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How Intelligent Are Dolphins? a Partial Answer Based on Their Ability to Plan Their Behavior When Confronted with Novel Problems

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How Intelligent Are Dolphins? a Partial Answer Based on Their Ability to Plan Their Behavior When Confronted with Novel Problems The Japanese Journal of Animal Psychology (2009) Lecture How intelligent are dolphins? A partial answer based on their ability to plan their behavior when confronted with novel problems STAN A. KUCZAJ II University of Southern Mississippi JOHN D. GORY The Living Seas MARK J. XITCO Jr. Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Abstract The nature and extent of dolphin intelligence has long intrigued humans. Unequivocal answers to the question “how intelligent are dolphins?” have proven evasive due to both the existing myriad views of intelligence and the ambiguity of much spontaneous dolphin behavior. In this paper, we focus on one aspect of intelligence, namely the ability to plan one’s behavior in a meaningful way. The generalized ability to create novel and appropriate behavioral plans when confronted with new problems has obvious evolutionary advantages, but has been found in relatively few species. The studies reported in this paper demonstrate planning behaviors in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in conditions quite different from those that occur during dolphin foraging and mating (two areas in which wild dolphins may engage in planning). The dolphins’ ability to plan their behaviors in these novel contexts provides additional evidence that generalized planning ability is not unique to humans, and demonstrate that human-like language is not required for generalized planning skills. These findings also suggest that in addition to species niche specific cognitive abilities, generalized cognitive abilities may play an important role in the evolutionary success of some species. How intelligent are dolphins? who suggest that dolphins are in fact very We have noticed that when we are asked intelligent, perhaps even more intelligent than about the intelligence of dolphins most of humans. the questioners already have an answer in An individual’s belief in the nature and mind. Some individuals believe that dolphins extent of dolphin intelligence depends on are simply animals, and so lack sophisticated both her definition of intelligence and her cognitive skills. Others suggest that dolphins interpretation of the cognitive significance of are intelligent for animals, but that there is dolphin behavior. Intelligence has proven nothing really special about their cognitive difficult to define, even for psychologists that abilities, and certainly not in comparison to study humans. The various definitions of human cognition. And then there are those intelligence have resulted in disputes about both the nature of human intelligence and Published online in J-STAGE: June 12, 2009 the best ways to measure intelligence in doi: 10.2502/janip.59.1.9 humans (e.g., see Gardner, 1993; Sternberg, - 1 - 動物心理学研究 2004). Part of the problem is that intelligence It is clear from this suggestion that Lilly is a concept that encompasses many related equated dolphins with humans in at least cognitive abilities, including abstract thinking, two ways. First, he assumed that dolphins, comprehension of information from a variety like humans, have cultures. Although the of perceptual modalities, problem solving, notion of dolphin culture has support among symbol use (including language comprehen- contemporary scholars, Lilly’s view of dolphin sion and production), concept formation, and culture is quite different from the modern creativity. Given the difficulty of defining view of dolphin culture (see Kuczaj, 2001; and measuring intelligence in our own Rendell & Whitehead, 2001; Kuczaj & species, the lack of consensus about the Highfill, 2005; Sargeant & Mann, 2009; intelligence of other species, including Whitehead, 2009). Second, Lilly’s notion that dolphins, is not surprising. dolphins pass along cultural knowledge “with The wide range of opinions about dolphin long folk tales and legends” is fanciful at intelligence also results in part from the best. There is no evidence that dolphins have public’s fascination with dolphins, a fascina- folk tales or legends, nor is there any tion that is evidenced by attendance at evidence that dolphins communicate informa- marine parks that house dolphins, the tion of this sort to one another. When one of increasing popularity of “swim with us points this out in talks, there is often one dolphins” programs, and the number of wild member of the audience who correctly dolphin (and whale) watching excursions that mentions that the absence of proof is not the are available world-wide. Given this, it is not same as the proof of absence. In other surprising that the media sometimes reports words, the fact that we have not discovered sensational