINACEAE Plantago crassifolia H,S Plantago major S PLUMBAGINACEAE Limonium linifolium S Limonium scabrum S POACEAE Agrostis bergiana S Agrostis lachnantha S Andropogon appendiculatus S Andropogon eucomus S Brachypodium flexum S Briza minor S

56

Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Bromus catharticus S Cymbopogon S Cymbopogon marginatus S Cynodon dactylon H,S Digitaria sanguinalis S Echinochloa crus-galli S Ehrharta erecta S Ehrharta ramosa H Ehrharta rehmannii S Ehrharta sp S Epischoenus quadrangularis H Eragrostis curvula U Eragrostis plana S Imperata cylindrica U Merxmuellera cincta S Merxmuellera stricta H,S Oplismenus hirtellus H,S Panicum deustum H,S Panicum gilvum S Paspalum ? dilatatum S Pennisetum macrourum S Pentaschistis malouinensis S Phragmites australis B Poa pratensis S Polypogon monspeliensis S Sporobolus africanus S Sporobolus virginicus H,S Stenotaphrum secundatum B,H Streblochaete longiarista S Themeda triandra U PODOCARPACEAE Podocarpus falcatus H,R Podocarpus latifolius H,R POLYGALACEAE Muraltia ericaefolia S Muraltia satureioides C,S Polygala bracteolata S Polygala fruticosa C,H Polygala myrtifolia C,H Polygala virgata C,S Rumex crispus S Rumex sagittatus H,S,M Polypodium ensiforme S PRIMULACEAE Anagallis arvensis S PROTEACEAE Leucadendron eucalyptifolium H,S Leucadendron salignum C,H Leucospermum cuneiforme C,H Leucospermum glabrum H Protea coronata C,S Protea cynaroides C,H Protea eximia C Protea mundii C,H,S,M Protea neriifolia C,H PTERIDACEAE Cheilanthes bergiana H,S Pteris buchananii S

57

Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source Pteris dentata S RANUNCULACEAE Clematis brachiata C Knowltonia capensis B,C Knowltonia filia S Knowltonia vesicatoria H,S,M Ranunculus multifidus C RESTIONACEAE Elegia equisetacea S Elegia fistulosa S Elegia juncea H,S Elegia sp. S Hypodiscus albo-aristatus S Hypodiscus argenteus S Hypodiscus striatus H,S Hypodiscus synchroolepis H,S Restio triticeus H,S Rhodocoma gigantea C,H Thamnochortus cinereus C RHAMNACEAE Phylica axillaris H,S Phylica imberbis H Phylica litoralis H,S Phylica pinea S Phylica purpurea H,S Phylica sp. S Phylica willdenowiana S Rhamnus prinoides H,S Scutia myrtina H,S ROSACEAE Cliffortia exilifolia H,S Cliffortia ferruginea S Cliffortia ilicifolia H Cliffortia odorata S Cliffortia serpyllifolia H,S Cliffortia stricta H,S RUBIACEAE Anthospermum aethiopicum H,S Anthospermum herbaceum H Burchellia bubalina H,R,M Canthium inerme H Canthium mundianum H,I Carpacoce spermacocea H,S Galopina circaeoides S Psydrax obovata obovata H,R RUTACEAE Agathosma apiculata S Agathosma capensis S Agathosma cerefolium C,S Agathosma ovata C,H Agathosma puberula S Calodendrum capense H,R Vepris lanceolata H,R Zanthoxylum capense U Zanthoxylum davyi H SALVADORACEAE Azima tetracantha H

58

Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source SANTALACEAE Osyris compressa H Thesidium fragile S Thesium ericaefolium S Thesium subnudum S SAPINDACEAE Allophylus decipiens H,S Hippobromus pauciflorus H,G SAPOTACEAE Sideroxylon inerme H,R SCHIZAEACEAE Schizaea pectinata S SCROPHULARIACEAE Diclis reptans S Pseudoselago spuria C,S Selago corymbosa B Selago glomerata S Sutera aethiopica H,S Sutera hispida S Sutera pauciflora S Sutera roseoflava S Zaluzianskya capensis U Zaluzianskya maritima S SOLANACEAE Solanum africanum B Solanum chenopodioides S Solanum linnaeanum S Solanum pseudocapsicum S Solanum retroflexum S STERCULIACEAE Hermannia flammea S Hermannia sp. S STRELITZIACEAE Strelitzia alba C STRYCHNACEAE Strychnos decussata G THEOPHRASTACEAE Samolus porosus B,H THYMELAEACEAE Gnidia coriacea S Gnidia denudata H Gnidia oppositifolia C Lachnaea diosmoides H,S Passerina corymbosa B,H Passerina falcifolia H Struthiola argentea H Struthiola hirsuta C,H TILIACEAE Grewia occidentalis B,H Sparrmannia africana S URTICACEAE Droguetia iners burchellii S Droguetia iners iners S Laportea peduncularis peduncularis S VERBENACEAE Verbena bonariensis S VISCACEAE Viscum obscurum S

59

Appendix 8.2 continued

FAMILY / species Source VITACEAE Rhoicissus digitata H Rhoicissus tomentosa H

Total species: 581 Total families: 112

60

8.3. Species list - Marine invertebrates

Appendix 8.3 Checklist of marine invertebrates recorded from the Tsitsikamma Area. Key: Source: B = Bustamante (1994), H = Hanekom (unpubl. data), M&B = Morant & Bickerton (1983), T&Z = Tietz & Robinson (1974).

Pylum / species Source Pylum / species Source

Porifera Cliona? Sp H Chondrosia? sp Nemertea Geodia littoralis ? H Lineus lacticapitatus T&R Haliclona stilensis T&R Zygonermetes capensis H Haliclona sp. H Hymeniacedon perlevis T&R, H Lissodendoryx ternatensis ? H Stellatta sp H Bryozoa Adeonellopsis meandria ? H Bugula avicularia H Coelenterata: Hydrozoa Turbi cellepora cylindriformis H Kirchenpaueria pinnata T&R, H Celleporaria capensis H Lyptocarpus filamentosus H Chaperia sp. H Physalia utriculs (physalia) T&R Laminopora jellyae H Sertularella arbuscula H Menipea crispa H Symplectoscyphus sp H Menipea triseriata H Lyptocarpia (Thecocarpus) formosa T&R, H Schizoretepora tesselata T&R ; H Naviani pora pulcherrima ? H

