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316 AGRIVITA Journal of Agricultural Science. 2019. 41(2): 316–324 AGRIVITA Journal of Agricultural Science www.agrivita.ub.ac.id

Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem in Aceh J. Jauharlina *), H. Hasnah and M. Ikram Taufik Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh, Indonesia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Arthropods biodiversity on a rice ecosystem plays an important Keywords: role related to the pest management. This research aimed to Biological control investigate the diversity and community structure of arthropods in the Food crop rice ecosystem. It was conducted in Lembah Seulawah, Aceh Besar Natural enemies Regency, Indonesia from February to August 2016. Sweep net was Parasitoid used to collect insects on four rice plots at 35, 45 and 55 days after Predator transplanting (DAT) as vegetative, transition and generative stages respectively. The result showed that the twenty-five morpho-species Article History: found at vegetative stage was the highest among the three stages. Received: February 13, 2019 Accepted: May 31, 2019 They were categorized as phytophagous insects, spiders, predatory insects, parasitoid, and neutral insects. Each arthropod’s *) Corresponding author: category the highest among the three stages was in the higher E-mail: [email protected] abundance at vegetative stage, except for phytophagous arthropod. The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) was significantly higher at vegetative stage than those at remaining stages, while Simpson Dominance (C) and Species Evenness (E) indices were not significantly different among the three observed stages.

INTRODUCTION (Gill & Garg, 2014). Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies have been developed in order to Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is most important control rice pests. Integrated Pest Management is cereal crops in Indonesia. Rice plantation is a rapid defined as a holistic strategy to decrease plant pests changing ecosystem due to the change of activities and diseases using all available and compatible during cultivation. These activities affect the pest methods, but minimizing the use of chemical population and also the abundance of their natural pesticides (Matthews, 2003; Stenberg, 2017). enemies in the rice field (Khaliq, Javed, Sohail, & Several methods of pest control which are more Sagheer, 2014; Tsutsui, Kobayashi, & Miyashita, environmentally friendly such as biological and 2018). Some of the insect pests that are known mechanical controls, and also botanical pesticides to harm the rice plantation are Leucopholis rorida are employed in IPM (Borkhani, Rezvanfar, (Fabr.), brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Fami, & Pouratashi, 2010). The Integrated Pest (Stål), rice shoot fly Atherigona oryzae (Malloch), Management has been adopted formally as the white stem borer Scirpophaga innotata (Walker), principle of plant protection in Indonesia through and rice bug Leptocorisa oratorius (Thunberg) the government regulation number 12 in the year (Ooi, 2015; Thorburn, 2015). 1992. Years before that (the mid-1980s) IPM was The increase of Indonesian population has introduced to Indonesia as a new crop management also driven a higher need of rice production, however approach particularly for rice plantations and many rice farmers are still very much dependent developed the Farmer Field School (FFS) model of on chemical pesticides (Kalsum & Romza, 2013). empowering farmers to make their own decisions The excessive use of chemical pesticides i.e. regarding management of their rice field. However, insecticides can lead to pest resistance, resurgence, FFS was no longer practiced since the late 1990s, the killing of non-target organisms (such as natural and nowadays, rice farmers tend to use pesticides enemies), ground water contamination, change of with many negative consequences occur in the field soil microbial diversity, and risks to human health (Thorburn, 2015).

ISSN: 0126-0537 Accredited First Grade by Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of The Republic of Indonesia, Decree No: 30/E/KPT/2018 Cite this as: Jauharlina, J., Hasnah, H., & Taufik, M. I. (2019). Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem. AGRIVITA Journal of Agricultural Science, 41(2), 316–324. http://doi.org/10.17503/agrivita.v41i2.2160 317

