Dr Francesco Fiume Tachinidae Bigot 1853 Taxonomy of Tachinidae family Clade Natura Clade Mundus Plinius Superdominium/Superdomain Biota Bernard Pelletier 2012 Domain Eukaryota (Chatton 1925) Whittaker et Margulis 1978 Clade Amorphea Adl 2005 Clade Opisthokonta (Cavalier Smith 1987) Adl 2005 Clade Holozoa Lang et al . 2002 Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus 1758 Clade Epitheliozoa Ax 1996 Subkingdom Eumetazoa Bütschli 1910 Clade Bilateria Hatschek 1888 Clade Eubilateria Ax 1987 or (synonym) Nephrozoa Jondelius et al. 2002 Clade Protostomia Grobben 1908 Clade Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al . 1997 Superphylum Panarthropoda Nielsen 1995 Phylum Arthropoda von Siebold 1848 Clade Euarthropoda Lankester 1904 Clade Mandibulata Snodgrass 1938 Clade Crustaceomorpha Chernyshev 1960 Clade Labrophora Siveter, Waloszek et Williams 2003 Subphylum Pancrustacea Zrzavý et al . 1997 Clade Altocrustacea Regier et al . 2010 Clade Miracrustacea Regier et al . 2010 Superclass Exapoda Latreille 1825 Class Insecta Linnaeus 1758 Clade Dicondylia Hennig 1953 Subclass Pterygota Lang 1888 Infraclass Neoptera van der Wulp 1890 Clade Eumetabola Hennig 1953 Clade Holometabola Heider 1889 or (synonym) Endopterygota Sharp 1898 Superordo Panorpida Kristensen 1981 or (synonym) Mecoptera Hyatt et Arms 1891 Clade Antliophora Henning 1969 Order Diptera Linnaeus 1758 Suborder Brachycera Schiner 1862 Section Cyclorrhapha Brauer 1863 Infraorder Muscomorpha McAlpine 1989 Section Schizophora Becher 1882 Subsection Calyptratae Robineau-Desvoidy 1830 Superfamily Oestroidea Latreille 1817 Family Tachinidae Bigot 1853. Generality The Tachinidae are a large and variable family of true flies within the insect order Diptera , with more than 8,200 known species and many more to be discovered. Over 1300 species have been described in North America alone. Insects in this family commonly are called tachina flies or simply tachinids. As far as is known, they all are protelean parasitoids, or occasionally parasites, of arthropods. The family is cosmopolitan. Species occur in many habitats in many regions, including Neotropical, Nearctic, Afrotropical, Palaearctic, Oriental, Australasian and Oceanic. Reproductive strategies vary greatly between Tachinid species, largely, but not always clearly, according to their respective life cycles. This means that they tend to be generalists rather than specialists. Comparatively few are restricted to a single host species, so there is little tendency towards the close co-evolution one finds in the adaptations of many specialist species to their hosts, such as are typical of protelean parasitoids among the Hymenoptera . Larvae of most members of this family are parasitoids (developing inside a living host, ultimately killing it). In contrast a few are parasitic (not generally killing the host). Tachinid larvae feed on the host tissues, either after having been injected into the host by the parent, or penetrating the host from outside. Various species have different modes of oviposition and of host invasion. Typically, Tachinid larvae are endoparasites (internal parasites) of caterpillars of butterflies and moths, or the eruciform larvae of sawflies, but some species attack adult beetles and some attack beetle larvae. Others attack various types of true bugs, and others attack grasshoppers; a few even attack centipedes. Probably the majority of female Tachinids lay white, ovoid eggs with flat undersides onto the skin of the host insect. Imms 1977 mentions the genera Gymnosoma Meigen 1803, Thrixion Brauer et Von Bergenstamm 1889, Winthemia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830, and Eutachina Brauer et Von Bergenstamm 1889 as examples. In a closely related strategy some genera are effectively ovoviviparous (some authorities prefer the term ovolarviparous) and deposit a hatching larva onto the host. The free larvae immediately bore into the host's body. illustrative genera include: Exorista (Meigen 1803), Voria Robineau-Desvoidy 1830, and Plagia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830. Many Tachinid eggs hatch quickly, having partly developed inside the mother's uterus, which is long and often coiled for retaining developing eggs. However, it is suggested that the primitive state probably is to stick unembryonated eggs to the surface of the host. Many other species inject eggs into the host's body, using the extensible, penetrating part of their ovipositor, sometimes called the oviscapt, which literally means something like "egg digger". Species in the genera Ocyptera Diabolus Wiedemann 1819, Alophora Robineau-Desvoidy 1830, and Compsilura Bouche 1834 are examples. Usually only one egg is laid on or in any individual host, and accordingly such an egg tends to be large, as is typical for eggs laid in small numbers. They are large enough