Coelentarata : Hexacoralia Annelida: Polychaeta Actinia mandelae (equina) T&R, H, B Arabella iricolor H Anthothoe chilensis (stimpsoni) T&R, H Dodecaceria pulchra T&R, H Anthopleura michaelseni Euclymene sp. B Anthopleura stephensoni H Eunice aphroditois B, H Aulactinia (Bunodactis) reynaudi B, H Euphrosine capensis T&R, H, B Bunodosoma capensis H Flabelligera affinis T&R, H Corynactis annulata H Gunnarea capensis T&R, H Pseudactinia flagellifera T&R, H Lepidonotus semitectus B, H Pseudactinia varia H Lumbrineris coccinea H Coelentarata : Alcyonacea Lysidice natalensis T&R, H Alcyonium fauri H Marphysa depressa B Drifa (Capnella) susanne ? H Platynereis dumerilli B Drifa (Capnella) thyrsoidea H Pomatoleios krausii T&R, H, B Pseudonereis variegata T&R, H, B Coelen. : Gorgonacea & Pennatulacea Sabellastarte longa T&R, H Acabaria rubra (Melithaea africana) H Spirorbis T&R, H Eunicella albicans H Terebella pterochaeta T&R, Eunicella papillosa H Timarete capensis T&R, H Leptogorgia palma (Lophogorgia) T&R, H Chaetopterus varieopedatus T&R

Coelentarata : Scleractina Annelida: Sipunculoidea Allopora nobolis H Golfingia capensis T&R, H Balanophyllia bonaepsei H Phascolosoma sp T&R, H

Platyhelmpinthes Arthropoda: Pycnogonida Notoplana patellarum T&R, H Nymphon signatum T&R Planocera gilchristi T&R, H Thysanozoon sp. T&R Arthropoda: Arachinida Desis formidabilis T&R, H

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Appendix 8.3 continued

Pylum / species Source Pylum / species Source

Crustacea: Cirripedia Mollusca: Pelecypoda Austromegabalanus cylindricus H Barbatia obliquata H Chthamalus dentatus T&R, H, B Carditella rugosa H Notomegabalanus algicola H Donax serra T&R Octomeris angulosa T&R, H, B Gregariella petagnae B, H Tetraclita serrata T&R, H, B Lasaea adansoni turtoni H Amphibalanus venustus H Lanistina cuneata H Limaria rotundata H Crustacea; Amphipoda Mytilus galloprovincialis H Ampithoe falsa B Ostrea atherstonei T&R, H Hyale grandicornis T&R, H Perna perna T&R, H, B Lysianassa spp B Pinctata capensis T&R Striostrea margaritacea T&R, H, B Crustacea: Isopods Thecalia concamerata T&R, H Cirolana venusticauda H Venerupis corrugatus B Dynamenella australis H Dynamenella dioxus H Dynamenella huttoni H Dynamenella scabricula H Mollusca: Gastropoda Glyptidotea lichtensteini T&R Afrocominella elongata T&R, H Parisocladus stimpsoni ? H Argobuccinum pustulosum H Ligia natalensis T&R Bullia rhodostoma T&R, H Cymodoce sp. T&R Burnupena cincta T&R, H, B Burnupena lagenaria T&R, H, B Crustacea: Macrura Burnupena pubescens ? H Palaemon pacificus T&R, H Calliostoma ornatum H Cellana capensis ? H Crustacea: Anomura Clionella rosaria H Alpheus lobidens (crassimanus) T&R Clionella sinuata B Callianassa kraussi T&R, M&B, H Crepidula porcellana T&R, H Diogenes brevirostris M&B, H Demoulia ventricosa T&R Upogebia africana T&R, M&B, H Dendrofissurella scutellum T&R, H Paguristes gamianus T&R Fasciolaria lugubris H Fissurella mutabilis H, B Crustacea: Brachyura Gibbula cicer H Cyclograpsus punctatus T&R, H Pupillaea (Fissurellidea) aperta T&R, H Dehaanius dentatus T&R, H Haliotis midae T&R, H Hymenosoma orbiculare T&R, H Haliotis spadicea T&R, H Ovalipes trimaculatus T&R Helicion pectunculus T&R, H, B Plagusia chabrus T&R, H Helicion pruinosus T&R, H Parasesarma catenata M&B Lanistina cuneata H Parapilumnus pisifer H Natica genuana T&R Macropodia falcifera ? T&R Afro littorina africana africana B Afrolittorina knysnaensis T&R, H, B Brachiopoda Nucella dubia T&R, H, B Kraussina rubra T&R Nucella squamosa T&R, H, B Oxystele variegata T&R, H, B Mollusca: Amphineura Oxystele imperva B Acanthochiton garnoti T&R, H Oxystele tigrina T&R, H Callochiton castaneus H (Patella) Cymbula granatina T&R, H Chiton nigrovirescens B, H (Patella) Cymbula miniata T&R, H, B Chiton tulipa T&R, H (Patella) Cymbula oculus T&R, H, B Dinoplax gigas T&R, H Saxicava artica H Ischnochiton spp B

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Appendix 8.3 continued

Pylum / species Source Pylum / species Source Mollusca: Gastropoda Echinodermata: Asteroidea Scutellastra argenvillei T&R, H, B Austrofromia schultzei H Scutellastra barbara T&R, H, B Henricia ornata T&R, H, B Scutellastra cochlear T&R, H, B Marthasterias glacialis T&R, H Scutellastra granularis T&R, H, B Callopatiria granifera T&R, H Scutellastra longicosta T&R, H, B Patiriella exigua T&R, H, B Scutellastra tabularis T&R, H Serpulorbis natalensis T&R, H Echinodermata: Ophuiroidea Siphonaria aspera H, B Astrocladus euryale H Siphonaria capensis T&R, H, B Ophiothrix fragilis (triglochis) T&R, H Siphonaria concinnia H, B Ophiarachnella capenis T&R Tellimya trigonia (sp.) T&R Trimusculus costatus H Echinodermata: Echinoidea Tricolia capensis B Parenchinus angulosus T&R, H, B Tricolia neritina B Thais capensis T&R Echinodermata: Crinoidea Turbo cidaris T&R Comanthus wahlbergi T&R, H Turbo sarmaticus T&R Tropiometra carinata H

Mollusca: Opistobranchia Echinod : Holothuiroidea Bertella citrina (granulata) T&R Roweia stephensoni? B Bursatella leachi T&R Pentacta doliolum H Dendodoris kalkensis T&R Pseudocnella sykion T&R Glaucus atlanticus T&R Haminea alfredensis H Chordata: Enteropneusta Philine aperta T&R Balanoglossus capensis T&R Polycera capenis (nigrocrocea) T&R Chordata: Tunicata Mollusca: Cephalopoda Botryllus magnicoecus ? H Argonauta argo T&R Mogulasp. H Octopus granulatus T&R, H Pyura stolonifera T&R, Didennum sp H

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8.4 Species list – Butterflies

Appendix 8.4 . Checklist of butterfly species recorded in and bordering De Vasselot (Still to be compiled).Key: Source B & T = Butler & Terblanche 1997; M = Marais 1991.