J. Jauharlina et al.: Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem ......

There have been many studies conducted arthropod species and to investigate the diversity to preserve beneficial organisms such as natural and community structure of arthropods on the enemies which can be used as biological control conventional rice ecosystem grown by local farmers. agents (Ovawanda, Witjaksono, & Trisyono, 2016; The results can be used in assessing conservation Sanda & Sunusi, 2014). These natural enemies plan of natural enemies on the rice ecosystem in (predators and parasitoids) instinctively can also play order to promote natural and biological controls as an important role in regulating the pest population. part of IPM approach. Therefore, the maintenance of biodiversity, including predator and parasitoid, within the rice ecosystem MATERIALS AND METHODS is important to enhance their role in natural control Arthropod Samplings or as biological control agents (Ueno, 2013). After The research took place in Lembah rice establishment, arthropod species colonize and Seulawah District, Aceh Besar Regency from increase diversity progressively. Their communities February to August 2016. The research site was may vary with the environment, cropping patterns, one of rice production area in Aceh Province, varieties and cultivation practices. having an altitude of 360 m above sea level. The Biodiversity refers to the species variety or arthropod samples were taken by using sweep nets number present in an area or ecosystem (Price, from four plots that belong to local farmers in two Denno, Eubanks, Finke, & Kaplan, 2011). Rice nearby villages. The plots size ranged from 1500 m2 fields often support high levels of biodiversity and up to 3400 m2 (Table 1). All rice fields in this area play important role in the systems of agricultural were surrounded by secondary forest ecosystem productivity. An important aspect of IPM is to enhance consisting different species of plants. The same natural control in the rice plantation, therefore, the variety of rice (Inpari-36) was planted in each plot. presence of various species of arthropods and There was no particular treatment applied to the their population ecology are important things to plots. Rice cultivation was employed as commonly be considered when designing pest management practiced by the farmers. In this area, pesticides methods. The arthropod community in rice fields application was quite high, ranged from two to four is known to have different ecological roles; they times during the rice plantation. include pests, natural enemies (predators and This research was conducted from February parasitoids), saprophytes and aquatic arthropods. to August 2016. The samplings were done between These different groups can perform a stability in rice 07.00 – 10.00 a.m. using a sweep net on at least 10 field ecosystem (Luo, Fu, & Traore, 2014). Many % of plot size consisting five sub-areas in each plot. studies in Asia have shown that when the use of The five sub-areas were selected in a diagonal way, pesticides was reduced to conserve the predator four on the outer sides and one in the middle of each communities, the destruction of rice plantation plot. The samples were collected at least one meter by the insect pests such as N. lugens decreased from the edge of each plot in order to reduce edge (Thorburn, 2015). effects. The arthropod samples were taken mainly One of the major limitations in promoting the ones flying above and near the surface of the natural and biological controls as part of IPM rice plantation. The arthropods were sampled three strategies is that not many farmers realize the role times i.e. at 35, 45, and 55 days after transplanting of arthropod groups found in their rice fields. They (DAT) as representation of vegetative, transition, cannot differentiate pests from beneficial organisms, and generative stages of rice growth respectively. and they often just apply pesticide when they see All sampled arthropods were kept in plastic bottles species of arthropods in the rice field. Aceh Besar containing 70 % ethanol and were brought to the Regency is one of the centers for rice production in Biological Control Laboratory, Agricultural Faculty, Aceh Province. Based on our preliminary interview Syiah Kuala University for further identification. with the rice farmers in this area, most of them think The collected arthropods were then classified into that any insect or other arthropods found on the rice five groups: phytophagous insects (pests), spiders, plantation are pests that damage the plants. The predatory insects, parasitoid, and neutral insects. fact that some of the arthropod groups are beneficial Individual number of each Arthropod category was in regulating pest populations is new information calculated to define its population. for them. This research was conducted to identify