to be clearly visible if stuck onto the outside of the host, and they generally are so firmly stuck that eggs cannot be removed from the skin of the host without killing them. Yet another strategy of oviposition among some Tachinidae is to lay large numbers of small, darkly coloured eggs on the food plants of the host species. Sturmia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830, Zenillia Robineau-Desvoidy 1830, and Gonia Meigen 1803 are such genera. Many Tachinids are important natural enemies of major insect pests, and some species actually are used in biological pest control; for example, many species of Tachinid flies have been introduced into North America from their native lands as biocontrols to suppress populations of alien pests. Conversely, certain tachinid flies that prey on useful insects are themselves considered as pests; they can present troublesome problems in the sericulture industry by attacking silkworm larvae. One particularly notorious silkworm pest is the Uzi fly ( Exorista bombycis Louis). Another reproductive strategy is to leave the eggs in the host's environment, for example the female might lay on leaves, where the host is likely to ingest them. Some tachinids that are parasitoids of stem-boring caterpillars deposit eggs outside the host's burrow, letting the first instar larvae do the work of finding the host for themselves. In other species, the maggots use an ambush technique, waiting for the host to pass and then attacking it and burrowing into its body. Adult Tachinids are not parasitic, but either do not feed at all or visit flowers, decaying matter, or similar sources of energy to sustain themselves until they have concluded their procreative activities. Their non-parasitic behaviour after eclosion from the pupa is what justifies the application of the term "protelean". 2 Tachinid flies are extremely varied in appearance. Some adult flies may be brilliantly colored and then resemble blow-flies (family Calliphoridae ). Most however are rather drab, some resembling house flies. However, Tachinid flies commonly are more bristly and more robust. Also, they usually have a characteristic appearance. They have three-segmented antennae, a diagnostically prominent postscutellum bulging beneath the scutellum (a segment of the mesonotum). They are aristate flies, and the arista usually is bare, though sometimes plumose. The calypters (small flaps above the halteres) are usually very large. Their fourth long vein bends away sharply. Adult flies feed on flowers and nectar from aphids and scale insects. As many species typically feed on pollen, they can be important pollinators of some plants, especially at higher elevations in mountains where bees are relatively few. The taxonomy of this family presents many difficulties. It is largely based on morphological characters of the adult flies, but also on reproductive habits and on the immature stage. Introduction The following keys are valid for species of central European Tachinidae roughly north of a line from the Loire to the central ridge of the Alps to the border between Slovakia/Hungary. In addition, those few species which occur only in northern Europe are also included, so that it should be possible to determine all Tachinidae of temperate Europe. Similarly, we add a few Mediterranean species whose occurrence in the south of central Europe cannot be excluded, although they have not yet been identified there. In total, 591 species are described. It is not recommended to identify parasitic flies from southern Europe with these keys (although it should be successful in most cases), because in the Wallis or the Tessin there are a few southern species that are no longer included. This is also true of some species from the south-east of Slovakia that already belong to the Mediterranean area. Alternatives in the keys contain, where possible, more than one distinguishing characteristic. This should help to obtain a result, even when stated features are difficult to prove (e.g. when bristles or legs are broken). The most important features are generally stated first. The keys are intended for dried and carefully pinned specimens. They are also suitable for identifying flies preserved in alcohol, after some practise. Here it should be noted that some features in specimens preserved in liquids may be slightly changed. This applies especially to coloration because light or transparent body zones become more prominent, as well as to the direction of some bristles which is not always maintained (e.g. apical scutellar bristles). Similarly, colour and limits of dusting are often difficult to recognize. Even when bristles are broken, as often happens, an identification can usually be made. In this case size, position and direction of the pores must be observed. When bristles have been bent away from their natural position