Family / species Source Nymphalidae Danainae Danaus chrysippus subsp. aegyptius B & T, (M) Amauris echeria subsp. echeria B & T, M

Acraeinae Acraea horta M

Satyrinae Bicyclus safitza subsp. safitza B & T, (M) Cassionympha cassius B & T, M Dira clytus M Pseudonympha magus M

Nymphalinae Junonia hierta subsp. cebrene B & T, (M) Vanessa cardui B & T Cynthia cardui M Cymothoe alcimeda subsp. alcimeda M

Charaxinae Charaxes varanes subsp. varanes B & T, M Charaxes xiphares subsp. xiphares B & T, M Charaxes karkloof subsp. trimeni B & T Charaxes karkloof subsp. capensis M

Lycaenidae Thestor murrayi B & T Capys alphaeus subsp. alphaeus B & T Aloeides aranda B & T Aloeides almeida B & T Aloeides pallida subsp. (juno?) B & T Poecilmitis palmus subsp. Margueritae B & T Cacyreus palemon subsp. Palemon B & T Leptotes sp. B & T Tarucus thespis B & T Lampides boeticus B & T Eicochrypsops messapus subsp. messapus B & T

Family / species Source Pieridae Colias electo subsp. Electo B & T, M Catopsilia florella M Pinacopteryx eriphia B & T Belenois aurota M Belenois zochalia subsp. zochalia B & T, (M)

Family / species Source Belenois creona subsp. severina B & T Belenois gidica subsp. gidica B & T Dixeia charina subsp. charina B & T, M Mylothris chloris agathina B & T, M

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Appendix 8. 4 continued.

Papilionidae Papilio dardanus subsp. cenea B & T, M Papilio demodocus subsp. demodocus B & T, (M) Papilio nireus subsp. lyaeus B & T, M

Hesperiidae Eagris nottoana subsp. knysna B & T Metisella metis subsp. paris B & T Metisella metis subsp. metis M Gegenes niso B & T Genenes hottentota ocra M Gomalia elma M

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8.5 Species list – Marine fish

Appendix 8.4 5 Fish species recorded in the Tsitsikamma Area (Wood et al. 2000). Key: * = Endemic to southern Africa according to Smith & Heemstra (1986), SSF# = Smith’s Sea Fishes reference number (Smith & Heemstra 1986)

Species Common name SSF# Myxinidae Eptratreus hexatrema Sixgill hagfish 1.1

Hexanchidae Notorynchus cepedianus Broadnose sevengill shark 2.4

Squalidae Squalus megalops Bluntnose spiny dogfish 5.26

Rhincodontidae Rhincodon typus Whale shark 8.1

Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus brachyurus Copper shark 9.5 Carcharhinus brevipinna Spinner shark 9.6 Carcharhinus obscurus Dusky shark 9.14 Galeorhinus galeus Soupfin shark 9.20 Mustelus mustelus Smooth-hound 9.27 Mustelus palumbe s. Whitespotted smooth-hound 9.28 Prionace glauca Blue shark 9.32 Triakis megalopterus* Spotted gullyshark 9.36

Scyliorhinidae Haploblepharus natalensis* Tiger catshark 11.7 Haploblepharus edwardsii* Puffadder shyshark 11.8 Haploblepharus fuscus* Brown shyshark 11.9 Haploblepharus pictus* Dark shyshark 11.10 Poroderma africanum* Striped catshark 11.13 Poroderma pantherinum* Leopard catshark 11.15 Scyliorhinus capensis Smooth hammerhead 11.16

Sphyrnidae Sphyrna sp. Hammerhead 13.3

Lamnidae Carcharodon carcharias Great white shark 14.1 Isurus oxyrinchus Short fin mako 14.2

Odontaspididae Carcharias (Eugomphodus) taurus Spotted ragged-tooth 19.1

Pristidae Pristis pectinata Largetooth sawfish 22.2

Torpedinidae Torpedo fuscomaculata Blackspotted electric ray 23.1

Rhinobatidae Rhinobatos annulatus* Lesser guitarfish 25.8

Myliobatidae Myliobatis aquila Eagleray 28.2 Pteromylaeus bovinus Bullray 28.3

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Appendix 8.5 continued..

Species Common name SSF# Mobulidae Mobula diabulus Devil ray 29.2

Dasyatidae Dasyatis marmoratus capensis Blue stingray 30.3 Gymnura natalensis* Backwater butterflyray 30.7

Congridae Conger wilsoni Cape conger 40.8

Clupeidae Etrumeus whiteheadi * Redeye roundherring 54.2 Gilchristella aestuaria * Estuarine roundherring 54.3 Sardinops sagax South African pilchard 54.12

Engraulidae Engraulis japonicus Cape anchovy 55.1

Gonorynchidae Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus Beaked sandfish 57.1

Ariidae Galeichthys ater* Black seacatfish 59.2 Galeichthys feliceps* White seacatfish 59.3

Plotosidae Plotosus nkunga Eel catfish 60.2

Stomidae Stomias boa boa Scaly dragonfish 67.2

Myctophidae Diogenichthys atlanticus Laternfish 86.42 Lampanyctodes hectoris Onderbaadjie 86.72 Symbolophorus barnardi Laternfish 86.119

Gadidae Gaidropsarus capensis* Cape rockling 88.1

Merlucciidae Merluccius capensis Shallow water hake 89.4

Moridae Physiculus capensis* Deepsea cod 90.7

Bregmacerotidae Bregmaceros atlanticus Codlet 92.1 Bregmaceros nectabanus Codlet 92.3

Ophidiidae Genypterus capensis* Kingklip 96.9

Bythitidae Bidenichthys capensis* Freetail brotula 98.1 Dermatopsoides talboti Lesser orange brotula 98.6 Grammonoides opisthodon* Bighead brotula 98.8

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Appendix 8.5 continued..