J. Jauharlina et al.: Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem ......

Data Analysis in each plot of the study. Besides, the arthropods The differences among the number of samples were taken using one method only (sweep individual arthropods based on different functional nets). It means that the arthropods caught in this groups were analyzed by using Analysis of study were only the ones flew over the rice plantation Variance (ANOVA of logarithmic data). Means were or the ones found on the surface of rice plantation. separated with the Tukey-test when ANOVA showed The arthropods that were deep in the plantation or any significant difference (P < 0.05). The diversity staying in the ground might have been missed. These indices of the arthropod at the three stages of rice two factors might contribute to less species richness growth was calculated using Shannon-Wiener in the area compared to those found in earlier study. diversity index (H’), Species Evenness index (E), Pesticides have been known as one of major factors and the Simpson dominance index (C) (Tarno, affecting biological diversity with serious negative Septia, & Aini, 2016). Analysis was done using R impacts on pollinators, other invertebrates, amphibians program version 3.3.1 (R. Core Team, 2016). The and birds. In a short term, pesticide may have toxic diversity indices were analyzed by using R program effects to directly exposed organisms, or in a long term with Vegan package (Oksanen, 2019). they may cause changes in habitat and food chains (Chagnon et al., 2015). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Three species of predators were always caught from each plot, namely Tetragnatha maxillosa Species Richness and Abundance (Araneae: Tetragnathidae), Agriocnemis femina In total, there were 2454 individuals of arthropods (Odonata: Coenagrionidae), and Verania lineata collected during the three stages of rice plantation. (Coleoptera: Cocinelidae). These three species They belonged to two classes, nine orders, 20 families are known as general predators. The availability of and 25 morpho-species. The morpho-species and their prey in all stages of rice growth probably had corresponding taxa of the specimens collected are maintained their population in the field. Spiders have shown in Table 1. The number of species found at been known as important natural enemies of pests and vegetative stage of rice plantation (25 species) is also as indicators of biodiversity in rice field ecosystems higher than those on transition and generative stages (Betz & Tscharntke, 2017; Tanaka, 2016). Tetragnatha of the plantation (16 species each) (Table 2). The maxillosa is a spider species that is very active during species richness of arthropods in the rice plantation the night and preys upon brown plant hopper (N. depends on the location of study, cultivation technique, lugens), leaf hopper (Nephotetteix spp.) and some and sampling methods (Zhang et al., 2013). In South other insect pest species (Betz & Tscharntke, 2017). Kalimantan, earlier study has shown that the number Spider diversity is significantly dependent on vegetation of species and their abundance are higher in the rice structure (Landsman & Bowman, 2017). The species field that were received an IPM cultivation than those richness and abundance of spiders are higher in the in the non-IPM. The number Arthropods species found abandoned fields in which more plant species grown was more than 50 species in IPM system of rice field. than in rice fields (Baba, Tanaka, & Kusumoto, 2019). However, the arthropod samples in the study were More species of spiders and/or more numbers might caught by using four kinds of trap: yellow sticky, light have occurred in the lower levels of the rice vegetation trap traps, insect nets and pitfall trap (Samharinto, or at the base of the tillers. They might be missed by Abadi, Raharjo, & Halim, 2012). In this research sites, insect net that was used in this study. pesticides were used 2-4 times during the rice growth

Table 1. Rice plantation plots that were used as the sampling sites in Lembah Seulawah District, Aceh Besar Regency

Location Coordinates Village Plot Number Plot Size East North Plot 1 3400 m² 95⁰66’109’’ 5⁰35’952’’ Lon Baroeh Plot 2 3000 m² 95⁰66’280’’ 5⁰36’194’’ Plot 3 1700 m² 95⁰66’493’’ 5⁰35’829’’ Lon Asan Plot 4 1500 m² 95⁰66’73’’ 5⁰35’762’’

J. Jauharlina et al.: Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem ......

Table 2. The morpho-species and corresponding taxa of arthropods were collected from Lembah Seulawah District, Aceh Besar Regency, Aceh Province (Morpho-species data from four plots were combined overall and the same species that were sampled in more than one plot were counted once)