articles about dolphin intelligence a single dolphin folk tale or legend does not one tabloid article emphatically announced mean that they do not exist. This is true, that dolphins had been repeatedly contacted but the fact remains that not one of a large by extra-terrestrials because dolphins were number of diligent and conscientious re- much more intelligent than humans (which searchers concerned with dolphin communi- we assume is also meant to imply that cation and dolphin culture has reported dolphins would be more interesting than anything resembling a dolphin “folk tale” (Pryor humans to extra-terrestrials). Admittedly, this & Norris, 1991; Mann et al, 2000; Dudzinski is an extreme case, but the fact remains that & Frohoff, 2008), and so it seems safest to there are many descriptions of dolphins as assume that Lilly’s assumptions in this an extraordinarily intelligent species in the regard are without basis. popular media. Of course, contributions to the notion that Do big brains mean more intelligence? dolphins are exceptionally intelligent beings Dolphins possess relatively large brains, are not solely the result of reporters, authors, particularly in regard to their body size. In and editors hoping to increase the sales of fact, the size of the dolphin brain is one of their newspapers, magazines and books. the reasons that John Lilly (1962, 1967) Researchers that have studied dolphin intelli- supposed that dolphins were capable of gence and communication have contributed remarkable mental feats. Although few to this notion as well. Perhaps the most contemporary scholars believe Lilly’s claims infamous researcher of this ilk was John regarding the nature of dolphin culture and Lilly, who studied dolphin behavior and dolphin linguistic ability, the notion that the communication in the 1950s and 1960s (see dolphin brain provides sufficient hardware Lilly, 1962, 1967). One of Lilly’s suggestions for some sorts of sophisticated cognitive was that dolphins possess culture and that abilities is a recurring theme in the scientific they transmit knowledge from one generation literature on dolphin cognition (Marino et al., to the next via long folk tales and legends. 2008). - 2 - STAN A. KUCZAJ II et al.：How intelligent are dolphins? In order to reduce possible confounds (e.g., Garcia et al., 1985; Griffin, 1991; Marler, between body size and brain size, the 1993; Shettleworth, 1993; Bekoff & Jamieson, Encephalization Quotient (EQ) is sometimes 1996: Cummins-Dellarosa, 1996; Whiten, 1998; used to compare brain sizes across species. Bard & Russell, 1999; Corballis & Lea, 1999). An EQ is calculated by comparing an However, more generalized cognitive abilities animal’s body weight with its brain weight are relatively rare among nonhuman animals (Marino, 2002). For comparisons sake, the EQ (Reader & Laland, 2003; Hurley & Nudds, for humans is 7:1, which means that the 2006; Wasserman & Zentall, 2006), despite the average human brain is seven times larger obvious evolutionary advantages of such than the average brain for species with forms of intelligence. Generalized cognitive bodies that weigh about the same as an abilities provide the basis for flexible average human’s body. Many primates also thinking, an ability that facilitates an have relatively high EQs, but dolphin EQs individual’s ability to adapt to novel are typically higher than those of great apes situations (Reader & Laland, 2003; Proust, but lower than those of humans. 2006: Kuczaj & Makecha, 2008). Thus, even Not all authors agree that larger brains (or though cognitive specificity may have larger EQs) result in more intelligent animals. resulted in evolutionary advantages for Manger (2006) argued that dolphins are not certain species, generalized forms of intelli- particularly intelligent, and that their large gence may also have provided important brains evolved to help them regulate body evolutionary advantages to other species. For temperature rather than as the result of example, the generalized human ability to some evolutionary advantage that additional plan across a wide variety of domains, cognitive abilities would provide. This view especially in novel situations, likely accounts has met with considerable criticism, and for much of our success as a species. In neither the claim that the dolphin brain fact, one of the hallmarks of human evolved primarily as an internal furnace nor intelligence involves the extent to which we the claim that dolphins are relatively are able to plan our behavior. cognitively unsophisticated has support in This is not to say that humans are the scientific literature (see Marino et al., perfect (cognitively or otherwise). We are 2008, for an excellent critique of Manger’s sometimes slow to learn from our mistakes, claims). Rather than providing another review one example being our propensity to reelect of the literature on dolphin cognition, in the incompetent and/or corrupt
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