Species Common name SSF# Batrachoididae Batrichthys apiatus* Snakehead toadfish 100.3 Chatrabus hendersoni* Chocolate toadfish 100.5 Chatrabus melanurus * Humpback toadfish 100.6

Lophiidae Lophius upsicephalus* Monk 101.4

Gobiesocidae Apletodon pellegrini Chubby clingfish 110.1 Chorisochismus dentex* Rocksucker 110.2 Diplecogaster megalops* Bigeye clingfish 110.3

Atherinidae Atherina breviceps Cape silverside 111.1

Belonidae Petalichthys capensis Cape needlefish 113.2

Berycidae Centroberyx spinosus * Short alfonsino 126.3

Zeidae Zes capensis Cape dory 138.4

Sygnathidae Sygnathus acus Longsnout pipefish 145.29

Macroramphosidae Macroramphosus scolopax Slender snipefish 147.2

Tetrarogidae Coccotropsis gymnoderma* Smoothskin scorpionfish 150.2

Congiopodidae Congiopodus spinifer* Spinenose horsefish 152.1 Congiopodus torvus* Smooth horsefish 152.2

Triglidae Chelidonichthys capensis* Cape gurnard 157.1 Chelidonichthys kumu Bluefin gurnard 157.2 Trigloporus lastoviza africanus* African gurnard 157.7

Kuhliidae Kuhlia mugil Barred flagrail 164.1

Serranidae Acanthistius sebastoides* Koester 166.1 Epinephilus andersoni* Catface rockcod 166.34 Epinephilus emarginata Yellowbelly rockcod 166.43 Serranus cabrilla Comber 166.76

Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Thornfish 173.2

Scombropidae Sconbrops boops* Gnomefish 176.6

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Appendix 8.5 continued.

Species Common name SSF# Pomatomidae Pomatomus saltatrix Elf 178.1

Haemulidae Pomadasys commersonnii Spotted grunter 179.10 Pomadasys olivaceum Piggy 179.17 Pomadasys striatum Striped grunter 179.18

Sparidae Argyrozona argyrozona* Carpenter 183.5 Boopsoidea inornata* Fransmadam 183.6 Cheimerius nufar Santer 183.7 Chrysoblephus cristiceps* Dageraaad 183.9 Chrysoblephus gibbiceps* Red stumpnose 183.10 Chrysoblephus laticeps* Roman 183.11 Chrysoblephus puniceus Slinger 183.13 Cymatoceps nasutus* Black musselcracker 183.15 Diplodus cervinus hottentotus* Zebra 183.16 Diplodus sargus capensis Blacktail 183.17 Gymnocrotaphus curvidens* Janbruin 183.18 Lithognathus lithognathus* White steenbras 183.20 Lithognathus mormyrus Sand steenbras 183.21 Pachymetopon aeneum* Blue hottentot 183.22 Pachymetopon blochii* Hottentot 183.23 Pachymetopon grande Bronze bream 183.24 Pagellus bellottii natalensis Red tjor-tjor 183.25 Petrus rupestris* Red steenbras 183.26 Polysteganus undulosus* Seventy-four 183.32 Porcostoma dentata* Dane 183.33 Pterogymnus laniarius* Panga 183.34 Rhabdosargus globiceps* White stumpnose 183.35 Rhabdosargus holubi* Cape stumpnose 183.36 Sarna salpa Strepie 183.39 Sparodon durbanensis* White musselcracker 183.40 Spondyliosoma emarginatum* Steentjie 183.41

Centracanthidae Spicara axillaris* Windtoy 184.2

Dichistidae Dichistius capensis* Galjoen 187.1 Dichistius multifasciatus Banded galjoen 187.2

Parascorpididae Parascorpis typus* Jutjaw 188.1

Scorpididae Neoscorpis lithophilus* Stonebream 190.1

Monodactylidae Monodactylus falciformes Cape moony 193.1

Mullidae Paupeneus rubescens Blacksaddle goatfish 196.10 Sciaenidae Argyrosomus innodorus Silver kob 199.1a Argyrosomus japonicus Dusky kob 199.1b Atractoscion aequidens Geelbek 199.3

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Appendix 8.5 continued.

Species Common name SSF# Umbrina canariensis Baardman 199.8 Umbrina ronchus Slender baardman 199.9

Pomacanthidae Pomacanthus rhomboides Old woman 204.12

Chaetodontidae Chaetodon blackburnii Brownburnie 205.3 Chaetodon marleyi* Doublesash butterflyfish 205.11 Heniochus acuminatus Coachman 205.22

Oplegnathidae Oplegnathus conwayi* Natal knifejaw 206.3

Carangidae Decapterus macrosoma Slender scad 210.27 Lichia amia Garrick 210.33 Seriola lalandi Giant yellowtail 210.44 Trachurus trachurus Maasbanker 210.52

Cheilodactylidae Cheilodactylus fasciatus* Redfingers 215.1 Cheilodactylus pixi* Barred fingerfin 215.2 Chirodactylus brachydactylus* Twotone fingerfin 215.3 Chirodactylus grandis* Bank steenbras 215.4

Pomacentridae Abudefduf sordidus Spot damsel 219.5 Chromis dasygenys* Bluespotted chromis 219.13

Labridae Coris caudimaucula Spottail coris 220.21 Labriodes dimidiatus Blue streak cleaner wrasse 220.41

Mugilidae Liza richardsonii* Southern mullet 222.7 Liza tricuspidens* Striped mullet 222.8 Mugil cephalusi Flathead mullet 222.10 Myxus capensis* Freshwater mullet 222.11

Congrogadidae Halidesmus scapularis* Snakelet 227.1

Champsodontidae Champsodon capensis Gaper 229.1

Blenniidae Chaloroderma ocellata* Two-eyed blenny 235.7 Parablennius cornutus* Horned blenny 235.31 Parablennius pilicornis Ringneck blenny 235.33 Plagiotremus rhinorhynchus Twostripe blennny 235.37 Plagiotremus tapeinosoma Piano blennny 235.38 Scartella emarginata Maned blenny 235.40 Xiphasia setifer Snakeblenny 235.42

Trypterygiidae Trypterygiidae gen. nov. (new genus & species) Cremnochorites capensis* Cape triplefin 236.1

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Appendix 8.5 continued.