Rice field stage Order Family Morpho-species Category Vegetative Araneae Tetragnathidae Tetragnatha maxillosa Spider Araneidae Araneus inustus Spider Linypidae Atypena formosana Spider Oxyopidae Oxypes javanus Spider Coleoptera Coccinellidae Verania lineata Predatory insect Micraspis crocea Predatory insect Carabidae Ophionea nigrofasciata Predatory insect Odonata Coenagrionidae Agriocnemis femina Predatory insect Agriocnemis pygmea Predatory insect Libellulidae Diplocodes trivialis Predatory insect Orthoptera Tettigonidae Conocephalus longipennis Predatory insect Gryllidae Metioche vittaticollis Predatory insect Acrididae Oxya chinensis Phytophagous insect* Valanga nigricornis Phytophagous insect* Hemiptera Coreidae Leptocorisa oratorius Phytophagous insect* Homoptera Cicadellidae Nephotettix virescens Phytophagous insect * Lepidoptera Pyralidae Cnaphalocrosis medinalis Phytophagous insect* Scirphophaga innotata Phytophagous insect* Hymenoptera Braconidae Apanteles sp. Parasitoid Macrocentrus philippinensis Parasitoid Ichneumonidae Tryphon sp. Parasitoid Xanthopimpla flavolineata Parasitoid Diptera Tachinidae Gonia picea Parasitoid Pipunculidae Pipunculus mutillatus Parasitoid Colicidae Culex sp. Neutral insect Transition Araneae Araneidae Araneus inustus Spider Tetragnathidae Tetragnatha maxillosa Spider Linypidae Atypena formosana Spider Coleoptera Coccinelidae Verania lineata Predatory insect Carabidae Ophionea nigrofasciata Predatory insect Odonata Coenagriocnidae Agriocnemis femina Predatory insect Agriocnemis pygmea Predatory insect Orthoptera Tettigonidae Conocephalus longipennis Predatory insect Gryllidae Metioche vittaticollis Predatory insect Hemiptera Coreidae Leptocorisa oratorius Phytophagous insect* Homoptera Cicadellidae Nephotettix virescens Phytophagous insect* Lepidoptera Pyralidae Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Phytophagous insect * Hymenoptera Braconidae Macrocentrus philippinensis Parasitoid Diptera Tachnidae Gonia picea parasitoid Pipunculidae Pipunculus mutillatus parasitoid Generative Araneae Tetragnathidae Tetragnatha maxillosa Spider Coenagriocnidae Araneus inustus Spider Odonata Coenagriocnidae Agriocnemis femina Predatory insect Coenagriocnidae Agriocnemis pygmea Predatory insect Coleoptera Coccinelidae Verania lineata Predatory insect Carabidae Ophionea nigrofasciata Predatory insect Hymenoptera Braconidae Apanteles sp. Parasitoid Diptera Tachnidae Gonia picea Parasitoid Orthoptera Carabidae Conocephalus longipennis Predatory insect Gryllidae Metioche vittaticollis Predatory insect Acrididae Oxya chinensis Phytophagous insect* Valanga nigricornis Phytophagous insect* Hemiptera Coreidae Leptocorisa oratorius Phytophagous insect* Pantatomidae Nezara viridula Phytophagous insect* Homoptera Cicadellidae Nephotettix virescen Phytophagous insect* Lepidoptera Pyralidae Scirphopaga innotata Phytophagous insect*

J. Jauharlina et al.: Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem ......

Agriocnemis femina is a small damselfly that three stages of rice growth, the difference among consumes other small insects while V. lineata is a the numbers of predatory insects was not significant predator species that mostly consumes brown plant (F = 1.65, P =0.24). hopper and leaf hopper (Siregar, Md. Rawi, Ahmad, Species Diversity and Dominance & Nasution, 2016). Culex sp. (Diptera: Colicidae) The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) is was abundance at vegetative stage of rice growth significantly higher at vegetative stage of rice growth and none of them was found at other stages. The (F = 4.66, P = 0.04) than those at both transition and watery rice field in earlier stage of plantation was a generative stages (Table 4). However, all stages suitable site for larval development of Culex sp. were categorized as low diversity because the Mean number of individual arthropods individual distribution for each species was at the collected per plot based on different functional low level. Tarno, Septia, & Aini (2016) stated that the categories are presented in Table 3. The number value of Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) when of species across each category varied greatly less than 1 is categorized as low diversity and low and almost all categories had higher number of individual distribution of each species. The Simpson individuals at vegetative stage of rice growth, except Dominance index (C) (F = 3.91, P = 0.06) were not for phytophagous insect. All phytophagous insects significantly different among the three stages of rice found were known as pests on rice plantation. This growth and all of stages were categorized in middle study showed that the abundance of phytophagous dominance species. Tarno, Septia, & Aini (2016) insects was higher significantly (F = 8.31, P = 0.009) stated that the value of Simpson Dominance index at generative stage of rice growth than at transition (C) in 0.50 < C < 0.75 is categorized as middle and vegetative stages. The high frequency of dominance of species. The Species Evenness index pesticide application on the research sites might (E) (F = 2.45, P = 0.14) also showed not significantly decrease the other arthropods abundance at different among the three stages of rice growth. All of later stages of rice plantation (Ueno, 2013). The stages were categorized in low evenness species. number of collected spiders at vegetative stage was Tarno, Septia, & Aini (2016) stated that the value significantly higher (F = 9.74, P =0.005) than both of Species Evenness index < 0.05 showed that transition and generative stages. However, in the evenness is low and community is under pressure. Table 3. Mean number of individual arthropods caught (Mean ± SE) per plot based on different functional groups from three different stages of rice growth in Lembah Seulawah District, Aceh Besar Regency, Aceh Province

