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Representaciones Fílmicas De Aparatos

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Representaciones Fílmicas De Aparatos Representaciones fílmicas de R ESUMEN / El presente trabajo busca A BST R ACT / This paper seeks to aparatos, responder cómo se ha relacionado el answer how cinema has related itself cine con aparatos, juguetes y espectácu- to devices, toys and optical spectacles juguetes y los ópticos anteriores a la invención that preceded the invention of the espectáculos del cinematógrafo. Para dar respuesta cinematograph. To answer this ques- a esta pregunta se realizó el rastreo tion we tracked the appearance of ópticos anteriores de la aparición de cámaras obscuras, dark cameras, shadow shows, magic espectáculos de sombras, linternas lanterns, panoramas, flip books, thau- al cine: un mágicas, panoramas, filoscopios, tau- matropes, phenakistoscopes, zoetropes, matropos, fenaquistoscopios, zoótropos, praxinoscopes, optical theaters and recurso de praxinoscopios, teatros ópticos y otros other artifacts and optical spectacles autorreflexividad artefactos y espectáculos ópticos en 70 in 70 films from different countries películas de distintos países producidas produced between 1903 and 2017. metaficcional entre 1903 y 2017. Además se efectuó In addition to this, we carried out the el microanálisis formal de secuencias de formal microanalysis of sequences of cinco casos de estudio para estudiar la five case studies in order to study the R OCÍO G ONZÁLEZ función retórica y simbólica que desem- rhetorical and symbolic function that peñan en estos filmes dichos aparatos y these devices and shows perform in DE A R CE A R Z AVE espectáculos. Los resultados obtenidos these films. The results obtained allow Universidad permiten concluir que las representa- us to conclude that the filmic represen- Iberoamericana, México ciones fílmicas de aparatos y espectáculos tations of optical devices and shows ópticos anteriores al cine se concentran that preceded cinema are mainly principalmente en películas de ficción concentrated in fiction films produced producidas en Estados Unidos, Francia, in the United States, France, Germany, Alemania, Reino Unido e Italia; que the United Kingdom and Italy; that dichas representaciones se intensifican a this representations increase during the partir de los años sesenta del siglo pas- sixties and rise significantly as from the ado y se disparan en los años ochenta; eighties; that cinema imagines itself que el cine se imagina a sí mismo más more linked to shadow shows and vinculado con espectáculos de sombras y magic lanterns than to other optical linternas mágicas que con otros aparatos devices; and that the representations ópticos; y que las representaciones de of these artifacts and shows generally estos artefactos y espectáculos tienen have a metafictional character that generalmente un carácter metaficcional allows cinema to reflect on its own que permite al cine reflexionar sobre su nature and on its own conditions of propia naturaleza y sus propias condicio- possibility. nes de posibilidad. K EYWO R DS / pre-cinema, optic toys P ALAB R AS C L AV E / pre-cine, juguetes y and spectacles, filmic microanalysis. espectáculos ópticos, microanálisis fílmico. EL OJO QUE PIENSA Nº 16, enero - junio 2018 MULTIMEDIA /118 I NTRODUCC I ÓN Así linterna mágica, pintadas spectáculos de sombras, cámaras obscuras y lúcidas, mundos nuevos, representa fingidas en la blanca pared varias figuras linternas mágicas, panoramas, dioramas y cosmoramas, praxinosco- de la sombra no menos ayudadas pios, fenaquistiscopios, zoótropos, taumatropos, teatros ópticos, fantas- que de la luz que en trémulos reflejos magorías, filoscopios, mutoscopios, cronofotografías y kinetoscopios son los competentes lejos sólo algunos de los muchos aparatos, juguetes y espectáculos ópticos guardando de la docta perspectiva, en sus ciertas mensuras anteriores a la aparición del cine que han sido estudiados desde ámbitos disciplinarios de varias experiencias aprobadas, Etan diversos como la Física, la Filosofía, la Historia, la Sociología y la Cultura Visual. la sombra fugitiva, En la mayoría de los casos, las investigaciones a este respecto se han concentrado que en el mismo esplendor se desvanece, en mapear la historia tecnológica de los aparatos y rastrear la morfología y meta- cuerpo finge formado, morfosis de los espectáculos ópticos. Tal es el caso de los trabajos de Milner (1982); de todas dimensiones adornado, cuando aun ser superficie no merece. Liesegang (1986); Hecht (1993); Tosi (1993); Zotti Minici (1998); Mannoni (2000); Robinson, Herbert y Crangle (2001); Wade (2004); Enticknap (2005); Heard (2006) Fragmento de Primero Sueño, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, 1692 y Bottomore (2008). En otros casos, los trabajos en esta línea de investigación se han ocupado de los modos y las