Species Common name SSF# Clinidae Blennioclinus brachycephalus* Lace klipfish 237.1 Blennioclinus stella* Silverbubble klipfish 237.2 Blennophis striatus* Striped klipfish 237.4 Cirrhibarbis capensis* Barbelled klipfish 237.7 Climacoporus navalis* Fleet klipfish 237.8 Clinus acuminatus* Sad klipfish 237.10 Clinus agilis* Agile klipfish 237.11 Clinus berrisfordi* Onrust klipfish 237.12 Clinus cottoides* Bluntnose klipfish 237.14 Clinus nematopterus* Chinese klipfish 237.18 Clinus robustus* Robust klipfish 237.19 Clinus superciliosus* Super klipfish 237.22 Clinus taurus* Bull klipfish 237.23 Clinus venustris* Speckled klipfish 237.24 Pavoclinus graminis* Grass klipfish 237.28 Pavoclinus laurentii* Rippled klipfish 237.30 Pavoclinus pavo* Peacock klipfish 237.34 Pavoclinus profundus* Deepwater klipfish 237.35 Xenopoclinus kochi* Platanna klipfish 237.37 Xenopoclinus leprosus* Leprous platanna-klipfish 237.38

Ammodytidae Gymnammodytes capensis* Cape sandlance 238.2

Callionymidae Paracallionymus costatus* Ladder dragonet 239.6

Gobiidae Caffrogobius agulhensis* Agulhas goby 240.19 Caffrogobius caffer* Banded goby 240.20 Caffrogobius multifasciatus* Prison goby 240.21 Caffrogobius natalensis* Baldy 240.22 Caffrogobius saldanha* Commafin goby 240.24 Psammogobius knysnaensis* Knysna sandgoby 240.87

Zanclidae Zanclus canescens Moorish idol 244.1

Gempylidae Thyrsites atun Snoek 247.8

Trichiuridae Lepidopus caudatus Buttersnoek 248.4

Scombridae Scomber japonicus Mackerel 249.11

Stromateidae Centrolophus niger Black ruff 254.1

Bothidae Arnoglossus capensis* Cape flounder 259.1

Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus capensis* Sand tongue fish 261.3 Cynoglossus zanzibarensis Redspotted tongue fish 61.9

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Appendix 8.5 continued.

Species Common name SSF#

Soleidae Austroglossus pectoralis* East Cape sole 262.3 Heteromycteris capensis* Cape sole 262.5 Monochirus ocellatus Foureye sole 262.7 Solea bleekeri* Blackhand sole 262.12 Solea fulvomarginata* Lemon sole 262.13 Synaptura marginata Shallow-water sole 262.14 Synapturichthys kleini Lace sole 262.15

Ostraciidae Tetrosomus concatenatus Triangular boxfish 266.9

Tetraodontidae Amblyrhynchotes honckenii Evileye blaasop 268.1

Diodontidae Diodon hystrix Porcupinefish 269.6 Lophodiodon calori Fourbar porcupinefish 269.8

Molidae Mola mola Ocean sunfish 270.2

Species washed ashore at Nature's Valley (Riley unpubl. Data)

Megachasma pelagios Mega-mouth shark - April 2002 Alopiidae Alopias vulpinus? Thresher shark 16.3 May 2004 Istiophoridae Makaira indica Black marlin 252.2 April 2004

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8.6 Species list – Amphibians

Appendix 8.6 . Checklist of amphibian species recorded in the Tsitsikamma Area. Modified from Branch & Hanekom (1987).

Scientific name Common name Xenopus laevis laevis Common platanna Heleophryne regis Eastern ghost frog Bufo rangeri Raucous toad *Bufo pardalis Eastern Leopard Toad Breviceps fuscus Black rain frog Rana fuscigula Cape river frog Strogylopus grayii grayii Clicking stream frog Strogylopus fasciata fasciata Striped stream frog Strogylopus bonaspei Cape stream frog Cacosternumm nanum nanum Bronze caco Kassina wealii Rattling kassinia Afrixalus knysnae Knysna spiny reed frog Hyperolius horstockii Arum lily frog Hyperolius mamoratus verrucosus Painted reed frog * Dr I. Russell in lit. 2010

8.7 Species list – Reptiles

Appendix 8.7. Checklist of reptile species recorded in the Tsitsikamma Area. Modified from Branch & Hanekom (1987). Key: * = McIlleron 2002a, ** = A Riley in litt . 1998.

Scientific name Common name Chelonii Geochelone pardalis Leopard tortoise Chersina angulata Angulate tortoise Chelonia mydas Green sea turtle Caretta caretta Loggerhead sea turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Hawkbill sea turtle Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback sea turtle Squamata Phyllodactylus porpyreus Marbled leaf-toe gecko Agama atra atra Common rock agama Bradypodion damaranum Knysna dwarf chamaeleon Mabuya homalocephala smithii Smith's skink Acontias meleagris meleagris Golden sand skink Tropidosaura gularis Yellow-striped mountain lizard Tetradactylus seps seps Short-legged seps Cordylus coeruleopunctatus Blue-spotted girdled lizard Varanus exanthematicus Rock monitor ** Pseudocordylus `microlepidotus Cape crag lizard (Soetkraal)* Serpens Lycodonomorphus rufulus Olive water snake Duberria lutrix lutrix Southern slugeater Pseudaspis cana Mole snake Philothamnus natalensis occidentalis Western Natal green snake Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia Red-lipped or Herald snake Dasypeltis scabra Common eggeater Dispholidus typus typus Boomslang Pelamis platurus Yellow-bellied sea snake Causus rhombeatus Common night adder Bitis arietans arietans Puff adder

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8.8 Species list – Birds

Appendix 8.8 A checklist of bird species recorded in the Tsitsikamma Area (including Soetkraal), and bird numbers and nomenclature follows Maclean (1985). Key. xx = inclusion based on the possibility, often historical, of occurrence; Status CE = Critically Endangered, En = Endangered, Vu = Vulnerable, NT = Near Threatened Source: S = Skead & Liversidge 1967; R = Robinson 1976c; B = Bower & Crawford 1983; H = Hanekom et al. 1987; U = unpublished records & R = Kok pers. comm.. 1995. Mc = McIlleron 2002a; 2003a; Mc2 = McIlleron unpubl.; W = Whittington 2004.