Stage of Rice Phytophagous Predatory Parasitoid Spiders Neutral insects Growth insects insects insects Vegetative 28.00 ± 5.13 a 80.00 ± 19.58 a 62.00 ± 13.93 a 189.00 ±157.00 25.00 ± 13.86 Transition 17.00 ± 7.33 a 18.00 ± 5.94 b 65.00 ± 10.55 a 0.00 ± 0.00 3.00 ± 2.50 Generative 80.00 ± 11.66 b 7.00 ± 4.57 b 39.00 ± 8.32 a 0.00 ± 0.00 1.00 ± 0.50 Remarks: *Mean values within a column followed by the same letter shows there are no significantly different by Tukey HSD at α < 0.05. Table 4. Diversity indices of arthropods were (Mean ± SE) calculated from four plots in different stages of rice growth in Lembah Seulawah District, Aceh Besar Regency, Aceh Province

Diversity index Stages of rice growth Shannon-Wiener (H´) Simpson Dominance (C) Species Evenness (E) Vegetative 0.88 ± 0.11 a 0.51 ± 0.06 a 0.31 ± 0.03 a Transition 0.47 ± 0.11 b 0.72 ± 0.08 a 0.21 ± 0.05 a Generative 0.67 ± 0.01 b 0.54 ± 0.01 a 0.31 ± 0.01 a Remarks: *Mean values within a column followed by the same letter shows there are no significantly different by Tukey HSD at α < 0.05

J. Jauharlina et al.: Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem ......

The diversity of arthropod community varies species has been known to play an important role greatly in different seasons and at rice growth stages in the community food web in rice fields (Zhang et (Zhang et al., 2013). The results in the present al., 2013). study showed that the three indices varied across The predatory insect found at transition different stages of rice growth, even though only stage of rice growth was dominated by the species the Shannon-Wiener index (H’) was significantly Verania lineata (Coeloptera: Coccinellidae), while different. the majority of phytophagous insects collected The composition of species based on each at generative stage was the species Leptocorisa functional category showed a different trend at the oratorius (Hemiptera: Coreidae). The high density three stages of rice growth. Based on the proportion of of the species L. oratorius corresponded to the species abundance, 63% of total individual numbers stage of rice growth. The samplings for generative of arthropods was collected at vegetative stage of stage of rice were done at 55 DAT, the stage where rice growth and 21% and 16% were at transition the rice plantation just formed panicles and their and at generative stages respectively. However, the content were still soft. This stage of rice growth distribution of each functional category at vegetative was very much attractive to the species L. oratorius stage was quite homogenous compared to the which feeds on the sap of the panicles rice. The rice distribution at transition and generative stages (Fig. bug L. oratorius is a conspicuous and a common 1). At transition stage, arthropod community was insect that emits a strong odor. Leptocorisa dominated by predatory insects (64%) while at oratorius is the species associated with lowland rice generative stage was dominated by phytophagous in Indonesia (As’ad, Kaidi, & Syarief, 2018). This insects (63%). The availability of neutral insect was research has shown that despite of using pesticide the highest (30%) at vegetative stage of rice growth. by local farmers in their field rice, natural enemies The presence of this neutral insect at earlier stage especially predators were still exist. Their presence of rice growth may cause higher composition of in rice fields can be used to enhance natural control predatory insects at transition stage. The neutral and to reduce the pesticide application.