transformaciones de los ritos de la visión popular en los siglos que prece- dieron a la invención del cine o del desarrollo iconográfico e iconológico del lenguaje visual desde la invención de la cámara oscura hasta la aparición del cinematógrafo. Ejemplos de estos estudios son los realizados por Millingham (1945), Frutos (1996), Bordini (2009); Oubiña (2009) y Brunetta, (2009), entre otros. En cuanto a la historia en México de aparatos, juguetes y espectáculos ópticos ante- riores al cine, las investigaciones son contadas y, sobre todo, tendientes a reconstruir la historia de su llegada a nuestro país y de su propagación por el territorio nacional. Entre los trabajos más sobresalientes se encuentran los de la Filmoteca UNAM, Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Secretaría de Educación Pública (1982); Nieto Sotelo, Rodríguez y Miquel (2003); Leal, Flores y Barraza (2005) y Rodríguez (2009). Una rápida revisión de los estudios hasta aquí mencionados revela que, hasta hace poco menos de dos décadas, la mayor parte de los investigadores definía a estos EL OJO QUE PIENSA Nº 16, enero - junio 2018 MULTIMEDIA /119 artefactos, juguetes y espectáculos como “pre-cinematográfi- Si bien la comprobación o refutación de esta hipótesis no cos” al considerarlos parte de una línea tecnológica progresiva dirimirá la controversia historiográfica en torno a la relación del que culminó en la invención del cine (El-Nouty, 1978; Hecht, cine con juguetes y espectáculos ópticos que le precedieron, ni 1993; Frutos, 1996 y Zotti Minici, 1998). En años recientes, sin permitirá responder a preguntas de tipo ontológico como qué embargo, esta postura historicista ha sido fuertemente cuestio- es el cine y qué son los aparatos y juguetes ópticos anteriores al nada por quienes proponen el estudio de artefactos y espectá- cinematógrafo; sí permitirá acercarse al discurso que el cine ha culos ópticos anteriores al cinematógrafo en sus propios térmi- construido sobre sí mismo en función de las tecnologías y espec- nos y no como precursores del cine (Toulmin y Popple, 2005 táculos anteriores a su invención; es decir, permitirá aventurar y Bottomore, 2008). Rodríguez (2009, p. 18), por ejemplo, una respuesta a la pregunta: ¿Qué es el cine para el cine? refiere que ya en elPrimer seminario sobre los antecedentes y orígenes del cinema, celebrado en Girona en 1999, se concluyó que el C ORPUS FÍLM I CO Y METODOLOGÍA término «precinema» “era ya obsoleto y carecía de sentido, en Para contestar las preguntas planteadas por esta investigación tanto que la historia de la visualidad anterior al cinematógrafo era se rastrearon en bases de datos y plataformas digitales (IMDb, mucho más amplia que sólo hechos que llevaron a su creación”. FilmAffinity, YouTube, Vimeo) películas en las que aparecie- Pero ¿qué tiene que decir el cine respecto de esta polémica? ran aparatos, juguetes o espectáculos ópticos anteriores a la Considerando que ninguna de las investigaciones realizadas invención del cinematógrafo. Se trabajó con un total de 70 hasta el momento ha abordado este debate desde la perspec- películas, incluyendo cortos, medios y largometrajes1 docu- tiva del análisis fílmico, resulta pertinente e innovador plan- mentales y de ficción producidos en diferentes países y estre- tear la siguiente pregunta: ¿De qué manera se ha represen- nados entre 1903 y 2017. Esta muestra se analizó estadísti- tado cinematográficamente aparatos, juguetes y espectáculos camente en términos de países y años de producción, tipos ópticos anteriores al cine? de metraje y artefactos o espectáculos ópticos representados. Dar respuesta a esta pregunta ofrece la posibilidad de acer- Puesto que la mayoría de las películas donde tienen presencia carse desde otro enfoque a la manera en que el cine se ha juguetes, aparatos y espectáculos ópticos son metrajes de ficción, relacionado con los artefactos y espectáculos ópticos que lo se decidió estudiar más a detalle ese subgrupo de filmes. Así, antecedieron; y permite, además, entender las funciones sim- un segundo proceso de selección, utilizando como criterio que bólicas y retóricas que las representaciones de dichos espectá- aparatos y espectáculos aparecieran de forma reiterada en la culos y tecnologías desempeñan dentro de los filmes. película o que tuvieran un peso decisivo en la trama, permitió A manera de hipótesis explorativa es posible plantear que elegir cinco metrajes como casos de estudio: La linterna las representaciones fílmicas de juguetes, aparatos y espectá- mágica (La lanterne magique, Georges Méliès, 1903), Carta culos ópticos anteriores la cinematógrafo cumplen una fun- de una desconocida (Letter from an Unknown Woman, Max ción metaficcional, a través de la cual el cine reflexiona sobre Ophüls, 1948), El amigo americano (Der amerikanische Freund, sus propias condiciones de posibilidad en momentos
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