No. Scientific Name Common Name Status Source 3 Spheniscus demersus African penguin Vu S 5 Eudyptes chrysocome Rockhopper penguin xx S; B 8 Tachybaptus ruficollis Dabchick (Little grebe) S; Mc 10 Diomedea exulans Wandering albatross NT S 11 Diomedea cauta Shy albatross Vu S 12 Diomedea melanophris Blackbrowed albatross NT S 14 Diomedea chlororhyncus Yellow-nosed albatross NT S 17 Macronectes giganteus Southern giant petrel NT S 18 Macronectes halli Northern giant petrel NT S 21 Daption capense Pintado petrel S 23 Pteroderma macroptera Greatwinged petrel S 28 Halobaena caerulea Blue petrel S 29 Pachyptila vittata Broadbilled prion S 31 Pachyptila turtur Fairy prion S 32 Procellaria aequinoctialis White-chinned petrel NT S 33 Procellaria cinerea Grey petrel NT S 34 Calonectris diomedea Cory's shearwater U 35 Puffinus gravis Great shearwater S 37 Puffinus griseus Sooty Shearwater S 42 Hydrobates pelagicus European storm petrel S 44 Oceanites oceanicus Wilson's petrel S 53 Morus capensis Cape gannet Vu S 55 Phalacrocorax lucidus Whitebreasted cormorant S 56 Phalacrocorax capensis Cape cormorant NT S 58 Phalacrocorax africanus Reed cormorant S 59 Phalacrocorax coronatus Crowned cormorant NT P 60 Anhinga melanogaster African darter S 61 Fregata minor Greater frigatebird Mc2 62 Ardea cinerea Grey heron S 63 Ardea melanocephala Black-headed heron S 65 Ardea purpurea Purple heron U 66 Egretta alba Great white heron S 67 Egretta garzetta Little egret S 68 Egretta intermedia Yellow-billed egret S 71 Bubulcus ibis Cattle egret S 76 Nycticorax nycticorax Blackcrowned night heron U? 77 Gorsachius leuconotus Whitebacked night heron Vu S 81 Scopus umbretta Hamerkop S 83 Ciconia ciconia White stork S 91 Threskiornis aethiopicus Sacred ibis U 94 Bostrychia hagedash Hadeda ibis S; Mc 95 Platalea alba African spoonbill Mc2 96 Phoenicopterus ruber Greater flamingo NT S 96 Phoenicopterus minor Lesser flamingo NT Mc2 102 Alopochen aegyptiacus Egyptian goose S 103 Tadorna cana South African shelduck S 104 Anas undulata Yellowbill duck S 105 Anas sparsa African black duck S; Mc 108 Anas erythrorhyncha Redbilled teal Mc2, U 116 Plectropterus gambensis Spurwing goose U

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Appendix 8.8 continued

No. Scientific Name Common Name Status Source 119 Gypaetus barbatus Bearded vulture xx En S; B 122 Gyps coprotheres Cape vulture xx Vu S; B 126 Milvus aegyptius Black kite S 127 Elanus caeruleus Black-shouldered kite S 128 Aviceda cuculoides Cuckoo hawk S 131 Aquila verreauxii Black eagle U 136 Aquila pennatus Booted eagle Mc2 139 Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested eagle S: U 140 Polemaetus bellicosus Martial eagle S 141 Stephanoaetus coronatus African crowned eagle NT S 146 Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur xx Vu S; B 147 Gypohierax angolensis Palm-nut vulture Mc2 148 Haliaeetus vocifer African fish eagle S 149 Buteo vulpinus Steppe buzzard S 150 Buteo trizonatus Forest buzzard S; Mc 152 Buteo rufofuscus Jackal buzzard S; Mc 155 Accipiter rufiventris Rufous-chested sparrowhawk S 157 Accipiter minullus Little sparrowhawk Mc2,U 158 Accipiter melanoleucus Black sparrowhawk S 160 Accipiter tachiro African Goshawk S; Mc 165 Circus ranivorus African marsh harrier Vu S 168 Circus maurus Black harrier NT Mc 169 Polyboroides typus Gymnogene S; Mc 170 Pandion haliaetus Osprey S 171 Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon NT U 181 Falco rupicolus Rock kestrel S; Mc 190 Pternistis africanus Greywing spurfowl S; Mc 192 Pternistis levaillantii Redwing spurfowl S 195 Pternistis capensis Cape spurfowl S; Mc 198 Pternistis afer Rednecked spurfowl S; Mc 200 Coturnix coturnis Common quail S; Mc 203 Numida meleagris Helmeted guineafowl S 208 Anthropoides paradiseus Blue crane Vu Mc 212 Crex egregia African crake U 213 Amaurornis flavirostris Black crake S 215 Porzana pusilla Baillon's crake xx S; B 217 Sarothrura rufa Redchested flufftail S 218 Sarothrura elegans Buff-spotted flufftail H; Mc 221 Sarothrura affinis Striped flufftail Vu Mc 224 Porphyrula alleni Lesser gallinule R 226 Galliunula chloropus Common moorhen Mc2 228 Fulica cristata Redknobbed coot S 229 Podica senegalensis African finfoot Vu S 231 Neotis denhami Stanley's bustard Vu H 240 Actophilornis africanus African jacana S 244 Haematopus moquini African black oystercatcher NT S 245 Charadrius hiaticula Common ringed plover S 246 Charadrius marginatus Whitefronted sandplover S 249 Charadrius tricollaris Three-banded sandplover S 254 Pluvialus squatorola Grey plover xx S; B 255 Vanellus coronatus Crowned lapwing S 257 Vanellus melanopterus Black-winged lapwing NT S 258 Vanellus armatus Blacksmith lapwing U 262 Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone S 264 Tringa nebularia Common sandpiper S 266 Tringa glareola Wood sandpiper S 269 Tringa stagnatilis Marsh sandpiper S 270 Tringa nebularia Common greenshank S