Fig. 1. Composition of each functional category of Arthropods were sampled from four plots in different stages of rice growth in Lembah Seulawah District, Aceh Besar Regency, Aceh Province

J. Jauharlina et al.: Diversity and Community Structure of Arthropods on Rice Ecosystem ......

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Borkhani, F. R., Rezvanfar, A., Fami, H. S., & Pouratashi, M. (2010). Investigating the major barriers to This research showed that all collected adoption of IPM technologies by paddy farmers. arthropods were categorized as phytophagous American-Eurasian Journal of Toxicological insects, spiders, predatory insects, parasitoid, and Sciences, 2(3), 146–152. Retrieved from http:// neutral insects. There were 25 morpho species www.i-scholar.in/index.php/AEJTSIDOSI/article/ found at vegetative stage representing the highest view/59329 number among the three stages. Each arthropod’s Chagnon, M., Kreutzweiser, D., Mitchell, E. A. D., category was in the higher abundance at vegetative Morrissey, C. A., Noome, D. A., & Van der stage, except for phytophagous arthropod. Sluijs, J. P. (2015). Risks of large-scale use of The Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’) was systemic insecticides to ecosystem functioning significantly higher at vegetative stage than those and services. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(1), 119–134. https://doi. at the remaining stages, while Simpson Dominance org/10.1007/s11356-014-3277-x index (C) and Species Evenness (E) indices were not significantly different among the three observed Gill, H. K., & Garg, H. (2014). Pesticides: Environmental stages. The species richness found was quite varied, impacts and management strategies. In M. L. Larramendy & S. Soloneski (Eds.), Pesticides however there were several common species found - Toxic Aspects. IntechOpen. https://doi. in each sampled plot, namely Tetragnatha maxillosa org/10.5772/57399 (Araneae: Tetragnathidae), Agriocnemis femina (Odonata: Coenagrionidae), and Verania lineata Kalsum, U., & Romza, E. (2013). Pengamatan hama penyakit dan musuh alami hama tanaman padi (Coleoptera: Cocinelidae). The presence of these di Desa Banyu Urip Kecamatan Tanjung Lago general predators may play an important role to Kabupaten Banyuasin. Palembang. Retrieved control the pest population in the observed rice field. from http://repo.iba.ac.id/index.php?p=show_ detail&id=749 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Khaliq, A., Javed, M., Sohail, M., & Sagheer, M. (2014). The authors would like to thank Afriyani (the Environmental effects on insects and their technician in the Biological Control Laboratory population dynamics. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 2(2), 1–7. Retrieved from of Agricultural Faculty, Syiah Kuala University) http://www.entomoljournal.com/vol2Issue2/ for preparing the microscope used in specimen pdf/32old.1.pdf identification and assisting in keeping the specimens in the laboratory. Landsman, A. P., & Bowman, J. L. (2017). Discordant response of spider communities to forests disturbed by deer herbivory and changes in prey REFERENCES availability. Ecosphere, 8(2), e01703. https://doi. As’ad, M. F., Kaidi, F., & Syarief, M. (2018). Status org/10.1002/ecs2.1703 resistensi walang sangit (Leptocorisa acuta F.) Luo, Y., Fu, H., & Traore, S. (2014). Biodiversity terhadap insektisida sintetik dan kepekaannya conservation in rice paddies in China: Toward terhadap Beauveria bassiana pada tanaman ecological sustainability. Sustainability, 6(9), padi. AGRIPRIMA Journal of Applied Agricultural 6107–6124. https://doi.org/10.3390/su6096107 Sciences, 2(1), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.25047/ agriprima.v2i1.80 Matthews, G. (2003). Integrated pest management - Practice. In Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Baba, Y. G., Tanaka, K., & Kusumoto, Y. (2019). Changes Sciences (pp. 609–614). Oxford: Elsevier. https:// in spider diversity and community structure along doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-227050-9/00154-X abandonment and vegetation succession in rice paddy ecosystems. Ecological Engineering, Oksanen, J. (2019). Vegan: ecological diversity. Retrieved 127, 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. from https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ ecoleng.2018.12.007 vegan/vignettes/diversity-vegan.pdf Betz, L., & Tscharntke, T. (2017). Enhancing spider Ooi, P. A. C. (2015). Common insect pests of rice and families and spider webs in Indian rice fields their natural biological control: An illustrated for conservation biological control, considering guide to the insect pests that feed on rice plants local and landscape management. Journal of and the organisms that feed on and control Insect Conservation, 21(3), 495–508. https://doi. those pests. Utar Agriculture Science Journal, org/10.1007/s10841-017-9990-2 1(1), 49–59. Retrieved from http://eprints.utar.

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