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Appendix 8.8 continued

No. Scientific Name Common Name Status Source 271 Calidris canutus Knot S 272 Calidris ferruginea Curlew sandpiper S 274 Calidris minuta Little stint S 281 Calidris alba Sanderling S 284 Philomachus pugnax Ruff S 289 Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew S 290 Numenius phaeopus Common whimbrel S 295 Himantopus himantopus Black-winged stilt Mc2 297 Burhinus capensis Spotted thick-knee S 298 Burhinus vermiculatus Water thick-knee S 307 Stercorarius parasiticus Parasitic jaeger S 310 Catharacta antarctica Subantarctic skua S 312 Larus dominicanus Kelp gull S 315 Larus cirrocephalus Grey-headed gull Mc2 322 Hydropogne caspia Caspian tern NT S 324 Sterna bergii Swift tern S 326 Sterna sandvicensis Sandwich tern S 327 Sterna hirundo Common tern S 328 Sterna paradisaea Arctic tern S 330 Sterna dougallii Roseate tern En S 349 Columba guinea Speckled pigeon S; Mc 350 Columba arquatrix African olive-pigeon S; Mc 352 Streptopelia semitorquata Red-eyed dove S; Mc 354 Streptopelia capicola Cape turtle dove S; Mc 355 Streptopelia senegalensis Laughing dove S 358 Turtur chalcospilos Greenspotted dove S 359 Turtur tympanistria Tambourine dove U 360 Aplopelia larvata Lemon dove S; Mc 363 Poicephalus cryptoxanthus Brownheaded parrot xx S; B 370 Tauraco corythaix Knysna turaco S; Mc 377 Cuculus solitarius Redchested cuckoo S: Mc 378 Cuculus clamosus Black cuckoo Mc2, U 382 Clamator jacobinus Jacobin Cuckoo S 384 Chrysococcyx cupreus African emerald cuckoo S 385 Chrysococcyx klaas Klaas's cuckoo S; Mc 386 Chrysococcyx caprius Diederik cuckoo Mc2 391 Centropus superciliosus Burchell's coucal S 392 Tyto alba Barn owl S; Mc 394 Strix woodfordii African Wood owl S; Mc 400 Bubo capensis Cape eagle owl S; Mc 401 Bubo africanus Spotted eagle owl Mc2 404 Caprimulgus europaeus European nightjar Mc2 405 Caprimulgus pectoralis Fiery-necked nightjar S; Mc 412 Apus barbatus Black swift S; Mc 415 Apus caffer White-rumped swift S; Mc 416 Apus horus Horus swift Mc2 417 Apus affinis Little swift Mc2 418 Apus melba Alpine swift S 424 Colius striatus Speckled mousebird S; Mc 427 Apaloderma narina Narina trogon S; Mc 428 Ceryle rudis Pied kingfisher S 429 Megaceryle maxima Giant kingfisher S; Mc 430 Alcedo semiorquata Half-collared kingfisher NT S; 431 Alcedo cristata Malachite kingfisher S; Mc 435 Halcyon albiventris Brown hooded kingfisher B 451 Upupa africana Hoopoe S 452 Phoeniculus purpureus Green wood-hoopoe S; Mc 455 Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter hornbill xx S; B

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Appendix 8.8 continued

No. Scientific Name Common Name Status Source 460 Tockus alboterminatus Crowned hornbill H 474 Indicator indicator Greater honeyguide S 475 Indicator variegatus Scalythroated honeyguide S 476 Indicator minor Lesser honeyguide S; Mc;U 478 Prodotiscus regulus Brown-backed honeybird Mc2 480 Geocolaptes olivaceous Ground woodpecker S; Mc 484 Campethera notata Knysna woodpecker NT S; Mc 486 Dendropicos fuscescens Cardinal woodpecker Mc2 488 Mesopicos griseocephalus Olive woodpecker S; Mc 518 Hirundo rustica European swallow S; Mc 520 Hirundo albigularis Whitethroated swallow S 521 Hirundo atrocaerulea Blue swallow CE S 523 Hirundo dimidata Pearl breasted swallow S 526 Hirundo cucullata Greater striped swallow S; Mc 529 Hirundo fuligula Rock martin S; Mc 530 Delichon urbica Common house martin M 532 Riparia riparia Sand martin S 533 Riparia paludicola Brown-throated martin M 536 Psalidoprogne holomelaena Black sawwing swallow S; Mc 538 Campephaga flava Black cuckooshrike S 540 Coracina caesia Grey cuckooshrike S 541 Dicrurus adsimilis Forkedtailed drongo S; Mc 545 Oriolus larvatus Black-headed oriole S; Mc 547 Corvus capensis Cape crow Mc2 548 Corvus albus Pied crow Mc2 550 Corvus albicollis White-necked raven S; Mc 566 Pycnonotus capensis Cape bulbul S; Mc 569 Phyllastrephus terrestris Terrestrial brownbul S; Mc 572 Andropadus importunus Sombre Greenbul S; Mc 577 Turdus olivaceus (Southern) Olive thrush S; Mc 581 Monticola rupestris Cape rock thrush S; Mc 589 Cercomela familiaris Familiar chat S; Mc 596 Saxicola torquata African Stonechat S; Mc 598 Cossypha dichroa Chorister robin-chat S; Mc 601 Cossypha caffra Cape Robin-chat S; Mc 606 Pogonocichla stellata White-starred robin S; Mc 613 Erythropygia leucophrys White-browed scrub-robin U 631 Acrocephalus baeticatus African reed warbler S 635 Acrocephalus gracilirostris Lesser swamp-warbler S 638 Bradypterus baboecala Little rush-warbler S; Mc 640 Bradypterus sylivaticus Knysna warbler Vu S 641 Bradypterus victorini Victorin's warbler S; Mc 643 Phylloscopus trochilus Willow warbler S 644 Phylloscopus ruficapillus Yellow-throated woodland-warbler S; Mc 645 Apalis thoracica Barthroated apalis S; Mc 657 Camaroptera brachyura Green-backed Camaroptera S; Mc 661 Sphenoeacus afer Grassbird S; Mc 669 Cisticola subruficapilla Greybacked cisticola S; Mc 677 Cisticola tinniens Le Valliant's cisticola S; Mc 681 Cisticola fulvicapilla Neddicky S; Mc 686 Prinia maculosa Spotted prinia S; Mc 689 Muscicapa striata Spotted flycatcher S; Mc 690 Muscicapa adusta African dusky flycatcher S; Mc 698 Sigelus silens Fiscal flycatcher S; Mc 700 Batis capensis Cape batis S; Mc 708 Trochocercus cyanomelas Blue-mantled crested flycatcher S; Mc 710 Tersiphone viridis African paradise flycatcher S; Mc 713 Motacilla capensis Cape wagtail S; Mc

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Appendix 8.8 continued

No. Scientific Name Common Name Status Source 716 Anthus novaeseelandiae Richard's (African) pipit M 717 Anthus similis Long-billed pipit S; Mc 718 Anthus leucophrys Plain-backed pipit S; Mc 727 Macronyx capensis Cape longclaw S 732 Lanius collaris Common fiscal S; Mc 736 Laniarius ferrugineus Southern boubou S; Mc 740 Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed puffback S; Mc 742 Tchagra tchagra Southern tchagra S 746 Telephorus zeylonus Bokmakierie S 750 Telephorus olivaceus Olive bush shrike S; Mc 757 Sturnus vulgaris Common starling S 760 Creatophora cinerea Wattled starling Mc2 768 Lamprotornis corruscus Black-bellied starling S 769 Onycognathus morio Red-winged starling S; Mc 773 Promerops cafer Cape sugarbird S; Mc 775 Nectarinia famosa Malachite sunbird S; Mc 777 Nectarinia violacea Orange-breasted sunbird S; Mc 783 Nectarinia chalybea Southern double-collared sunbird S; Mc 785 Nectarinia afra Greater double-collar sunbird S; Mc 792 Nectarinia amethystina Amethyst sunbird S; Mc 793 Anthreptes collaris Collared sunbird S 796 Zosterops pallidus Cape white eye S; Mc 801 Passer domesticus House sparrow S 804 Passer diffusus Southern grey-headed Sparrow Mc 813 Ploceus capensis Cape weaver S 827 Euplectes capensis Yellow bishop S 840 Lagonosticta rubricata African firefinch Mc 846 Estrilda astrild Common waxbill S 850 Estrilda melanotis Swee waxbill S 852 Ortygospiza articollis Quail finch Mc 860 Vidua macroura Pin-tailed whydah S; Mc 872 Serinus canicollis Cape canary S; Mc 873 Serinus scotops Forest canary S; Mc 874 Serinus totta Cape siskin S; Mc 877 Serinus sulphuratus Brimstone canary S; Mc 880 Serinus leucopterus Protea canary Mc 886 Emberiza tahapisi Cinnamon-breasted bunting Mc

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8.9 Species list – Mammals

Appendix 8.9. Checklist of mammal species recorded in the Tsitsikamma Area. Reference numbers are from Skinner & Smithers (1990). Red Data Book Status (RDB): Vu = Vulnerable, NT Near-Threatened,. Source: C1 & C2 = Crawford 1981 & 1982); D = De Graaff (1974); H = Hanekom et al. (1987); H2 = Hanekom (unpubl.); HB = Hanekom & Bower (1992); HR = Herzig-Straschil & Robison 1978; P = Pretorius et al. (1980); R = Robinson (1976); Ri = Mr A. Riley (unpubl.); S = Spies (pers comm. 1995), MC = McIlleron 2002.

No Scientific name Common name Status Source 2 Myosorex cafer Dark-footed forest shrew R 3 Myosorex varius Forest shrew P 12 Crocidura flavescens Greater red musk shrew R;P 30 Amblysomus corriae ( iris) Fynbos (Zulu) golden mole NT R 40 Epomorphus wahlbergi Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat MC 46 Rousettus aegyptiacus Egyptian rousette bat R 67 Miniopterus fraterculus Lesser long-fingered bat NT HR 67 Miniopterus schreibersii Schreibers' long-fingered bat NT R 102 Rhinolophus clivosus Geoffroy’s horseshoe bat NT HR 106 Rhinolophus capensis Cape horseshoe bat NT R 117 Papio hamadryas Chacma baboon R 119 Cercopithecus pygerythrus Vervet monkey R 123 Lepus saxatilis Scrub hare? HB 129 Bathyergus suillus Cape dune mole-rat R 132 Cryptomys hottentotus African mole-rat D 133 Georychus capensis Cape mole-rat R 134 Hystrix africaeaustralis Cape porcupine R 138 Grahiurus murinus Woodland dormouse P 156 Otomys irroratus Vlei rat R 161 Acomys subspinosus Cape spiny mouse P 163 Rhabdomys pumilio Striped mouse R 167 Grammomys dolichirus Woodland mouse P 172 Mus minutoides Pygmy mouse D;P 174 Mastomys natalensis Natal multimammate rat R 176 Myomyscus verreauxi Verreaux's mouse P 183 Rattus rattus House rat D 184 Rattus norvegicus Brown rat D 200 Dendromus mesomelas Brant's climbing mouse P 208 Mesoplodon hectori Hector's beaked whale R 211 Mesoplodon densirostris Blainville's beaked whale R 215 Kogia breviceps Pygmy sperm whale RRi 216 Kogia sima Dwarf sperm whale R 218 Grampus griseus Risso dolphin H 221 Orcinus orca Killer whale H 224 Delphinus delphis Short-beaked common dolphin R 226 Stenella coeruleoalba Striped dolphin R 228 Sousa chinensis Humpback dolphin Vu R 229 Tursiops aduncus Indian Ocean bottlenose dolphin Vu R 229 Tursiops truncatus Bottlenose dolphin R 237 Eubalaena australis Southern right whale R 241 Balaeoptera edeni Bryde's whale Vu H 242 Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale NT H2 248 Panthera pardus Leopard R 250 Caracal caracal Caracal R 251 Felis lybica African wild cat P 260 Aonyx capensis African clawless otter R 262 Mellivora capensis Honey badger NT R 263 Poecilogale albinucha African striped weasel R 264 Ictonyx striatus Striped polecat R 267 Genetta genetta Small-spotted genet? HB 268 Genetta tigrina South African large-spotted genet C1

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Appendix 8.9 continues

No Scientific name Common name Status Source 275 Galerella pulverulenta Cape grey mongoose R 278 Atilax paludinosus Marsh Mongoose C2 281 Arctocephalus pusillus South African fur seal R 285 Lobodon carcinophagus Crabeater seal R 288 Orycterus afer Aardvark MC 290 Procavia capensis Rock hyrax R 299 Potamochoerus larvatus Bushpig R 311 Philantomba monticola Blue duiker Vu R 315 Pelea capreolus Klipspringer HB 318 Raphicerus campestris Steenbok S 319 Raphicerus melanotis Grysbok R 324 Oreotragus oreotragus Grey rhebok HB 332 Tragelaphus scriptus Bushbuck R 333 Taurotragus oryx Eland R Equus ? Feral donkey HB

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9. Summary of available information The summary of available information can be downloaded as an independent document from www.sanparks.org.

10. MAPS

The following maps can be downloaded as independent documents from www.sanparks.org.

10.1 Map of the Tsitsikamma Area

10.2 Map of Geology

10.3 Map of Hydrology

10.4 Map of Soils and Landtypes

10.5 Map of Vegetation

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